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Exam Review Chemistry:

Module 2:

Matter: Anything that has mass and takes up space

➾ Matter with a uniform and unchanging composition is a substance.
➾ Classified as pure substances and mixtures

Density: the mass of an object to its volume.

➾ Density is heavier. Ex: the closer particles are to each other, the denser it
is.

States Of Matter: The physical form of matter.

➾ Solid - Definite shape | Definite volume | Not compressible
➾ Liquid - Flowy shape | Constant volume | ( Slightly ) compressible
➾ Gas - No fixed shape | No Definite volume | ( Highly ) Compressible
➾ Plasma - An electrically charged gas. ( Due to giving gas more energy )
Ex: Lighting and stars.

Composition: What matter is made of.

Properties Of Matter: What matter is like; how matter behaves.

➾ Remember every substance has its own unique set of properties.

Physical properties:
➾ Physical property - A characteristic of matter that can be observed without
the composition changing. Ex: Color, Mass, State of matter.
➾ Extensive property - Will always depend on the amount of substance. Ex:
Mass, Volume, Length.
➾ Intensive Property - Does not depend on the amount of substance. Ex:
Density, Boiling point, Temperature, Color.

Chemical Properties:
➾ Chemical Property - How a react ( or fails ) with other substances. Ex:
Reacting with oxygen/acid
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Physical change: When a physical property of a substance alters without the

composition changing. Ex: Crushing glass, Cutting paper/lemons, Phase
change.

Phase Change: A transition of matter from one state to another. Ex: solid to
liquid, freezing, melting.

Chemical change ( Chemical reaction ): When a substance react with another

causing a ew substance. Ex: Decomposing, rusting, exploding.

The law of conservation: states that a mass is neither

created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction; it is
conserved.
Ex: Mass Reactants = Mass products, 100g of paper +
Fire = 100g of ash.

Element: A pure substance. Ex: An atom, Neon.

➾ Can’t be separated into simple substance.

Compounds: 2 or more elements that are chemically bonded. Ex: mercury

oxide, H₂O.
➾ Can be broken down and often requires external energy like heat.
➾ Properties of a compound differs from the components of its element.

Proportion: Ratio; How much of something is part of something.

Electrolysis: A process used to chemically change molecules back into its

components. Ex: pure water breaks down into hydrogen and oxygen.
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The law of definite properties: The ratio of the

masses of the element in a compound is always
fixed & constant. Ex: Percent by mass ( % ) =
[ mass of element/ mass of compound ] x 100.

The law of multiple proportions: States that when two elements combine to
form different compounds, the mass of one element combines with the same
mass of the other element in a ratio of small whole numbers.
➾ Ex: hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form two different compounds.
Compound 1 is H₂O and compound 2 is H₂O₂. The ratio of relative masses
of hydrogen in both compounds is a 2:2 ratio or 1:1.

Substance ( Pure substance ): Is a form of matter that has a uniform &

unchanging composition.

Mixture: A combination of two or more substances.

➾ Can be homogeneous and heterogeneous.

Homogeneous Mixture ( solution ): Has uniform composition throughout. Ex:

lemonade, gasoline, Sugar.
➾ Always has a singe phase

Heterogeneous Mixture: Does not have uniform composition. Ex: Dirt,

Blood, Milk.
➾ Goes through more than one phase
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Separation: A method used to separate two substances that once formed a

mixture. Ex: Separating a mixture of sand and iron with a magnet back to its
components because the magnet attracts iron and not sand.

➾ Separating Funnel: Heterogenous mixture, liquids are already separated.

➾ Filtration: Difference in particle size.
➾ Distillation: Separating mixtures of two or more pure liquids. Difference
in boiling point.
➾Evaporation: Evaporating the solvent in the mixture.
➾Magnetism: Separating magnetic particles from non-magnetic particles.
➾Crystallization: An evaporating technique that works to form Crystals of
the solute.
➾Chromatography: Separating colored substances.
➾decantation: Separating 2 immiscible liquids.
➾ Mechanical: Handpicking

Optional To Know:
➾ Thresh ( threshing ): To separate grains by pounding against a hard surface
to get rid of grains.
➾ Winnowing: Separating grains with the help of wind.

Miscible: Dissolved ( Water and alcohol )

Immiscible: Incapable of dissolving. Ex: Oil and water.

➾ Applied only for liquid

Super saturated: When you add more than the maximum compatibly of
solute. Ex: When drinking tea you add 7 spoons of sugar it won’t dissolve,
because all the molecules are occupied.

Saturated: When you add the maximum compatibility.

Undersaturated: When the solution is completely dissolved.

Endothermic: Heat is absorbed. Ex: Melting snowman, ice melting.

➾ Endo = Internal
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Exothermic: Heat is given off ( releasing heat ) . Ex: burning

fire, ice forming.
➾ Exo = External
➾ Neutralization: Acids + Alkalis
➾ Chemical reactions: Water + Calcium oxide
➾ Respiration

Module 3:

Atom: Basic unit of matter & are the smallest particles

Who discovered Atoms?

Democritus: A greek philosopher who proposed the idea of atoms, he named

them “Atomos”. Democritus was right but his theory & ideas were limited.
➾ His theory were small indivisible, & indestructible particles made of single
materials of different shapes and sizes.

John Dalton: An English chemist who said that atoms have a limit and are the
smallest particles in the world.
➾ His theories was that atoms of the same element will have the same
number of mass. ( he was wrong due to isotopes. ) he also said atoms are
impossible to break down, or divide. An element can’t be changed into
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another element by a chemical reaction. He

also stated that compounds are formed when
atoms of different elements are combined
together in a specific ratio. These are called
Daltons atomic theory.
➾ His model was just a round ball.

J.J Thomson: A scientist who discovered the

the existence of electrons. J.J was experimenting with a cathode ray tube
when his discovery happened. After that he reasoned that every that every
atoms need a positive charge to balanced out the negative charge.
➾ Cathode rays are made from electrons.When he was testing it he saw the
rays deflect when he tilted it to the negative side. ( they deflected because the
were negative ) Since they are negative they are attracted to the positive side
of the tube. ( Because negative attacks positive and positive attacks negative )
Thus they always get repelled to the positive side.
➾ His model was
described as a
positive ball with
electrons scattered
everywhere. He is
also known for his
watermelon /plum
pudding theory.

Earnest Rutherford: He was a student of Thomson and found

evince to challenge his model.
➾ He discovered protons and the nucleus in his experiment, which
he used a box that emits alpha charged particles ( helium nuclei ),
gold foil, and a screen. He also used special equipment to shoot
alpha particles (positively charged particles) at the gold foil. Most
particles passed straight through the foil like the foil was not there.
Some particles went straight back or were deflected as if they had
hit something.
➾ His model was a positive nuclei surrounded by electrons.

James Chadwick: An English scientist, showed that another particle exists in

the nucleus of atoms.
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➾ He proved the existence of neutrons and said they are physically there but
not mass wise, because the had a mass of almost 0! That’s why they were
hard to discover.
➾ He drew the modern atomic structure.
Isotopes: Atoms with the same number of protons and different numbers of

neutrons.
➾ Isotopes are written as: Sodium-23 / Na-23 ( 23 is the mass # )

Relative Atomic Mass: ( Atomic mass of isotope1 x percentage abundance /

100 ) + ( Atomic mass of isotope2 x percentage abundance / 100 )
➾ The units for the answer is amu ( Forgot to write in the answer above )

Niels Bohr’s Models: He proposed that electrons move like planets around
the sun, and orbit neatly a different energy levels.
➾ An amount fixed energy operated one level to another.
➾ Electron cannot exists between energy levels, just like you can stand
between rungs on a ladder.
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Erin Schrödinger: Developed the Electron cloud model or The Quantum

Mechanical Model.
➾ Electrons jump levels by absorbing and emitting photons.
➾ Electrons do not travel on neat orbits as Bohr said. The exists in region
called the atomic orbit.

Atomic Orbit: A 3D region around the nucleus where electrons exists.

Quantum Of Energy: Is the amount of energy required o move an electron

from one level to another.

Energy levels: Is how much energy each orbital have.

➾ They are symbolized by the letter “n”
➾ You can calculate how much electrons can fit in each level.
➾ Formula - 2n²

Sublevels:
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Electron configuration: How electrons are arranged around

the nuclei.
➾ Ex. Electron configuration of
vanadium (23): 1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶,
3d⁵
➾ Any element under chromium and
copper are exceptions. Meaning only
when they reach a d⁴ or d⁹ they get
changed to d⁵ and d^10 by taking from
the sub level before it.

Noble-Gas Configuration: A way to simplify Electron Configuration by using

noble gas.
➾ You use the noble gas that come before it. Like the noble gas before
vanadium is argon.
➾ vanadium (23): 1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶, 4s², 3d³ = [ Ar ] 4s², 3d³
➾ To simplify; Argon’s atomic # is 18 and Vanadium is 23. So in noble-gas
configuration you use the sub levels that come after 18, because 2+2+6+2+6
= 18 so you use the number after it which is 4s², 3d³.

Aufbau Diagram: States that each electron

occupies the lowest energy orbital available.

Puali’s Exclusion Principle: States that a

maximum of two electrons can occupy a single
atomic but only if the electrons have opposite
spins.

⇐ Pauli’s Exclusion Princible

Hund’s Rule: they don’t pair up unless they need to.

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Quantum Numbers: Each electron in atom has a unique set of 4 quantum

number:
➾ Principle QN - Describes the state of the electron
➾ Angular Momentum QN - it describes the shape and tell which sub level is
present.
➾ Spin QN- It describes the spin of the electron.
➾ Magnetic QN - The orientation of the electron with respect to its three axis
in space

Ground state: Most stable state

Excited state: Has excess energy

Quantum mechanical Model: The study of light led to its development.

➾ Light is a type of Electromagnetic radiation. Ex: Microwaves, Radio
waves, Ultra violet, X-Rays, Gamma rays.
➾ All electromagnetic radiation trace in the same rate when measured in
vacuum.
➾ Propagates through space as waves.

Wavelength and frequency:

➾ are inversely related. ( if one increases the
other decreases )
➾ Light has different colors because it has
different frequencies
➾ The whole range is called a Spectrum
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Atomic Spectra:
➾ White light is made up of the colors of the
visible in the spectrum.
➾ White lights gets separated by passing
through a prism.
➾ colors other than white get separated by
heating a gas with electricity because passing
through a prism does something else.

➾ Each element gives off its own characteristic colors.

➾ Can be used to identify an atom.

Emission of energy by atoms:

➾ Atoms can give off colors, they must receive energy first and become
excited. Then the energy is released in a form of a photon.

The Hydrogen-Atom Line Emission Spectrum: Only certain types of photons

produced when H toms realize energy.
➾ When Hydrogen atoms absorb energy from an outside source they become
excited, when it Amits photos it returns to its ground state.

Heisenberg uncertainty principle: You can’t determine both the position and
momentum of an electron in the same time.
➾ you can find out where its going but not where it is.
➾ you can find out where it is but not where it is going.

Periodic table: Elements organized into groups based on repeating properties.

➾ Can find elements easily based on atomic mass and tuber
➾ To compare properties of elements easily.

Periods: 7 rows and represents orbital.

Groups ( family ): 18 columns, elements is a group have similar chemical

properties.

History of the periodic table:

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Johann Dobereiner: Classified elements into groups of three called Triads.

Elements in a triad had similar chemical properties and orderly physical
properties.

John newlands: He arranged the elements in octaves. He did this because

when he arranged them in order of increasing atomic mass, certain properties
repeats every 8th element. His classification was rejected.

Dimitri Mendeleeves: His periodic table was the fist to be published whilst
elements where arranged in increasing order. Problems arose when new
elements were discovered.

Willam Crooked: He arranged the elements in a weird spiral periodic table

Henry Mosley: First to arrange it based on atomic numbers, his arrangement

is being used today, The symbol, atomic number and mass are basic items.

Modern table: Has 7 periods and 18 groups, elements in a group have similar
chemical and physical properties.

➾ Halogens in group 17 are always hungry for electrons

➾ Noble-gases are always stable and rarely react, also will always have full
orbits / sub-levels.

Atomic radius: The size of the atom. When you start from up to dow the size
increases and when you start from left to right the size decreases.
➾ Radii: When measuring more than 1 atom. ( Radius = radii/2 )
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Shielding Affect: When the number of inner electrons is greater, they shelter
the outermost electron from the nucleus.
➾ Increases from left to right and increases from up to down.

Ionization energy: the amount of energy required to get rid of electrons from
atoms. up to down decreases and left to right increases.
➾ The greater the nuclear charge the greater IE, and greater distance from the
nucleus decreases IE
➾ Incomplete orbits are easier to remove electrons than filled.

Ion Trend: There are cations and anions, increases when you go down and
decreases from left to right.
➾ Cations - Forms by losing electrons and are smaller, also loose energy
levels, forms metals.
➾ Anions - Form by gaining electrons and are bigger, forms non-metals
➾ Cations have the noble gas configuration before them.
Ex. Na+ = [ N ] = 1s², 2s², 2p⁶. ( neon comes before sodium )
➾ Anions have the noble gas configuration after them.
Ex: Cl- = [ Kr ] = 1s², 2s², 2p⁶( Krypton come after chlorine )

Electronegativity: The ability for your atoms attraction to

electrons of another
element in a chemical bond. Decreases going down a group.
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Electron affinity: When an electron is added to a neutral atom to create an

anion, energy is released.