25-Apr-23
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO GIS
1. Definition and History of GIS
1. 1. Definitions of GIS
Literal Definition:
 Geographic relates to the Location (surface)
of the earth.
 Information is Data & it’s meaning or a
knowledge derived from study, experience,
or instruction
 System is a group of interacting, interrelated,
or interdependent elements forming a
complex whole.
Cont’d…
 GIS is a system, consisting of hardware,
software, data, procedures & proper
organisational context, which, Compiles,
stores, manipulates, analyses, & visualizes
spatial data, to solve planning &
management problems”(Christiansen,1998)
 GIS is “An organized collection of computer
hardware, software, geographic data and
personnel designed to efficiently capture,
store, update, manipulate, analyze and display
all forms of geographically referenced
information” (ESRI)
Cont’d…
Cont’d…
 Science is the observation,
identification, description, experimental
investigation, and theoretical
explanation of phenomena.
 GIS is defined by various authors:
“Computerized Tool for solving
geographic problems” (Decision makers
and planners)
“Mechanized inventory of
geographically distributed features or
facilities” (Utility managers,
transportation and resource managers)
Cont’d...
 GIS is now becoming an independent
discipline in the name of “Geo-informatics"
or "Geospatial Information Science" that is
used in many departments of the government.
 GIS is a data base management system
(DBMS) specifically designed for
simultaneous processing of spatial and
related attribute data.
Historical Development of GIS
 The earliest known map dates back to 2500
B.C, Since then, humans have been
continually improving the methods of
conveying spatial information.
 The mid 18th C. brought the use of map
overlays to show troop movements in the
Revolutionary War.
 During the 1800s, many different
cartographers and scientists were all
discovering the power of overlays to convey
multiple levels of information about an area
(Star and Estes).
1

Cont’d…
 The first system to be called a GIS was the
Canadian Geographic Information System,
developed in 1962 by Roger Tomlinson of
the Canada Land Inventory.
 This system was designed to store digitized
map data and land-based attributes in an
easily accessible format for all of Canada and
still in operation today (Parent and Church
1987).
 He and his team had to develop new
technologies, including the drum scanner, for
the digital entry of data, originated from
computer-assisted cartography.
Cont’d…
I. Era of Innovation 1960 – 1980
 1962 - Canadian Geographic Information
System(CGIS)
 1964 - Harvard Lab for Computer Graphics
Spatial Analysis
 1969 – Environmental Systems & Research
Institute (ESRI) established
 1972 – Launch of Landsat I
II. Era of Commercialization 1981 – 2000
 1982 – Launch of ArcInfo (based on
vector & relational database model
Cont’d…
III. Era of Exploitation 2000 –
 2001 – Launch of QUICKBIRD (62 cm
ground resolution)
 Google Earth
 Mobile mapping (e.g. Arc pad)
 Development of location-based services
(GPS)
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Cont’d…
 The era of modern GIS really started in the
1970s, as analysts began to program
computers to automate some of the manual
processes.
 Software companies like ESRI & ERDAS
developed software packages that could
input, display, and manipulate geographic
data to create new layers of information.
 The steady advances in features & power of
the hardware over the last ten years & the
decrease in hardware costs have made GIS
technology accessible to a wide range of
users.
Cont’d…
 1985– GPS operational (Source for
navigation, surveying & mapping)
 1986- MapInfo
 1990– Development of Hybrid GIS systems
(e.g. ESRI, MapInfo)
 1996– Introduction of Internet GIS products
 1999– First GIS Day (1.2 Million global
participants)
 1999– Launch of IKONOS (90 cm ground
resolution)
1.2. Components of GIS
 The key components/Elements of GIS are:
 Network: is the most fundamental
component of GIS
 A computer system (hard ware and soft
ware),
 Geospatial data and
 Users (qualified personnel)
 Methods (Procedure) designed to
efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate
analyse, and display all forms of
geographically referenced information.“
2

Cont’d…
Components of GIS
Cont’d…
3. Data:
 is the most important component of GIS.
 GIS data can be Spatial data and Tabular data.
 Spatial data are remotely-sensed data such as
satellite imagery and aerial photography.
 Tabular data are characteristics of geographic
features
4. Users:- GIS technology is of limited value
without the users who manage the system and to
develop plans for applying it.
5. Methods:- Successful GIS operates according to
a well-designed plan and business rules.
Cont’d…
2) Data Storage and Retrieval: Organizes
spatial & attribute data in a form w/c permits it
to be quickly retrieved by the user for analysis
& permits rapid and accurate updates to be
made to the database.
3) Data Manipulation and Analysis: Allows
the user to define and execute spatial &
attribute procedures to generate derived
information.
4) Data Output: Allows the user to generate
maps, and tabular reports representing derived
information products.
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Cont’d…
1. Hard ware includes, computer, storage
devices, input devices, digitizer,
scanner, keyboard and mouse.
2. GIS Soft ware provides the functions
and tools needed to store, analyze and
display geographic information.
GIS Functions
A GIS software has four main functions.
1) Data Input: Allows the user to capture,
collect & transform spatial & thematic data
into digital form.
 The data inputs are usually derived from a
combination of hard copy maps, aerial
photographs, remotely sensed images,
reports, survey documents, etc.
1.3. Types of Geographic Features
There are two major types Geographic
features. Those are: -
 Physical/Biological Geographic Features
 Socio-Economic Geographic Features.
I. Physical Geographic Features are:- River,
Soil, Lake, Rainfall, temperature, Slope and
Natural vegetation
II. Socio-Economic geographic Features
are:- Road, Building, Boundary, Population
density and different economic activities.
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1.4. Questions a GIS Can Answer
 Five (5) Questions that a GIS Can Answer
1. Where is it?
 It allows us to locate geographic places.
 GIS is aiding us in optimizing the location of
assets such as building, travel destinations,
agriculture, etc. based on specific criteria.
2. What is it?
 The answer to this question is achieved
primarily through analysis rather than simply
locating coordinates & is extremely valuable
from an industry perspective.
Cont’d…
4. What patterns exist?
 Patterns and relationships can be analyzed based
on the attributes of the locations-such as an
abundance of wildlife in a densely vegetated
area versus one that lacks this vegetation.
5.What if?
 Understanding the previous four questions leads
us to this final query at which GIS is a dept.
1.6. Application of GIS
A. Natural Resource management
 Natural resources such as mineral resources,
water resources, soil resources, ecosystem,
landscape and forest management require
large data sets.
 The data set is in general in two forms:
spatial (geographic) & non-spatial
(attribute).
 Therefore, Natural resource professionals
need basic knowledge that enables them to
manage these databases & interact with
management information specialists.
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Cont’d…
 Resources like Google Maps, Apple Maps,
and the old school MapQuest visualizes
spatial data without requiring end-users to be
highly trained in mapping and analysis.
3. What has changed?
 There is a component to spatial data that
should not be overlooked and that is the time
it represents.
 By analyzing the relationship between assets
(people, places, things) and their location
(the where) over time, we can better
determine what has changed.
Cont’d…
 When studying locations of assets, change in
regions, and developing patterns, we often
develop hypotheses to aide us in this practice.
1.5. Why Is GIS of Important
 For multi dimensional information (2D&3D).
 For large volume data e.g., Image data.
 For spatial static/dynamic map and map
analysis
 To store and manage spatial data to make
changes to the stored data.
 To perform various analysis etc.
Cont’d…
The major areas of application in NaRm.
include the management of:-
wildlife habitat,
wild and scenic rivers,
recreation resources,
floodplains,
wetlands,
agricultural lands,
aquifers,
forests.
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Cont’d…
B. Agriculture and soil management
 Agriculture plays dominant role in economies
of both developed & undeveloped countries.
 The production of food is important to
everyone and producing food in a cost-
effective manner is the goal of every farmer,
large-scale farm manager and regional
agricultural agency.
 A farmer needs to be informed to be efficient,
and that includes having the knowledge and
information products to forge a viable
strategy for farming operations.
Cont’d…
C. Water resource management
 Hydrology is the study of water on the Earth's
surface, whether flowing above ground,
frozen in ice or snow, or retained by soil.
 Hydrology is inherently related to many other
applications of remote sensing, particularly
forestry, agriculture and land cover, since
water is a vital component in each of these
disciplines.
 Most hydrological processes are dynamic,
not only between years, but also within and
between seasons, & therefore require frequent
observations.
Cont’d…
D. Disaster management & Env.tal analysis
 Environmental management and Planning
concerns itself with the decision making
processes where they are required for managing
relationships that exist within and between
natural systems and human systems.
 Some of the applicable areas where GIS can be
implemented for effective planning and
management include the following five disasters:
25-Apr-23
Cont’d…
 GIS tools will help Farmers to understand the
health of crop, extent of infestation or stress
damage, or potential yield and soil conditions.
 Commodity brokers are also very interested
in how well farms are producing, as yield
(both quantity and quality) estimates for all
products control price and worldwide trading.
 Satellite and airborne images are used as
mapping tools to classify crops, examine their
health and viability, and monitor farming
practices.
Cont’d…
 GIS and Remote sensing offers a synoptic view
of the spatial distribution and dynamics of
hydrological phenomena, often unattainable by
traditional ground surveys.
 Radar has brought a new dimension to
hydrological studies with its active sensing
capabilities, allowing the time window of image
acquisition to include inclement weather
conditions or seasonal or diurnal darkness.
Cont’d…
Flood related hazards
 Landslide related hazards
 Wind and dust related hazards
 Extreme heat related and
Seismic (Earthquake) related hazards
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Cont’d… CHAPTER TWO

2. NATURE AND SOURCES OF GIS DATA
Hydrological applications include:
2.1. Nature of GIS data
 Wetlands mapping and monitoring,  GIS technology utilizes two types of data.
 Soil moisture estimation, 1. Spatial data:
 River and lake monitoring,  Describes the absolute & relative location of
geographic features.
 Flood mapping and monitoring,
 Spatial or coordinate data represents features
 River /delta change detection that have a known location on the earth.
 Watershed modeling  Spatial Data in a GIS) can be grouped in to
 Irrigation canal leakage detection two basic types.
 Irrigation scheduling

Cont’d…
A. Vector Data:-
 Discrete representations of reality.
 Vector represent a geographic feature by
Point, line and polygon.
 Point:
 Do not have length, width or area.
 They are described completely by their
coordinates
 Are used to represent features such as, cities,
towns, well locations, rain gauge stations, soil
sampling points, etc.
Cont’d…
 Line:-
 consists of a set of ordered points.
 It has length, but no width or area.
 it is used to represent features such as roads,
streams or canals.
 Polygon:-
 Is formed when a set of ordered lines form
closed figure whose boundary is represented
by the lines.
 Are used to represent area features such as
land parcels, lakes, districts, agro-ecological
zones, etc.

Cont’d… Cont’d…
B. Raster Data
Row and column matrix represent
geographic space.
A raster is a tessellation of a surface. ( A
tessellations defined as the process to cover a Vector Examples Raster examples
surface through the repeated use of a single  Administrative  Temperature
shape.) borders  Air pressure
A raster based system stores data by using a  Linear features  Soil ph.
grid of cells.
 Roads  Precipitation
Raster data resolution is dependent on the
 Rivers  Salinity
pixel or grid size and may vary from sub-
 Discrete boundaries  Elevation
meter to many kilometers.

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2. Attribute Data
 Attribute data are the information linked to
the geographic features (spatial data) that
describe features.
 Attribute data are descriptive data of point,
line and area features.
 For points, Attribute data may be the name of
the location, its elevation, etc.
 For lines attribute data could be the name of a
road, or canal and other descriptions
associated with them.
 For polygons, the attribute data may relate to
name of a district and its population, area,
area under specific crops in the district, etc.
2.1.2. GIS data models
 In order to represent the spatial information and
their attributes, a data model w/c is a set of
logical definitions or rules for characterizing the
geographical data is adopted.
 The data model represents the linkages between
the real world domain of geographical data and
the computer and GIS representation of these
features.
 As a result, the data model, not only helps in
organizing the real-world geographical features
into a systematic storage/retrieval mechanism, but
also helps in capturing the user’s perception of
these features.
Cont’d…
 Raster model uses grid cells for representing
continuous phenomena.
 An element of the grid cell is called a pixel
which contains a single value of attributes.
Vector data model and Raster data model
can represent same phenomena.
 E.g. Elevation represented as surface
(continuous field) using raster grid or as lines
representing contours of equal elevation
(discrete objects), or as points of height (Z
values).
25-Apr-23
Cont’d…
Attributes:-
 Labels fixed to data points, lines & polygons.
 Used to describe feature that we want to map.
 Can include text or numeric descriptors: i.e.
nominal, ordinal, or interval/ratio data types.
 Must be careful in how the different data
types are integrated and used to mix and
match.
Spatial Data models
 In GIS, the spatial data models handle where
the features are.
 Data model is the objects in a spatial database
plus the relationships among them.
 There are two broad categories of spatial data
models. These are:
1. Raster Data Model
 Raster models regard space as a grid cells.
 Represents continuous phenomena that may
change continuously across a region. E.g.
Elevation, rainfall, temperature, soil moisture,
etc.
2. Vector Data models
 Non-spatial data models or Data base
management system handle the feature
description and how each feature is related to
other.
 Vector data model represents phenomena in
terms of the spatial primitives, or
components, consisting of point, line,
polygon, surfaces and volumes.
 Point objects in spatial database represent
location of entities considered to have no
dimension. E.g. wells, sampling points, poles,
telephone towers, etc.
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Cont’d…
 Line objects are used to represent linear
features using ordered set of coordinate
pairs.
E.g. infrastructure networks such as
transport networks (highways, railroads,
etc.), utility networks (electric, telephone,
water etc.) and natural networks such as
river channels
 Polygon objects in spatial database represent
entities which covers an area.
E.g. lakes, Buildings, parcels, etc.
Cont’d…
 The vector data structure represents each
geographical feature by a set of coordinates.
 Vectors as x, y coordinates define points, lines
and polygons.
The choice between Raster & Vector
Selection of raster or vector model depends on
the application or type of operations to be
performed. E.g. Elevation represented as surface
(continuous field) in raster - to easily determine
slope.
 Raster methods were required huge computer
memories to store and process image at the level
of spatial resolution obtained by vector
structures.

Cont’d… Cont’d…
Vector methods
Certain kinds of data manipulation, such as  Advantages :-
polygon intersection or spatial averaging − Good representation of phenomenological
data structure
presented enormous technical problems with − Compact data structure
the choice of raster methods that allowed − Topology can be completely described with
network linkages
easy spatial analysis but resulted in ugly − Accurate graphics
maps, or vector methods that could provide − Retrieval, updating and generalization of
graphics and attributes are possible
database of manageable size & sophisticated − Simple
graphics but in which spatial analysis was
− easy to manage,
− Very often used in CAC (computer assisted
extremely difficult. cartography

Cont’d..
Disadvantages:
 Complex data structures
 Combination of several vector polygon maps or
polygon and raster maps through overlay creates
difficulties
 Simulation is difficult because each unit has a
different topological from
 Display, and plotting can be expensive, particularly
for high quality, color and Cross hatching
 Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons are
impossible
Cont’d…
 Raster methods
 Advantages :-
 Simple data structures
 The overlay and combination of mapped data
with remotely sensed data is easy
 Various kinds of spatial analysis are easy
 Simulation is easy because each spatial unit
has the same size and shape
 The technology is cheap and is being
energetically develop

8

Cont’d…
 Disadvantages :-
 Recognizable structures can be lost and there
can be a serious loss of information
 Crude raster maps are considerably less
beautiful than maps drawn with fine lines
 Network linkages are difficult to establish
 Projection transformation are time
consuming unless spatial algorithms or
hardware are used.
Elevation models
Three main types of elevation models are
used for various purposes:
– DEM-Digital Elevation Models,
– DTM-Digital Terrain models,
– DSM-Digital Surface Models.
Digital Elevation Models (DEM) this is a 3D
representation of the terrain, represented as an
array of points with a certain absolute height,
linked to a common vertical datum, which
filters out and excludes all ground objects,
both buildings and natural (trees and other
types of vegetation).
Cont’d…
 The difference b/n DEM & DTM is that DTM
is a DEM that has been improved with
elements such as break lines and elements
other than the original data to correct artifacts
created using only the original data.
 The DTM is not continuous and it is not a
surface model. From its regularly spaced
contour lines, you can interpolate DTM to
DEM. The DTM presents distinctive terrain
features much better because of its 3D
inflection lines and regularly spaced 3D
points.
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3. TIN Data Model
 Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) is data
model commonly used to represent terrain
heights
 x, y, and z locations, used as measured points
in TIN.
 Result in TIN composed of nodes, lines and
triangulated faces
 TIN used for digital elevation models (DEM)
or digital terrain models (DTM)
 Very efficient way of representing topography
Cont’d…
 DEM are used in digital cartography and
geographic information systems and are the
most common basis for representing terrain.
Digital Terrain Models (DTM)
 In some countries, DTM is synonymous with
DEM and is a 3D representation of the
heights of the earth's surface.
 In the US and other countries, DTM has a
slightly different meaning. The DTM includes
not only heights and elevations, but also other
geographical elements and natural features,
such as rivers, ridge lines, etc.
Digital Surface Models (DSM)
The difference b/n DEM & DSM is that a
digital surface model is a 3D representation of
the heights of the Earth's surface, including
natural or man-made objects located on it.
A DSM is a terrain model that includes a
terrain model, building outlines, vegetation
items, industrial items, and any other items.
The DSM can be obtained automatically from
stereoscopic satellite images, as well as from
stereoscopic digital aerial photographs with
different resolutions.
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Cont’d…
DEM is primarily used in cartography and
geographic information systems and is the
most common basis for digital terrain maps,
DTM is often required for flood planning,
drainage modeling, land use research,
geological and other applications, and in
planetary science,
DSM is useful in 3D modeling for
telecommunications, urban planning, aviation,
landscape modeling, urban modeling, and
visualization applications.
Cont’d…
 Arc is a series of points, joined by straight
line segments, which start and end at a node
and presents linear features
 Node is an intersection point where two or
more arcs meet.
 Isolated nodes, not connected to arcs
represent point features.
 A polygon feature is comprised of a closed
chain of arcs.
 Topology is the critical element that
distinguishes a GIS from a graphics or
automated cartography system.
Cont’d…
 Topology, consists of three elements, namely,
adjacency, containment and connectivity.
 Adjacency describe the geometric
relationships which exist between area
features.
 Containment is an extension of the
adjacency that describes area features which
may be wholly contained within another area
feature, such as, an island within a lake.
 Connectivity is a geometric property used to
describe the linkages between line features.
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2.1.3. Topology (Spatial Relationships)
 Topology is the “way in which geographical
elements are linked together”.
 Topology is how geographic features are
related to one another and where they are in
relation to one another.
 Topology is a mathematical approach that
allows us to structure data based on the
principles of feature adjacency and feature
connectivity.
 It is in fact the mathematical method used
to define spatial relationships.
 The most common topological data structure
is the arc/node data model.
Cont’d…
 Topology is the study of geometrical
properties and spatial relationships & the
CONNECTIVITY of a set of spatial objects.
Spatial objects are defined as points, lines or
polygons.
 Topology is what enables a GIS to emulate
our human ability to discern and manipulate
geographic relationships.
2.2. Sources of GIS Data
The main sources of data for GIS are:
a) Analogue maps and plans;
b) Digital RS images
c) Surveying field notes
d) Aerial photographs
e) Tabular data e.g. census, rainfall, soils etc.
f) GPS receivers data
g) Direct import from other GIS systems
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Cont’d… Cont’d…

The following data sources are widely used: Data source for GIS
Analog maps
 Elevation, soil, land use, climate, etc.
Aerial photographs
 DEM, land use (Urban)
 Satellite image
Ground survey with GPS
 Ground truth information
Reports and publications
 Attributes, statistics

Unit 3
DATUM & COORDINATE SYSTEMS IN GIS
3.1 Concept of Datum
There are four surfaces that geodesists study:
 Ellipsoid/Spheroid:- A mathematical figure
that approximates the shape of the Earth in
form and size, and which is used as a
reference surface for geodetic surveys.
 Geoid:- The Earth in reality is a very
misshapen object. This is called a Geoid.
 The Earth's Geoid is regarded as being equal
to Mean Sea Level.
Cont’d…
 Over open oceans the Geoid and Mean Sea Level
are approximately the same, but in continental
areas they can differ significantly.
 Mean sea level:- is standard/average level of the
sea from w/c all heights measured.
 Terrain:- is the Earth's True Shape.
It is important to recognize that the r/n ship b/n
these four surfaces is not always the same.
Rather, as the below diagram indicates, they
'wobble' around each other.

Cont’d… Cont’d…
The relationship between four Surfaces  A & C show the Earths' terrain as being below
Mean Sea Level - this is equivalent to an area
of ocean.
 B & D show the Earths' terrain as being above
Mean Sea Level - this is equivalent to an area
of land.
 The d/c b/n the Geoid & Mean Seal Level is
much greater than in the ocean and, similarly,
their relationship to the Ellipsoid/Spheroid
varies.
 With an understanding of these four geometric
shapes & their relationships to each other it is
possible to better understand Datums.

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Cont’d…
3.2 Basic concepts of Coordinate system
Datum- is a reference for position on the
surface of the Earth. There are two principal  Geospatial data should be geographically
types of Datums: vertical and horizontal.
i. Vertical datum is a level surface to which referenced ( called geo-referenced or
heights are referred. geocoded) in a common coordinate system.
ii. Horizontal datum is used as a reference for
position.  The reference points are called ground
 Geocentric datum uses the earth's center of control points. Geo-referencing involves two
mass as the origin.
stages:
 The most recently developed and widely used
datum is WGS 1984. 1. Geographic Coordinate System
 It serves as the framework for locational
measurement worldwide. 2. Projected Coordinate System

Cont’d…
1. Geographic Coordinate System
 The True surface of  The GCS is the
 The most commonly used coordinate system
the Earth is not the surface used for
 The Prime Meridian and the Equator are used
smooth ellipsoid as specifying the latitude
to define latitude and longitude shown in the figure & longitude of a point
 Latitude and longitude are defined as: but uneven & rugged. on the earth’s surface.
degrees, minutes, seconds
• Latitude(X) and Longitude (Y) defined using
an ellipsoid, an ellipse rotated about an axis.
• Elevation (z) defined using geoid, a surface of
constant gravitational potential.
• Earth datums define standard values of the
ellipsoid and geoid

Cont’d… Cont’d…
2. Projected Coordinate System Projection is a mathematical transformation
 The development of GIS starts with an used to project the real 3D spherical surface
available map on paper (analogue map). This
of the earth in 2D on a plane sheet of paper.
map therefore represents a projection of 3D in
2D form.
 A two-dimensional coordinate reference system
is commonly defined by (X,Y) axis. But, Every
point that is expressed in spherical coordinates
can be expressed as an X Y Z coordinate.

12

3.3 Map Projections
 To represent parts of the surface of the Earth on
a flat paper map or on a computer screen, the
curved horizontal reference surface must be
mapped onto the 2D mapping plane. This
process is called map projection
 Projections can be described in terms of their:
Class (cylindrical, conical, azimuthal)
Point of secancy (tangent or secant)
Aspect (normal, transverse/oblique) &
Distortion property (equivalent, equidistant
or conformal).
Cont’d…
 The figure below shows the surfaces involved
in these three classes of projections.
Cont’d…
 Oblique projections are non-parallel and
non-perpendicular.
 In a polar azimuthal projection, the
projection surface is tangent or secant at the
pole.
 In an equatorial azimuthal or equatorial
cylindrical projection, the projection surface
is tangent or secant at the equator.
25-Apr-23
1. Class (cylindrical, conical & azimuthal)
The Earth's reference surface:-
 Projected on a map bound around the globe as a
cylinder produces a cylindrical map projection.
 Projected on a map formed into a cone gives a
conical map projection.
 Projected directly onto the mapping plane it
produces an azimuthal or zenithal or planar
map projection.
2. Aspect (normal, transverse/oblique)
 Projections can also be described in terms of
the direction of the projection. This is called
the aspect of a map projection.
 The three possible aspects are normal,
transverse and oblique.
 In a normal projection, the main orientation
of the projection surface is parallel to the
Earth's axis.
 A transverse projection has its main
orientation perpendicular to the Earth's axis.
3.4. Distortions Caused by Map Projections
 The distortion properties of map are typically
classified according to what is not distorted on
the map:
 In a conformal (orthomorphic) map projection
angles (with short sides) and shapes (of small
areas) are shown correctly on the map.
 In an equal-area (equivalent) map projection
the areas in the map are identical to the areas
on the curved reference surface which means
that areas are represented correctly on the
map.
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Cont’d…
 In an equidistant map projection the length
of particular lines in the map are the same as
the length of the original lines on the curved
reference surface (taking into account the map
scale).
Universal Tranverse Mercator (UTM) projection
 The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
projection uses a transverse cylinder, secant to
the reference surface.
 The UTM divides the world into 60 narrow
longitudinal zones of 6 degrees, numbered
from1 to 60.
Cont’d…
 Choice of any data input method depend largely on
the application, available budget & type/complexity
of data being inputted.
Cont’d…
 Data from these sources are costly; lots of
time needed to get data.
2. Indirectly from secondary data sources
through:
1. Data Conversion i.e. converting existing
digital data captured for different purpose to
a format usable in a GIS project.
25-Apr-23
Unit 4
DATA ENTRY, DATABASE, AND
MEASUREMENT SCALE IN GIS
4.1. GIS Data Entry
 It is the operation of encoding data for
inclusion into GIS database.
 It is the first step in using GIS; the success of
any GIS project depend on quality of data
entered into the system.
Methods of entering spatial data into GIS
1. Direct entry from scratch using direct
spatial data acquisition techniques i.e., field
survey data and remotely sensed images.
−This is the primary, and most ideal, way to
obtain spatial data
−This can be done through ground-based
field survey by using remote sensors in
airplanes or satellites.
−Ground-based techniques remain the most
reliable data source; high quality data;
often customized for specific project or use
Cont’d…
 To enter Spatial data, satellite data,
demographic data, transport data etc. in to a
GIS data conversion from its sources required.
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Cont’d…
2. Automatic scanning i.e. using scanning
devices to automatically capture spatial data.
 This requires manual editing to obtain a clean
layer but scanners are generally expensive to
acquire.
Cont’d…
A) Manual digitizing:-
 It is human operator follows features on the
map with a mouse device to trace them and
their location coordinates relative to
previously defined control points.
 Control points ‘lock’ coordinate system into
digitizing data and help the system assign
location to digitized information
Cont’d…
B) Semi-automatic or automatic digitizing
 The image information is obtained from
scanning and stored in digital form and, then
after, converted into vector data
 The vector image is then subjected to shape
recognition program to identify elements such
as straight lines, sharp and rounded, etc.
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Cont’d…
3. Digitization of available paper maps
 This is the process of converting information
on paper maps into a digital format where the
information is organized into discrete units of
data that can be separately addressed
 It is a very cost effective means of obtaining
spatial data.
 Digitizing can be done in two main ways;
namely: manual digitizing and semi automatic
or automatic digitizing
Cont’d…
 Two forms of manual digitizing are on-tablet
and on-screen digitizing
 It is useful for images full of detail &symbols
e.g. Topographic maps.
4.2. GIS Database
What is a database?
 Database is a large, computerized collection
of structured data.
 A database is any organized collection of
data. Some common examples include:
– a telephone book
– T.V. Guide
– airline reservation system
– motor vehicle registration records
– papers in your filing cabinet
– files on your computer hard drive.
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What is a Geodatabase? What is a database management system?

 Is a collection of Geographic dataset of varies
types. i.e. is a comprehensive model for
representing and managing GIS data.
 Is scalable model supported across the
platform.
Why use the Geodatabase?
 It is simple and easy to use
 Robust, customizable framework. (we can
build & manage our own GIS solutions).
 Increased Functionality over other data model.
 Best way to use a complete GIS platform.
 Software designed to efficiently administer
one or more databases.
 A software system designed to:
 Organize that data in a flexible manner,
 Provide tools to add, modify or delete data
from the database,
 Query the data, Produce reports and
summarizing selected contents.
 More advanced DBMS software are:
PostgreSQL,
MySQL and
 Microsoft SQL Server.

Cont’d.. Types of Geodatabase

 What is the ultimate purpose of a  There are three (3) Types of Geodatabase.

database management system? 1. Personal Geodatabase

Single user editing
 Is to transform Stored in MS Access
Size limit of 2 GB
2. File Geodatabase
1 TB per table
Cross platform

Cont’d… 4.3. Measurement Scale in GIS

3. Enterprise Geodatabase
Stored in an enterprise DBMS
Supports multiuser editing via versioning
Extremely large datasets
 There are 4 measurement scale in a GIS.
1. Nominal Level:-
 Nominal data are items which are
differentiated by a simple naming system.
 The data can be categorized but there is no
order between the categories.
 Example
The number pinned on a sports person.
A set of countries.
Gender,
Ethnicity,

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Cont’d…
2. Ordinal Level:-
 Items on an ordinal scale are set into some
kind of order by their position on the scale.
 We can categorize and rank data in an order,
but we can not say any thing about the interval
b/n the rankings.
Examples
Small, medium, large,
The first, third & fifth person in a race.
 Language ability ( beginner,
intermediate, Fluent)
Cont’d…
4. Ratio
 In a ratio scale, numbers can be compared as
multiples of one another.
 We can categorize, rank, infer equal intervals
b/n neighboring data points and there is a true
zero point.
 True zero means lack of variable of interest.
Example
Height
Weight
Age
Analysis Procedure
 Before starting any analysis, the ff.ing
procedures should be considered.
 Establish the objectives and criteria for the
analysis.
 Prepare the data for spatial operations.
 Perform the spatial operations. e.g.
creating buffering zones around features
 Prepare the derived data for tabular
analysis.
 Perform the tabular analysis.
 Evaluate and interpret the results.
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Cont’d…
3. Interval Level:-
 Interval data (also sometimes called integer)
is measured along a scale in which each
position is equidistant from one another.
 We can categorize, rank and infer equal
intervals b/n neighboring data points, but
there is no true zero point.
 Is used for numeric items
Examples
My level of happiness, rated from 1 to 10.
Temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit.
Unit 5
5. SPATIAL DATA ANALYSIS
5.1. Definition of Spatial Analysis
 Spatial Analysis is the process of deriving
information from one or more layers of
spatial data.
 Spatial data answers the question "where?“
 Spatial data analysis answers the question
"why is it there?”
 Spatial analysis is the process by which we
turn raw data into useful information
5.2. Types of GIS spatial Analysis
1. Spatial measurements
 Spatial measurements can be the distance
b/n two points, the area of a polygon or the
length of a line or boundary.
2. Data Retrieval {or selection}
 Data retrieve is the process of identifying
and extracting data from a database based on
a query provided by the user.
 For a GIS to answer the question "what is
where?" we need to carry out retrieval or
selection.
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Cont’d…
5.3. Spatial overlay
 "Geographic search or selection is the secret 5.3.1 Vector overlay
to GIS data retrieval"  Vector overlay consists dissolve, clip,
a) Selection by Attribute:-
merging, intersect, union, etc.
 Searches by attribute are controlled by the
capabilities of database manager. Find is  Dissolve:-Aggregates features based on
intended to get a single record. specified attributes.
b) Selection by Location:-  E.g.
 Spatial selection is to extract specific
features based on their location.
 The form of select used most is buffer
operation.
 Buffering is a spatial retrieval around points,
lines, or areas based on distance.

Cont’d… Cont’d…
Clip:- Merge
 Extracts input features that overlay the clip  Combines multiple input datasets of the
features. same data type into a single, new output
 We Use this tool to cut out a piece of one dataset.
feature class using one or more of the features  This tool can combine point, line, or polygon
in another feature class. feature classes or tables
 E.g,  E.g.

Cont’d… Cont’d…
Intersect Union
 Computes a geometric intersection of the  Computes a geometric union of the input
input features. features.
 Features or portions of features which  All features and their attributes will be
overlap in all layers and/or feature classes written to the output feature class.
will be written to the output feature class.  E.g.
 E.g

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Cont’d… Cont’d…
Buffer Analysis 5.3.2. Raster overlay
 Creates buffer polygons around input  Raster overlay consists arithmetic
features to a specified distance. operators, logical operators/Boolean
operators, etc.
 Used for site suitability analysis.
 Raster overlay analysis gives a ranking of
suitability.
 To perform site suitability analysis,
converting vector data to appropriate raster,
re-classify them and perform mathematical
operations are needed.

UNIT 6 Cont’d…
PRESENTATION OF GEOGRAPHIC  Common elements of a map are the title, map
INFORMATION body, legend, north arrow, scale bar,
6.1. Concept of Map in GIS acknowledgement, and map border.
 Maps are graphic representations of the real  Other elements that might be added are name of
world or part of it. the map projection (CRS); datum, coordinate
system, dates, producers/custodian.
 It is a GIS visualization technique, in a) Map body:
addition to reports, charts and tables.  Is the most important part of the map because it
contains the map information.
 Map elements, which are components of a
 The other elements support the communication
map, should be well arranged/designed for process and help the map reader to orientate
effective communication. himself and understand the map topic.

Cont’d…
Cont’d…
b) Map Title:
d) Map Legend:
 Is the name of the map  a map legend is used to provide a key to all
the symbols used on the map.
 It is very important b/c it is usually the 1st thing a
 It contains icons, each of which will
reader will look at on a map. represent a type of feature represented in the
map.
 It should be short but give the reader a first idea of
e) North arrow:
what the map is about.  A north arrow (also called a compass rose) is
c) Map Border: a figure displaying the main directions,
North, South, East and West.
 The map border is a line that defines exactly the  On a map it is used to indicate the direction
edges of the area shown on the map. of North.

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Cont’d…
f) Scale:
 The scale of a map is the value of a single
unit of distance on the map, representing
 distance in the real world.
 The scale can be expressed in several ways,
for example, in words, as a ratio or as a
graphical scale bar.
g) Acknowledgment:
 In the acknowledgment, it is possible to add
text with important information.
Cont’d…
h) Graticule and Grids:
 A graticule is a network of curved lines
overlain on a map to make spatial orientation
easier for the reader.
 The lines can be used as a reference.
 As an example, the lines of a graticule can
represent the earth’s parallels of latitude and
meridians of longitude for geographical
coordinate system.
 Grids can also be applied for projected
coordinate system instead of graticules.

6.2. Types of Maps

1. A general Map:
 Aims at showing the location of places.
o Example, street maps and Regional maps.
2. A thematic Map:
 Aims at showing distribution of particular
features and its regional difference.
o Example, physical map, Climate map,
political maps show the boundary of each
country, Agricultural map show the
distribution of farming activities, etc..

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