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Acoustic Levitation
November 2019
DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.36559.84646
Thesis for: Physics, Computer Science. · Advisor: Helena Rubio Franco
Authors:
Nadia Brzostowicz
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid
Abstract
The paper explores the notions of Acoustic Levitation using acoustic tractor beams with
both single and double arrays. These devices are able to generate different types of Discover the world's research
acoustic traps allowing the levitation of objects of low density and up to the size of half a
wavelength. For this purpose piezoelectric transducers have been used. Based on Ph.D
Asier Marzo’s investigations, the main aim of this research paper is to prove the
effectiveness of this method and to explore its possible future applications in areas such as
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337170891_Acoustic_Levitation 1/33
30.12.23, 14:25 (PDF) Acoustic Levitation
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Acoustic Levitation. N.
Brzostowicz
N
E
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1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………...………….….….………...….…….3
2. Background………………………………………………………....…………………………....…..…….…...….3
2.1. Historical and mythological references……………………………………………………………….….....………..3
2.2. Development of acoustic levitation………………………..………………………………………………..………..4
2.3. Limitations……………………………………………………………………………………………….….………..4
2.4. Applications………………………………………………………………………………………...……...…………5
2.4.1. Separation and manipulation of particles in fluids………………………………………………...….…...……….5
2.4.2. Acoustic force spectroscopy………………………………………………………………………….…...………..5
2.4.3. Manipulation of PDLCs by SSAW waves……….………………………………………………………………...6
2.4.4. Crystallization of drugs in amorphous forms……………………………………………………….……….……..6
3. Objectives………………………………….…………………….……..………………………………………….6
4. Material and methods………………….…………………...…………………………………………………..7
4.1. Theoretical analysis…………………………...……………………………………………………………………..7

4.1.1. Levitation with two arrays……………………..…………………………………………………………….…….7
4.1.2. Levitation with one array…………………………………………….…………………………………………….7
4.2. Construction and practical analysis………….……………………………………………………….………...…….8

4.2.1. Levitation with two arrays……………………………………………………………………………………...…..8
4.2.1.1. Electronic circuit………………………………………..……………………………………….………………..8
4.2.1.2. Trapping force (levitator performance)…………………….…………………………………………………….8
4.2.1.3. Resistance of the levitator……………………….……………………………………………………………….9
4.2.1.4. Chemical Phenomena…………………..………..……………….………………………………………………9
4.2.1.5. Physical phenomena………………………...……………………………………………………..……………..9
4.2.2. Levitation with one array………………………………………………………………………….………………10
4.2.2.1. Electronic circuit………………………..…………………………………..…………………………….….… 10
4.2.2.2. Strength of the traps (Levitator performance)…………………………...……………………………….….….10
4.2.2.3. Resistance of the levitator………….…………………………………….……………………………..…….…10
5. Results, analysis and

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.………...…...…….……………………….…………………...……....10
Acknowledgments………………………………………….………………....……...…………………….…….....11
Bibliography……………………………………………...………………………………...……..…………........….12
Webgraphy…………………………………………….……………………………..……………………………….12
1. INTRODUCTION
31st European Union Contest for Young Scientists, 2019, Sofia Page 2 of
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Brzostowicz
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The PDF
levitation Download
of objects citation for decades, Copy
has aroused, greatlink
interest on the part of the scientific community. It is a
phenomenon that has been present throughout the history of a large number of civilizations around the world, and still
provokes fascination in today's culture. Due to recent discoveries in these areas, the suspension of particles in air
ceased to be an exclusive occupation of magicians, in order to become a tool that offers a high number of possibilities
in such diverse areas as, for example, electronics, biology, engineering or pharmacy. In recent decades, various tools
have been used in order to counteract the effects of gravity, so today, there are different ways to levitate particles. The
most common examples of levitation are magnetic fields (magnetic levitation), electrostatics (electrostatic levitation),
light lasers (optical levitation), pressure variations in gases (aerodynamic levitation) or acoustic waves (acoustic
levitation). Specifically, acoustic levitation, despite being a relatively recent technique, offers a wide range of
possibilities, diversity of experimental conditions and samples. In addition, the investigations carried out recently have
made it possible for the price of levitators to decrease drastically, since the electronic elements used are easily
acquirable. For all the above reasons, this method is an accessible and affordable way to keep materials suspended in
air, and allow the application of this technology in various areas of science. The objectives of this research project are
to analyze the acoustic levitation technology from a theoretical and practical point of view and build two acoustic
levitation devices, with one and two arrays, respectively, based on the technique developed by Asier Marzo, Doctor in
Computer Science at the Public University of Navarra (Marzo, Seah, Drinkwater, Sahoo, Long and Subramanian,
2015). These levitation systems allow, in addition, to reduce costs, to levitate samples without loading them electrically,
and to make this technology, which is the real of huge and powerful laboratories, accessible to everyone. The
challenges posed by this technology have been the main driving force of this research proyect. The fact of building a
device capable of levitating objects was simply exciting to me. The field of levitation in general is usually considered
as something unique to science fiction and sophisticated laboratories with advanced technology, and yet, controlled
levitation of objects can be obtained simply with speakers capable of emitting ultrasound and a not too complicated
electronical circuit. I also considered it a very good opportunity to increase my knowledge in the field of hardware.
Despite having always seemed a really attractive area to me, my knowledge was not too extensive. However, I can
confirm that currently, thanks to the construction of the levitators, my dexterity with the hardware at least surpasses the
rudimentary. In addition, the fact that the technology behind this project is used in such diverse applications is
genuinely awe-inspiring. Above all, applications in fields such as medicine or pharmacy, where acoustic levitation
presently allows the manufacture of more effective drugs, more successful operations and less invasive treatments, such
as the use of surface wave SSAW devices (standing surface acoustic wave) in cardiac surgery with extra-corporeal
pump. On the other hand, I have always been passionate about physics, which is the basis of this project. It is without
any doubt my favorite area of science, and probably, the field to which I will dedicate myself in the future. However, I
have to say that no matter how well I try to explain the motivation that led me to make this project, and try to justify the
choice made, no argument will overcome the completely irrational appeal that aroused in me from the first moment I
set myself such an interesting challenge.
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2. full-text PDF
BACKGROUND Download citation Copy link
2.1. Historical and mythological references
In spite of the apparent innovation of the idea of applicating acoustic fields in order to levitate samples of objects,
there are abundant references to this type of practices in the past. Moreover, they are not exclusive to a geographical
area or a specific culture, but have been found in Africa, Asia, Europe and Latin America. Despite not having scientific
rigor, they provide a historical basis for the phenomenon of acoustic levitation, implying that the manipulation of
objects with sound is not recent, but has been present in the popular culture of a large number of civilizations. Further
to written references recovered there are numerous legends, ranging from the Mayan culture, to Egyptian and even
Tibetan lore. One of the references belongs to the Old Testament, in the Bible. It corresponds to the Fall of the Walls of
Jericho, event which historians locate around XIII a. C. It was in the city of Jericho, 28 km from Jerusalem, where
according to the Book of Joshua (the successor of Moses), God addressed him, and ordered him to besiege
the city for six days, accompanied by seven priests carrying ram's horns. When on the seventh day the
sound of the ram's horns rumbled on the walls of Jericho, the walls collpased and the city was sacked.
"Jos. 6. 20- So the people shouted, and they blew the trumpets. When the people heard the trumpet sound,
they shouted a loud battle cry, and the wall fell down. So the people went up into the city,
one man after the other, and they captured it. Jos. 6. 21- Then they devoted all in the city to destruction,
both men and women, young and old, oxen, sheep, and donkeys, with the edge of the sword.”
Another example appears in Greek mythology, in Book IX of the Greek geographer Pausanias (2 nd centry AD).
According to these writings, Amphion, son of Zeus and Antiope, together with his twin brother Zethus, conquered
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Thebes, and set to fortify the city, building a great wall and the seven gates of Thebes. While Zethus struggled to load
the blocks of stones, Amphion simply played the lyre in such a way that the stones followed the music and arranged
themselves.
"Pausanias. Book IX. 7. The poet does not say a word about the wonderful voice of Amfion, nor that Thebes built the
walls to the sound of his lyre. For me, I think Amphion considered him such a great musician, because Tantalus'
parents knew the music of the Lydians, and then he had brought harmony between the Greeks, adding to the four
strings of the lyre, three others. 8- However, the author of the poem on Europe, says that Amphion had learned to play
the lyre from Hermes, and that his soothing play made wild animals and stones themselves follow his music"
2.2. Development of acoustic levitation
The discovery of the phenomenon of acoustic levitation dates back to the year 1886, when Augustus Kundt
observed how dust particles were deposited in groups corresponding to the nodes of acoustic pressure inside a glass
tube closed at both ends and held horizontally, to which longitudinal vibrations (acoustic waves) had been transferred
through one of the ends. Currently the Kund’s Tube experiment, and in its time served to study the standing waves, and
then obtain the speed of sound waves that travel through different gases. The stacking of dust at the pressure nodes was
explained by Lord Rayleigh. This physicist and later Nobel prize was first in using the term "Pressure of acoustic force"
in its paper On the pressure of vibrations (Rayleigh, 1902), a theoretical demonstration of the levitation of particles
using acoustic fields. Later, the force of radiation on incompressible spherical particles would be calculated for the first
time by Louis King, who was the first researcher to develop a rigorous theory of acoustic levitation, in his On the
acoustic radiation pressure on spheres (King, 1930). In this document King studied the nonlinear effect 1. These
investigations established the basis for the development of acoustic levitation systems. Subsequently Karl Bücks and
Hans Müller presented a levitation system (Bucks, Muller, 1933) that consisted of a wave emitter and a reflector. A
small particle was levitated at a position slightly below the pressure nodes of the standing wave (due to the effects of
gravity). In this case, a standing wave is generated between the emitter and the reflector, whose number of pressure
nodes depends on the distance between them. Subsequently research by Nikolai Albertovich Fuchs reviewed the
equations that govern the pressure of acoustic radiation in spheres and the response of a spherical particle to acoustic
waves. Fuchs also simplified King's theoretical analysis of particle motion (Fuchs, Daisley, Davies. and Straumanis,
1965). In addition, the investigations carried out by the scientist Lev Petrovich Gor'kov on the force that the acoustic
field exerts on spherical particles (Gor'kov, 2019, online) provided a broader theoretical framework for the field of
acoustic levitation. At the end of the 20th century, various acoustic levitation systems were built. In 1985 Eugene Trinh
presented a compact systemDownload citationlevitation for the
of acoustic Copy link of fluids (Trinh,1985), and later, in 1989 Takaharu
study
Otsuka used a circular vibratory plate as an acoustic emitter capable of producing high acoustic pressures (Otsuka,
Higuchi, and Seya, 1990). At the beginning of the 21st century, J.Xie and B.Wei managed to levitate samples of high
density such as tungsten spheres. They presented their research in the document Parametric study of single axis
acoustic levitation (Xie and Wei, 2001). Since the construction of the first levitator in 1933, acoustic levitation has
offered quite a number of commercial and industrial applications that, in turn, have driven the development of this
technology. Nowadays it is used in a wide range of fields ranging from medicine to architecture, since it enables
materials of any density, and even microorganisms and small animals to be levitated using ultrasonic levitation.
2.3. Limitations
Acoustic levitation allows the manipulation of any type of sample, of any material and density.
Evidence of this is the acoustic suspension of materials such as tungsten (ρ = 19.35 g / cm³) (Xie and Wei, 2001), or
even the densest solid and liquid on Earth, iridium (ρ=22.6g/cm³) and mercury (ρ=13.6g/cm³), respectively (Physical
Review Letters, 2002, online). Yet, this technique has an important limitation. Regarding the size of the particles, these
must be strictly less than half a wavelength. The wavelength will depend on the frequency of emission of the
transducers. However, since waves less than 20 kHz would enter the audible spectrum for humans, emitting waves of a
frequency lower than 20 kHz would be dangerous, for in acoustic levitation, intensities above 150 dB are used, which
correspond to about 1000 W / m2. Given that the human pain threshold is around 140 dB, if these sounds were audible,
experiments with levitators could even break the eardrum of the person who would hear them. This would happen if the
frequency was lowered below 20 kHz, keeping the amplitude equally high. Although a longer wavelength would be
obtained, the experiments would become unviable. Given the wavelength equation: λ = c / f where λ is the wavelength
1The non-linear effect arises in waves of sufficient length, which alter the pressure of the surrounding medium, and
therefore alter their own speed and wavelength, thus suffering a distortion as they travel.
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expressed in meters, c is the velocity of sound propagation in air (344m / s) and f is the frequency expressed in Hertz,
the greater wavelength that can be obtained is 0,0172 m. Therefore, half wavelength corresponds to 8.6 mm, which is
the maximum particle size that can be levitated with this technique.
2.4. Applications
By using acoustic fields it is possible to control the movement of objects with sound waves. In an
acoustic field, objects experience acoustic radiation forces that move them to special regions of the field. Depending
on the physical properties of the samples to be levitated, they can be moved to nodes of acoustic pressure
(regions where the pressure is minimal), or pressure antinodes (where it is maximum). In this way it is possible to
manipulate small objects accurately using sound waves, by controlling the position of the pressure nodes.
2.4.1. Separation and manipulation of particles in fluids
This technology is useful for the separation of lipid particles from erythrocytes. Specifically, the force of acoustic
radiation generated from a surface acoustic wave (SSAW, standing surface acoustic wave) is used for the separation of
different particles according to their size and physical properties. Using a piezoelectric substrate, for instance lithium
quartz or niobate (a niobium, lithium and oxygen compound), a thin hollow polymer tube such as polydimethylsiloxane
(PDMS), a pair of interdigital transducers (IDTs), and applying an electrical signal, a surface standing wave is obtained
on the piezoelectric substrate. This wave is formed thanks to the superposition of the surface waves coming from the
opposing IDTs, and its wavelength and nodal disposition depend exclusively on the frequency, and therefore, in the
case of the IDTs, of the applied voltage. This allows to regulate the position of the nodes and pressure antinodes
controlling only the electrical signal applied to the IDT. Both the density and compressibility of the object to be
levitated determine if it will be conducted to the pressure nodes or antinodes. Since the position of the node is Xn = nλ /
2 where n is the pressure node, λ is the length of the SSAW wave (which in turn depends directly on the frequency of
the applied signal f = c / λ where c is the velocity of propagation of the SSAW wave on the surface of the piezoelectric
substrate), all the pressure nodes can be displaced simply by altering the frequency of the applied signal. The node
displacement Download citation
(Δxn) can be described as Δxn = n (λ1 - λ2)Copy
/ 2 =linkn (c / f 1 - c / f 2) / 2 for a frequency change from f1 to
f2. Therefore, this method makes it possible to simplify the manipulation of particles by simply controlling the
arrangement of the pressure nodes by regulating only the frequency of the applied signal. To demonstrate the
effectiveness and precision that has been achieved with this technique, images 5 and 6 are presented. Both represent the
independent two-dimensional manipulation of particles and cells, in micrometer scales. Image 5 shows a group of
stacked photographs used to demonstrate independent movement in the x and y axes
2.4.2. Acoustic force spectroscopy
Another use of acoustic levitation is to apply this emergent technique to force spectroscopy. The spectroscopic force
measures the behavior of a molecule when subjected to a twisting or stretching force. This procedure has become an
indispensable tool to unravel the structural and mechanochemical properties of biomolecules, such as DNA, proteins
and enzymes responsible for muscle contractions, cell transport, energy generation (e. g. F1-ATPase, used for synthesis
of ATP), DNA collection and transcription (polymerases), as well as enzymes responsible for unknotting and
unwinding DNA (topoisomerases and helicases). These experiments with a single molecule have revolutionized the
study of biomolecules, which at present allows scientists to perform maneuvers such as force-induced denaturation,
directly stretching and unwinding proteins and nucleic acids. This is achieved through magnetic forces (magnetic
tweezers), mechanical forces (atomic force microscopy) and radiation pressure (optical tweezers). All these techniques
work on the same principle: the biomolecule to be studied, such as DNA, has one end fixed to a surface that exerts
tensile or torsional forces on the biomolecule, and the other end adhered to a force sensor, or to a fixed surface, so the
length variation of the biomolecule is measured. However, all these spectroscopic techniques are very complex, so they
require highly specialized personnel for their construction and operation, and their use is restricted mainly to biophysics
in specialized laboratories. Furthermore, most single-molecule techniques allow only a limited number of biomolecules
to be studied simultaneously (often one), which reduces experimental performance and limits statistics. Therefore, the
search for new simpler, more profitable and higher performance methods is essential. Thanks to this research, it has
recently been possible to develop a spectroscopic technique using the strength of acoustic waves. The so-called AFS
(Acoustic Force Spectroscopy), allows the manipulation of up to thousands of biomolecules simultaneously, in a stable
manner and with simpler systems. This method of manipulating a single molecule with acoustic force spectroscopy
uses acoustic forces to stretch multiple molecules individually bound between a surface and a microsphere, and allows
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the application of controlled forces to induce important conformational changes such as overstretching and mechanical
(denaturation) display of DNA and protein biomolecules (images 10 and 11). The fundamental part of the AFS
technology lies in a very thin glass channel filled with fluid (through which the wave travels), with a piezoelectric
element that generates ultrasonic sound waves. These resonant acoustic waves are used to exert forces on micrometer-
sized spheres with a different density than the surrounding medium, such as polystyrene or silica microspheres, which
in turn exert force on the biomolecule to be investigated. This AFS technique can help disseminate research on
individual molecules, from specialized research laboratories to more generalized areas such as molecular biology and
medical diagnosis, as well as greatly increase the performance of the experiments given the possibility of investigating
a large number of biomolecules simultaneously.
2.4.3. Manipulation of PDLCs by SSAW waves
In recent years, polymer dispersed liquid crystals (PDLC) have been used in many applications, due to their unique
property of being able to regulate the amount of light that can pass through them. The main characteristic of these
crystals is that by altering the disposition of the liquid crystals inside the polymer, they are capable of going from a
transparent to opaque state, and vice versa. Inside the PDLC sheets, the liquid crystals (LC) are trapped in a transparent
polymer medium, thus forming LC drops on a micrometric scale. The PDLC sheet can be changed from opaque to
transparent using SSAW acoustic waves, altering the orientation of the liquid crystals inside. This is achieved by
generating acoustic waves through two IDT transducers. Figure 12 shows the arrangement and the operating principle
of the PDLC device driven by SSAW. A PDLC sheet is between two identical IDTs, which are deposited on a
piezoelectric substrate with a parallel arrangement. By applying a suitable voltage to the IDT, an optimum resonance
frequency can be selected for the driving frequency. Under a given resonance frequency, characteristic of each PDLC
sheet, the LC molecules can be reoriented perpendicular to the substrate and the transparent sheet returned. When the
operation of the Download
IDTs ceases, citation
the sheet Copy
returns to its opaque link with the liquid crystals oriented randomly. Therefore,
state,
the transparency of the PDLC film can be changed with acoustic waves. This effect is really useful, thus being able to
revolutionize the world of intelligent windows.
2.4.4. Crystallization of drugs in amorphous forms
Recently a new way to use sound waves to levitate small individual drops of solutions containing different
pharmaceutical products has been discovered. At the molecular level, the structures of drugs are divided into two
categories: amorphous or crystalline. Amorphous drugs are usually absorbed more efficiently by the body than
crystalline drugs (this is because amorphous drugs are more soluble, due to their weak intermolecular bonds, so they
are more easily assimilated by the body, which in turn allows a lower dose to produce the desired effect on the patient).
Currently, most medications on the market are crystalline, so they are not completely absorbed by the body and are not
being used efficiently. However, obtaining pharmaceutical products from the solution in an amorphous state is a
complicated task. If the solution evaporates while in contact with a container, it is much more likely to solidify in its
crystalline form. Therefore, it was necessary to perform this process without a container in order to obtain amorphous
drugs. Using acoustic levitation techniques, it has been established that solutions of different drugs in suspension,
dissolved in ethanol or acetone can be evaporated and then form supersaturated solutions and then amorphous drugs.
Furthermore, this technique allows to isolate the reagent and inhibit contamination by impurities that could be present
on the surfaces of the containers. The development of this method would allow the reduction of the amount of drug
necessary to obtain the desired therapeutic benefit, thus achieving one of the greatest challenges when it comes to drug
development. The reduction of the amount of drugs would not only benefit the pharmaceutical industryin terms of
reducing production expenses, but it could also be beneficial for the health of patients, because taking smaller doses of
medication, mostly assimilated, will prevent these from damaging organs like the liver and being deposited in the body.
3. HYPOTHESES AND OBJECTIVES
This paper will try to analyze the phenomenon of acoustic levitation both from a theoretical and practical point of
view. In order to achieve this, two acoustic levitators will be built, whose operating principle differs due to the
arrangement of the transducers. This will allow to examine their ability to maintain samples in suspension, subjecting
them to a series of tests. This way, it will be possible to verify in a practical way the possibilities and limitations of a
pair of simple and resistant levitators, made with inexpensive components. In addition, it is intended to carry out a
series of physical and chemical experiments in order to visualize the properties and possibilities of acoustic levitation,
as well as to analyze the current applications of this technology in different fields of science. The hypothesis of this
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work consists, therefore, in the building of simple and effective levitators that allow us to analyze significant samples
and whose performance is independent of external conditions.
4. METHODS AND MATERIALS
In the first place, levitation with two and one arrays has been analyzed from a theoretical point of view, to later build
two levitators based on these principles. Then these have been subjected to a series of tests to determine their
performance and resistance. Finally, chemical and physical experiments have been conducted to visualize on a small
scale the applications that acoustic levitation already has and may have in the future.
4.1. Theoretical analysis
4.1.1. Levitation with two arrays
The acoustic levitation of particles in devices with two arrays is possible thanks to the force of acoustic radiation
produced by a standing wave. For levitation to occur, we need the levitated particle to be at a distance multiple of half a
wavelength, that is L = n (λ / 2) = n (c / 2f) where n = 1, 2, 3... is a whole number, c is the propagation speed of the
30.12.23, 14:25 g ( ) ( f) (PDF) Acoustic Levitation p p g p
wave, f is the frequency and
λ is the wavelength. As already
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mentioned above, as these are inversely proportional, the
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particle, in theory, will levitate at a point where the pressure amplitude is minimum and the velocity of the particle is
maximum. In practice, however, it results in a slight downwards displacement of the sample from the pressure node and
the speed antinode of the standing wave. This is because the gravitational forces deviate a minimum amount below the
point node. Nevertheless, this effect does not have true repercussions on the experiments, because up to now tests with
particles of very little mass have been done, due to the previously discussed limitations in size, so the deviation was not
significant. If it happens that the particle, due to an external disturbance, changes position, the standing wave will apply
a restoring force to restore the initial position. A simile can be made between the restoring force around the equilibrium
position and the restoring force of a spring, due to its stored elastic potential energy. The particle will present a damped
harmonic motion after being displaced from its equilibrium position. In this project, specifically, a single-axis levitator
was made, with relatively low-cost components and composed of two arrays with 72 electroacoustic piezoelectric
transducers. (image 13). The particles are trapped in the nodes of the standing wave. The image 14 is a simulation of
the generated acoustic field, inverting the polarity of the transducers of each matrix; Each circle represents a transducer
of 10 mm in diameter and the color represents the emission phase of the transducers (two conduction signals are
required, one in each matrix, to produce the vertical movement of the traps, which will be explained later). Image 14
shows the pressure field of a standing wave, produced, as explained, by inverting the polarity in each matrix. It is this
type of pressure field with which all the experiments and tests related to the levitator of two arrays will be carried out.
However, if the polarity is inverted in each half of the matrix, as shown in image 15 (opposite polarities of the
transducers marked in each half of the matrix, in blue and red) this generates a twin trap (image 16) composed by two
regions of high pressure with a region of low pressure between them, creating "acoustic tweezers" that hold the particle
from the sides. The acoustic traps will be explained more thoroughly in the levitation with a single matrix, because in
this model only the pressure field of the standing wave will be used. The green dot indicates the position of the pressure
nodes, and the dashed blue line in image 15 indicates the plane of images 14 and 16.
4.1.2. Levitation with one array
In the levitator with two arrays, the particle is trapped in the nodes of the standing wave, formed by superposition of
the waves coming from the transducers of the opposite arrays. The places where the samples levitate are called traps. In
the case of the previous levitator, these were arranged on the central axis of the levitator, coinciding with the points of
minimal pressure of the standing wave (nodes). If the levitator has a single array, no standing waves are used, and there
are different types of traps capable of levitating samples. These acoustic traps are made by adjusting the modulation of
the transducers, and can be analyzed depending on the origin of the forces exerted. These are the radiation forces,
which can be generated by pressure gradients (amplitude) and by velocity gradients. To analyze these traps, a team of
researchers from the Public University of Navarra (UPNA) led by Dr Asier Marzo, Ph.D in Computer Science
developed a new method using holographic acoustic elements. That is, to obtain a hologram of the trap, obtaining an
image
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Download levitation position,
citation and
Copy linkis based on the velocity and pressure gradients, by
developing a free software opened to researchers from different fields that are working with ultrasonic levitation with
12
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piezoelectric transducers (Ultraino). It has been possible to represent the three types of traps made by this team using
acoustic holograms in the form of tweezers (twin traps), in the form of a tornado or vortex (vortex traps) and in the
form of a bottle (bottle traps) ( images 17, 18 and 19). By altering the phase modulation, the position of the traps can be
changed and the particles rotataed. Different levitation points can be created as well. When the holographic model is
rotated, the structure of the trap and the trapped particles also rotate. The traps transfer the orbital angular momentum to
the levitated particle in the same direction in which they are rotated, thus enabling to control the direction of rotation of
the particles. When half of the matrix is excited out of phase, the twin traps are produced. When a central circle (of
transducers) is excited out of phase, a trap is produced in the form of a bottle, and when a helical phase ramp is
imposed (progressively traversing the entire spectrum of phase modulations, from -π to + π in all matrix transducers) it
results in a vortex trap. Most designs focus on twin traps, since vortices can only levitate small particles without them
being ejected, and bottle-shaped traps have relatively weak lateral forces. However, it should be noted that the acoustic
levitators of a single matrix can be altered with relative ease to generate any type of trap. Specifically, in this levitator,
by exciting each half of the matrix transducers (12 out of the 24 total) in opposite phases, twin traps are generated, with
which all the tests of yield, capture force and resistance to temperature and humidity conditions will be carried out.
4.2.
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full-text PDF and practical analysis
4.2.1. Levitation with two arrays
4.2.1.1. Electronic circuit
The acoustic levitation system with two arrays (ANNEX I) consists of a control panel and a single-axis levitator
with 72 transducers (Manorshi, MSO-A1640H10T) arranged in two arrays, each with 36 transducers ( image 20). Each
15.6 cm radius matrix has 3 rings of 6, 12 and 18 transducers. As a preliminary step to the welding of the transducers to
the array, it is necessary to mark their polarity, since it is often erroneously marked at the factory. In order to do this, an
oscilloscope is needed. Each pin of the transducer is connected to an alligator clip, in turn connected to the
oscilloscope. The polarity of the signal generated is checked on the oscilloscope screen after introducing a thin metal
wire inside each transducer, so that it touches the piezoelectric ceramic plate. The polarity will be important when
soldering the transducers, because for the levitator to work it is necessary that all of the transducers are oriented in the
same way. The transducer is removed from the center in order to leave an exit route for levitated liquids that fall. This
number of transducers generates enough force to levitate samples of interest. Inexpensive, commercially available
electrical elements are used to build the control panel. Square waves are used as the excitation signal since they are
easier to generate compared to sine waves. Applying square waves is a common practice since the transducers have a
resonant behavior, and therefore the output is almost sinusoidal. A voltage of 9V DC (direct current) is used, controlled
by a switch and a Driver (controller) L297N Dual H-Bridge which supplies a voltage of 5V to an Arduino Nano board.
The Arduino Nano board is programmed (ANNEX II) to generate 5V square wave signals and then amplify them in the
Driver to obtain 12 V that allow the piezoelectric transducers to generate a 40 kHz frequency. One of the two channels
that feeds the matrices remains in constant phase, while the phase of the other channel (that of the opposite matrix) is
inverted with respect to the first to generate the standing wave. Once the construction of the levitator has been
completed, a housing is built (ANNEX III) ( image 21), using a sheet of 5mm wood agglomerate, whose functions
include the protection of the electronic components and the support of the levitator. In addition, using a DC-CC Boost
converter, 4 LEDs (2 white light and 2 UV), another two position switch and a 20 kΩ potentiometer, the effective
regulation of the voltage with which the driver is powered is achieved. Because of an overload in the Arduino Nano due
to an error during the construction of the levitator, this was replaced by an Arduino Uno board, although this change did
not affect the operation of the levitator (image 22). It should be noted that accurately determining the polarity of the
transducers is of paramount importance, since all of them are in series (so that the intensity received by each transducer
is the same), and if the polarity of one of them is inversely marked, the whole row of transdcers will malfunction,
preventing the subsequent levitation of objects, as it occurred during the construction of this levitator. Because of this,
all the transducers had to be desoldered and their polarity checked again. Then they were introduced in the matrix and
were welded again.

4.2.1.2. Trapping force (levitator performance)
The main performance measure of the levitator is the maximum density of the particles that it can levitate. If the
particles are in the Rayleigh scattering regime (smaller than half the wavelength), then the capture force is proportional
to the volume, so only the density limits the samples that can be levitated. To measure the performance of the levitator
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Brzostowicz
experimentally, samples of various densities were placed in the levitator, connected to a DC power supply (EP-613A
DC) that allowed to adjust the input voltages. Starting from a voltage of 9 V in each levitated sample, it was gradually
reduced until the sample fell out of the trap. The graph (image 23) has been made to visualize the relation between the
density of the samples and the minimum voltage necessary for them to levitate. Six samples of different densities have
been represented together with their respective voltages. Ordered from lowest to highest density the samples are: Ethyl
alcohol 98% (# 1), water (# 2), polystyrene (# 3), silicone (# 4), magnesium (# 5) and aluminum (# 6). The levitation
capacity of a 1mm diameter tin sphere has been tested, however, the suspension has not been effective due to the high
density of this element (ρ = 7.31 g / cm3). In addition, with the usual input voltage (9V) it has been able to levitate
small insects, among them the fruit fly (Drosophila Melanogaster) and other insects, which could be of interest for
possible applications in areas related to biology (image 24).
4.2.1.3.
Download full-textResistance
PDF of the levitator
The tests with the levitator proved that it works effectively from the moment it is turned on, and for long periods,
adequately resisting changes in temperature in the environment. The continuous and stable levitation of samples for
more than 2 hours was measured by the suspension of several drops of solutions of sugar water and its subsequent
evaporation, thus forming sugar crystals of approximately 1 mm in diameter. Its resistance to changes in temperature in
the environment was measured by placing a soldering iron (350 ° C) at 1 cm of the sample for 20 minutes, observing
that the sample remained trapped stably. After which time the experiment was stopped as a precaution, because the
arrays in which the transducers are incorporated are made of plastic, and this could be damaged when subjected to high
temperatures.
4.2.1.4. Chemical Phenomena
In order to visualize the properties and practical applications of acoustic levitators, a series of chemical experiments
in acoustic suspension have been carried out.
A) Oxidation of magnesium
In this reaction we proceeded to take pieces between 1 and 4 mm of magnesium tape, to later place them on the axis
of the standing wave. Once they were stably levitating, a drop of hydrochloric acid of concentration 37% in weight was
applied with a syringe. What happened between the reagents was a redox reaction, in which the magnesium oxidized,
passing from the oxidation state 0 to +2, losing 2 electrons. In turn, hydrogen from hydrochloric acid was reduced,
passing from oxidation state +1 to 0, gaining 1 electron. As a product of this reaction, magnesium chloride (which in
this case was observed as a dark layer on the surface of the magnesium ribbon) and hydrogen were obtained. The
molecular hydrogen, being a gas, escaped into the atmosphere, and from the water of the hydrochloric acid solution,
water vapor was formed, which evaporated to form white smoke. Furthermore, a curious phenomenon was observed.
Since the energy of the molecules of the products is lower than the energy of the reactant molecules, the reaction
carried out was an exothermic reaction, that is, it releases energy through different means (heat, light, movement...).
When the reaction took place inside a pressure node, it exerted forces on the magnesium sample with acid to keep it
inside. However, as the reaction progressed, it began to release energy, exerting a force on the surrounding
environment. This force was lower than that applied by all the transducers of the levitator, so the magnesium sample
began to rotate inside one of the nodes of the standing wave. In this way, rotating at high speed and being hindered by
the acoustic pressure field, a figure in the form of a circumference could be seen on the axis of the levitator (ANNEX
IV) (images 25 and 26).
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of polystyrene
In this experiment, pure acetone drops were added to a polystyrene sphere, previously deposited in one of the nodes
of the standing wave. What could be observed (ANNEX V) is that it visibly decreased its size, since it dissolved in
acetone. This is due to the nonpolar nature of the reagents. Since both acetone and expanded polystyrene (EPS) are
derived from petroleum, whose polarity is very small, both reactants are not very polar and, therefore, miscible with
each other. When mixed, the acetone dissolves the polystyrene, and on the sphere of EPS bubbles are formed, generated
from the hydrogen that is inside the polystyrene foam,
and introduced in the process of expansion of the material to increase its volume (images 27 and 28).
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Brzostowicz
4.2.1.5. Physical phenomena
During the tests with the levitator some interesting physical phenomena have been observed.
A) Reflection
SincePDF
Download full-text the transducers used in the citation
Download levitators emit at a frequency
Copy link of 40 kHz, the sounds of this should be inaudible to
the human ear. However, when approaching the levitator we can hear a characteristic sound of very high frequency
(although less than 20 kHz). This is because acoustic waves are reflected in the transducer arrays and in nearby objects,
which decreases their frequency to the audible range. Testing with different materials it has been proved that the greater
effect of resonance is perceived by introducing aluminum foil between the two arrays (ANNEX VI).
B) Extinguishing the fire
The acoustic pressure field generated by the ultrasonic waves creates a difference in pressure with respect to
atmospheric pressure. In the acoustic field, during the phase of rarefaction of an acoustic wave, the molecules of air are
compressed and generate a pressure higher than atmospheric. In the case of the built levitator, the pressure will depend
on the intensity applied to the transducers. The acoustic pressure generated by the levitator is high enough to extinguish
small fires (ANNEX VII), which could be very interesting when patenting extinguishing systems that work based on
the principles of acoustic pressure (images 29 and 30)
4.2.2. Levitation with one array
4.2.2.1. Electronic circuit
The acoustic levitation system with one array (image 31) consists of a hemispherical plate printed in 3D with 24
piezoelectric transducers (MSO-A1640H10T), and piece of PVC on which is arranged the electrical circuit. The plate is
110 mm in diameter, and a height of 41.5 mm. Inside, the transducers are introduced, directed towards the focal point,
where the particle will subsequently be levitated. This point is indicated approximately 1.8 cm. above the surface of the
parabolic matrix, in the center. The twin trap (double trap) is introduced by inverting the polarity in the emitters of one
half of the matrix with respect to the opposite half. In the interior of the hemispherical plate there are, in total, 4 rows of
transducers, two in each half, with 4 independent signals in total. The rows are composed of 5 and 7 transducers,
resulting in 12 transducers in every half, and 24 in total. An Arduino Nano board is used, programmed (ANNEX VII) to
generate a signal of 40 kHz and 5 Vpp, which in turn is sent to a controller L298N to amplify it up to 25 Vpp. This
Arduino board is powered by a 7.3 V battery. This same battery powers the controller, and the voltage is upgraded from
7.3 V to 25 V through a DC-CC Boost converter in order to supply the transducers. The 24 of are 16. mm in diameter
and have a frequency of 40 kHz. When being distributed in the internal surface of the plate, the waves emitted by each
one of them come together in a single point, located to certain height, as it has been explained previously, (1,8 cm) by
the top part of the plate.
4.2.2.2. Strength of the traps (Levitator performance)

The performance of the device is experimentally shown by levitating a 1 mm polystyrene sphere with a tweezers-
shaped trap 1.8 cm above the surface of the array. The force of the levitator with one array is inferior to the force of the
standing wave (two arrays). That is the reason why only polystyrene could be levitated. By progressively decreasing
the voltage, it was concluded that the minimum signal for obtaining levitation is 14 V, because, although the frequency
remains constant, the acoustic pressure generated by an emitter (transducer) is proportional to the voltage. If the
generated acoustic pressure decreases, the strength of the acoustic waves emitted by the transducers decreases and
therefore the levitated sample falls.
4.2.2.3. Resistance of the levitator
Given the lower strength of the single-arrayed levitator when it comes to keeping materials of densities higher than
that of polystyrene in suspension, it has not been possible to levitate dissolution, nor to keep a hot weld nearby, since
the polystyrene is not able to withstand high temperatures. However, it has proven its ability to levitate particles for
12
Brzostowicz
extended periods of time. As in the levitator with two arrays, a particle of polystyrene has been kept in suspension.
Despite the heating of the Driver heat sink, everything worked correctly and the sample could be levitated
uninterruptedly for two hours.
30.12.23, 14:25 p y (PDF) Acoustic Levitation

5. RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS
In this research project, two durable acoustic tractor beams have been made using inexpensive electronic
components, and a simple electronic circuit. The result of the research on the construction and operation of the acoustic
levitators has allowed to analyze in a practical and theoretical way the physical principles on which these devices are
based, and by comparing different aspects and characteristics between the acoustic levitators of one and two arrays.
From this comparison, it has been demonstrated that levitators with two arrays (standing wave) are much more
effective when levitating different types of samples. The theoretical and practical analysis of these devices has allowed
us to obtain an overview of acoustic levitation, as well as its applications and its enormous potential in virtually all
fields of science. The versatility of this technique has several aspects. On the one hand, it allows the manipulation of
particles regardless of their shape and physical-chemical properties, and of lengths ranging from the micrometer to
several millimeters. Its precision, versatility and biocompatibility make this technique an excellent platform for studies
in a large number of areas ranging from chemistry, medicine or biology, to fields such as engineering or physics. In
addition to its current success in innovative and complex laboratory techniques, and its enormous potential yet to be
explored, it has been possible to demonstrate in a visual and tangible way, through simple physical experiments, the
practical nature of these devices. Thanks to its simplicity in comparison with other levitation techniques, these small
devices could serve as an educational tool to explain the properties of waves and acoustic fields in a less abstract way.
This would facilitate student learning, and would also make technology more accessible to a greater number of people.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank all my teachers, family and friends who have helped me during this project, giving me their
help and support. Special mention to my great friend Angel Hector Acosta, for helping me and encouraging me
throughout the project. I also want to thank my teachers, especially Julio Sánchez, Visitación Vacas, María Dolores
García, Alberto Martín, and my classmate Iván López. To Julio for allowing me to use the technology workshop and
the material I needed to prepare the project and helping me solve the problems that I encountered. To Visitación and
María Dolores for helping me with the theoretical framework and lending me the necessary reagents for the reactions.
And to Alberto and Ivan for printing the array for the levitators on the 3D printer. In addition, I have to thank my tutor
Helena Rubio for her patience and corrections. Also to the faculty of Physical Sciences of the UCM, and especially to
Julio Serna and José Luis Contreras for inviting me to present my project in the General Physics Laboratory, and for
showing me and explaining all those experiments that have allowed me to get a better understanding on the subject of
waves, and physics in general. To my uncle Wojciech Polkowski, for providing me with very useful sources during the
realization of the project, as well as for always being willing to help me despite the 2819.8 km that separate us. And of
course, I have to thank my mother Małgorzata Brzostowicz, and my father, Bartłomiej Brzostowicz, for providing me
thefull-text
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money and genetic
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Copy link me to carry out this project.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Papers:
1:Bucks, K. and Muller, H. (1933). ber einige Beobachtungen an schwingenden Piezoquarzen und ihrem
Schallfeld. Zeitschrift fur Physik, 84(1-2), pp.75-86.
2: Ding, X., Lin, S., Kiraly, B., Yue, H., Li, S., Chiang, I., Shi, J., Benkovic, S. and Huang, T. (2012). On-chip
manipulation of single microparticles, cells, and organisms using surface acoustic waves. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences, 109(28), pp.11105-11109.
3: Fuchs, N., Daisley, R., Fuchs, M., Davies, C. and Straumanis, M. (1965). The Mechanics of Aerosols. Physics Today,
18(4), pp.73-73.
4: King, L. (1930). On the acoustic radiation pressure on spheres. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A
- Mathematical and Physical Sciences, 147(861), pp.212-240.
5: Li, S., Ma, F., Bachman, H., Cameron, C., Zeng, X. and Huang, T. (2017). Acoustofluidic bacteria separation.
6: Marzo, A., Seah, S., Drinkwater, B., Sahoo, D., Long, B. and Subramanian, S. (2015). Holographic acoustic
elements for manipulation of levitated objects. Nature Communications, 6(1).
7: Otsuka, T., Higuchi, K. and Seya, K. (1990). Ultrasonic Levitation by Stepped Circular Vibrating
8: Trinh, E. (1985). Compact acoustic levitation device for studies in fluid dynamics and material science in the
laboratory and microgravity. Review of Scientific Instruments, 56(11), pp.2059-2065.
9: Xie, W. and Wei, B. (2001). Parametric study of single-axis acoustic levitation. Applied Physics Letters, 79(6),
pp.881-883.
10: Xie, W., Cao, C., Lü, Y., Hong, Z. and Wei, B. (2006). Acoustic method for levitation of small living animals.
Applied Physics Letters, 89(21), p.214102.
Articles in journals:
11: Berry, M. and Geim, A. (1997). Of flying frogs and levitrons. European Journal of Physics, 18(4), pp.307-313.
12: Spruce, G. and Pringle, R. (1992). Polymer dispersed liquid crystal (PDLC) films. Electronics
& Communications Engineering Journal, 4(2), p.91.
g g , ( ), p
WEBGRAPHY
13:En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Acoustic levitation. [online] Available at:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustic_levitation [Accessed 18 Aug. 2018].
14:Es.wikipedia.org. (2018). Tebas (Grecia). [online] Available at: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tebas_(Grecia)
[Accessed 13 Aug. 2018].
15: JW.ORG. (2018). Josué y los muros de Jericó | Historia bíblica. [online] Available at:
https://www.jw.org/es/publicaciones/libros/historias-biblicas/3/muros-de-jerico/ [Accessed 13 Aug. 2018].
16: wiseGEEK. (2018). What is a Piezoelectric Transducer? (with pictures). [online] Available at:
https://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-piezoelectric-transducer.htm [Accessed 16 Aug. 2018].
Contributions in electronic texts and databases:
17: Gor'kov, L. (2019). On the Forces Acting on a Small Particle in an Acoustical Field in an Ideal Fluid. [online]
Adsabs.harvard.edu. Available at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1962SPhD....6..773G [Accessed 13 Jan. 2019].
18: NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS) - Microgravity Science and Applications Program Tasks, 1984 Revision.
2018. NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS) - Microgravity Science and Applications Program Tasks, 1984
Revision. [ONLINE] Available at: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19860000586. [Accessed 23 Jul. 2018].
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19: Physical Review Letters. 2018. Phys. Rev. Lett. 89, 104304 (2002) - Levitation of Iridium and Liquid Mercury by
Ultrasound. [ONLINE] Available at: https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.89.104304. [Accessed
20 Jul. 2018].
20: Rayleigh (1902). XXXIV. On the pressure of vibrations. [online] Taylor & Francis. Available at:
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14786440209462769 [Accessed 1 Aug 2018].
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2.1. Historical and mythological references……………………………………………………………….….....………..3

2.2. Development of acoustic levitation………………………..………………………………………………..………..4

4. Material and methods………………….…………………...…………………………………………………..7

4.1. Theoretical analysis…………………………...……………………………………………………………………..7

4.2. Construction and practical analysis………….……………………………………………………….………...…….8

5. Results, analysis and

2.1. Historical and mythological references

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2.2. Development of acoustic levitation

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2.4.1. Separation and manipulation of particles in fluids

2.4.2. Acoustic force spectroscopy

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2.4.3. Manipulation of PDLCs by SSAW waves

2.4.4. Crystallization of drugs in amorphous forms

3. HYPOTHESES AND OBJECTIVES

4. METHODS AND MATERIALS

4.1. Theoretical analysis

4.1.1. Levitation with two arrays

4.1.2. Levitation with one array

4.2.1. Levitation with two arrays

4.2.1.1. Electronic circuit

were welded again.

4.2.1.4. Chemical Phenomena

4.2.1.5. Physical phenomena

B) Extinguishing the fire

4.2.2. Levitation with one array

4.2.2.1. Electronic circuit

4.2.2.2. Strength of the traps (Levitator performance)

4.2.2.3. Resistance of the levitator

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13:En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Acoustic levitation. [online] Available at:

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Conference Paper Full-text available

Mechanically amplified piezoelectric acoustic transducer

July 1997 · The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America

John Priest · Mathew G. Schmidt

Piezoelectric and Acoustic Materials for Transducer Applications

Ahmad Safari · Enver Koray Akdogan

Conference Paper Full-text available

Development of Piezoelectric Transducers for Acoustic Levitation

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