Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter One

Introduction
Engineering structures are required to support loads and to resist force, and to transfer this loads
and forces to the foundation of the structure.

Structures that are designed by civil engineers includes,Buildings,transmission towers, storage

vessels dams ,retaining walls,etc,structures may be made from a number of different, materials
including steel, concrete wood aluminuim,stone,plastic etc, or from combination of these.
Structures whose major constituent are components are steel are known as steel structures while
those with large timber components are timber structures.

1.1 Types of Steel Structures

Steel structural members can be used for the following types of structures

Frames:-
 Industrial buildings
 Multi storey buildings
 Bridges

Trusses
 Bridges
 Buildings

Plate Girders:
 Bridges
 Buildings
Plate type structure
 Bridge deck
 Shell
 Folded plate
 Gas holders and tanks
 Reservoirs for the storage of liquids
Towers
 Transmission towers
 Microwave towers

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1.2 Structural members

Structural members can be classified as tension or compression members, beams beam-columns,
torsion members or plates according to the method by which they transmit the forces in the
structures

1.3 Structural Design

There are three overall objectives to be met if a structural design is to be satisfactory:

I. To provide structure to meet functional requirement

II. To select structural members and frames to support loads
III. To satisfy economic requirements

The above objectives can be satisfied by using suitable materials, appropriate design and
detailing and specifying quality control procedures for construction.

1.4 Design Methods

Three Design methods evolved in practice

1. Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

2. Plastic Design
3. Limite State Design

Allowable Stress Design

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A member is selected that under expected loads, known as service loads the stress will not
exceed a certain permitted or allowable stress.
Structures are analyzed by elastic theory and sections are sized so that the permissible stresses
are not exceeded
Plastic Design method
Plastic theory is developed to take account of behavior of past the yield point, is based on finding
the load that causes the structure to collapse, then the working load is the collapse load divided
by
load factor.
Plastic design is a special case of limited state design; wherin the limit state for strength is the
achievement of plastic moment strength. Plastic moment strength is the moment strength where
all fibers of the cross sections are at yield point.

Limit State Design(LSD)

Limit state is a design philosophy under which a structure or part of structure is considered unfit
for use when such limiting condition is exceed a particular state called limit state.
Two main group of limit state exist:

1. The Ultimate Limit State (ULS)

This is reached when the structure or part of a structure collapses. The collapse may be due either
loss of equilibrium or stability, or to fail by rupture of structural members

2. The Serviceability Limit State (SLT)

This is reached when the structure, which remaining safe, becomes unfit for everyday due to
phenomenon such as excessive deformation, cracking or vibration.

1.5 Material Behavior

Steel is one of the most important structural members. The major advantage of steel is high
strength relative to the strength of other common structural materials: wood, masonry and
concrete. Unlike masonry and concrete, which are weak in tension, steel strong in both tension
and compression.Because of its high strength, structural steel is widely used in construction.
The most important properties of steel are yield strength and ultimate strength, modulus of
elasticity (Young’s modulus), shear modulus, Poisson’s, coefficient of thermal expansion, and its
density.

Stress-Strain Behavior of Structural Steel

Typical stress-strain curve for structural steel is shown in Fig. 1.1.It is based on the
application of tensile forces to a test specimen.

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T
The engineering stress-strain curve can be divided into four regions: Elastic region, inelastic or
plastic region, strain hardening and necking and failure.

Elastic Region

In this region the stress is proportional to the strain and hooks law applies(the relationship
between stress and strain is linear) the constant of proportionality is modulus of elasticity or
Young’s modulus(E).E is the slope of straight line from the origin to the proportional or elastic
limit of material. Hooks law apples only upto the proportional limit of the material. The elastic
regin ends when the stress reaches fy ,the yield stress. The yield stress is the stress at which there
is a marked increase in strain with no increase in loads.

Inelastic Region

Once fy is reached the material no longer behaves elastically, even complete removal of the load
will leave some permanent deformation to a specimen. In this region the steel deforms plastically
under a constant stress fy .During this phase plastic flow of the material is taking place, the extent
of which is a measure of ductility of the material. Ductility implies a large capacity for inelastic
deformation without rupture. Generally ductility decreases with increasing steel strength.

The ability of structural steel to deform considerably before failure or fracture allows the
structure to undergo force redistribution when yielding occursa,and it enhance the energy
absorption characteristic of the structure.

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Strain Hardening

Eventually yielding ceases and the yield stress starts to raise as the material strain hardens. The
increase in stress continues until the tensile strength is reached. The tensile strength or ultimate
stress fu is the highest stress, based on the original cross sectional area.

Necking and Fracture

After reaching the maximum stress, a localized reduction in area, called necking begins, and
elongation continues with diminishing load until the specimen breaks.
Three types of structural steels are listed by EBCS3.The yield stress of these steel ranges from
235Mpa for Fe 360 steel to 355Mpa for Fe 510 .As can be seen from table 1.1,the yield stress of
a given grade of steel is not a constant. It varies with plate thickness, very thick structural shapes
and plates have reduced yield stresses.

Table 1.1 Nominal value of yield strength fy and ultimate tensile strength fu for varies grades of
steel

Thickness t(mm)
Nominal Steel t  40mm 40mm  100mm
Grade
fy(Mpa) fu(Mpa) fy(Mpa) fu(Mpa)
Fe 360 235 360 215 340
Fe 430 275 430 255 410
Fe 510 355 510 335 490

The code states that the following values for the elastic properties are to be used:
a) Modulus of elasticity E= 210Gpa
b) Shear Modulus G=80Gpa
c) Poisson’s ratio………………………=0.3
d) Coefficient of thermal expansion =12 x 10-6 per oC
e) Unit mass =7850Kg/m3

1.6 Structural Steel Shapes

A structural steel can be a rolled shape or can be built-up from two or more rolled shapes or
plates connected t by welds or bolts. The more economical rolled shapes are utilized
whenever possible.However, special condition (such as he need for heavier members or
particular cross-sectional geometries) may dictate the use of built up members.

Rolled Sections
Hot rolled sections are produced in steel mills from steel billets by passing them through a
serious of rolls. The main sections are shown in fig.1.2a

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a) Rolled Section

Compound Sections
Compound sections are formed by:

 Strengthen a rolled section such as universal beam by welding on cover

plates.
 Combining two separate rolled sections,as in the case of the crane girder
 Connecting two members together to form a strong combined member
compound sections are shown in fig.1.2b

Built-up Sections

Build-up sections are made by welding plates together to form I,H or Box
members which are termed plate girders, built-up column box girders or
columns,respectively.These members are used where heavy loads have to be
carried and in the case of plate and box girders where long spans may be
required. See fig.1.2c

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b) Compound sections

Fig.1.2 Structural steel Shapes

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