Chapter 3

1. An electrolyte: is a solution that dissolves in water to give ions.

(Substance that conducts electricity when molten or dissolved in water because of the
presence of delocalized ions/ substance which undergoes electrolysis)

2. A strong electrolyte: is one that dissolves and exclusively gives ions. ( ex NaCl, HCl ,
NaOH)
3. A weak electrolyte: is one that partially dissociates into ions in solution (ex CH3COOH)
4. Water is a weak electrolyte
5. For water, Kw = 10–14 and in pure water [OH–] = [H+] = 1.00 × 10–7 M
6. Dissociation of water is endothermic: as temperature increases, the concentrations of
ions increases so Kw increases
7. In aqueous solutions Kw = [H+][OH–] at all times

Ex. 1 Which of the following is true about an aqueous solution where [H+] = 1.00 × 10–10 M?
K 1.0×10-14
K w = [H + ][OH - ] [OH - ] = w+ = -10
= 1.0×10-4 M
[H ] 1.0×10

8. According to the Bronsted Lowry definition, an acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton
acceptor
9. A strong acid is one that dissociates completely while a weak acid is one that dissociates
partially.
10. Similarly, a strong base is one that dissociates completely while a weak base is one that
dissociates partially.
11. Examples of strong acids are Hydrochloric acid, Hydrobromic acid, Hydroiodic acid,
sulfuric acid, nitric acid, perchloric acid and chloric acid.
12. [H+] and [OH-] can be calculated in a given strong acid solution of known conc.
13. [H+] and [OH-] can be calculated in a given strong base solution of known conc.

CQD 1 [G] Calculate the [H+] and the [OH–] in a 0.010 M solution of LiOH at 25℃.

CQD 9 [G]
a. Calculate the [H+] and the [OH–] in a 0.010 M solution of HCl.
b. Calculate the [H+] and the [OH–] in a solution of 0.40 g of NaOH dissolved in 10.0 cm3 of
solution.
14. Examples of strong/weak acids and their dissociation in water.

Strong acids Weak acids

HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + -
Cl (aq) HF(aq) ⇋ H+(aq) + F-(aq)
HNO3(aq) → H+(aq) + NO3-(aq) HCN(aq) ⇋ H+(aq) + CN-(aq)
HBr(aq) → H+(aq) + Br-(aq) CH3COOH(aq) ⇋ H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
HI(aq) → H+(aq) + I-(aq) H2CO3(aq) ⇋ 2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
HClO4(aq) → H+(aq) + ClO4-(aq) H2SO3(aq) ⇋ 2H+(aq) + SO32-(aq)
H2SO4(aq) → H+(aq) + HSO4-(aq) H2S(aq) ⇋ 2H+(aq) + S2-(aq)
H3PO3(aq) ⇋ 3H+(aq) + PO33-(aq)
H3PO4(aq) ⇋ 3H+(aq) + PO43-(aq)

Ex. 2 Acids react with bases, carbonates and metals. Which of the following reactions produces
gases?
base carbonate metal
[-A-] √ √ √
[-B-] √ × ×
[-C-] × √ √
[-D-] × √ ×
[-E-] × × √

CQD 13. Write the reaction between:

a. HCl(g) and water.
b. HNO3 and water.
c. H2SO4 and water. Show both steps of dissociation.
d. CH3COOH(aq) and water.
e. H3PO4 and water. Show the three steps of dissociation.
f. Where more than one proton may be released, in which step is the acid strongest?
Weakest?

15. Examples of strong/weak bases and their dissociation in water.

Strong bases Weak bases

NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) All other metallic hydroxides
LiOH(aq) → Li+(aq) + OH-(aq)
KOH(aq) → K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
RbOH(aq) → Rb+(aq) + OH-(aq) NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇄ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
CsOH(aq) → Cs+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
Ba(OH)2(aq) → Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

16. Metallic oxides: are usually basic oxides. They react with acids to give salt and water
Basic oxides are metal oxides except Al2O3, ZnO, PbO that are amphoteric
17. Bases are oxides or hydroxides of metals, while alkalis are soluble bases.
 18. Non-metallic oxides: are usually acidic oxides. They react with bases to give salt and
water
19. Amphoteric oxides: can behave as either acids or bases depending on the reaction.
Examples include: ZnO, PbO and Al2O3.
20. Neutral oxides: do not react with acids or bases. Examples include some non-metallic
oxides like H2O , N2O , CO.

CQD 4. Which of the following elements below is most likely to form an acidic oxide?

A. A only
B. B only
C. C only
D. D only
E. A, B, and C

CQD 2. Consider the following.

Aluminum oxide Al2O3 Amph.

Calcium oxide CaO Basic
Carbon dioxide CO2 Acidic
Carbon monoxide CO Neutral
Magnesium oxide MgO Basic
Sulfur dioxide SO2 Acidic

Which of the oxides listed above

Basic
i. can react with hydrochloric acid but not with aqueous sodium hydroxide? CaO/MgO
Acidic ii. can react with aqueous sodium hydroxide but not with hydrochloric acid? CO2/SO2
Amph iii. can react with both hydrochloric acid and aqueous sodium hydroxide? Al2O3
Neutral iv. cannot react with hydrochloric acid or aqueous sodium hydroxide? CO
CQD 3 [G] Fill in the table to identify each of the given oxides as acidic, basic, neutral, or
amphoteric.

Oxide Acid-base nature

MgO Basic
CO2 Acidic
CuO Basic
N2O Neutral
CO Neutral
ZnO Amph
SO2 Acidc
Al2O3 Amph
CaO Basic

21. Identify the nature of an oxide, given the position of the element in the Periodic Table

Ex. 4 Element X is on the left-hand side of the Periodic Table. Which of the following is true
about its oxide?
Type of oxide Nature of oxide
[-A-] metallic acidic
[-B-] metallic basic
[-C-] non- metallic acidic
[-D-] non- metallic basic
[-E-] metallic neutral

CQD 14. Complete the equations:

a. CaO(s) + H2O(l)
b. SO3(g) + H2O(l)
c. CO2(g) + H2O(l)
d. SO2(g) + H2O(l)
e. K2O(s) + H2O(l)
f. Na2O(s) + H2O(l)

CQD 22. [T] An oxide X reacts with both potassium hydroxide and sulfuric acid.
Which of the following is true about X?

A. X is an acidic oxide.
B. X is a basic oxide.
C. X is an amphoteric oxide.
D. X is a neutral oxide.
E. none of the above.
CQD 20. [G] A solution of concentrated hydrochloric acid, HCl, is added to an aqueous solution
of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3.

a. What is the expected observation?

b. Give the net ionic equation for the reaction.

CDQ 15. Write down the complete acid-base equations of the following:
a. Neutralization of an acid and a base
b. Carbonate ion in water
c. Sodium carbonate with a strong acid (net ionic reaction)
d. Ammonium ion in water
e. Strong base and ammonium salt
f. CaO(s) + 2H+(aq)
g. SO3(g) + NaOH(aq) (net ionic reaction)
 Salt Preparation
A salt is the product of the reaction between an acid and a base.
Different techniques can be used to prepare different salts in the laboratory.

1. To prepare soluble salts 2. To prepare insoluble salts

A. Titration method: reaction of acid Precipitation method
and alkali base
B. Excess method: reaction of acid
with:
• excess insoluble base metal hydroxide
• excess metal
• excess metal oxide
• excess metal carbonate

The following is a helpful summary when to use each method:

Remember the general solubility rules for salts:

• sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are soluble
• nitrates are soluble
• chlorides are soluble, except lead and silver
• sulfates are soluble, except barium, calcium and lead
• carbonates are insoluble, except sodium, potassium and ammonium
• hydroxides are insoluble, except sodium, potassium, ammonium and calcium (partially)
 Titration method:
General set up:

pipette

burette base

conical flask

acid

22. A neutralization reaction: is one in which H+ and OH- react to produce H2O.
23. Titration: is the progressive addition of a base to an acid.
24. An acid base indicator: is a dye whose colour is sensitive to the changes in pH.
25. Litmus is a dye that is red in acidic solutions and blue in basic ones.
26. Phenolphthalein is a dye that is colorless in acidic solutions and pink in basic ones.
27. Methyl orange is a dye that is red in acidic solutions and yellow in basic ones.
28. Thymolphthalein is a dye that is colorless in acidic solutions and blue in basic ones.

CQD 6. If the burette was filled with dilute hydrochloric acid, and the solution was slowly added
to a conical flask containing dilute sodium hydroxide solution, what will be the color change in
the conical flask if the following indicators are added?
first color in the flask (base)
a) Litmus indicator is used: from ________________
blue to _______________
red
b) Methyl orange is used: from ________________
yellow to _______________
c) Thymolphthalein is used: from ________________ to _______________
d) Phenolphthalein is used: from ________________ to _______________

29. Universal indicator is a dye that changes color depending on the acidity or basicity of the
solution.
Ex. 9 When a drop of universal indicator is added to acetic acid solution, the clourless liquid
turns:
a) pink
b) blue
c) orange
d) green
e) purple

When a drop of universal indicator is added to sodium hydroxide solution, the clourless liquid
turns:
a) red
b) yellow
c) orange
d) green
e) purple

When a drop of universal indicator is added to water, the colorless liquid turns:
a) red
b) yellow
c) orange
d) green
e) purple

30. Equivalence point: The equivalence point, or stoichiometric point, of a chemical

reaction when a titrant is added and is stoichiometrically equal to the amount of moles of
substance (known as analyte) present in the sample: the smallest amount of titrant that is
sufficient to fully neutralize or react with the analyte.
31. When using phenolphthalein, it is best practice to place the base in the burette and the
acid in the conical flask. colorless ----> pink color change easily noticed
32. When using phenolphthalein, the base is continuously added to the acid till one drop
turns the solution in the flask a permanent pink (endpoint of the titration).
33. During a titration, the volume of titrant is obtained taking the difference between the last
and first reading of the burette. V final - V inital
34. At the equivalence point of an acid-base titration, number of moles of H+ = number of
moles of OH-
Typical Question:
Describe the preparation of sodium chloride from hydrochloric acid.
Include in your account details of any apparatus needed and name any other chemicals needed.

Steps:
• Fill a burette with aqueous sodium hydroxide.
• Read the burette. vi
• Using a pipette, add 25.0 ml of the aqueous hydrochloric acid into a conical flask.
• Add 2-3 drops of indicator.
• Add aqueous sodium hydroxide to the hydrochloric acid solution, while continuously
swirling, till the end point is reached (point at which colour of the indicator changes
upon adding a single drop of base.
• Read the burette. v final
• Repeat the experiment until you get concurrent results (readings that do not differ by
more than 0.20 ml).
• Take the average of three concurrent readings. This will be the average volume of the
base needed to neutralize the acid.
• Repeat the experiment one last time, by adding the calculated average volume of the
base without using an indicator.

N.B. Another way to know when the neutralization point has been reached is to measure pH of
the medium using a pH meter. The pH will be 7.00 at neutralization point.

Crystallize the salt:

o Heat the solution in an evaporating dish directly on a flame till most of the liquid
evaporates.
o Transfer the evaporating dish over a steam bath. Heat gently till the crystallization
point (till solution is saturated).
Crystallization point(saturation) is checked we can check if the solution is saturated by dipping a
cold glass rod in the solution from time to time and checking for the formation of crystals.
o Leave to cool.
o Filter off the crystals.
o Dry the crystals between two filter papers without pressing or in open air.
Excess method:
General set up:

Typical Question
Describe how a solution of zinc sulphate could be made from the insoluble compounds of zinc.

Method I: Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen

Used for any metal that is more reactive than hydrogen (not suitable for the preparation of Cu or
Ag salts)

Steps:
• In a beaker, add a known volume of aqueous sulphuric acid.
• Gently heat the acid in the beaker on a Bunsen burner (to speed up the rate of the
reaction)
• Turn off the burner. (To prevent splashing of the liquid).
• Start adding spatula measures of the zinc metal to the acid and stir.
• Continue adding the metal till:
o Excess metal settles at the bottom of the beaker AND
o No more bubbles of hydrogen gas evolve.
• Filter, the residue is excess unreacted metal and the filtrate is zinc sulphate solution.
• Crystallize the salt.

Method II: Acid + Metal Oxide → Salt + Water

Used for any metal compound even Cu and Ag salts.
Steps:
• In a beaker, add a known volume of aqueous sulphuric acid.
• Gently heat the acid in the beaker on a Bunsen burner (to speed up the rate of the
reaction) throughout the experiment.
• Start adding spatula measures of zinc oxide to the acid and stir.
• Continue adding the metal oxide till excess metal oxide settles at the bottom of the
beaker.
• Filter, the residue is excess unreacted metal and the filtrate is zinc sulphate solution.
• Crystallize the salt.

Method III: Acid + Metal Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

Used for any metal compound even Cu and Ag salts.

Steps:
• In a beaker, add a known volume of aqueous sulphuric acid.
• Start adding spatula measures of zinc carbonate to the acid and stir.
• Continue adding the metal carbonate till:
o Excess metal carbonate settles at the bottom of the beaker AND
o No more effervescence is seen (due to evolution of CO2 gas).
• Filter, the residue is excess unreacted metal and the filtrate is zinc sulphate solution.
• Crystallize the salt.

The volume of acid used in excess method need not be specified. The solid (metal, metal oxide
or metal carbonate) is added till in excess to make sure that all the acid has been used up (or
reacted or consumed) irrespective of the volume of the acid used.

Summary:

How to know reaction is complete

Reagent Procedure
(All acid has reacted)
- Heat acid first.
- Excess metal remains at the bottom
- Put off Bunsen burner.
Acid + Metal of the beaker
- Start adding spatula measures
- No more effervescence
of metal.

Acid + Metal - Continue heating whilst adding - Excess metal oxide remains at the
oxide the metal oxide to the acid. bottom of the beaker.
- No heating at all as
- Excess metal carbonate remains at
Acid + Metal effervescence occurring is
the bottom of the beaker
carbonate vigorous (to prevent splashing of
- No more effervescence.
the liquid)
Precipitation method:
General set up:

Typical question
How can a pure sample of the insoluble salt, lead (II) sulphate, be made?

Steps:

• Add 25 cm3, 1.0 M of aqueous sodium sulphate to 25 cm3, 1.0 M of aqueous lead (II)
nitrate.

We must add equal number of moles of each reactant in the correct ratio to make sure
neither one remains in excess.
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2 NaNO3(aq)

• Stir with a glass rod if mixing in a beaker, or shake tube if mixing in a test tube.
• Filter, the residue is lead(II) sulphate and the filtrate is sodium nitrate solution.
• Wash the residue with a little amount of cold distilled water to remove any impurities.
• Leave the residue to dry or place in an oven.
Ex. 5 Which of the following is the best method to prepare ZnSO4 from H2SO4 and ZnO?
a) titrate ZnO(s) against H2SO4.
b) Mix equal amounts of the two reagents and crystallize.
c) Add ZnO to excess acid solution.
d) Add excess ZnO to acid solution.
e) All of the above work.

Ex. 6 Copper sulphate solution was prepared by reacting excess copper oxide with dilute
sulphuric acid. The diagram below shows the method used.

Spatula

Tripod stand
Measuring
cylinder

a) Fill in the empty boxes. More than required and is left back after reaction
b) Explain what is meant by excess.
c) Draw a diagram to show how the mixture is filtered.

Ex. 7 The pieces of apparatus needed during the preparation of sodium chloride, NaCl, by
titration are:
A. stop clock, burette, dropper
B. balance, burette, beaker
C. flask, burette, pipette
D. pipette, balance, burette
E. pipette, stop clock, balance
CQD 5.
Three methods are used for salt preparation
Method A: using a burette and an indicator. Titration (all soluble)
Method B: mixing two solutions to obtain a salt by precipitation. Salt insoluble
Method C: addition of an excess base or metal to a dilute acid then removing the excess by
filtration.
Method D: addition of an excess metal oxide to a dilute acid then removing the excess by
filtration.
Method E: addition of an excess metal carbonate to a dilute acid then removing the excess by
filtration.

For the following salt preparations, choose the method name any reagent needed and complete
or write the reactions.
a) The soluble salt, zinc sulfate from the insoluble base zinc oxide.

Method:
Reagent:
Word equation:

b) The soluble salt, potassium chloride, from the soluble base, potassium hydroxide.

Method:
Reagent:
Equation:

c) The insoluble salt, Lead(II) iodide from the soluble salt Lead(II) nitrate.

Method:
Reagent:
Equation:

d) Name the chemical needed to be added to insoluble magnesium oxide to form

magnesium sulphate.
e) Which method can be used to prepare the soluble salt potassium chloride from potassium
hydroxide?
f) Name the chemical needed to be added to lithium hydroxide to form lithium sulphate.
g) Which method can be used to prepare the insoluble salt silver chloride from the soluble
salt silver nitrate?
h) Name the chemical added to silver nitrate to form silver chloride.
i) Which method can be used to prepare the soluble salt magnesium sulphate from the
insoluble base magnesium oxide?
j) Name the chemical needed to be added to insoluble calcium oxide to form calcium
nitrate.
k) Which method can be used to prepare the soluble salt sodium iodide from sodium
hydroxide?
l) Name the chemical needed to be added to sodium hydroxide to form sodium chloride.
 m) Which method can be used to prepare the insoluble salt lead (II) iodide from the soluble
salt lead (II) nitrate?
n) Name the chemical added to lead (II) nitrate to form lead (II) iodide.

CQD 66. Which of the following reagents can be added to hydrochloric acid, HCl, to prepare
zinc chloride, ZnCl2?
a) Zn
b) ZnO
c) ZnCO3
d) ZnSO4

CQD 27. Which of the following reagents can be added to sulphuric acid, H2SO4, to prepare
copper (II) sulphate, CuSO4?
a) Cu
b) CuO Same except for metal cu and ag
c) CuCO3
d) Cu(OH)2

CQD 28. Which of the following reactions produce ammonia gas?

a) acid + base
b) ammonium salt + base
c) acid + metal carbonate
d) acid + metal
e) acid + metal sulfide

CQD 29. Which of the following reactions produces a pungent smelling gas that turns damp red
litmus blue?
a) CaO + H2SO4
b) Ca(OH)2 + H2SO4
c) Ca + H2SO4
d) Ca(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4
e) CaCO3 + H2SO4

CQD 30. Which of the following reactions produce (s) a gas?

a) acid + base
b) ammonium salt + base
c) acid + metal carbonate
d) acid + metal
e) acid + metal sulfite
f) acid + metal oxide

CQD 31. The reaction of a strong acid with a strong base to produce salt and water is called:
____________
Neutralization
CQD 32. During preparation of silver iodide, AgI, by precipitation, what is the correct order of
the steps?
a) mixing two aqueous solutions
b) filtration
c) stirring with a glass rod
d) drying residue in an oven

CQD 33. The pieces of apparatus needed during the preparation of sodium chloride, NaCl, by
titration are:

A. stop clock, burette, dropper

B. balance, burette, beaker
C. flask, burette, pipette
D. pipette, balance, burette
E. pipette, stop clock, balance

CQD 34. During the titration of an acid with a base, the color change that occurs when
______ to _________
phenolphthalein is used as an indicator isColorless Pink

CQD 35. During the titration of an acid with a base, the color change that occurs when methyl
orange is used as an indicator is _______
Red to __________
Yellow

CQD 36. Dilute sulphuric acid is added to a mixture that contains magnesium, zinc and copper
in a beaker. The beaker is left for about 15 minutes and its contents are then filtered.
What does the filtrate contain?

CQD 37. Some reactions of substance M are shown below

magnesium → hydrogen

substance M reacts with sodium carbonate → carbon dioxide

copper (II) oxide → copper (II) chloride

Hydrochloric acid

Identify substance M?
CQD 38. The information in the box is about preparation of magnesium nitrate crystals.

Step 1: Add spatula measures of magnesium oxide to some hot dilute nitric acid then stir.
Step 2: Continue adding magnesium oxide until it is in excess.
Step 3: Remove excess magnesium oxide so that colorless magnesium nitrate is left
behind.
Step 4: Evaporate the magnesium nitrate solution until it is saturated.
Step 5: Leave the saturated solution to cool, white crystals are seen formed on cooling.
Step 6: Remove the crystals from the solution.
Step 7: Dry the crystals on filter paper.

a) Explain why excess magnesium oxide is used in step 2.

b) Explain how excess magnesium oxide is removed from the solution in Step 3.
c) What is meant by the term saturated solution?
d) What is the practical method that could show that the solution is saturated?
e) Explain why the crystals in Step 7 are dried using filter paper and not by heating.

35. Hydrated substances are substances the are chemically combined with water, while
anhydrous substances contain no water.
36. Water of crystallization refers to the number of water molecules in a hydrated crystal, for
example: CuSO4.5H2O and CoCl2.6H2O.

37. Acidity of a solution is measured using pH where pH = –log10 [H+]

NOTE: pH could be measured using a pH-meter or a universal indicator paper. When pH is
measured using the universal indicator paper, it should be reported using whole numbers only
(rough)

CQD 10. [G] If the pH of a solution is 5.00, what is [H+]? Is the solution acidic or basic?

38. At 298K, a solution is acidic if its pH < 7, basic if its pH > 7 and neutral if its pH = 7.

CQD 12. [G] Classify the following solutions as acidic, basic or neutral.

a. a solution of pH = 5
b. a solution of pH = 8
c. a solution of pH = 7

CQD 18. Calculate the [H+] and [OH–] in a solution whose:

a. pH = 5.0
b. pH = 8.0
c. pH = 7.0
d. Are the above solutions acidic, basic or neutral?

CQD 21. [G]What is [OH–] in a solution whose pH is 8? Is the solution acidic or basic?

66. Know that Cl2 and NO2 dissolve in water forming two acids
Chloric acid

Nitric acid Nitrous acid

CQD 23. [T]
a. A student titrates an aqueous sulfuric acid solution using 25 cm3 of 0.050 M solution
calcium hydroxide and few drops of an acid-base indicator.
The volume of sulfuric acid needed to react completely with the calcium hydroxide
solution is 12.5 cm3.

The equation of the reaction is shown:

H2SO4(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq)  CaSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

What is the concentration of sulfuric acid solution?

• Calculate the number of moles of calcium hydroxide.
• Calculate the number of moles of sulfuric acid to react completely with calcium
hydroxide.
• Calculate the concentration of the sulfuric acid solution.

b. After titration is done, the final solution in the beaker contains solid calcium sulfate,
water, and some dissolved acid-base indicator.
Describe how to extract dry sample of solid calcium sulfate from the solution. Write the
process including all key steps.

c. The student conducted the following tests on the products of the reaction between
sulfuric acid and sodium carbonate.
Describe the student’s observation in each test.
i. Flame test on the solution.
ii. Passing gas released in lime water.
iii. Addition of aqueous solution of barium nitrate.

d. Dilute sulfuric acid reacts with metals, metal oxides and bases.
 Write chemical equations for the reaction of dilute sulfuric acid with each of the
following:
i. magnesium.
ii. sodium oxide
iii. potassium hydroxide

CQD 24. [T]

A student conducts an acid-base titration to determine the concentration of a sodium
hydroxide solution using a 0.1 M hydrochloric solution. He is provided with the
following apparatus.

a. Name the items that the student needs to perform the titration.
b. The student adds few drops of an acid-base indicator to 20 cm3 of sodium hydroxide
and titrates the mixture with the hydrochloric acid solution.
i. Why is it necessary to add an acid-base indicator before starting the titration?
ii. The student makes two reading to determine the volume of the hydrochloric acid
needed to neutralize completely the sodium hydroxide solution. The initial reading he
made before starting the titration is 10 cm3 and the final reading at the end of the
titration is 23 cm3.
What is the volume of hydrochloric acid used to completely neutralize 20 cm3 of
sodium hydroxide solution?
c. The student repeats the same experiment using the same materials. He discards the
content of the final solution from the flask and refills it directly with another 20 cm3 of
the same sodium hydroxide.
What did the student do wrong in this procedure? Describe the correct procedure.

CQD 24. [T] Plan an experiment to find the concentration of an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid
provided with dilute solution of sodium hydroxide of known concentration and common
laboratory apparatus.