Arthesis

The Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering
A Motor Controller
For the Solar Car
Project
Andrew James Reghenzani

Supervisor : Mr. Geoffrey Walker
Submitted for the degree of

Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical And Electronic)
16th October 1998.

Union College,
Upland Road,
St. Lucia QLD 4067.
Ph : (07) 33771500
Fax : (07) 33713826
16 October 1998
The Dean,
Faculty of Engineering,
The University of Queensland,
St. Lucia QLD 4072
Dear Professor Simmons,
In accordance with the requirement of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in

the division of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, I present the following thesis
entitled :
“A Motor Controller
For the Solar Car
Project”
This work was performed under the supervision of Mr. Geoffrey Walker. I
declare that the work submitted in this thesis is my own, except as acknowledged in the
text and footnotes, and has not been previously submitted for a degree at The University
of Queensland or any other institution.
Yours Sincerely,
Andrew J. Reghenzani.
A Motor Controller For The Solar Car Project
ACKNOWLEDGEDGMENTS
The following people deserve special recognition for their contributions to my

thesis project throughout the year:
My family : who have always supported me throughout University, and have given me
the extra motivation to succeed during difficult times.
My friends : for understanding how important my thesis was and always seeming to ask
the all too familiar question “How’s your thesis going?”.
Members of the Solar Car Team : especially Charles for organizing use of a digital
camera and Anthoney for assistance with writing code. I have thoroughly enjoyed
being in the solar racing team, as it has given me the opportunity to gain valuable work
experience and gain some practical skills which complement my University studies.
My supervisor, Mr. Geoffrey Walker : for all his time, invaluable advice and
encouragement throughout the thesis project.
Keith Aldworth and the electronics workshop personnel : for the manufacture of my
PCB’s and all the labor intensive hand tinning that had to be done for both boards,
supply of components, use of the surface mount soldering station and all the technical
tips regarding PCB design and manufacture.
Keith Lane, Wayne Jenkins and Bill Slack from the electronics workshop : for building
my heatsinks and other hardware from my plans which usually consisted of a page of
dimensions, use of the tools and machines in the workshop at any time and all the
technical advice regarding manufacturing.
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ABSTRACT
The transport needs of our ever growing and evolving society is becoming
increasingly stringent and more demanding. In order to combat this, more efficient
transportation vehicles need to be developed which are faster and cleaner. As the
human race starts to realize the real extent to which the internal combustion engine has
gradually polluted the atmosphere, more research is being concentrated on alternative
forms of propulsion. A number of propulsion systems and energy sources have
undergone feasibility studies to investigate potential commercial and industrial
applications. Some projects have been shown to work successfully, while other
technologies are still well in their infancy stage of development. A handful of examples
of the technologies under consideration include nuclear energy, fuel cells, steam power,
solar power, wind power and tidal power.
Electric and hybrid powered cars are emerging as a popular transport alternative.
These type of vehicles emit far less pollutants to the atmosphere than the single internal
combustion engine, and have been proven to display moderate driving range (up to
300km). An electrically powered vehicle has essentially three major electrical
components. These are an energy source (usually a rechargeable battery bank), an
inverter or motor controller and an electric motor. In the case of a solar car, the energy
source is typically a bank of batteries, which may be recharged by photovoltaic solar
panels. The motor controller is typically a power electronics device which when
supplied with the driver’s input commands, controls the torque in the electric motor.
The electric motor converts the electrical energy supplied by the motor controller to
mechanical energy used to propel the vehicle, usually through a type of transmission.
A motor controller is custom designed for a new hub mounted Brushless DC
Permanent Magnet (BLDC PM) motor, as part of the solar car project. Efficiency and
reliability have been two of the key factors considered when designing the controller.
Due to careful selection of quality components and use of high efficiency control
algorithms, a marketable increase in efficiency over the existing system is expected with
the new controller and motor.
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CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEDGMENTS......................................................................................................I
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................. IV
CONTENTS................................................................................................................................... V
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ VII
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. VIII
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Problem Specification ............................................................................................ 2
1.2.1 Thesis Goal .......................................................................................................... 4
1.2.2 Motivation behind the Motor Controller and Motion Control............................. 4
1.3 Organization of the Thesis Document.................................................................... 5
2. THE UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND SOLAR CAR..............................7
2.1 Solar Car Racing and the Races ............................................................................. 7
2.2 A Brief History of the UQ Solar Racing Car ......................................................... 9
2.3 The Nuts and Volts of a Solar Car.......................................................................... 9
2.3.1 Batteries ............................................................................................................. 10
2.3.2 Solar Array ........................................................................................................ 12
2.3.3 Maximum Peak Power Trackers (MPPT’s)....................................................... 13
2.3.4 Motor Controller................................................................................................ 13
2.3.5 Motor ................................................................................................................. 14
2.3.6 Telemetry Functions and Power Supply............................................................ 15
2.4 Necessity for Efficient Systems............................................................................ 15
2.5 The Existing Drive System................................................................................... 16
2.5.1 Controller Type.................................................................................................. 16
2.5.2 Performance Characteristics .............................................................................. 17
2.6 The New Drive System ........................................................................................ 17
2.6.1 Additional Features............................................................................................ 18
2.6.2 Performance Requirements................................................................................ 19
3. MOTOR CONTROL LITERATURE......................................................................20
4. THEORY ...............................................................................................................................25
4.1 The Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor ...................................................... 25
4.1.1 Electrical and Mechanical Parameters............................................................... 28
4.2 Controlling a Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor........................................ 30
4.2.1 Commutation ..................................................................................................... 30
4.2.2 Current Regulation ............................................................................................ 35
4.2.3 Trapezoidal Current Excitation.......................................................................... 35
4.2.4 Sinusoidal Current Excitation............................................................................ 37
4.3 Power MOSFET Device Characteristics .............................................................. 38
4.4 Heatsink Considerations....................................................................................... 41
5. HARDWARE DESIGN STAGE...............................................................................43
5.1 Design of Power Stage ......................................................................................... 43
5.1.1 Circuit Design.................................................................................................... 44
5.1.2 Sensors............................................................................................................... 45
5.1.2.1 Bus Voltage Measurement .............................................................................. 45
5.1.2.2 MOSFET Heatsink Temperature Measurement ............................................. 46
5.1.2.3 Phase Current Measurement ........................................................................... 46
5.1.3 Manufacture and Construction .......................................................................... 48
5.2 Design of Control Stage ....................................................................................... 50
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5.2.1 Circuit Design.................................................................................................... 51

5.2.1.1 Auxiliary Components and Power .................................................................. 52
5.2.1.2 Memory Board ................................................................................................ 52
5.2.1.3 Input/Output Ports........................................................................................... 52
5.2.2 Manufacture and Construction .......................................................................... 54
6. SOFTWARE DESIGN STAGE ................................................................................56
6.1 System Description............................................................................................... 56
6.2 Main Program....................................................................................................... 58
6.3 Torque Control ..................................................................................................... 59
6.3.1 Regeneration...................................................................................................... 59
6.3.2 Brake.................................................................................................................. 60
6.4 MOSFET Heatsink Temperature.......................................................................... 61
6.5 Motor Temperature............................................................................................... 61
6.6 Speed and Direction ............................................................................................. 61
6.7 Commutation ........................................................................................................ 61
6.8 Bus Voltage .......................................................................................................... 61
7. DISCUSSION .....................................................................................................................63
7.1 Discussion ............................................................................................................ 63
8. CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................64
8.1 Thesis Conclusions............................................................................................... 64
8.2 Possible Future Work ........................................................................................... 64
8.3 The Future of Solar Car Racing : The Big Picture ............................................... 66
APPENDICES ..............................................................................................................................67
APPENDIX A: SCHEMATIC AND PCB DESIGNS.................................................68
APPENDIX B: MOSFET DATA SHEETS.............................................................69
APPENDIX C: CSIRO/UTS MOTOR SPECIFICATIONS........................................70
APPENDIX D: MICROCOMPUTER PROGRAM LISTINGS...............................71
APPENDIX E: ACCOMPANYING COMPUTER DISK .............................................72
MAIN PROGRAM ......................................................................................................................72
SCHEMATIC FILES ..................................................................................................................72
PCB FILES ...................................................................................................................................72
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................73
BOOKS ...................................................................................................................................... 73
JOURNAL ARTICLES ............................................................................................................ 73
INTERNET RESOURCES ...................................................................................................... 77
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1 : BLOCK ELECTRICAL DIAGRAM OF A SOLAR CAR ......................................................................10
FIGURE 8 : HALL EFFECT POSITIONING SENSORS........................................................................................28
FIGURE 9: NUMBERING PATTERN FOR MOSFET’S IN THE H-BRIDGE ......................................................... 30
FIGURE 10 : 120 DEGREES COMMUTATION MODE ...................................................................................... 32
FIGURE 11 : 180 DEGREES CONDUCTION MODE ......................................................................................... 34
FIGURE 12 : CURRENT FEEDBACK IN A BLDC MOTOR ...............................................................................35
FIGURE 13 : TORQUE RIPPLE IN A TRAPEZOIDAL MACHINE ........................................................................ 36
FIGURE 14:NON-CONDUCTRING MOSFET[34] ..............................................................................................
FIGURE 15:CONDUCTING MOSFET[34] ............................................................................................38
FIGURE 16:WAVEFORMS AT TURN-ON[38].....................................................................................................
FIGURE 17:WAVEFORMS AT TURN-OFF[38]................................................................................................39
FIGURE 20 : THERMISTOR RESPONSE ..........................................................................................................54
FIGURE 22 : BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CONTROL ALGORITHM........................................................................... 57
FIGURE 23 : A FOUR QUADRANT DRIVE.......................................................................................................58
FIGURE 24:ONE SWITCH ACTIVE TOPOLOGY ..................................................................................................
FIGURE 25:TWO SWITCH ACTIVE TOPOLOGY .............................................................................................60
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1 : 120 DEGREES COMMUTATION TRUTH TABLE ............................................................................31

TABLE 2 : 180 DEGREES COMMUTATION TRUTH TABLE ............................................................................33
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The development of the internal combustion engine was certainly considered a

milestone for mankind. The focus back in the time of the Industrial Revolution was to
design machines which could fulfill time consuming, labor intensive jobs in a fraction
of the time that it took humans alone using conventional methods. Cars were developed
as a fast means of transport, and internal combustion engines soon found themselves in
many applications ranging from cane harvesters to outback generator sets. As time
progressed, most people had realized that although the internal combustion engine had
provided a much easier lifestyle, there were a number of major drawbacks. Petrol,
when combusted, forms a number of gaseous byproducts, consisting mainly of carbon
dioxide, but also containing traces of other gases such as carbon monoxide and
compounds containing lead. The potency and increasing levels of these gases and
compounds are causing gradual damage to the ozone layer in the Earth’s atmosphere.
Such gases are commonly referred to as greenhouse gases.
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1. Introduction
Soon people began looking for alternatives to the internal combustion engine.
Quite recently, hybrid electric vehicles (EV) have been met with much success, and
commercial versions are being made today. A typical hybrid EV is driven by an electric
motor and usually contains a rechargeable battery bank and a small internal combustion
engine. The internal combustion engine still emits greenhouse gases, however only at a
fraction of the amount. In some of the latest hybrid vehicles, four wheel motors are
used (one for each wheel), and four motor controllers are used to control the torque of
each individual motor for optimal vehicle performance and control.
An alternative energy source which is very appealing is solar energy. Solar

energy is a continually advancing technology, and as photovoltaic (PV) solar cells are
being made more efficient, solar power is finding widespread use in applications such
as outback power supplies and grid connected PV arrays. A large contributor to the
increasing level of pollution is the household car, so solar cars were developed with the
vision that an ideal car could be built which could run solely from the sun for the
lifetime of the car, and never require fueling up. This indeed is a futuristic dream,
however the technology is fast approaching this stage.
1.2 Problem Specification
Design of a motor controller for the University solar car project has not been
attempted before. The new controller has incorporated a multitude of features which are
designed to make the drive system highly efficient and safer while providing a more
intuitive driver control. The new motor controller consists of a Hitachi SH1 7032 RISC
microprocessor operating at a clock speed of 20MHz accompanied by an array of
sensors and a high voltage inverter stage. The work performed in this thesis project
incorporates a number of different fields of work:
• Electronic Commutation : the switching of currents to the correct phase windings

in order to make the motor rotate and produce torque. This basic operation is
common for most types of motors. The brushless DC motor used for the solar car
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1. Introduction
uses hall effect elements embedded in the motor to provide rotor position feedback
information (discussed in chapter 4).
• Waveform Shaping : by changing the pulse width modulation (PWM) ratio of the
output drive signals, two functions can be implemented simultaneously. Current
limiting is the process of regulating the phase currents in the motor to reflect the
torque commanded by the driver. Efficiency of the drive may be improved by
applying a weighted PWM signal to produce e.g. a sinusoidal output waveform
(PWM techniques are discussed in chapter 4).
• Sensor Technology : the motor controller has a number of sensors which provide
feedback to the software control loops. The sensors used in the motor controller
include current transducers for measuring individual phase currents, bus voltage
measurement, an integrated circuit temperature sensor for measuring heatsink
temperature and a thermistor for measuring temperature of phase windings (sensors
are discussed in chapter 5).
• Smart Control : the microprocessor is programmed to perform a number of

auxiliary functions so that the vehicle performs optimally and safely under all driver
input commands and environmental conditions. The following features will be
designed into the motor controller, and are discussed in greater detail in chapter 2:
Regenerative braking capability

Speed and direction of wheel output
Cruise control function (performed by telemetry)
Four quadrant operation
Reverse at low speed only
Soft start operation
Low torque ripple operation
Sinusoidal PWM phase current excitation
Temperature monitoring of stator
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1. Introduction
Temperature monitoring of MOSFET heatsink

Fault indicator
Wide input voltage range
Transient protection
Fuse protection
Diagnostic capability
Cooling fan mounted to heatsink
1.2.1 Thesis Goal
The primary and most important goal of my thesis was:
“To design and construct a Brushless DC motor controller for the University of
Queensland solar car that performs motoring and regeneration at a very high efficiency.
The motor controller should also perform auxiliary functions that make the drive system
more robust, safer and easier to control.”
The controller should operate the motor with the highest possible efficiency
under steady-state operating conditions. Under abnormal conditions, the controller
should respond quickly to resolve the problem and resume normal operation to maintain
a high level of energy efficiency. On completion of the project, the motor controller
will be mounted in the solar car and be interfaced to the other electronic systems.
1.2.2 Motivation behind the Motor Controller and Motion Control
Many applications in today’s technologically advancing world require systems

with greater efficiency and more stringent operating specifications. An area in which
efficiency and reliability is an absolute must is motors and their control. Motors are
used in a vast variety of applications ranging from huge crushing mills to pinpoint
accuracy mechanisms in space applications. Some applications require motors to
operate in harsh environmental conditions, e.g. flammable gas leaks, where
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1. Introduction
conventional DC brush motors cannot be used due to the risk of sparks forming between
the brushes and commutator. There are many types of motors available today, however
a discussion on each type is beyond the scope of this thesis.
One type of motor that boasts a very high efficiency and is very reliable is the
brushless DC (BLDC) motor. Unlike conventional DC brush motors, the brushless
motor, as it’s name suggests, has no brushes and requires extra electronic circuitry to
perform the job of commutation. The BLDC motor can be constructed in many sizes
and power ratings, and finds widespread application in many motor drives. The primary
motivation behind the thesis was to improve the efficiency and technology of the solar
car. The secondary motivation was related to the popularity of the BLDC motor and it’s
future applications. Factors such as high power to weight ratio and reliability will
definitely see BLDC motor technology improve in years to come. By studying how
such a motor is controlled, the capabilities of this motor are better understood.
1.3 Organization of the Thesis Document
The remainder of the thesis describes all work completed, problems encountered
and how these problems were overcome. Detailed descriptions including theory are
presented to support practical design choices. The following chapters form the body of
the thesis document, and may be summarized as follows:
Chapter 2, The University of Queensland Solar Car, presents first an introduction to

solar racing and how the event was first initiated, followed by a brief history of the UQ
solar racing car. The chapter then presents an electrical system overview in a typical
solar car, and how the main electrical components are interfaced. A short discussion
follows which outlines the importance of efficient systems on a solar car. The chapter
concludes by summarizing the existing drive system, then describing some of the
performance parameters of the new drive system.
Chapter 3, Motor Control Literature, presents a literature review of all relevant work
in the field of BLDC motor control. Useful formulas and control algorithms are
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1. Introduction
extracted from the text and hi-lighted in this chapter. There is a complete list of all
references used in the bibliography section at the very back of the thesis report.
Chapter 4, Theory, provides the background material necessary to understand how a

brushless DC motor operates, and gives an insight of how to control such a motor.
Chapter 5, Hardware Design Stage, analyses the circuits designed and describes their
operation down to component level. Design formulas indicate how component values
were obtained. Mechanical factors are presented for construction of the motor
controller and when mounting into the car.
Chapter 6, Software Design Stage, describes the control algorithms implemented in

software which control the motor. There is a full listing of the code completed to date
in Appendix E.
Chapter 7, Results and Discussion, presents a discussion of the motor controller

project and the issues that emerged from such a project.
Chapter 8, Conclusions, concludes the document with a short summary of the findings
throughout the thesis project. Some possible future work is given as suggestions to
improving the motor controller. A final note is then given to the overall picture of solar
racing and where the future of such a technology is headed.
The author hopes the thesis document provides excellent reading and a useful
reference for any future work in motor control.
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2. THE UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND
SOLAR CAR
2.1 Solar Car Racing and the Races
Solar car racing first started out as a novel idea to investigate the limitations of
solar energy as a possible alternative to non-renewable energy sources. From that point
forward, solar car racing has grown in popularity and can be considered a sport, with
annual and biannual racing events being held all around the World. One of the more
prominent races is the World Solar Challenge, which covers some 3100 km from
Darwin to Adelaide along the Stuart Highway. Australian adventurer Hans Tholstrup
organized the first WSC in 1987, and it is now a bi-annual event held in October. The
Sydney City Power SunRace traverses the eastern coast of Australia from Melbourne to
Sydney and is the equivalent of the American SunRace. The American SunRace is the
largest solar event held in the United States. The World Solar Rallye in Akita, Japan is
held every year in July on a purpose-built solar racing track named the Ogata Mura
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2.The University of Queensland Solar Car
Solar Sports Line. Many other countries hold solar related activities to promote solar
energy as a new energy alternative to existing fossil-based energy.
The solar car racing event is the most exciting part of solar car development.
Not only do competing teams have the opportunity to showcase to the world the ability
of solar energy, but have a lot of fun simply making the car perform optimally
regardless of impeding conditions. There is great satisfaction when seeing months of
hard work finally being paid off, as the solar car races through the finish line. The idea
of a solar car race is to reach the finish as fast as possible, obeying the race regulations
at all times to avoid time penalties.
For long endurance races such as the WSC, a convoy of cars accompanies the
solar car. One support vehicle usually has onboard computers and radio equipment for
data and voice interchange with the solar cars’ driver and telemetry system. Team
members ride in a scout car and place wooden boards over cattle grids so that the solar
cars’ tuned suspension is not put under great mechanical stress. In the 96 WSC,
SunShark had an RACQ representative who was able to lend assistance in mechanical
breakdowns. In races such as the World Solar Rallye in Akita, the racing track
consisted of a 30km round circuit, allowing no room for support vehicles. Telemetry
data, which was logged for an entire lap had to be transmitted in a short burst when the
car was in range of the receiving base station antenna. During the normal course of a
race, the drivers must be changed at regular intervals and a number of media stops are
usually anticipated.
There are two aspects that are essential for a highly competitive entry. A major
aspect of succeeding in a solar car race is to have a highly efficient and reliable system.
This can be accomplished by designing an aerodynamic structure made from
lightweight materials and choosing efficient electrical components. The other aspect,
which is equally important, is to have an effective race strategy. In a race situation, a
race strategy team determines an optimal speed to run the car at, depending on current
weather conditions (e.g. solar insolation, cloud cover, rain), past weather/race data (e.g.
rain patterns, road profiles) and vehicle parameters (e.g. battery state of charge, rolling
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resistance). Most often, an unexpected weather pattern emerges or a critical breakdown

occurs. The strategy team must take into account these factors, and make a crucial “on
the spot” decision. Decisions such as these can decide the ultimate outcome of a race.
2.2 A Brief History of the UQ Solar Racing Car
The University of Queensland Solar Racing Car, commonly known is the

“SunShark”, was first conceived by a number of engineering students early in 1995.
Being only a concept and a few rough sketches at that early stage, a team decision was
finally made to build a solar car and enter it in the 1996 World Solar Challenge (WSC).
After 10 months of design and 8 months of intense construction work, the $140,000 car
was ready to roll. The WSC took Sunshark six days of racing in some of Australia’s
harshest outback conditions. The car finished in fifth place, won the silicon cell/lead-
acid battery class, and was presented with the award for technical innovation and
achievement from General Motors (GM) Holden.
A decision was made by the newly formed team early next year to participate in
the 1997 World Solar Rallye (WSR) in Akita, Japan. With only minor electrical and
mechanical modifications being made to the car in order to comply with race
regulations, the team and car were ready to compete at the Ogata Mura Solar Sports
Line in Akita. After 5 days of racing in sweltering heat, the car finished in identical
form as the WSC : ranked fifth overall and class winner of the silicon cell/lead-acid
battery category. Major electrical enhancements and some mechanical improvements
are currently underway in preparation for a large testing run near the end of 1998 and
the Sydney CitiPower Sunrace in January. The next WSC has been scheduled for
October 1999 and the team hopes to have a greatly superior car than in previous years
for this major solar event.
2.3 The Nuts and Volts of a Solar Car
A typical electrical system for a solar car is presented in Fig. 1.
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Photovoltaic
Solar Maximum Peak Battery
Array Power Trackers Bank
(MPPT’s)
(120V DC)
HIGH VOLTAGE BUS
Telemetry and Power Motor BLDC

Support Circuitary Supply Controller Motor
Radio Driver Controls and

Modem Driver Display
Figure 1 : Block Electrical Diagram of a Solar Car
The central node of the electrical system is the high voltage (HV) bus. Physically it
may simply consist of a connection point or short strip of copper, however it is at this
point that the flow of current is distributed to all components. The main electrical
components are described in the next section.
2.3.1 Batteries
The primary energy source for the vehicle is the battery bank. The battery bank
usually consists of a number of individual batteries connected in series or parallel. Each
battery in the bank is typically 6 or 12V, and multiple batteries are connected in series
or parallel to obtain the desired system voltage. A single battery is actually made from
multiple “cells” contained within the battery housing. A sealed lead acid type showing
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the internal structure is shown in

Figure 2. The overall battery
voltage is chosen depending on
the motor’s EMF constant and the
desired nominal cruising speed.
For the most efficient operation of
the drive system, the battery
voltage is chosen so that the
motor controller can operate with
minimal PWM (i.e. reduced
switching losses), at the
maximum desirable speed of the
car. In practice however, the

Figure 2 : A Sealed Lead Acid Battery
battery voltage, especially for
lead-acid batteries, fluctuates considerably around the nominal battery voltage, from full
charge to maximum discharge. For this reason, the nominal battery voltage is usually
chosen so that the lowest possible battery voltage is able to sustain a reasonably
competitive speed. An alternative solution to this problem is to implement a boost/buck
converter in the motor controller so that an optimal speed can be obtained for any
battery voltage. There are many types of commercial batteries available today. Some
examples particularly applicable for solar racing vehicles are sealed (maintenance free)
lead-acid, silver-zinc, lithium-iron and zinc-air. The SunShark solar car team chose to
obtain sealed lead-acid batteries due to ease of availability and relatively cheap cost.
One major drawback however is a relatively large weight/energy density ratio, and a full
set of batteries typically weighed in at 96kg. Each type of battery has different
characteristics (e.g. energy density/kg, charge/discharge rate) and uses, however a
comprehensive study of batteries is beyond the scope of this thesis.
- 11 -
2.3.2 Solar Array
The capacity of batteries set out by race rules and regulations is too small for a
solar car to fully depend on during a race. Energy must be obtained from the sun by a
solar array to supplement the energy taken from the batteries. Under maximum
insolation levels, the solar array can sometimes supply ample energy, and the excess
simply flows back into the batteries. The solar array consists of a configuration of solar
photovoltaic cells, usually encapsulated to protect against the elements and damage.
The encapsulation of cells also increases the overall efficiency of the array. This is
achieved by carefully designing anti-reflective coatings and materials to maximize the
light energy captured. General categories of solar cells include amorphous, multi-
crystalline and mono-crystalline cells. Some types of solar cells include screen printed,
buried contact cells (BCC), laser-grooved cells and passive emitter reflective layer
(PERL). A screen printed mono-crystalline cell showing the fine metal fingers and
busbars which collect the energy
from the surface of the cell is shown
in Figure 3. The cell shown has a
rated efficiency of ~16.5%.
Commercially manufactured cells
are available with maximum
efficiencies in the order of 26%,
however cells have been produced
with peak efficiencies of 30-35%
under laboratory conditions. Solar
cells convert sunlight (photons) to
electricity (electrons) by the raising

Figure 3 : A Screen Printed Solar Cell
of the energy level of electrons in
the crystalline lattice, and allowing them to move freely throughout the structure. Solar
cells are constructed from a semiconductor p-n junction, which allows current to flow in
one direction only, similar to the operation of a diode. The SunShark solar car team’s
first array contained 15.5% Sharp cells encapsulated in epoxy, giving a peak power
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output of 1kW. The new array should have higher efficiency cells and enhanced
encapsulation materials, with an expected power output of 1.5kW.
2.3.3 Maximum Peak Power Trackers (MPPT’s)
The output voltage of the PV array varies widely with changing sunlight
intensities, incident sunlight angles and PV cell temperature. As previously discussed,
the battery voltage may also fluctuate, and the PV array may be forced to operate at the
voltage depicted by the
battery. This can result in a
degraded power output from
the PV array, because the
voltage may not correspond
to the maximum power
point of the cells. The
maximum peak power
tracker (MPPT) modules
automatically hold the

Figure 4 : Maximum Peak Power Tracker Module photovoltaic (PV) panel at
it’s maximum power point voltage, while delivering the resulting maximum PV power
to the battery bank. It does this by electronically de-coupling the PV voltage from the
battery voltage by using a high frequency transformer and MOSFET’s. A MPPT
module is shown in Figure 4. The existing array had three MPPT modules
manufactured from the Australian Energy Research Laboratories (AERL).
2.3.4 Motor Controller
The motor controller is designed to convert the electrical energy obtained from
the batteries and solar array to suitable power waveforms to drive the motor. The motor
controller used in the solar car is designed to drive a Permanent Magnet Brushless DC
(PM-BLDC) motor. The driver becomes part of the speed regulation loop as the torque
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produced in the motor can be controlled via controls in the cockpit. A more thorough
explanation of the motor controller is given in chapter 4.
2.3.5 Motor
The motors’ function is twofold: to convert the electrical energy to mechanical

energy when motoring and mechanical energy to electrical energy when regenerating.
There are a number of types of motors in use today, ranging from the induction,
switched reluctance, brushed DC and stepper motors. Each motor has a number of
advantages and disadvantages in particular applications ranging from large industrial
roller mills to accurate positioning control. The most popular choice for high efficiency
applications such as solar cars, is the permanent magnet brushless DC motor, or
sometimes known as a synchronous DC motor. The advantages of the BLDC motor
include:
• Very high efficiency characteristics over a large power range (98.2% recorded for
an optimized Halbach magnet arrangement).
• Require minimal maintenance, due to elimination of mechanical commutator and
brushes.
• Long operating life and higher reliability.
• No brushes means no arcing which can be paramount when working in flammable
gas locations.
• Number of motor geometry’s possible (e.g. interior permanent magnet or surface
magnet arrangements).
• High power density and torque to inertia ratio give a fast dynamic response.
• No brushes eliminates need for a high rotor inertia.
• Speed restrictions due to the traditional mechanical commutator are eliminated.
The construction and theory of the brushless DC motor is presented in greater

detail in chapter 4.
- 14 -
2.3.6 Telemetry Functions and Power Supply
The basic electrical system shown in Fig. 1 can be enhanced with the addition of
telemetry systems and support circuitry. The main aim of the telemetry system is to
calculate an optimal speed and/or power to run the car. One of the tasks performed is to
record data such as bus voltages and motor currents. The existing telemetry in the
SunShark solar car consisted of a signal conditioning board and telemetry board able to
transmit sampled data to the support vehicle via radio modems. It is envisaged the
support vehicle computers will be able to determine an optimal speed of operation, and
even take control of the car, by factoring in all relevant aspects which directly influence
the systems’ performance.
The power supply is responsible for converting the bus voltage down to supply
voltages for the circuitry. The current system converts 120V to +/-15V, 8V and 5V.
The power supply is usually a switch mode type to keep losses to a minimum.
2.4 Necessity for Efficient Systems
The photovoltaic array for solar cars is very dependent on weather conditions.
Although the sun has as much energy as a million hydrogen bombs, a fractional amount
of that energy actually reaches the Earth’s surface. Furthermore, the amount of energy
received from the sun by a photovoltaic solar array depends upon multiple factors such
as cloud cover, angle of incident sunlight, cell temperature and cell efficiency. Due to
the obvious difficulties in obtaining energy from the sun, any wasted energy (i.e. energy
that is not contributing to the forward motion of the car) is regarded as a limiting factor
on the maximum speed obtainable from the system. For the SunShark solar car,
approximately every kilogram of vehicle weight relates to rolling friction power loss
increasing by 1W. Mechanical systems and frames can be made lighter by using
different materials in an attempt to reduce rolling friction power loss. There are a
number of methods in which electrical systems can be made more efficient. Through
careful circuit design with energy efficient components, substantial power savings can
be made. The heating losses due to current flow in conductors can become substantial
- 15 -
in high power parts of the circuitry. It is advisable in this case to use over-rated cables
to help bring the conductor resistance and hence power loss down. Layout of
components is also important to reduce conductor lengths and parasitic inductive
elements. In a solar car race, the maximum velocity of the solar car is limited by the
efficiency of the system and race weather conditions. Since the weather conditions on a
race are at best highly unpredictable, in some instances a solar car may be fully reliant
on the batteries for power. At the end of the day, the performance of a solar car is
heavily determined by the overall efficiency of the system.
2.5 The Existing Drive System
The existing motor consisted of a PM-BLDC motor with toroidal flux. The
motor had no iron in either its rotor or stator and consisted of a number of cylindrical
magnets with poles opposing one another, fixed around the circumference of the rotor.
The winding were arranged so as to enclose the magnets of the rotor in a “C” or “U”
shape. The windings and the coils formed a toriodal shape, thus the name toriodal flux
(or T-Flux) motor. The back EMF waveform was of a sinusoidal shape, due to the
nature of its construction. The motor required a transmission system consisting of a
toothed drive belt. The motor was supplied from Lillington Manufacturing.
2.5.1 Controller Type
The nominal input voltage to the motor controller was 120VDC. The controller
used trapezoidal phase current excitation waveforms. A PWM chip (NE5568) was used
together with a ROM (N82S123AN) programmed with a commutation truth table to
decode the hall effect signals from the motor, and provide excitation to the correct
phases. All logic circuitry was supplied power using a linear 5V regulator, which has
an efficiency of ~50%. The inverter stage was a common three phase H bridge design,
using three paralleled MOSFET's (IRFP260) in one switch, i.e. a total of 18 MOSFET’s.
The MOSFET’s had transient suppressing metal oxide varistors (MOV) to clamp the
voltage over each MOSFET switch to a safe level. DC link capacitors (12 X 220uF
- 16 -
standard electrolytic) were used in the DC link. The MOSFET gates were driven by an
IR2130 3-phase bridge driver chip. All three lower inverter switches had a 20k ohm
resistor connected in parallel, which meant each time the upper switches were activated,
0.72 W power dissipation occurred. A simple shunt resistor was used to measure the
constant current in the DC bus, instead of in the DC link. Driver controls consisted of
two potentiometers: one to adjust speed and the other to adjust the current limit value.
A direction switch was also available however care had to be exercised when moving at
fast speeds to not bump the switch in the opposite direction, otherwise excess currents
would flow and destroy the controller and possibly the motor.
2.5.2 Performance Characteristics
The most undesirable aspect of the previous controller was the characteristic of
the driver control. The controller was speed controlled, which meant the driver had to
basically guess where to position the potentiometer for a certain desired speed. This
caused a lot of concentration by the driver as the speedometer had to be constantly
monitored and potentiometer adjusted to obtain the desired speed. Moreover the speed
ramp was not a linear function of potentiometer position, but had a slow response at low
speeds and a fast, uneven response at moderate to high speeds. This made fine
adjustment of speed a large problem. It was discovered that potentiometers are not
always fully reliable devices, and a number had to be replaced during the course of the
race. The controller experienced a number of IC faults during the 96 WSC race,
probably due to the high temperature levels. Care had to be taken if the hall effect plug
was to come out, because the controller would set the speed to maximum.
2.6 The New Drive System
The new motor is made by CSIRO/UTS and is of the permanent magnet type. The
motor features two rotors, has no iron loss and is of an axial field construction. The
motor is specifically designed to fit inside the wheel of a solar car which has a number
of distinct advantages over the original reduction belt system:
- 17 -
• All drive transmissions (e.g. indirect shaft coupling, chain, belt) are eliminated.
This can result in savings of up to 15%(dependent on drive train configuration) of
the total motor output energy in a conventional drive train arrangement, which
would have usually been lost as heat and noise.
• No need to replace broken belts/chains or dust entering transmission system.
• Better aerodynamic performance due to streamlined design.
• Motor can be sealed against dust and water
The technical specifications for the motor can be found in appendix C.
2.6.1 Additional Features
A number of improved features are to be designed into the new motor controller
to increase overall efficiency, reliability and safety:
• Torque Control Input : torque is directly controlled instead of a speed control,

which will make the driver control more intuitive. A handgrip will be used which
may be rotated in one direction for motoring and rotated in the other direction for
regeneration.
• Regenerative Braking : allows electrical braking whereby the solar car’s kinetic
energy can be reclaimed. Mechanical friction brakes will still be present for fast
stopping ability.
• Cruise Control Function : a feature which allows the driver constant speed or
torque operating modes. (performed by the telemetry unit)
• Four Quadrant Operation : meaning the motor can be driven throughout the entire
torque-speed plane, i.e. forward and reverse motoring/regeneration.
• Reverse Speed Limited : provides a safe reversing speed for better control.
• Soft Start : limits starting jerk which will improve handling and reduce tyre wear
due to wheel slip.
• Low Torque Ripple : advanced PWM modulation algorithms reduce torque ripple
to ensure smooth rotation at high and low speeds.
- 18 -
• Sinusoidal Phase Current Excitation : improves efficiency when interfacing to a

motor containing sinusoidally varying back emf and develops maximum torque
production.
• Fault Indicators : faults identified immediately by displaying fault codes when:
1. Temperature exceeded in motor stator windings (thermistor used).
2. Temperature exceeded in MOSFET heatsink (IC temp sensor used).
3. Overvoltage detected on HV bus.
4. Overcurrent detected (e.g. shorting power components)
• Diagnostic Capability : faulty components can be identified by running a number
of tests on different parts of the circuit using a microprocessor.
• Wide Input Voltage Range : 0-200V capability for different battery configurations.
• Transient Protection and Safety Devices : peripheral device for limiting inrush
current when connecting batteries and protection for power devices and
microprocessor devices.
• Fused Inputs : Protects circuitry from continued current draw.
• Cooling Fan : small fan mounted on the MOSFET heat sink to ensure extended
operation in extra hot conditions.
2.6.2 Performance Requirements
The new motor controller is designed for a more intuitive control interface and
safer operation. The controller will contain robust features and be fully self contained.
It is envisaged the overall efficiency of the system will be improved, and the average
speed of the car can be increased.
- 19 -
3. MOTOR CONTROL LITERATURE
An extensive literature search was carried out to review work completed

previously. A list of keywords relating to the topic for searching databases: e.g. motor
controller, electric drive, motion control was drawn up. A general WWW search
resulted in a number of results however I found many of the web sites were usually a
company trying to sell their product, and offer little or no technical information. The
WWW is a very convenient way of obtaining product data sheets. The main source of
information was books from the Physical Sciences and Engineering (PSE) library.
There is a reasonable selection of books in the library ranging from Power Electronics
to books specifically on motor drives and their controls. A comprehensive search using
the networked databases Inspec, Compendex, Engineering & Applied Science, National
Technology Information Service (NTIS), Current Contents and Computer ASAP was
also undertaken. This search resulted in some 32 journal and magazine articles relevant
to aspects on motor controllers.
Most articles contained an example of a motor and motor controller designed to

demonstrate a particular feature. The experimental setup was commonly explained by
- 20 -
3. Motor Control Literature
the use of diagrams. The circuit in most cases was put under a simulation and results
were compared with the actual measured values. Many of the articles obtained are from
the IEEE and IEE publications.
Reference articles [7] and [9] discuss a controller using MOSFET switches with
in-built current sensing (used IRC644, 14A cont. 250V). These MOSFET’s are referred
TM
to by International Rectifier (IR) as HEXSense devices, as they contain integrated
shunt resistors, which can detect the current passing from the drain to the source. This
results in a more compact design and eliminates the need for external shunt resistors or
hall effect current transducers which results in an immediate weight saving. This type
of MOSFET was researched into, however none were found with the required voltage
rating. The only HEXSense TM devices that were found were of the 3-pin type (TO-220
case style). If 3 such devices were placed together in parallel to reduce on-state losses,
a total of 18 current readings would need to be converted using an analog to digital
converter (ADC), which would quickly clutter the available ADC channels on a
microprocessor. The controller mentioned in articles [7] and [9] can operate the motor
in all four quadrants of the torque-speed plane, i.e. forward and reverse motoring and
forward and reverse regeneration. Trapezoidal phase current excitation with 120 degree
switch conduction intervals are used so that current only flows in two of the phase
currents at any one time.
An important comment in [7] as to the position of the current sensors for current
feedback and regulation is made. The most simple method is a resistive shunt on the
DC bus. Although a simple and relatively cheap method of current detection, it cannot
detect dangerous circulating currents which may be developed in the phase windings
and power switches. This current build up can result in switch failure or
demagnetization of the rotor magnets. The only solution to this problem is to have
current transducers mounted in the phase windings so that the current may be monitored
and evasive action taken.
The controller in [7] and [9] contains separate commutation logic/control and
current regulation blocks. The commutation logic/control block was implemented with
- 21 -
the Motorola MC33034 brushless motor controller chip. The MC33034 has inputs from
the rotor position sensors and driver control (start/stop and forward/reverse), and has
commutation signal outputs which feed into the Harris GS601 HVIC half-bridge gate
drive chip. Current regulation is achieved by difference summing a current command
signal (from the driver), and the current feedback signal (from one of the lower
switches). This difference voltage represents the current error, and the GS601 driver
chip minimizes the error by varying the switches’ PWM duty cycle, effectively
regulating the current to the desired value. The current control algorithm is simple in
principle. In this case a fixed off time, TL is used. The PWM frequency is determined
by the following formula:
 E 1
f PWM = 1 − 
 VS  TL
where f PWM = PWM frequency,
E = back emf of the motor,
VS = supply voltage of supply,
TL = off time of the switches.
The accuracy of the relationship described by the formula starts to deteriorate at
low speeds when the motor phase resistive drop approaches the magnitude of the back-
EMF. Another current regulation algorithm is briefly mentioned, namely holding the
total PWM frequency constant, so that the current ripple varies with speed.
The one and two switch active regeneration schemes are presented in article [9].
The two switch active scheme is preferred over the one switch active scheme at low
speeds as it is not as sensitive to the back EMF amplitude. Both methods take
advantage of the energy stored in the motor windings and transfer this energy back to
the supply. A simple speed detector circuit which works on the principle of providing a
pulse for every transition of the hall effect sensors is described. The frequency of the
pulses is proportional to the motor speed according to the following formula:
- 22 -
p
f rotation = nv ( Hz )
120
where f rotation = frequency of the pulses,
p = no. rotor poles
n = number of commutations per electric cycle (typically = 6),
v = motor speed in revolutions per minute.
Some articles such as [15], [19] and [32], discussed the developments in
brushless DC motors and described how a particular motor was built for the “Desert
Rose” solar racing car. The articles discuss an axial flux permanent magnet brushless
DC motor designed for an in wheel drive on a solar car. The axial flux geometry was
found to have advantages over the common radial flux geometry by reducing volume
limits and having the ability to change the air-gap between stator and rotor. Increasing
the air-gap increases the copper loss as the torque constant decreases, but decreases the
iron loss as the flux density reduces. The main author of these articles was Dean
Patterson of the Northern Territory University. Dean Patterson also has written a
journal article on the electrical system design for a solar powered vehicle [29], which
made interesting reading material as the system could be compared with our own
system and comparisons made.
Article [4] describes some common dc drive failures and how to design a control
system which can sense the failure and continue to operate normally. The results are
presented both using a simulation and measured results.
Articles [28] and [30] describe how to model electronically commutated

machines using the P-Spice simulation program. This will be very useful information
when experimenting with the inverter stage, and comparing measured results with
simulated results.
Article [24] describes the application of soft switching inverters in electric

drives. A soft switching, or sometimes known as resonant converters, eliminate
switching losses by causing the inverter switches to switch at zero voltage instants.
There are many different resonant converters available, however they all require extra
- 23 -
switches, inductors and capacitors to be arranged on the DC bus. To design a converter

of type is by itself a full thesis, so will not be further investigated. The current design
however, is flexible enough to allow future people to add a resonant converter if
desired.
Article [31] presents a bi-directional dc/dc converter which can control the DC
link voltage and control regenerative braking of an electric vehicle. An explanation
follows that describes how the converter can switch currents in both forward and
reverse directions. Motor current ripple is claimed to be reduced by constantly
changing the DC link voltage under different operating conditions.
- 24 -
4. T HEORY
4.1 The Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor
There are a number of configurations for the brushless DC motor, however all
operate on the same principal. There are three main components that make up such a
motor:
Stator Winding : The stator is usually wound in a three phase wye (or star)
connection. Three phase windings are usually sufficient to control most motors,
however more than three phase windings are common, and simply require additional H-
bridges and commutation circuitry. There is the option with the CSIRO motor to use
more than three phases as each phase is broken up into multiple sections. There is also
the option to connect the windings in a delta configuration, however this may introduce
unwanted circulating currents flowing around the windings. The stator of the CSIRO
motor is shown in Figure 5. Each of the three phase windings are distributed in a
- 25 -
4. Theory
sinusoidal pattern around the

circumference of the stator
and are encapsulated in a
fiberglass resin. By winding
the phases in a sinusoidal
pattern, a sinusoidal back
emf voltage waveform is
produced between two
phases when the motor is
turned by hand. To obtain
maximum efficiency,
Figure 5 : Stator Winding of the CSIRO Motor
sinusoidal phase current
excitation must be applied to the motor.
Rotor Magnets : In conventional DC motors, electromagnets are used to create

a magnetic field. The rotor in a BLDC motor consists of rare earth magnets which
produce a constant flux (hence the name permanent magnet). One of the rotor magnet
rings of the CSIRO motor is
shown in Figure 6. The
NdFeB magnets
(neodymium-iron-boron) are
glued to the backing iron,
and are arranged in a circle
comprising 40 magnet
pieces (i.e. 40 pole motor),
in an alternating N – S – N
configuration. The backing
iron forms part of the
magnetic circuit. There are
Figure 6 : Magnet Ring of the CSIRO Motor
two identical magnet rings
- 26 -
4. Theory
which are placed on either side of the stator and are kept separated by special rims. The
stator will be held stationary and fixed to the trailing arm. Both rotor magnet rings are
fixed to the wheel rim, and rotate with the movement of the tyre.
Hall Effect Sensors : Hall sensors are a popular choice for rotor position
feedback in brushless DC drives, reasons being they are cheap and do not require
complex processing algorithms. Hall sensors are more suited for use with trapezoidally
controlled motors, as sinusoidal machines usually require a higher resolution sensor
such as a shaft encoder or transducer. The actual sensor is usually a N-doped InSb
semiconductor, which in the presence of a magnetic flux, an electromotive force causes
free flowing electrons to move to one side of the semiconductor which causes a
potential to form on the output terminals. In most hall elements manufactured, a
voltage regulator, amplifier
and schmitt trigger are all
integrated inside the one
device. The hall effect
sensors are glued to a PCB
which is located inside the
motor. The PCB can be
adjusted manually to align
the stator coil position with
the hall effect position. The
PCB with the hall effect
Figure 7 : Hall Effect PCB of the CSIRO Motor sensors mounted is shown in
Figure 7.
Three hall effects give output six different states for one full electrical cycle,
which is usually sufficient for most motor control applications. There are two possible
ways of positioning the hall effect sensors around the axis. The hall elements can either
placed at 60 or 120 electrical degree intervals (.i.e. the hall code changes every 60 or
120 electrical degrees). The hall effects to be used are configured to change every 60
electrical degrees. One electrical cycle is equal to 360 electrical degrees, and is defined
- 27 -
4. Theory
as when the hall sequence starts to repeat. The hall effect sequence can be represented
in Figure 8. Since the motor has 40 poles, for one revolution of the motor, each hall
sensor will experience 20 north's and 20 south's (i.e. 20 high and 20 low level outputs).
The mechanical separation of the magnets and hall effect sensors can be calculated
easily from knowing the number of magnets and poles. One mechanical cycle is equal
to one entire revolution of the motor or 360 mechanical degrees. One electrical cycle
no. electrical degrees in one cycle 360
repeats every = = 18 mechanical degrees.
no. poles/2 20
Figure 8 : Hall Effect Positioning Sensors
4.1.1 Electrical and Mechanical Parameters
The main electrical parameters of the CSIRO motor are presented in Appendix C.
Speed of Motor Calculation

Diameter of rear wheel = 510 mm diameter (approx.)
Circumference = (π)x(Diameter of rear wheel) = 1602.21mm.
Nominal Speed of Motor = 111 rad/s = 111x60/2π = 1059.97 rpm.
At the nominal speed, velocity of solar car is thus:
Speed of Car = (Circumference)x(Nominal Speed of Motor)x(60/1000000)
- 28 -
4. Theory
= 101.898 km/hr.
Electrical Parameter Calculation

The surface motor is described by the following formula:
T=kTI where
T = torque developed by motor (max. torque = 50.2 Nm, nom. torque = 16.2 Nm)
kT = torque constant per phase (0.39 Nm/A)
I = current through DC link (A)
i.e. for maximum torque, I = T/3kT = 50.2/(3x0.39) = 42.91 A
and for nominal torque, I = T/3kT = 16.2/(3x0.39) = 13.85 A
the motor can also be described by:

E = kE ωm where
E = back emf of motor (V)
kE = back emf constant (0.39 Vs/rad)
ωm = angular velocity (max. angular vel. = 300 rad/s, nom. torque = 111 rad/s)
i.e. for maximum angular velocity, E = kEωm = 0.39x300 = 117 V
and for nominal angular velocity, E = kEωm = 0.39x111 = 43.29 V
Battery Voltage Calculation

The battery voltage has to be chosen so that the motor controller may operate at near to
full PWM when running at nominal speed. The motor has a line-neutral RMS emf at
111 rad/s. Thus battery voltage required can be given as:
Vbattery = (L-N RMS EMF(peak))x(2)/(kmodulation)
= (2 x 43 2 ) (1.15) = 105.74V, where
kmodulation = PWM factor (=1.15) due to modulation of the MOSFET switches.
Thus a battery bank of 120V should be sufficient and will leave a small amount for
overtaking.
- 29 -
4. Theory
4.2 Controlling a Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor
Throughout the thesis document, the following numbering pattern for

MOSFET’s in the H-Bridge will be as follows:
Figure 9: Numbering pattern for MOSFET’s in the H-Bridge
Each of the MOSFET’s contain an intrinsic diode which has a reverse recovery
time comparable to that of a discrete diode placed in parallel with the MOSFET. The
diodes will be referenced with the same numbering as the MOSFET’s, i.e. SW1 has a
corresponding diode D1, and so on.
4.2.1 Commutation
Commutation is the process of reading the hall effect sensor code, which gives
an indication of the position of the rotor. If the position of the rotor is known, then the
positions of the magnets are also known. To create a continuous rotation of the motor,
the correct phases must be switched on and off in the correct sequence so that the
applied voltage is in synchronism with the rotor position. Depending on the magnitude
of the current command, different magnitude torque can be applied to the motor. There
are two basic schemes of commutating a BLDC motor.
- 30 -
4. Theory
120 Degree Conduction

The 120 degree conduction mode switches MOSFET’s on for a length of 120
electrical degrees and off for 240 degrees. The relation between the MOSFET
switching states and hall effect codes is shown in Table 1. When the MOSFET’s are
turned on, they are not simply switched on and left on, rather they are modulated by a
PWM signal. The PWM signal varies in duty cycle depending on what current
regulation algorithm is being used. When the PWM signal is high, only two
MOSFET’s turn on at any one time, one from the high side and one from the low side of
alternate phases1. When the PWM toggles low, the low switch is turned off and the
corresponding high switch is turned on. This method is called synchronous
rectification, as it allows the current to flow through the paralleled high switch and
freewheeling diode, thus reducing conduction losses. A basic two pole motor is
presented in Figure 10 showing the rotation of the rotor magnets and the corresponding
flow of current in the motor windings and hall effect codes for 120 degree commutation.
Input Output
PWM H1 H2 H3 SW1 SW2 SW3 SW4 SW5 SW6
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
Table 1 : 120 Degrees Commutation Truth Table
1
Note : Both high and low MOSFET’s of the same phase are never switched on at the same time.
- 31 -
4. Theory
Figure 10 : 120 Degrees Commutation Mode
- 32 -
4. Theory
180 Degree Conduction

The 180 degree conduction mode switches MOSFET’s on for a length of 180
electrical degrees and off for 180 degrees. The relation between the MOSFET
switching states and hall effect codes is shown in Table 2. Similar to the 120 degree
commutation, a PWM signal varies in duty cycle depending on what current regulation
algorithm is being used. When the PWM signal is high, three MOSFET’s turn on at any
one time, either two from the high side and one from the low side, or two from the low
side and one from the high side.2. When the PWM signal toggles low, the side with
only a single switch active toggles and it’s corresponding switch is turned on. Once
again, synchronous rectification takes place as the current flows through the paralleled
high switch and freewheeling diode, thus reducing conduction losses. A basic two pole
motor is presented in Figure 11 showing the rotation of the rotor magnets and the
corresponding flow of current in the motor windings and hall effect codes for 180
degree commutation.
Input Output
PWM H1 H2 H3 SW1 SW2 SW3 SW4 SW5 SW6
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
Table 2 : 180 Degrees Commutation Truth Table
2
Note : Both high and low MOSFET’s of the same phase are never switched on at the same time.
- 33 -
4. Theory
Figure 11 : 180 Degrees Conduction Mode
- 34 -
4. Theory
4.2.2 Current Regulation
Since torque is proportional to the fundamental frequency of the current, by

controlling the current, torque is also controlled. All other frequency components
contribute to losses in the motor, inductors and controller. To form a closed loop
system, there must be current feedback from the motor as indicated in Figure 12.
Current
+ Error
∑ Controller BLDC
Motor
-
Current Current Feedback
Command
Figure 12 : Current Feedback in a BLDC Motor
This feedback signal is subtracted from the desired current input from the driver,
and a current error then propagates to the controller. This provides a mechanism for the
controller to accurately current limit by trying to keep the current error as close to zero
as possible. The actual current limiting is achieved using a PWM scheme for the
switching MOSFET’s. The audible range for humans is approximately between 6kHz
and 20kHz, so a PWM frequency above ~20kHz is sufficient to avoid an annoying
whine when switching.
4.2.3 Trapezoidal Current Excitation
Trapezoidal phase current excitation is a basic way to control a BLDC motor.

The MOSFET switches are activated and use a constant PWM frequency when turned
on which produces a phase current of trapezoidal shape (hence the name) as shown in
the lower trace of Figure 13. One major disadvantage of a driving a motor with
- 35 -
4. Theory
trapezoidal current, is that there are many frequency components which make up a
trapezoidal waveform, and these components only contribute to losses in the motor.
Figure 13 : Torque Ripple in a Trapezoidal Machine
Figure 13 also indicates a waveform describing torque ripple which is

characteristic for a trapezoidal motor. The torque ripple can be attributed to two major
sources:
Motor Related Torque Ripple : causes the torque waveform to be rounded during the
commutation intervals. This is caused mainly by magnetic flux leakage paths between
adjacent rotor magnet poles. This torque ripple can be minimized by careful motor
design. See label 1 in Figure 13.
Inverter Related Torque Ripple : The first of this type of ripple is caused by a current
imbalance when current is being switched between active phases. Sharp torque spikes
can be produced and are experienced every 60 electrical degrees. Special PWM
switching techniques can be used to reduce this ripple. See label 2 in Figure 13.
- 36 -
4. Theory
The second inverter related torque ripple is directly proportional to the high
frequency PWM ripple in the phase currents and produces the fast torque oscillation
(see label 3 in Figure 13.). This ripple is not usually a problem because the inertia of
the solar car usually filters out the ripple.
At high speeds, phase current and motor torque can decrease abruptly when the
supply voltage equals the combined back emf of the two conducting phases. Continued
high speed operation is possible by gradually extending the conduction time from 120
electrical degrees to 180 electrical degree conduction.
4.2.4 Sinusoidal Current Excitation
Sinusoidal current excitation is an advanced method of driving a sinusoidally

varying back emf producing motor. By driving a motor with sinusoidally weighted
PWM phase current waveforms, less frequency harmonics are present in the phase
current waveform, thus an immediate reduction in losses occurs. As a result, larger
torque is produced for the same RMS current. Sinusoidally driven motors also
experience reduced torque ripple, the principal reason being that sinusoidal machines do
not experience the abrupt phase to phase current commutations that characterize the
trapezoidal machine’s excitation waveforms.
When controlling a motor using sinusoidal excitation, the input current

command must be split into two different currents:
Id or “direct” current is aligned with the permanent magnet flux linkage phasor λm.
Iq or “quadrature” current is aligned with the back emf phasor Ef.
These currents may be related by the following formula:

Ef = (p)x( ωr)x(λm) where p = no. pole pairs.
ωr = angular velocity of motor (rad/s).
and λm = PM flux linkage amplitude.
- 37 -
4. Theory
The torque developed in a sinusoidal motor can be expressed as :
Te =
3p
2
[
λm .iq + id iq ( Ld − Lq ) ]
where Ld, Lq are the stator phase inductance’s.
Under normal operation, Id is set to zero and Iq is varied proportionally to input

torque. In an interior PM motor, flux weakening can be used at high speeds. Flux
weakening is the process of increasing Id to oppose the magnet flux. This results in an
extended driving range at high speeds. In a surface magnet motor, flux weakening is
not feasible, as it would not have any effect on weakening the magnetic flux, and would
only reduce efficiency and increase current drawn by the motor.
4.3 Power MOSFET Device Characteristics
A MOSFET (or metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor) is a voltage

controlled device as opposed to a transistor which is a current controlled device.
Diagrammatically, the MOSFET can be represented in the off and on state as depicted
in Figures 14 and 15 respectively.
Figure 14:Non-Conductring MOSFET[34] Figure 15:Conducting MOSFET[34]
When the device is in the off state, the drain is insulated from the source by the
p-type region, however when a potential voltage is applied to the gate terminal, current
is allowed to flow freely between drain and source. A MOSFET’s characteristic
waveforms at turn-on and turn-off is shown in Figures 16 and 17 respectively.
- 38 -
4. Theory
Figure 16:Waveforms at Turn-On[38] Figure 17:Waveforms at Turn-Off[38]
The device’s switching speed is largely effected by the size of the gate-to-source
capacitance. This capacitor has to be charged and discharged in one switch on and
switch off cycle. A summary of the turn-on sequence is as follows:
1) The MOSFET is initially turned off with no gate voltage present. At time 0, the
gate voltage reaches the threshold gate voltage, Vth, and drain current starts to rise.
2) Between time 1 and time 2 : Gate-Source voltage waveform deviates from it’s
original trajectory due to :
a) Series source inductance develops a voltage due to the rising drain current and
causes the gate-source voltage to decrease, and
b) The decreasing drain-source voltage is reflected across the drain-gate
capacitance. A discharge current flows through this capacitor causing an increase in the
capacitive load as seen by the driver. The voltage across the source impedance
increases thus causes a retardation of gate-source voltage.
3) Time 2-Time 3 : Drain current increases further due to the reverse recovery of
the free-wheeling diode.
4) Time 3 : The free-wheeling diode starts to support the drain-source voltage and
the rate of fall of the drain-source voltage is mostly dependent on the Miller effect. It is
at this point that the MOSFET has a maximum power loss due to a large current passing
through the device and a large voltage present across the device’s terminals. Due to the
falling drain-source voltage, the drain current settles out to the current determined by
the load and this causes the gate-source voltage to drop.
- 39 -
4. Theory
5) Time 4 : The MOSFET is completely turned on and the gate-source voltage rises
rapidly to the “open circuit” value.
Similarly, the turn-off sequence can be summarized as follows:
1) The MOSFET is initially turned on with a gate-source voltage present at time 0.

At time 1, the gate-source voltage reaches a level that just sustains drain current. The
drain-source voltage increases at a rate governed by the miller effect and the gate-source
voltage is kept at a constant level which reflects the drain current.
2) The MOSFET experiences a maximum power loss again at approximately time
2, where both a large drain current and drain-source voltage are present. When the rise
of drain-source voltage is complete, both drain current and gate-source voltage decrease
until drain current reaches it’s minimum value at time 3.
3) Gate-source voltage decreases past the threshold voltage to zero between time 3
and 4. The device is fully turned off at time 4.
There are two main power losses to consider when looking at the total power
loss in a power MOSFET. Refer to the MOSFET data sheet in Appendix B:
Static On Loss : The power loss due to the resistance between the drain and source.
This power loss decreases as more MOSFET’s are paralleled together.
Pon = I2xRx(duty cycle) = (13.9)2x0.022x50% = 2.13 W.
Dynamic (Switching) Loss : The power dissipated when the MOSFET is changing
conduction state. This loss stays ~ constant when paralleling other MOSFETs.
Psw = (Vds)x(Id)x(∆t)x(fsw) = 120x13.9x200x10-9x20k = 6.67 W.
Gate Drive Requirements : the gate drivers must supply enough charge to the
MOSFET gate to enable the gate-source capacitance to charge and the device to turn on.
The power requirements increase when more MOSFET’s are paralleled.
P = VxI = VxQxf = (10V)x(190nC)x(20k) = 38 mW.
- 40 -
4. Theory
4.4 Heatsink Considerations
It is extremely important that the electronic systems run as efficiently as

possible. This is particularly relevant for the high power systems, as usually a drop in
efficiency of only a couple of percent typically relates to an increased power
consumption of tens of Watts. A potentially large power sinking device is the MOSFET
H-bridge. The MOSFET has losses as described previously, and these losses are in
most cases directly formed into heating the device’s junction. As the MOSFET is made
to switch faster, the switching losses become the most significant form of heat
generation. There is also heat caused by increased conduction losses at higher output
powers. As the junction temperature of a MOSFET increases, Rds increases, Ids
decreases, however the overall loss will increase.
To this end, to keep the losses to a minimum, a heat-sinking system has to be

made. The package of the MOSFET is designed especially to conduct heat away from
the junction and to the ambient atmosphere surrounding the device. A simple heatsink
design was calculated to obtain a feel for the correct size heatsink required:
From the MOSFET data sheet in Appendix B,
TJmax = maximum junction temp. = 150 degrees C.
TAmax = maximum ambient temp. = 70 degrees C.
Rds = drain-source resistance = 0.022 ohms.
Imax = maximum switching current = 13.9 A.
td(on) = on conduction time = 30 ns.
tr = rise time = 12 ns.
td(off) = off conduction time = 55 ns.
tf = fall time = 12 ns.
fsw = switching frequency = 20 kHz.
RthJC = thermal resistance from junction-case of MOSFET = 0.26 degrees C/W.
RthCS = thermal resistance from case of MOSFET-heatsink = 1.5 degrees C/W.
RthJA = thermal resistance from junction of MOSFET-ambient = 60 degrees C/W.
- 41 -
4. Theory
Vmax = voltage to be switched at nominal speed = 105 V.

Vs = battery voltage = 120 V.
Pon = MOSFET on power loss = ( I max ) 2 xRds = (13.9) 2 x0.022 = 4.25W
TJ max − TA max 150 − 70

RthJA = = = 18.82 degrees C/W.
Pon 4.25
RthSAmax = RthJAmax – RthJC – RthCS = 18.82 – 0.26 – 1.5 = 17.06 degrees C/W.
kmax = maximum duty cycle = 105/120 = 0.875.
ton = total on time = td(on) + tr = 60 ns.
toff = total off time = td(off) + tf = 67 ns.
τ = average on and off time = (ton + toff)/2 = 63.5 ns.
Thus Psw = MOSFET switching power loss =
Vs .I max 120 x13.9
τ . f sw = 63.5 x10 −9 x 20k = 1.06W .
2 2
(for an inductive load)
Thus TOTAL Power Loss = Ptotal = Pon + Psw = 5.31 W.
The maximum power the MOSFET can dissipate without a heatsink is:
(TJ max − TA max ) (150 − 70)
Pdmax = = = 1.33W .
RthJA 60
If we use an aluminum plate with the following characteristics:
Thermal Conduction for Aluminium = λ = 2.08, Thickness of Al plate = t = 5mm.
Heatsink orientation factor = Cf = 0.43 (for a black anodized vertically mounted plate).
Area of both sides of heatsink = A.
(TJ max − TA max ) (150 − 70)
RthSA = − ( Pd max + RthCS ) = − (1.33 + 1.5) = 12.24 degrees C/W.
Ptotal 5.31
The following equation can be used to describe the heatsink required:
 3.3 0.25   650 
RthSA =  Cf  + C f  degrees C/W.
 λt   A 
Solving for A, we obtain A = 18.92 square cm.
Thus a 5 mm thick piece of aluminum with dimensions ~3X3 cm is required.
- 42 -
5. HARDWARE DESIGN STAGE
This section details the process in designing the hardware of the motor
controller. A similar device should be able to be constructed based on the information
given here. The motor controller consists of two PCB boards: a high voltage board and
a control board. Each board will be described separately.
5.1 Design of Power Stage
The power stage of the motor controller comprises all of the high voltage
components. It was decided to place all such components on the one PCB so that
potentially fatal high voltage kept confined to the one board, and didn’t have to be
routed across boards. The major components on this board are the MOSFET H-bridge,
driver circuits for the MOSFET’s and high voltage capacitors. There are a number of
auxiliary circuits also placed on the board. Most of them have something to do with the
high power section, therefore it was convenient to include these circuits on the same
board as the other components. These include bus voltage measurement, temperature
- 43 -
5. Hardware Design Stage
sensing of the MOSFET heatsink and two phase current sensing circuits. These circuits
are described in more detail in section 5.1.2. The PCB contained positive and negative
battery terminals on one end of the PCB and three phase connections on the other end.
The interface to the control board was through a 20 pin IDC connector. MOSFET drive
signals, power supply and sensor readings were sent through this connector, as
described in section 5.2.
5.1.1 Circuit Design
The most important issues to consider when designing the high power part of the
motor controller are, in order of priority, as follows:
1) Reduce Stray Inductance : Any conductor of finite length will possess some
form of inductance. Stray inductance, especially in a circuit switching large currents
(i.e. large di/dt), may slow down turn-off of the MOSFET’s and produce unwanted
oscillations. One method of reducing stray inductance, and in some cases stray
magnetic flux (i.e. EMI), is to minimize the effective loop in which current flows. In
other words, forward and returning current paths have to be as close to one another as
possible. The upper limit to reducing stray inductance is the use of bus bars : copper
strips, with a thin insulator sandwiched between them. The first design of the motor
controller inverter section used copper busbars with a thin insulate sheet between layers.
Power components were to bolt onto the copper, however it was later abandoned due to
difficulties in construction and insulating problems.
2) Reduce Power Loss : An envisaged source of power loss is to use PCB tracks.
A calculation waas carried out to determine the power loss in a PCB track (dimensions
4mm wide, 0.0034 mm thick and 80mm long), carrying 13.9 A of (nominal) current.
R = pL/A = 1.7x10-8x80/(0.0034x4) = 100u ohms.
Where p is the resistivity of copper = 1.7x10-8 ohm x metre.
This indicates that using a PCB with wide tracks should pose no problem with losses.
- 44 -
3) Low ESR Capacitors : The effective series resistance of a capacitor

contributes to the power loss within a capacitor as described in chapter 3. Standard
electrolytic capacitors may be used, however an alternative is “Unlytic” capacitors.
When compared to the standard electrolytic capacitors, the Unlytic capacitors feature
10X greater current density, 3X greater over-voltage protection, 10 year shelf life, dry
construction (electrolyte free), non-polar and good current ripple characteristics.
4) Heat Conduction from MOSFET’s to Heatsink : Effective heat-sinking on the

power devices will help keep the junction temperature at a controlled level, thus
reducing loss due to increased power consumption at elevated temperature.
5) Weight of Hardware : Any unnecessary weight simply adds to the weight of

the overall car and reduces performance. Although there is ample room within the
bulkheads of the solar car, the motor controller should be contained as the one unit.
6) Ease of Replacement of Components : An important issue when components

must be replaced quickly in a race situation.
5.1.2 Sensors
Refer to Schematic Listings in Appendix A for details.
5.1.2.1 Bus Voltage Measurement
The bus voltage circuit simply works from a voltage divider consisting of
resistors R37-R39 inclusive. The divider has a ratio of exactly 0.025, so that if
Vin=120V, Vout=3V and if Vin=200V, Vout=5V. Resistors R37 and R38 are not
simply replaced by a single resistor for safety reasons. If either R37 or R38 were to
become short circuit, the other resistor would still act as a voltage divider and prevent
the full bus voltage propagating through to the rest of the system and destroying
components. Capacitor C21 simply filters the input signal to remove any voltage spikes
- 45 -
which may be present on the bus. Diodes D4 and D5 are schottky type diodes and are
designed to clamp the input signal from 5V+Vd to 0V-Vd. The op-amp is configured as
a voltage follower and simply acts as a buffer. The output of this circuit under normal
operating conditions is 0-5V which corresponds to a bus voltage of 0-200V DC.
5.1.2.2 MOSFET Heatsink Temperature Measurement
The sensor consists of a LM35 precision centigrade temperature sensor. This

sensor is designed to output 10mV/degrees C. The sensor can work over the range –55
to 150 degrees C, however for the purpose of measuring the temperature of the motor
controller heatsink, a range of 0 to 150 degrees C was adequate. The RC network
consisting of resistor R39 and C22 is threefold. Resistor R39 with a value of 560 ohms
is designed to remove the effect of any cable impedance. This assumes the connection
between the actual sensor (on heatsink) and the signal conditioning circuitry behaves
similar to a transmission line. Capacitor C22 stops DC current causing self heating of
the sensor. Finally the RC network can be used as low pass filter to stop induced
pickup on the sensor wires interfering with the measurement operation. The op-amp is
configured as a non-inverting amplifier with a gain of 3.3333, so that if the temperature
of the heatsink is 150 degrees C, Vout=5V. It was felt there was no real requirement for
protection diodes, because the entire controller will probably be shut down if the
MOSFET heatsink temperature reaches 100 degrees C. Under normal operating
conditions therefore, the output of the circuit ranges from 0V to 5V which corresponds
to 0 to 150 degrees C.
5.1.2.3 Phase Current Measurement
The phase current may be measured directly in the phase windings or

alternatively measured in the DC link. The disadvantage in measuring the current in the
DC link is that circulating currents may build up in the phase windings and MOSFET
switches are not detected. It is because of this disadvantage that the current sensors
were placed in the phases. The various components considered were:
- 46 -
Resistive Shunt
Advantages : cheap, readily available, no power supply required
Disadvantages : non-isolated, relatively high power dissipation with large current draw,
becomes inaccurate if shunt becomes hot.
Hall Effect Current Transducer

Advantages : isolated, low power consumption, high current capability, accurate.
Disadvantages : expensive, require +/- 15V +/-10% typical for most models.
A hall current transducer was chosen over a traditional resistive shunt because :
• Cost was not a major issue
• Isolation was required and which meant using an isolated op-amp with a
conventional shunt resistor, and
• A power supply was already supplying +/-15V for another current transducer used.
To effectively measure the phase currents of all three phases, two identical
circuits were used to measure the phase currents of phases A and B. The current in the
third phase, C, was readily determined by applying the simple Kirchoff’s current law to
the star configuration of the phase windings (i.e. IphaseA+IphaseB=IphaseC).
The actual current transducer was an instantaneous type, capable of measuring

+/- 50A DC. By passing the current carrying conductor through the core twice, the
resolution of the sensor could be doubled, however the measuring range would also
halve (i.e. +/-25A would be measured). The supply rails for this sensor required +/-
15V to be supplied. This was not a large problem, however a current transducer that
simply ran from a single supply, say a supply already used by other devices would have
been an advantage, as it would have simplified the entire system. This could possibly
be a future thesis topic : to build a current transducer than could measure current in both
directions and run off a single supply. The sensor had two types of output: a voltage
and current output. The voltage output was used in this instance, and pins 1 and 4 had
to be linked to enable this option. The sensor’s output was a handy 100mV/A
- 47 -
measured, so that the voltage output ranged from –5V(-50A measured) to +5V(+50A
measured). The analogue-to-digital converter on the SH1 only accepts an analogue
voltage of between 0-5V, thus the sensor’s output had to be scaled accordingly.
Resistors R44 and R45 are of equal value and form a voltage divider. In this
configuration, the input voltage to the op-amp still ranges from 0-5V, however 0V
denotes –50A measured, 2.5V denotes 0A measured and 5V denotes +50A measured.
Diodes D6 and D7 are schottky type diodes and are designed to clamp the input signal
from 5V+Vd to 0V-Vd. The op-amp is configured as a voltage follower and simply
acts as a buffer. The output of this circuit under normal operating conditions is 0-5V
which corresponds to a measured phase current of –50 to +50A DC.
5.1.3 Manufacture and Construction
Manufacture of this part was fairly straightforward. The PCB was designed
using Protel Advanced PCB CAD software. Due to the nature of high power on the
PCB, all high power tracks were set to 10mm wide where possible. Power supply
tracks to the driver chips were set to 1mm and other tracks set to 0.5mm. Pad sizes
were set to 2mm where possible so that components had a large area to solder to,
making the PCB more reliable. Since the final PCB was fairly simple and contained no
smaller tracks than 0.5mm,
the electronics workshop at
university was able to
manufacture the PCB. To
increase the current
capacity of the tracks, all
copper tracks were tinned.
A solder through lacquer
completed the manufacture
of the PCB.
Figure 18 : The completed Power Board
- 48 -
The most important factor when designing the PCB was the layout of
components, especially the high power devices. A logical layout was used, having the
battery connection on one end of the PCB and the motor connections at the other end.
The finished design is shown in Figure 18. The position of the capacitors was not
critical, however were placed close to the battery input. Each MOSFET “switch” is
comprised of three MOSFETS placed in a row. A compact way of achieving this was to
mount them vertically in line with pins through the board.
Simple heatsinks made from aluminum were able to be manufactured by the

electronics workshop, as no
commercially available
heatsinks were suitable.
The entire heatsink was
black anodized so that heat
conduction was maximized,
and holes were drilled
through the heatsink in order
to take weight from the
heatsink. The heatsink is
insulated from the back of

Figure 19 : MOSFET Heatsink and Cooling Fan
the MOSFET case by using
strips of electrically insulating/heat conducting material. The cooling fan was mounted
onto an aluminum bracket and simply bolted to the PCB. Figure 19 shows the heatsinks
and cooling fan.
All high power connections to the MOSFET were placed under the board so that
no vias had to handle high current. All drive connections to the MOSFET was achieved
on the top of the board using surface mount devices(SMD’s). The final layout of
MOSFET’s resulted in a compact layout which helps to reduce the inductance due to
large current flow. The position of the Metal Oxide Varistors (MOV’s) was not critical,
however were placed close to the device they intend to protect : the MOSFETS. A
- 49 -
LM35 temperature sensor (case T0-92) was mounted to the heatsink by simply gluing
the case down. The TO-92 case style was preferred to a surface mount version
available, due to anticipated difficulties in mounting the SMD to the heatsink without
shorting the pins on the heatsink. Connections to the sensor were made through a three
wire connector which plugged into the PCB.
The driver chips were placed as close as practical to the MOSFET’s and
auxiliary components to the IR2110 were able to be placed very close to the IC. To
minimize inductance in the drive signals running between the microprocessor and the
driver chips, twisted pair cable should be used. Due to the way the PCB’s were
constructed, the two cables were made so that they ran close together. In the IDC20
plug which connects the two boards, each 2nd wire is connected to ground, so that every
signal wire runs next to a ground wire. Special attention is made on the PCB to have a
ground track running directly opposite a signal track.
5.2 Design of Control Stage
The control stage comprises the SH1 microprocessor and it’s auxiliary
components, serial communications, sockets for hall effect input and output to power
board and some signal conditioning circuitry. The serial communications port forms
two primary duties. Power is supplied from the power board through the serial link and
is then distributed throughout the controller. Voltage is supplied at +/-15, 8 and 5V.
The second is a half duplex communication link between the motor controller and the
telemetry board. The input signals from the telemetry board are as follows, and are all
represented as a digital word:
Variable torque (motoring and regenerating) control : This signal originates

from a potentiometer mounted inside the driver handgrip control. A number of
other avenues regarding the handgrip were considered. Rotary optical encoders and
strain gauges were considered however were found to be either too bulky or
expensive. The potentiometer has a full swing of 5V, where 0V indicates full
- 50 -
regeneration, 2.5V standstill operation and 5V full motoring. There is a hysterisis

band centered at 2.5V embedded in software to allow for the handgrip to not return
to the zero center position. The diver display unit accordingly converts the full
analogue swing to a digital word scaled from 0x0000 to 0xFFFF. This data is sent
via the telemetry unit, which has the ability to change the torque signal to one which
is calculated from strategy software. The torque signal is then sent to the motor
controller for processing.
Forward/Reverse Selector Switch : This switch forms part of the driver controls
and simply implies which way the driver would like to motor. This signal likewise
is sent as a digital word, where 0x0000 represents forward and 0xFFFF reverse.
Brake : To indicate to the motor controller that the driver is pressing the brake
calipers, two miniature switches are inset into either caliper. When the driver starts
to place pressure on the caliper, the switches are activated via a simple strip of metal
which runs along the front of the caliper. This signal likewise is sent as a digital
word, where 0x0000 represents brakes not activated and 0xFFFF brakes activated.
A socket is also set up to accept hall effect inputs and thermistor resistance from
the motor. Power is supplied to the hall effect devices also via this socket. A 20-pin
IDC connector forms the interface to the other PCB as described earlier in the chapter.
MOSFET drive signals are output, two signal conditioned phase currents, bus voltage
and MOSFET temperature are input and power supplied to the other PCB on this
socket. A two pin connector is mounted on the board so that the fan may be
conveniently plugged and unplugged from the PCB.
5.2.1 Circuit Design
The schematic was drawn using Protel and was spread over three sheets (see
Appendix A for schematic printouts). The three sections will each be given a short
description:
- 51 -
5.2.1.1 Auxiliary Components and Power
The SH1 microprocessor requires a number of auxiliary components (Refer to

Sheet 2 of 4 in Appendix A). Capacitors C4 to C11 inclusive are simply decoupling
capacitors for the multiple Vcc pins on the microprocessor. Pins 85 and 86 are the
reference voltage pins for the analogue to digital converter and can be connected to an
accurate regulated supply if accuracy is desired, however it was not necessary in this
instance. The crystal oscillated at 20Mhz and capacitors C21 and C22 completed the
oscillator circuit. U1 is an undervoltage sensing circuit, and will drive the /RES pin low
when the supply voltage drops below 4.7V. Switch SW1 is the manual reset switch and
jumper JP1 is used to temporarily continually reset the SH1 when testing.
Power arrives at the motor controller from the serial port. The fuse and the
“trans-zorb” transient suppressor provides a degree of protection against continued
excessive current draw and overvoltage respectively. Capacitors C2 and C23 are
standard decoupling values for the 5Vsupply. Capacitors C3 and C24 are used in
conjunction with the cooling fan supply, and are designed to absorb the relatively large
current draw of the fan at startup. Decoupling capacitors for the +/- 15V supplies are
found on the other PCB.
5.2.1.2 Memory Board
The SH1 has no integrated non-volatile memory thus external memory is

necessary. The flash memory provides 128kB of memory space, and the RAM socket is
a means of downloading the code to the SH1. Capacitors C19 and C20 are simple
decoupling capacitors for the memory chips.
5.2.1.3 Input/Output Ports
The MAX483 with associated decoupling capacitor C13 forms the serial
interface chip which runs on the RS485 protocol. Two output pins are only needed to
interface the chip to the outside world. As a general rule, 100 ohm resistors are used in
- 52 -
series to the SH1 for all digital and analogue input and output lines. This simply
provides some protection for the microprocessor, as the resistors limit to some extent
any current into or out of the SH1. Resistors R1 to R10 inclusive perform this function.
The 20 pin IDC was wired exactly the same as the corresponding IDC on the other
board so that the boards could be mounted above one another and a cable could run
directly from one to the other. JP5 was included incase optoisolation was needed
between the SH1 and the driver chips. The optoisolation simply provides added
protection to the SH1, however it was felt this was not required and would consume
power unnecessarily. In the case the optoisolation is required, a patch PCB can be fitted
into the socket and optoisolation chips fitted.
The hall effect signals are a open collector output thus require pull-up resistors
to 5V. Resistors R26 to R27 inclusive provide this function, and a value of 1k ohm
resulted in clean output. Each hall signal is then filtered using a simple RC series
network before being cleaned further by a pair of schmitt triggers. Decoupling
capacitor for the schmitt trigger is C18. The motor temperature sensing circuit
consisted of a Wheatstone bridge and a LM358 op-amp configured as a differential
amplifier. The thermistor resistance formed one arm of a Wheatstone bridge along with
resistors R18 to R20 inclusive and R32. Variable resistor R32 is for fine calibration of
the output temperature. The resistor values around the op-amp were calculated as
follows:
The thermistor is a non-linear device, it’s resistance having an exponential response
approximately equal to:
Rthermistor = 0.016e 3977 T where Rthermistor is the resistance in ohms across the
thermistor terminals.
T is the temperature of the thermistor in Kelvin (273 +T =
temperature in degrees).
This is plotted in Figure 20, and shows the expected resistance values at key
temperature points.
- 53 -
NTC Thermistor Response
35000.00
34k ohm @ 0 degrees C

30000.00
Thermistor Resistance (ohms)
25000.00
20000.00
15000.00
10k ohm @ 25 degrees C
10000.00
508 ohm @ 110 degrees C 194 ohm @ 150 degrees C
5000.00
0.00
103
109
115
121
127
133
139
145
1
7
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
97
Temperature (degrees C)
Figure 20 : Thermistor Response
5.2.2 Manufacture and Construction
The PCB was designed using Protel software and measured a small 137x69mm.
The PCB had to be
manufactured out of
University as 0.25mm
tracks were used and a
solder mask was necessary
for the surface mount
components. A silkscreen
was also printed onto the
PCB showing placement
of components. All
decoupling capacitors and

Figure 21 : The Control PCB
most resistors were surface
mount components. The cost of an IC socket for the SH1 probably would have been
comparable to the chip itself, so a surface mount version was used. The control PCB is
- 54 -
shown in Figure 21. The main issues when soldering surface mount components using
the soldering station were:
1) Hold the component down and place and sparingly place the solder paste over
the component pins.
2) Hold the hot air gun a fair distance from the PCB to dry the solder paste out to
avoid spreading the paste over the board and then move in closer and bring the paste to
melting point. The solder mask repels the melted solder and is attracted to the
component pins.
As an extra precaution, a piece of plastic was fitted under the fuses to avoid shorting to
any tracks or vias.
- 55 -
6. SOFTWARE DESIGN STAGE
Although the code has not been fully completed at the time of writing this thesis,
it should be working at the time of demo day. Software flowcharts are included where
necessary.
6.1 System Description
A block diagram of the system is shown in Figure 22. Block 1 represents the
driver controls. The torque input passes through a block with gain K before entering
block 2. The gain is simply a linear scaling factor to convert the commanded torque to
a commanded current. The other driver controls input to block 2 is the forward/reverse
switch and the brake command. Block 2 is an algoritm that determines the correct
division of current to the three phases. This algorithm receives position feedback from
the hall effects in the motor. Block 9 is a lookup table which receives the hall effect
codes and converts them to a sequence of MOSFET states using the commutation truth
- 56 -
6. Software Design Stage
table. The circles labelled 3 represent differentiators. The output is the difference
between the commanded current from the driver and the actual current sensed in the
phase windings at the ellipse marked 7. Block 8 simply calculates the current in all
three phase windings from the current feedback from two phase windings. The
difference in current from stage 3 is a current error, and is an indication as to the
discrepancy between the actual and commanded current. The three error signals are fed
into block 4 which determines the ITU register values. Block 5 produces the PWM
output signals which are generated using the ITU in the SH1. Block 6 represents the
MOSFET H-bridge which outputs a three phase waveform to the motor.
2
4 5 6
3 7
8
10
1
9
K BLDC
MOTOR
Figure 22 : Block Diagram of Control Algorithm
The controller must be able to drive the motor in all four quadrants. The quadrants can
be presented diagrammatically on the torque-speed plane as in Figure 23.
- 57 -
Speed
Forward Forward
Regeneration Motoring
(Braking)
2 1
Torque
3 4
Reverse
Reverse
Regeneration
Motoring
(Braking)
Figure 23 : A four quadrant drive
6.2 Main Program
The main program is the control loop which ultimately determines the switching
state of the MOSFET’s. A number of subroutines, some described below multitask with
the main program. The SH1 does not do full multitasking, but assigns a very small time
period to all subroutines and programs running, and keeps cycling through these.
The forward/reverse switch is first checked to determine the desired motoring

direction. The torque is sampled to determine whether the driver would like motoring
or regeneration. If regeneration is desired, the program skips to the regeneration
algorithm and commences regeneration. If motoring is desired, the program first checks
whether the car is moving above a certain base speed in the reverse dirction to the
motoring command. If this holds true, the car will simply coast until it is moving with a
low enough reverse speed, is stationary or is moving in the desired motoring direction.
When motoring, the program observes the hall effect code and phase currents and
determines the correct MOSFET’s to switch on.
- 58 -
6.3 Torque Control

As depicted in Figure 22, the driver inputs a torque control rather than a speed or
position control. The driver is effectively controlling the current into the motor. The
torque is converted to a current and the control will work with this value throughout the
control loop.
6.3.1 Regeneration
Why incorporate regeneration in the first place? Regeneration allows recapture

of most of the momentum of the car which is usually lost as heat and noise in the
friction brakes. The implementation of regeneration should result in a considerable
energy saving of up to 10%. This figure is probably optimistic and assumes all energy
generated can be stored immediately. Two major factors limiting the storage of energy
are the voltage across the capacitor must remain below 200Vand the charging rate of the
batteries. A highly efficient solution is the inclusion of a super capacitor able to store
large amounts of energy. A flat battery may be used as a temporary reservoir,
especially at the start of a race when overcharging batteries could pose a danger.
Another way is to use a resistive shunt which is modulated and simply dissipates excess
energy as heat, however this idea was knocked back in favor of the mechanical brake
calipers. If the amount of energy returned is less than expected, the rate of deceleration
may be too slow and friction brakes will have to be used in parallel with regen.
Regeneration is achieved by making the torque reverse polarity (i.e. cause to go

negative), so if the vehicle were travelling forward, the motor will want to turn
backward. The back emf of the motor is used to generate current flow back to the
batteries. Two regeneration schemes are shown in Figures 24 and 25.
- 59 -
Figure 24:One Switch Active Topology Figure 25:Two Switch Active Topology
Lab represents the combined inductance’s of phases A and B and Vab represents
the combined back emf of phases A and B. The circuit operation is described below:
One Switch Active Topology

All switches are originally open. S4 is closed, and due to the back emf of the
motor, current flows around the solid line which causes energy to build up in the phase
windings. When the upper current threshold is reached, S4 opens and assuming
Vab<Vs, current flows through D2 and D3 and back to the batteries as depicted by the
dashed line. When the lower current threshold is reached, S4 turns on once more. This
procedure repeats on the next active windings and the motor experiences regeneration.
Two Switch Active Topology

S1 and S4 are both turned on simultaneously, allowing current to build up in the
phase winding as depicted by the solid line. S1 and S4 both turn off at the upper current
threshold and current flows back through D2 and D3 to the batteries as depicted by the
dashed line. S1 and S4 turn back on once again when the lower current threshold is
reached and the cycle repeats again. The two switch active topology is preferred at low
operating speeds as the PWM frequency goes to zero at standstill using the one switch
active topology. Refer to reference [9] for more information on these regeneration
schemes.
6.3.2 Brake
- 60 -
When the brake is pressed, the program will halt and set the current input to a
large regenerative setting. A speed control loop determines whether the car has
completely slowed down, and stops the car from rolling back.
6.4 MOSFET Heatsink Temperature
A subroutine is dedicated to observing the heatsink temperature. If the

temperature goes above a set limit, the fan will be activated and greater current limiting
will be enforced. If the temperature exceeds an absolute limit, the controller will have
to be shut down.
6.5 Motor Temperature
A subroutine is dedicated to observing the motor temperature. If the

temperature goes above a set limit greater current limiting will be enforced. If the
temperature exceeds an absolute limit, the controller will have to be shut down.
6.6 Speed and Direction
A subroutine is dedicated to calculating the motor’s speed and direction of

rotation from observing the hall effect frequency and switching sequence respectively.
6.7 Commutation
A simple lookup table located in memory will be used to translate hall effect
codes into MOSFET switching states.
6.8 Bus Voltage
- 61 -
If the bus voltage exceeds a certain limit which approaches the maximum
MOSFET drain-source voltage, the MOSFET’s will have to be disabled until the over
voltage condition has subsided. This will most likely occur during regeneration.
- 62 -
7. DISCUSSION
7.1 Discussion
All hardware design was completed, however the software has not been
completed as of this hand in date. It is hoped this will be operational by the demo day.
- 63 -
8. CONCLUSIONS
8.1 Thesis Conclusions

This thesis has described the building of a motor controller for a hub mounted
BLDC motor. The following conclusions have been attained throughout the duration of
the thesis project:
• Different types of motors available

• Hardware requirements for the controller
• Control Algorithms needed to drive a motor
8.2 Possible Future Work
Although the new motor controller is a large improvement over the previous
controller, providing a more efficient control of the motor, there are a number of
projects that may form a thesis or small project for any future people interested in the
area of motor control. The projects include:
- 64 -
8. Conclusions
A Resonant DC Link Inverter (sometimes called soft switching inverter): This

additional circuit can be added to the motor controller as it exists now, and has the
potential for a marked improvement in efficiency. A resonant converter is usually
placed between the battery or energy source and the input terminals of the controller.
The circuit usually consists of a power switch (e.g. MOSFET) and a number of passive
components (e.g. inductors and capacitors) and can be arranged in many configurations.
The resonant converter works in parallel with the switching of the MOSFETS in the H-
bridge, and it’s basic operation is to force the voltage on the bus to zero whenever the
MOSFET’s in the H-bridge switch off. As discussed in the Theory section, the most
significant power loss in MOSFET’s occurs at the instant of switch off, when there is a
large voltage across the switch and the switch is still conducting a large amount of
current. A useful place to start research on this topic is to consult references [13], [14],
[31] and [24] and the textbooks listed in the bibliography.
A Current Transducer : In the current motor controller, two current transducers are
used to measure the individual phase currents. One disadvantage with the sensors used,
was that they required dual supplies (+/- 15V DC) so that the output was able to swing
both in the positive and negative directions. This is particularly undesirable in most
cases when trying o interface with a microprocessor’s A/D port, which only accepts 0-
5V DC input. It should be possible to develop custom made transducers that work from
a single supply, (e.g. 5V DC), measure current in both directions and output voltage in
the range 0-5V. This sensor can then be used to measure all current sensing
requirements throughout the car, resulting in significant energy saving especially when
sensing large currents, as compared with the standard shunt resistor method.
Switching Algorithms and Advanced Features : The current design can be easily
modified especially in the code. New switching algorithms may be found which will
improve efficiency of switching. Other features may be added onto the board easily, as
each pin not used on the SH1 is brought out to jumper pins.
- 65 -
8. Conclusions
8.3 The Future of Solar Car Racing : The Big Picture
The development of the future’s clean vehicles (i.e. vehicles which do not emit
potentially harmful greenhouse gases) has a brighter future thanks to solar car vehicles.
Solar cars are, at the present day, simply primarily racing vehicles and have no direct
commercial applications. Their restriction is mainly from the limitations of the slowly
emerging technology, namely photovoltaic solar energy. It is envisaged however, that
the innovations and discoveries made through solar cars will spark new ideas and
products to develop the clean cars of the future. Of course the automobile industry will
not be the only organization to benefit from the spin-offs from solar cars. The work has
far reaching applications in solar houses, remote area power systems (RAPS) and space
applications to name a few examples.
- 66 -
Appendices
APPENDICES
- 67 -
Appendices
APPENDIX A: SCHEMATIC
AND PCB DESIGNS
- 68 -
Appendices
APPENDIX B: MOSFET
DATA SHEETS
- 69 -
Appendices
APPENDIX C: CSIRO/UTS
MOTOR SPECIFICATIONS
- 70 -
Appendices
APPENDIX D: MICROCOMPUTER
PROGRAM LISTINGS
- 71 -
Appendices
APPENDIX E: ACCOMPANYING
COMPUTER DISK
MAIN PROGRAM
SCHEMATIC FILES
PCB FILES
- 72 -
Bibliography
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
[33] Crowder, R. M., Electric Drives and their Controls, Oxford : Oxford University
Press, 1995.
[34] Kenjo, T., Power Electronics for the Microprocessor Age, Oxford : Oxford
University Press, 1994.
[35] Mohan/Undeland/Robbins, Power Electronics : Converters, Applications, and

Design, John Wiley and Sons Inc., 1995.
[36] Williams, B. W., Power Electronics : Devices, Drivers and Applications,
[37] Rashid, M. H., Power Electronics : Circuits, Devices and Applications, 2nd Ed.,
Prentice Hall International Inc., 1993.
[38] International Rectifier, Control Integrated Circuits CIC-1, International

Rectifier, 1996.
Journal Articles
[1] Jahns, T. M., “Torque Production in Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motor
Drives with Rectangular Current Excitation,” IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, vol. IA-20, no. 4, pp. 803-13, July/August 1984.
[2] Jahns, T. M., “Flux-Weakening Regime Operation of an Interior Permanent-

Magnet Synchronous Motor Drive,” IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol.
IA-23, no. 4, pp. 681-9, July/August 1987.
- 73 -
Bibliography
[3] Bose, B. K., “A High Performance Inverter-Fed Drive System of an Interior

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine,” IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 987-97, November/December 1988.
[4] Wallace, A. K., Spee, R., “The Simulation of Brushless DC Drive Failures,”
PESC ‘88 Record, pp. 199-206, April 1988.
[5] Alberkrack, J., “Selecting Brushless DC Motor Controllers,” Machine Design,

pp. 109-14, August 11, 1988.
[6] Morimoto, S., Takeda, Y., Hirasa, T., Taniguchi, K., “Expansion of Operating
Limits for Permanent Magnet Motor by Current Vector Control Considering Inverter
Capacity,” IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 866-71,
September/October 1990.
[7] Jahns, T. M., Becerra, R. C., Ehsani, M., “Integrated Current Regulation for a
Brushless ECM Drive,” IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 6, no. 1, pp.
118-26, January 1991.
[8] Low, T., Lee, T., Tseng, K., Lock, K., “Servo Performance of a BLDC Drive
with Instantaneous Torque Control,” IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol.
28, no. 2, pp. 455-62, March/April 1992.
[9] Becerra, R. C., Ehsani, M., Jahns, T. M., “Four-Quadrant Brushless ECM Drive
with Integrated Current Regulation,” IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol.
28, no. 4, pp. 833-41, August 1992.
[10] Jahns, T. M., “Motion Control with Permanent-Magnet AC Machines,”

Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 82, no. 8, pp. 1241-52, August 1994.
[11] Holtz, J., “Pulsewidth Modulation for Electronic Power Conversion,”

Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 82, no. 8, pp. 1194-213, August 1994.
- 74 -
Bibliography
[12] Chan, C. C., Jiang, J. Z., Xia, W., Chau, K. T., “Novel Wide Range Speed
Control of Permanent Magnet Brushless Motor Drives,” pp. 539-46, 1995.
[13] Lia, K., Hsiao, C., “Modelling and Implementation of a Resonant DC-Link
Inverter Driving a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Servo System,” pp. 370-5, 1995.
[14] Chickamenahalli, S. A., Cathey, J. J., “A Variable Frequency Resonant

Commutated Converter,” College of Engineering Division of Engg. Technology and
Dept. of Electrical Engineering University of Kentucky, pp. 272-7, 1995.
[15] Patterson, D. J., Spee, R., “The Design and Development of an Axial Flux
Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor for Wheel Drive in a Solar Powered Vehicle,”
IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 1054-61, 1995.
[16] Melear, C., “Brushless DC Motor Positioning System,” Motorola Corporation,

pp. 466-72.
[17] Tuckey, A. M., Patterson, D. J., “Brushless DC Machine Controller for a Kinetic
Energy Tidal Generator – Progress in Implementation, and Results,” pp. 323-8.
[18] Gasser, S. C., Cochrane, I. C., “High Efficiency PWM-VSI for a Solar-Electric
Racing Car,”, pp. 353-8, 1995.
[19] Patterson, D. J., “Recent Advances in the Design and Construction of Axial Flux
Permanent Magnet Machines,” National Engineering Conference ‘The Darwin
Summit’, pp. 435-9, 1996.
[20] Caricchi, F., Crescimbini, F., Honorati, O., Napoli, A. D., Santini, E., “Compact
Wheel Direct Drive for EVs,” IEEE Industry Applications Magazine, pp. 25-32,
November/December 1996.
- 75 -
Bibliography
[21] Chung, S., Kim, H., Youn, M., “A New Instantaneous Torque Control of PM
Synchronous Motor for High Performance Direct Drive Applications,” IEEE
Proceedings, pp. 721-27, 1997.
[22] Gair, S., Hredzak, B., Eastham, J. F., “Design of Advanced Electric Drives and
Torque Control Methodologies for Electric Vehicles,” EVS 14 Conference, Transport
Research Institute, Napier University and Dept. Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
University of Bath, pp. 1-10.
[23] Sato, Y., Fujita, K., Yanase, T., Kinoshita, S., “New Control Methods for High
Performance PM Motor Drive Systems,” EVS 14 Conference, Fuji Electric Corporate
Research and Development Ltd., pp. 1-9.
[24] Chan, C.C., Chau, K.T., Chan, D. T. W., Yao, J. M., “Soft Switching Inverters
in Electric Vehicles,” EVS 14 Conference, Dept. Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
The University of Hong Kong, pp. 1-10.
[25] Kogure, S., Kawabata, Y., Yamada, E., Kanamori, A., “Development of Motor
Control Technology for Electric Vehicles,” EVS 14 Conference, Toyota Motor
Corporation, pp. 1-14.
[26] Bose B. K., Szczesny, P., “A Microcomputer-Based Control and Simulation of

an Advanced IPM Synchronous Machine Drive System for Electric Vehicle
Propulsion,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 547-59,
1988.
[27] Xu, C. H., Schroder, D., “Modelling and Simulation of Power MOSFET’s and
Power Diodes,” PESC ’88 Record, pp. 76-83, April 1988.
[28] Liang, Y., Gosbell, V. J., “Diode Forward and Reverse Recovery Model for
Power Electronic SPICE Simulations,” IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol.
5, no. 3, pp. 346-56, July 1990.
- 76 -
Bibliography
[29] Patterson, D. J., “Electrical System for a Solar Powered Vehicle,” Recordings of
st
21 Annual IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference PESC ‘90, pp. 618-22,
1990.
[30] Fardoun, A. A., Fuchs, E. F., Huang, H., “Modeling and Simulation of an
Electronically Commutated Permanent-Magnet Machine Drive System Using SPICE,”
IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 927-37, July/August
1994.
[31] Caricchi, F., Crescimbini, F., Noia, G., Pirolo, D., “Experimental Study of a
Bidirectional DC-DC Converter for the DC Link Voltage Control and the Regenerative
Braking in PM Motor Drives Devoted to Electrical Vehicles,” IEEE Applied Power
Electronics Conference APEC 1994, pp. 381-86, 1994.
[32] Patterson, D. J., “An Efficiency Optimized Controller for a Brushless DC

Machine, and Loss Measurement using a Simple Calorimetric Technique,” Record of
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June1995.
Internet Resources
[1] Component Data Sheets

The Electronics Mall
http://faraday.ee.latrobe.edu.au/~mg/ic.html
Chip Directory
http://www.ideal.net.au/chipdir/
- 77 -

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The Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering

Andrew James Reghenzani

Submitted for the degree of

16th October 1998.

Dear Professor Simmons,

In accordance with the requirement of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in

The following people deserve special recognition for their contributions to my

5.2.1 Circuit Design.................................................................................................... 51

JOURNAL ARTICLES ............................................................................................................ 73

INTERNET RESOURCES ...................................................................................................... 77

TABLE 1 : 120 DEGREES COMMUTATION TRUTH TABLE ............................................................................31

The development of the internal combustion engine was certainly considered a

An alternative energy source which is very appealing is solar energy. Solar

1.2 Problem Specification

• Electronic Commutation : the switching of currents to the correct phase windings

• Smart Control : the microprocessor is programmed to perform a number of

 Regenerative braking capability

 Temperature monitoring of MOSFET heatsink

1.2.1 Thesis Goal

The primary and most important goal of my thesis was:

1.2.2 Motivation behind the Motor Controller and Motion Control

Many applications in today’s technologically advancing world require systems

1.3 Organization of the Thesis Document

Chapter 2, The University of Queensland Solar Car, presents first an introduction to

Chapter 4, Theory, provides the background material necessary to understand how a

Chapter 6, Software Design Stage, describes the control algorithms implemented in

Chapter 7, Results and Discussion, presents a discussion of the motor controller

2.1 Solar Car Racing and the Races

resistance). Most often, an unexpected weather pattern emerges or a critical breakdown

2.2 A Brief History of the UQ Solar Racing Car

The University of Queensland Solar Racing Car, commonly known is the

2.3 The Nuts and Volts of a Solar Car

A typical electrical system for a solar car is presented in Fig. 1.

HIGH VOLTAGE BUS

Telemetry and Power Motor BLDC

Radio Driver Controls and

Figure 1 : Block Electrical Diagram of a Solar Car

the internal structure is shown in

car. In practice however, the

2.3.2 Solar Array

electricity (electrons) by the raising

2.3.3 Maximum Peak Power Trackers (MPPT’s)

automatically hold the

2.3.4 Motor Controller

The motors’ function is twofold: to convert the electrical energy to mechanical

The construction and theory of the brushless DC motor is presented in greater

2.3.6 Telemetry Functions and Power Supply

2.4 Necessity for Efficient Systems

2.5 The Existing Drive System

2.5.1 Controller Type

2.5.2 Performance Characteristics

2.6 The New Drive System

The technical specifications for the motor can be found in appendix C.

2.6.1 Additional Features

• Torque Control Input : torque is directly controlled instead of a speed control,

• Sinusoidal Phase Current Excitation : improves efficiency when interfacing to a

2.6.2 Performance Requirements

An extensive literature search was carried out to review work completed

Most articles contained an example of a motor and motor controller designed to

Articles [28] and [30] describe how to model electronically commutated

Article [24] describes the application of soft switching inverters in electric

switches, inductors and capacitors to be arranged on the DC bus. To design a converter

4.1 The Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor

Regenerative braking capability

Temperature monitoring of MOSFET heatsink

Variable torque (motoring and regenerating) control : This signal originates