Ram Sharma (19CS8126) Final Year Thesis

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by
Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

comprising multiple images of different types using R CNN.
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Technology in Computer Science
Name: Ram Sharma.

Roll No: 19CS8126.
Under the Supervision of
Dr. Goutam Sarker Sir

(Associate Professor)
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
National Institute of Technology, Durgapur
West Bengal – 713209, India
May 2023
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
DURGAPUR, INDIA
DECLARATION
I the undersigned declare that the thesis work entitled “Classification of Astronomical Images
followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame comprising multiple
images of different types using RCNN“, submitted towards partial fulfillment of
requirements for the award of the degree in Bachelor of Technology in Computer Science and
Engineering is my original work and this declaration does not form the basis for award of any
degree or any similar title to the best of my knowledge.
-----------------------------------------------
Durgapur Name: Ram Sharma
May 2023 Roll No: 19CS8126
Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

comprising multiple images of different types using RCNN.
2
DURGAPUR, INDIA
CERTIFICATE OF RECOMMENDATION
This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Classification of Astronomical Images followed
by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame comprising multiple images of
different types using RCNN“, submitted by Ram Sharma(19CS8126) of Department of
Computer Science and Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree in Bachelor of Technology in
Computer Science and Engineering is a bonafide record of work carried out by him/her under
my/our guidance during the academic year 2022 – 2023.
______________________ ______________________
Prof. Tanmay De Dr. Goutam Sarker
Head of Department, Associate Professor,
Department of Computer Science Department of Computer Science
and Engineering, and Engineering,
National Institute of Technology, Durgapur National Institute of Technology, Durgapur

3
DURGAPUR, INDIA
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
This is to certify that we have examined the thesis entitled “Classification of Astronomical
Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame comprising
multiple images of different types using RCNN”, submitted by Ram Sharma(19CS8126)
and hereby accord our approval of it as a study carried out and presented in a manner required for
its acceptance in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree in Bachelor of
Technology in Computer Science and Engineering) for which it has been submitted. It is to be
understood that by this approval the undersigned do not necessarily endorse or approve any
statement made, opinion expressed, or conclusion drawn therein but approve the thesis only for
the purpose for which it is submitted.
Examiners:
S. No. Name Signature

4
Acknowledgment
First and foremost, I am incredibly grateful to my supervisor, Dr. Goutam Sarker Sir,
(Associate Professor, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, NIT
Durgapur) for his valuable advice, continuous support, and patience. His immense
knowledge and great experience have encouraged me throughout my academic project
and daily life.
Special thanks to my project group members (Barnali Ghosh, Aaditya Pratap, Asim
Sen) for constant support during this project phase. Giving honest opinion throughout
and helping me with positive criticism.
I also want to thank all our department's faculty and PhDs for guidance and support
throughout my four years of bachelor’s. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to
my parents and my brother. With their tremendous understanding and encouragement
over the past few years, I can complete my study.
Date: 04/05/2023 Name of the Student: Ram Sharma

Roll No: 19CS8126.
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
National Institute of Technology Durgapur
West Bengal – 713209, India

5
Abstract
We discuss R-CNN, Fast R-CNN, and Faster R-CNN algorithms in this study to
automatically detect and identify astronomical photos. Based on actual data, we compare
the outcomes of these strategies and analyze their advantages and disadvantages. Utilizing
a dataset that has three classes (Black Hole, Galaxy, and Nebula), we create a data model.
Then, we train R-CNN, Fast R-CNN, and Faster R-CNN. We then test these models on a
test dataset made up of difficult objects that weren't present during training. Using GPU
evaluation, we gather data on the AP and IOU for each model and network based on a
range of proposal numbers and runtime rates. The best model for image identification using
visual deep learning, according to the findings, is Faster R - CNN with 2000 proposals.
Keywords: R - CNN, Fast R - CNN, Faster R - CNN, Astronomical Images, Black Hole,
Nebula, Galaxy, Detection, Recognition, Localization, Deep learning.

6
Table of Contents
Particulars Page Number
Declaration 2
Certificate 3
Acknowledgment 4
Abstract 5
Table of Contents 6
List of Figures 7
List of Tables 8
CHAPTER-1 Introduction 9
CHAPTER-2 Problem Statement 10
CHAPTER-3 Materials and Methods 11 - 23
3.1 Methodology used to solve this problem 11 – 12
3.2 Platform used 13
3.3 Benchmark dataset used 13
3.4 Image Pre-processing 14 - 18
3.5 Astronomical mage detection using R - CNN 18 - 20
3.6 Multiple convolutions and pooling 21
3.7 Region proposed network 21 - 22
3.7 ROI Pooling 23
CHAPTER-4 Evaluation and Results 24 - 27
4.1 Performance measure 24 - 25
4.2 Models and Performance 25 - 27
CHAPTER-5 Conclusion and Discussion 28 - 29
CHAPTER-6 Future Scope of Work 30
REFERENCES 31

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Title Page No
2.1.1 Different astronomical images 10
3.1.1 System Model 11
3.1.2 Flow Diagram of the proposed methodology 12
3.3.1 Dataset 13
3.4.1 Transfer learning methodology 17

3.4.2 Performance - Training graph for transfer learning 18
3.4.3 Image Augmentation 18
3.5.1 Faster R-CNN 19
3.5.2 Steps in faster R-CNN 20
4.1.1 IoU calculation 25

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List of Tables
Table no Name of the Tables Page no
3.4.1 No .of images per class 13
4.2.1 AP, Training Time, Testing Time for 80 images. 25
4.2.4 Prediction of our model in data frame/CSV format 26
5.1.1 Differences between RCNN, Fast RCNN, and Faster 28 - 29

RCNN

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Chapter 1: Introduction
Object category recognition has drawn more and more attention in recent years. Image
categorization and object localization are two essential tasks. The process of assigning a
picture one or more labels corresponding to the presence of a category in the image is
known as "image classification." “Object localization” detects instances of a given class
in the image, often up to a bounding box.
Detectors, devices, telescopes, and even probes sent to distant planets for data collection
as part of sky surveys to map our cosmos have made significant strides recently in
astronomy. Astronomers are looking for ways to automate the manual scanning processes
prone to human mistakes. They may use cutting-edge data mining techniques, statistical
methodologies, and data science tools to extract astronomical knowledge and information
from these massive raw databases. (This new field is known as Astroinformatics[1]).
Early endeavors were launched in 2010 by the National Research Council of the United
States [2]. This step served as the foundation for subsequent research contributions [3] that
concentrated on and enhanced the field using massive, globally distributed collections of
digital astronomical databases, including the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), Square
Kilometer Array telescope, and Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST).
But working on these large datasets is very time-consuming and unaffordable. These
classification and localization problems should be resolved to accurately map our universe
to learn more about it and support both the old and new cosmological theories. Deep
learning is the best candidate technique because it has successfully been applied to large
image datasets like our domain.

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Chapter 2: Problem Statement
2.1. Problem Statement:

The problem statement states that given a dataset of astronomical images of classification
using CNN followed by identification and localization of multiple astronomical images in
a single frame. Our dataset is divided into three categories:
● A Galaxy is much larger, usually thousands to hundreds of thousands of light years

across.
● Nebulas are one of the many things’ galaxies are made of, along with stars, black
holes, cosmic dust, dark matter, and much more.
● A black hole is an incredible amount of matter packed into a minimal area - think
of a star ten times more massive than the Sun squeezed into a sphere approximately
the diameter of New York City. The result is a strong gravitational field that nothing,
not even light, can escape.
a) Black Hole b) Galaxy c) Nebula

Fig 1.1 Different Astronomical Images.

11
Chapter 3: Materials and Method
3.1. The methodology used to solve this problem:

The three deep-learning network techniques for astronomical image detection are studied
in this article. We build a dataset for training and testing neural network methods, specify
our data model, and annotate training photos. The system model for the entire process is
depicted in Fig. 3.1. The input astronomical photos are first read and pre-processed. All
pictures are resized during the pre-processing step to be the same size and normalized. For
normalization, we use Z-Score normalization, which is defined as
Fig 3.1.1 System Model.

12
The labels are also changed to one-hot representation in addition. In one-hot encoding, the
label is changed from category to numeric to improve the machine learning algorithm's
prediction. The category values represent numbers. The data is divided into training and
testing sets in the second step, with the training set used to train the model and the test set
used to verify the model's performance. The responsibilities of localization and
classification are then given the data. The bounding boxes and images are given to the
model to use in the localization task.
We employ transfer learning for the classification challenge because there are fewer
photos, and fine-tuning our data set on a pre-trained image-net model produces better
results than other models. Additionally, by convolution of a kernel or filter on the image
matrix, the convolution operation extracts the features. It consists of an image matrix with
the dimensions (h, w, c) (height, width, channels, and filter).
Fig.3.1.2. shows the flow diagram of the proposed methodology by unveiling all the
steps involved in the study.
In the first stage, the input images are resized to a single scale of 100 × 100 as the size of
the images varies. The images are then normalized between the desired ranges for better
prediction. The dataset labels are also converted to one-hot encoding to make one-hot
vectors. The labels and images are then split into test and train sets along with training the
model. Following the training, the predictions are made from the model.

13
3.2. Platform used:
● Implemented in Python Framework used – TensorFlow
● Editor/IDE – Google Colab/Jupyter Notebook
● Libraries used – Keras-2.0.3, Numpy, Pandas, Sklearn, Seaborn, Matplotlib,
opencv-python, h5py
● Specifications Used – 8 GB Ram/Nvidia 1650 GPU.
3.3. Benchmark dataset used:
a) Black Hole,
b) Galaxy,
c) Nebula

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3.4. Data Pre-processing:
Table 3.4.1: No of Images per Class.
Tab. 3.4.1 displays the sample number of data per class,
● In classification difficulties involving machine learning, the class imbalance is

difficult. It merely indicates that the target class's frequency is severely unbalanced,
i.e., that one class occurs far more frequently than the other classes that are present.
In other words, the target has a bias or skewness favoring the dominant class. In
binary classification, the majority target class has 10,000 rows, and the minority
target class has just 100 rows. In that situation, the ratio is 100:1, meaning that there
is only one minority class present for every 100 members of the majority class. We
refer to this issue as a class imbalance.
● A small amount of data compared to the vast amounts needed by deep learning
architectures.

15
We used the following methods to resolve these problems:
Focal loss for imbalance classes:
What is Focal loss?

Simply put, Focal Loss (FL) is an improved version of Cross-Entropy Loss (CE) that aims
to address the class imbalance issue by giving heavier weights to difficult or frequently
misclassified examples (such as the object of interest, partial objects, or backgrounds with
noisy textures), while de-weighting simple examples (such as background objects)[5].
Several loss functions are applied to address various deep learning-based problems,
including class imbalance, border refinement, and the reduction of False Positives (FP).
When we have extreme imbalance classes, focus loss is applied. For instance, class
imbalance must be addressed in object detection when the foreground-to-background ratio
is 1:500 since it results in:
• Training being skewed because many situations have a negative impact on training
while others have a positive impact.
• The problems of overlearning, which results in prejudice.
What are the class weights?
With biased class data, most machine learning techniques could be more helpful. However,
we can change the training algorithm to account for the classes' skewed distribution. Giving
differing weights to the majority and minority classes will help achieve this. During the
training phase, the classification of the classes will be influenced by the weight differences.

16
The idea is to punish the minority class for misclassifying itself by increasing class weight
while simultaneously decreasing class weight for the majority class.
By default, the value of class_weight = None, i.e., both classes have been given equal
weights. It can either give as ‘balanced’ or pass a dictionary containing manual weights
for both classes.
When the class_weights = ‘balanced,’ the model automatically assigns the class weights
inversely proportional to their respective frequencies.
To be more precise, the formula to calculate this is :

wj =n_samples / (n_classes * n_samplesj)
Here,
wj: is the weight for each class(j signifies the class).
n_samples: is the total number of samples or rows in the dataset.
n_classes: is the total number of unique classes in the target.
n_samplesj: is the total number of rows of the respective class.
What is Transfer Learning?
Reusing a pre-trained model on a new problem is known as transfer learning in machine

learning. A machine uses the knowledge learned from a prior assignment to increase
prediction about a new task in transfer learning.

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Why Should You Use Transfer Learning?
Reduced training time enhanced neural network performance (in most cases), and the lack
of a significant amount of data are three of transfer learning's most significant benefits.
Fig . 3.4.1. Transfer learning Methodology
Transfer learning is useful in situations when it is not always possible to get the large
amounts of data required to train a neural network from scratch. Transfer learning can
provide an effective machine learning model with relatively minimal training data
because the model has already been trained. This is particularly helpful in natural
language processing, where handling vast labeled datasets necessitates a high level of
expertise. Additionally, training time is shortened because a complex task can require
days or even weeks to build a deep neural network from scratch.
Fig. 3.4.3. Performance Training graph with and without transfer learning.

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Data Augmentation:
We must perform data augmentation tasks to make models easily converge and overcome
the issues of limited data, which ultimately helps to reduce the over-fitting problem during
the training stage. The majority of deep learning algorithms based on CNN require more
data to generalize well. For the augmentation task, we duplicate the images by:
• Randomly shifting images horizontally.
• Randomly shifting images vertically.
• Horizontally flipping.
• Vertically flipping.
• Rotating images by 90 degrees.
Original Photo 90-degree shift Horizontal flip Vertical Flip
Fig. 3.4.4. Performance Training graph with and without transfer learning.
3.5. Astronomical Image detection using RCNN:
We conceptualized the issue as astronomical localization and categorization. We study

using the Faster R-CNN to detect various images in this part. We first obtain the entire
feature map using a convolutional neural network (CNN), and then we choose the region
suggestions using a region proposal convolutional network (RPN) [6]. Second, each small

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feature map mapping to the region proposal is produced using ROI pooling. In order to
reduce the classification loss and bounding box regression loss, outputs are finally sent to
the fully connected layers. Fig. 3.3.1 depicts the primary procedure for classification and
localization using Faster R-CNN. It displays the tasks of automatic predator detection and
identification.
Fig. 3.3.1. Faster R CNN
The methods taken by a Faster R-CNN algorithm to find objects in a picture are outlined
below in brief:
1. Give the ConvNet an input image, and it will return feature maps for the image.

20
2. Use the Region Proposal Network (RPN) to generate object proposals using these feature
maps.
3. Utilise the ROI pooling layer to reduce the size of each proposal to the same level.
4. Pass any expected bounding boxes for the image to a fully linked layer so that it can be
categorised.
Fig. 3.3.2. Steps in Faster R CNN

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3.6. Multiple Convolutional and pooling:
Our network's design is based on the VGG16 and includes 13 convolutional layers, four
pooling layers, and three fully-connected layers. The same kernel size, pad, and stride are
utilized in all 13 convolutional layers. The following equation can be used to determine the
size of the output image after convolution.
The final size of the output image will be adjusted to (M/16, N/16) using each pooling layer
to reduce the size of the input images from (M*N) to 1/2. A specific convolutional layer
may produce the low-resolution feature map from the high-resolution feature map, but the
computational cost is significant.
3.7.Region Proposed Network:
Region Proposal Networks (RPN) generate proposals from an input image. To create a 2D
feature map (100 x 100), several convolution and pooling network layers are applied to an
input image. Class-agnostic region proposals are selected using a 3x3 sliding window for
each pixel across the feature map. Each 3x3 sliding window contains nine anchors, each of
which is centered at the window and is made up of three scales (128, 256, 512) and three
aspect ratios (1:1, 1:2, 2:1). Then, each sliding window in maps to a vector with 512

22
dimensions. This feature vector is supplied into two sisters, fully-connected layers: the
Classification score layer (cls) and the Bbox regression layer (reg).
A classification score layer has 18 (2 x 9 anchors) outputs since it calculates the likelihood
that an object will exist or not. A Bbox regression layer produces the bounding box's
coordinates. It generates 36 (4 x 9 anchors) outputs by computing the box center
coordinates (x, y), width (w), and height (h) of the detection boundaries for each object
type RPN output, where W is the width, and H is the height of a feature map, results in 54
pixels per pixel and a total of W x H x 54 x 9 anchors. A loss function is defined as follows
for training RPNs:
"i" is the index of an anchor in a mini-batch, "p" denotes the likelihood that a proposal is
an object, "p*" denotes the true label of a proposal, "N" denotes the number of anchors,
and "t" denotes the coordinates of the predicted and ground-truth bounding box. Lcls stands
for classification loss and is a log loss over two classes (object or not object). Ncls and
Lreg are two normalization parameters. Regression loss is lreg. The classification score
loss over two classes (object or no object) is the first term, and the Bbox regression loss
when an object is present (p&=1) is the second term. RPN must therefore verify in advance
which pixels belong to objects and which pixels they correspond to. Bounding boxes and
pixels that correspond to them [7].

23
3.8. ROI pooling:
Features inside each area proposal are first combined to create a fixed-size feature map, a
process known as ROI pooling. The pooled area passes through CNN, the SoftMax
classifier, and two fully linked branches for the bounding box regressor. The feature maps
for each proposal are produced as the primary goal of ROI pooling. It scales the section of
the input feature map that corresponds to each region proposal to the predetermined size.

24
Chapter 4: Evaluation and Results
4.1. Performance Measures

Different performance measures are used in this study for the assessment. For the
classification task, we use precision, recall, accuracy, and f1-score. Accuracy is defined as
the measure of finding the predictions in the correct way, and it can be written as
AP (Average Precision) is the average of the maximum precisions at different recall

values to evaluate the model performance.
Whereas, for the localization, Mean IoU is used; this tells us how far two regions match
with each other. It is defined as:

25
where A and B are two bounding boxes, A is the actual bounding box, and B is the predicted
one.
Fig. 4.1.1 IoU examples
These two measures succinctly describe the precision and caliber of object
detections.
4.2. Models and performance:
To obtain the whole convolutional feature map, we loaded the VGG16 model as the
base model mentioned. The output is then supplied to the ROI pooling layer, which
performs a pooling operation on a portion of the input map corresponding to region
proposals in the original picture to produce region proposals mapping to the entire
feature map. After applying NMS to lessen the number of candidates and sampling

26
the necessary number of ROIs for its output, all the discovered ROI candidates are
sorted by foreground likelihood.
Additionally, using the 2000 proposals, we compared the various region-based

object detection techniques using a variety of training datasets (datasets 1 and 3 in
Table 1 had 80 training samples, 160 training samples, and 240 training samples,
respectively). Additionally, using different proposals (500, 1000, and 2000), we train
Dataset 3 and compare the AP as shown in Table 4.2.1, 4.2.2, 4.2.3. We can observe
that the average precision of predator detections will increase as there are more
proposals.
Table 4.2.1 AP, Training Time, Testing Time for 80 images.

27
We can see that Faster R-CNN has substantially higher detection accuracy than R-
CNN and Fast R-CNN approaches. Dataset 3's performance is superior to the
performance of the other two dataset’s low proposal numbers. The findings
demonstrate that performance can be enhanced by using large training samples with
numerous proposals.
Tab. 4.2.4. Prediction of our model in the form of data frame/CSV file

28
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Discussion
Three R-CNN techniques to find and identify astronomical images. We created a dataset
using the images provided and a data model with three classifications (Black Hole, Galaxy
Nebula). Then, using a test dataset of complex objects that had yet to be seen during
training, we trained R-CNN, Fast R-CNN, and Faster R-CNN. On the GPU, we evaluated
and collected data on the AP and IOU for each model and network based on varied proposal
numbers and runtime rates. Based on these findings, we discovered that Faster R-CNN is
the most effective model for predator detection utilizing visual deep learning models. Low
illumination environments and massive distances from objects result in less clear images,
which is why the traditional image segmentation is not working because of weak
descriptors. The objects’ shapes are significantly different.
As a result, the training datasets must include items in various images. Data augmentation
was used because there weren't enough datasets. Our work has the advantage of
overcoming the constraints mentioned earlier by utilizing cutting-edge CNN techniques.
These methods do not produce the intriguing points seen in the low-contrast image; instead,
abstract discriminative features from the object are created.
Algorithm Features Prediction Limitations

time/image
R-CNN Generates regions by use 40-50 seconds Taking a long time to

of selective search. from calculate because
each image, about 2000 each region is sent to
regions are extracted. the CNN
independently.

29
Additionally, it makes
predictions using three
different models.
Fast R- The CNN receives each 2 seconds Due to the slowness of

CNN image only once, at which selective search,
point feature maps are calculation time is still
extracted. These maps are high.
subjected to selective
search to produce
predictions. combines each
of the three R-CNN models
separately.
Faster R- Uses a region proposal 0.2 seconds It takes time to

CNN network (RPN) in place of propose an object, and
the selective search as systems operate
technique to make the sequentially, each
algorithm substantially system's performance
faster. is influenced by the
operation of the one
before it.
Tab. 5.1.1. Differences between RCNN, Fast RCNN, and Faster RCNN.

30
Chapter 6: Scope of Improvement
In future research, we can improve the recognition accuracy by improving our
dataset by increasing the quality of images and the no. of images used for
prediction. We can improve the model's speed using modern algorithms such as
YOLO(you only look once algorithm) which makes predictions with a single
network evaluation unlike systems like R-CNN which require thousands for a
single image. This makes it extremely fast, more than 1000x faster than R-CNN
and 100x faster than Fast R-CNN[8].,
SSD, Like YOLO, SSD predicts the bounding boxes based on the feature maps of
each convolutional layer (the result of each filter or layer). The 3x3 convolutional
kernel is applied to the combined feature maps to forecast bounding boxes and
classification probability. SSD is a group of algorithms, with RetinaNet being the
most often used one.
Computer Vision is a trending topic with many fields to explore and use computer
vision for our betterment. We can use this method or model to test various real-
world examples i.e. Blood cell detection problems or brain tumor detection.

31
References
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astroinformatics
2. Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal
Survey(https://www.nap.edu/read/12951/chapter/1)
3. Examples of related Academic Research:
http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/507440 , https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0106481 ,
https://arxiv.org/abs/1711.05744 and
https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.02467https://classic.sdss.org/supernova/aboutsupernova.html
4. Examples of related Academic Research:
http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/507440 , https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0106481 ,
https://arxiv.org/abs/1711.05744 and
https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.02467https://classic.sdss.org/supernova/aboutsupernova.html
5. T. -Y. Lin, P. Goyal, R. Girshick, K. He and P. Dollar, “Focal loss for dense object
detection,” in Proc. of the IEEE Int. Conf. on Computer Vision, Venice, Italy, pp. 2980–
2988, 2017.Girshick, R. Fast R - CNN in IEEE International Conference on Computer
Vision 2015. LosAlamitos, CA, USA.
6. N. Mushtaq, A. A. Khan, F. A. Khan, M. J. Ali, M. M. Ali Shahid et al., “Brain tumor
segmentation using multi-view attention-based ensemble network,” Computers,
Materials & Continua, vol. 72, no. 3, pp. 5793–5806, 2022.
7. A. Hernández-Serna and L. F. Jiménez-Segura, “Automatic identification of species with
neural networks,” PeerJ, vol. 2, pp. 563, 2014.
8. R-CNN, Fast R-CNN, Faster R-CNN, YOLO — Object Detection Algorithms

32

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Classification of Astronomical Images followed by

Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Bachelor of Technology in Computer Science

Name: Ram Sharma.

Under the Supervision of

Dr. Goutam Sarker Sir

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

National Institute of Technology, Durgapur

West Bengal – 713209, India

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

S. No. Name Signature

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

Date: 04/05/2023 Name of the Student: Ram Sharma

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

Figure No. Title Page No

2.1.1 Different astronomical images 10

3.1.1 System Model 11

3.1.2 Flow Diagram of the proposed methodology 12

3.4.1 Transfer learning methodology 17

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

Table no Name of the Tables Page no

3.4.1 No .of images per class 13

4.2.1 AP, Training Time, Testing Time for 80 images. 25

4.2.2 AP, Training Time, Testing Time for 160 images. 25

4.2.3 AP, Training Time, Testing Time for 240 images. 25

4.2.4 Prediction of our model in data frame/CSV format 26

5.1.1 Differences between RCNN, Fast RCNN, and Faster 28 - 29

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

2.1. Problem Statement:

● A Galaxy is much larger, usually thousands to hundreds of thousands of light years

a) Black Hole b) Galaxy c) Nebula

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

3.1. The methodology used to solve this problem:

Fig 3.1.1 System Model.

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

3.3. Benchmark dataset used:

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

Table 3.4.1: No of Images per Class.

Tab. 3.4.1 displays the sample number of data per class,

● In classification difficulties involving machine learning, the class imbalance is

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

Focal loss for imbalance classes:

What is Focal loss?

What are the class weights?

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

To be more precise, the formula to calculate this is :

What is Transfer Learning?

Reusing a pre-trained model on a new problem is known as transfer learning in machine

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

Fig . 3.4.1. Transfer learning Methodology

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

Original Photo 90-degree shift Horizontal flip Vertical Flip

3.5. Astronomical Image detection using RCNN:

We conceptualized the issue as astronomical localization and categorization. We study

Classification of Astronomical Images followed by Identification and Localization in an Image Frame

Fig. 3.3.1. Faster R CNN