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Published by
A U S T R A L I AN MATHEMATICS T R U S T
ENRlCHMENT SERlES
EDlTORlAL COMMlTTEE
The books in this series are selected for the motivating, interesting
and stimulating sets of quality problems, with a lucid expository style
in their solutions. Ty pically, the problems have occurred in either
national or international contests at the secondary school level.
ENRlCHMENT SERlES
1 2 MATHEMATICAL TOOLCHEST
AW Plank Et NH Williams
4 1 N BOOK 2 1985-1991
AUSTRALIAN MATHEMATICS COMPE1110
PJ O'Halloran, G Pollard Et PJ Taylor
1 10 CHALLENGE! 1991-1995
JB Henry, J Dowsey, AR Edwards, U M ottershead,
A N akos Et G Vardaro
I
11 USSR MATHEMATICAL OLYMPlADS 1989-1992
AM Slinko
with at least two solutions, and sometimes more than two; this feature of
the book we consider important enough to be reflected in the sub-title.
It is obvious that various ways of approach to any problem provide a
better understanding of its nature, reveal several aspects of the relevant
topics and teach various techniques.
Now, it can always be questioned whether a different solution is a really
different one. In some rare cases, it can be justly considered as such.
In many cases, it cannot - and this is evident at first glance. And in
most other cases- also not; the "second" method can use other sym
bols, language, terminology, it may look quite unlike the "first" one, and
still be, in fact, the same. For instance: is the Law of Cosines any
thing else than operating with vectors and their inner products? Is the
examination of divisibility of polynomials via manipulation in real do
main anything essentially different from complex roots and factorization
technique? Combinatorial arguments, when disguised in the language
of polynomials (in fact, the generating functions of the quantities un
der consideration) , do they really differ from the analogous arguments
presented in pure form, without disguise?
This list can be continued, of course. Viewed from a certain level of
professionalism, all or almost all approaches to a particular olympiad
style problem are just like dressing the same idea in a robe of one or
another colour. What can be, however, immediately recognized by a
mathematician, need by no means be evident to a young student who
just makes the first steps in off-curricular areas of mathematics.
Indeed, we think that - besides getting acquainted with various tools
and tricks supplied by various methods - the reader's own discovery
of the intrinsic uniformity hidden behind apparently distinct ways of ap
proach is the true profit she or he can have from studying those solutions,
and is the best we can offer her or him.
Most of our solutions have been elaborated in detail. The intention was
to make them accessible to a rather wide audience; some readers will
find them unnecessarily lengthy, perhaps. We are sure that the readers'
invention will often go further; no doubt, they will find yet other ways
of resolving this or that problem, possibly more elegant or more general
than the presented ones. So much the better! Satisfaction from a good
job done is the solver's true reward.
( Another kind of satisfaction comes from detecting the authors' errors
and mistakes; these are also very instructive! )
There is one more thing we must mention here. There should be no
surprise if a problem turns out to be identical or very closely related to a
question that had appeared at some other competition or in the problem
section of some journal. It is no secret that problems "circulate" and
Preface ix
2Problems from the Austrian MO: 1, 4, 5, 7, 9-12; 16-19, 23, 28-30, 32-35, 37,
38, 43, 52, 53, 55-61.
Problems from the Polish MO: 2, 3, 6, 8, 13-15, 20-22, 24-27, 31, 36, 39-42, 44-51,
54, 62-64.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
• FOREWORD v
• PREFACE vii
• ACKNOWLED G EMENTS xi
• PROBLEMS
Arithmetic and Combinatorics 3
Algebra 6
G eometry 11
• SOLUTlONS
Arithmetic and Combinatorics 15
Algebra 57
G eometry 117
a�-l + 1
th.
>0 for i == 1, . . . , n,
Problems: Arithmetic and Combinatorics
1. Show that 2<3n) + 1 is not divisible by 17, for any integer n > 0.
2. Let a, b, c be positive integers with the properties: a3 is divisible
by b, b3 is divisible by c, c3 is divisible by a. Show that (a+b+c)13
is divisible by abc.
L ( - 1) k (3k ) is
ln/3J n
3. For every integer n > 2 show that the number
divisible by 3. k =O
(The symbol Lx J denotes the Greatest Integer Function. )
4.
=
Calculate the sum of all divisors of the form 2x · 3 Y (with x, y
of the number N 19 88 - 1 .
> 0)
5 . Show that there do not exist four successive integers whose product
is 1993 less than a perfect square.
6. Show that there are infinitely many positive integers n such that
each one of the three numbers n - 1 , n , n + 1 can be represented
as the sum of two perfect squares.
14. Four numbers are randomly chosen from the set { 1, 2, , 3n} (n . . .
20. We are considering paths (Po, Pt. . .. , Pn) of length n over lattice
points in the plane (i.e., points (x, y) with integer coordinates); for
each i, the points Pi-l and Pi are assumed to be adjacent on the
lattice grid. Let F(n) be the number of those paths that begin in
Po = (0, 0) and end in a point Pn lying on the line y = 0. Prove
that F(n) = e:).
Problems: Algebra
21. Determine all real polynomials P (x) of degree not exceeding 5, such
that P(x) + 1 is divisible by (x - 1) 3 and P(x)- 1 is divisible by
(x + 1) 3.
22. Prove that the polynomial xn + 4 factors into the product of two
polynomials of lower degrees with inte_ger coefficients if and only if
n is divisible by 4.
25. Find all pairs of real numbers a, b such that the polynomials
in real numbers x 1 . . . . , X n·
36. The real numbers ai, bi, ci, di are such that 0 � ci � ai � bi � di
and ai + bi = Ci + di for i = 1,2, . . . , n. Prove the inequality
n n n n
II i
i=l
ai + II bi � II
i=l
C i + II di.
i=l
=l
holds for any real numbers a17 a2, ..., ar. Find conditions for
equality.
41. For a fixed integer n ;:::1 find the least value of the sum
x2 x3 xn
Xl + _1. + __1_ + • · ·+ __!!:
n '
2 3
given that XI, .. . , Xn are positive numbers satisfying
-1 - 1 1
+ +···+-=n.
Xl X 2 Xn
Algebra g
44. Let A and B be real numbers different from zero. Prove that the
function f ( x)= A sin x + B sin ( J2 · x) is not periodic.
45. Find all monotonic functions j: JR.� JR. satisfying the equation
f(4x) - f( 3 x) = 2x for xE JR..
46. A sequence ao, a1. a 2 , .. . of real numbers different from zero is gen
erated according to the rule: a n+l = (a� - 1)/ (2a n )· Show that
it contains infinitely many positive terms and infinitely many neg
ative terms.
48. The sequences xo, x1. x2 , . . . and yo, Y l . Y2 , . . . are defined by:
Xo = YO= 1,
Xn + 2 y� + 2
Xn+l =
Xn + 1'
Yn+l = --- for n =
2Yn
0, 1, 2 , . . .
Show that Yn = X2 " - l for every integer n ;.:::0.
10 Problems
49. Two sequences of integers all a2, a3, . . n and b1, b2, b3, . . are de
. .
53. Let ABC be a triangle, AC =/:. BC. Assume that the internal bi
sector of angle AC B bisects also t_he angle formed by the altitude
and the median emanating from vertex C. Show that ABC is a
right triangle.
59. Let ABC be an isosceles triangle with base AB. Let U be its
circumcentre and M be the centre of the excircle tangent to side
AB and to sides C A and C B produced. Show that
2 ·CU < CM < 4·CU.
12 Problems
63. Do there exist two cubes such that each face of one of them meets
each face of the other one (possibly at an edge or a corner)?
Problem 1
Show that 2W> +1 is not divisible by 17, for any integer n > 0.
Problem 1, Solut ion 1
Problem 1, Solution 2
n
So 23 + 1 is never congruent to 0 (mod 17).
Problem 2
Let a, b, c be positive integers with the properties: a3 is divisible by
b, b3 is divisible by c, c3 is divisible by a. Show that (a+ b + c)13 is
divisible by abc.
Problem 2, S o lution 1
The 13-fold product (a+ b + c)13, when multiplied out, splits into 313
summands of the form
k, m, n � 0 integers, k + m + n = 13 . (1)
It will be enough to show that each of them is divisible by abc. This is
evident when the exponents k, m, n are all positive. So it remains to
consider the case where one of them is zero. Let e.g. n = 0. The product
(1) then becomes
k, m � 0 integers, k + m= 13. (2)
The conditions of the problem imply that a9 is divisible by c and b9 is
divisible by a. Any number of the form (2) can now be represented as the
product of four factors (separated by multiplication dots in the listing
below):
if k= 13 ' m=O akbm = a · a3· a9· 1;
if 10$k $ 12 , 1$ m$3 akbm = a ·b · a9·(ak-10bm-1);
if 1$k$9 , 4$m$12 : akbm = a ·b ·b3 · (ak-1 bm-4);
if k=O , m= 13 akbm = b9·b ·b3·1;
in each case the first factor is divisible by a, the second by b, the third
by c (and the fourth is an integer), and so the product abc is a factor of
akbm. That does the job.
Problem 2, S o lution 2
Let p be any prime divisor of the product abc. Write
a = p01u, (3)
where a, (3, 7 � 0 and u, v, w � 1 are integers non-divisible by p.
Since a3 is divisible by b, the exponents a and (3 satisfy 3 a � (3. Likewise,
3 (3 � 7 and 3 7 � a; and hence 9a � 7, 9 (3 � a, 9 7 � (3.
Let r = min( a, f3, 7 ). We obtain
Arithmetic and Combinatorics 17
(; )
is valid for eve ry integer j, if we agree that
= 0 for j < 0 and for j > n. (2)
An = �(- 1)kC:).
Bn �(- 1)k(3k':_ 1). (3)
Cn = �(- 1)k(3k':_2).
Summation limits have not been indicated; we may assume that ranges k
from oo to oo That will cause no ambiguity because there are only
- .
=
�(-1)kC:)+ �(-1)k(3k�1)
An+ Bn, (5)
Bn+l = �)-1)k(n3k+-11)
k
�(-1)kck�1)+ �(-1)k(3k�2)
Bn + Cn, (6)
and
Cn+l =
�)-1)k(n3k+-21)
k
�(-1)k(3:-2) + �(-1)kck�3)
=
2)-1)k(3kn-2)+I)-1)1+1(3ln)
k
�(-1)k(3k�2)- �(- 1)1(;)
l
Cn - An . (7)
And since A3 1- 1 = 0, B3 -3, G3 -3, obvious induction justi
= = =
fies the claimed relations ( 4).
Remark
It is not hard to derive from (5), (6), (7) the recurrence equation of the
second order for the Ans:
An+2 3(An+l An) for n 1
= - � (8)
(with the initial data A1 A2 1); we invite the reader to do that.
= =
Readers familiar with linear recurrences may like to work out an explicit
formula (on the basis of the system (5), (6), (7) or of the single equation
(8); compare Problem 10, Solution 3). We now show how to find that
formula by a different method.
Problem 3, Solution 2
1.Notation (3) together with the convention (2) is preserved from Solution
z
For any complex number we have by the Binomial Theorem
Arithmetic and Com binatorics 19
where
fn(z) =
�( (�) + (6j:3)z3)z6i,
J
L ((
. 6j-1)+ (6j+2)z3 ) z6j-l '
n n
Yn( z) =
L ( ( 2)+ (
and hn( z) =
. 6j- 6j+1)z3) z6j-2 .
J
n n
j
w6 -2 = w-2- -w· '
and likewise
(1 0) and yield
(1 +a)n=An- Bn(a- 1 )- Cna =�An- ( !An+ Cn)v'3i. {12)
1
On the complex plane, the numbers 0, and a represent the vertices of
an equilateral triangle, which is completed to a parallelogram (rhombus)
20 Solutions
where
2cos(n7r/6) for n=2q,
. /6) for n= 2q+ 1.
2VJcos(n71"
For each n, Kn is an integer; in particular, K3 =0. Hence A3 = 0; and
for n ;::: 4 we have q;::: 2, so An=3q-l Kn is divisible by 3.
Problem 4
Calculate the sum of all divisors of the form 2z 3Y (with x, y · > 0) of the
number N =1988 - 1.
Problem 4 , Solution 1
The only trouble is to determine the highest powers of 2 and 3 that divide
N . This can be done using the Binomial Theorem:
1 988 ( 20- 1)88
(18 + 1 ) 88
= () () ()
88
0
+
88
1
18 +
88 2
2
18 +
88 3 . . .
3
18 + +
88 88
88
18 () ()
1 + 88 · 18 + (terms divisible by 3 4 ) .
L 2"'· 3Y
xE{l,2,3,4,5}
yE{l,2}
5 2
= L::2"'·L::3y
x=l y=l
= (2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32)(3 + 9)
744.
and
198 172 = 289 33
= = (mod 64); (1)
while
1 92 = 361 10 = (mod 27). (2)
The well-known theorem of Euler (sometimes referred to as ge n eralized
Fermat's Theorem) asserts that if a, n are relatively prime natural num
bers, then a<l>(n) 1 (mod n ) , where
=
18. Thus
In particular, 4>(64) = 32 and 4>(27) =
(mod 64) and 19 1 8 1 = (mod 27).
Raising the first of these relations to third power and the second one to
fifth power, we get
(mod 64) and 19 90 1= (mod 27);
or - which is exactly the same -
(mod 64) and 192 19 88
· = 1 (mod 27).
22 Solutions
Show that there do not exist four successive integers whose product is
1993 less than a perfect square.
P roblem 5, S o lut ion 1
Problem 7
Show that the following system of simultaneous equations has no solution
in integers:
x 2 - 3xy + 3y2 - z2 = 31
-x 2 + 6yz + 2z 2 44
2
x + xy + 8z 2 100.
i.e.,
y ( -31x + 30y + 54z) = 606.
This yields the possible values of I YI: 1, 2, 3, 6, 101, 202, 303, 606.
In a similar manner we can eliminate the terms x 2 and xy, multiplying
the first, the second and the third equation of the system by suitable
factors a, b, c; now we need that a - b + c and - 3a + c ( the coefficients
1, b = 4, c = 3, we obtain
A rithmetic a nd Combinatorics 25
i.e.,
31z 2 + 24yz + (3y 2 - 507) = 0.
Viewing this as a quadratic equation with the unknown z, we compute
its discriminant:
D = (24y) 2 - 4 · 31· (3y 2 - 507) = 4(51y 2 + 15717);
then the roots z 1, z2 are: (- 12y ± ..fDJ4)/3l. Thus 51y 2 + 15717 ought
to be a square number in order that z 2 be integers. Yet, for the
ZI,
which is
-x 2 + 2xy - y 2 3, i.e., (x - y) 2 2 (mod 5) .
= =
Yet the square of an integer can only be 0, 1 or 4 ( mod 5); the claim
follows.
Problem 8
Solve the following equation in integers x, y:
x 2 (y - 1) + y 2 (x - 1) = 1.
P roblem 8, Solut ion 1
uv(u + v) + 4uv + (u + v) 1 ,·
uv(u + v + 4) + (u + v + 4) 5 ·,
(u + v + 4) (uv + 1) 5.
26 Solutions
u+v -3 u+v = -5
uv 4 uv = -6
Accordingly, the numbers u and v have to be the roots of one of the four
quadratic trinomials:
t 2 + 9t - 2 j t2 + 5t -6
The two trinomials in the middle (the second and the third) have no
integer roots. The first one has roots 0, 1, and the last one has roots -6,
1. Thus ( u, v) must be one of these two pairs, up to permutation. Hence
the final outcome: (x, y) = (u + 1, v + 1) must be one of the pairs: (1, 2),
( -5, 2), (2, 1), (2, -5).
Problem 8, S olut ion 2
The symmetric shape of the equation suggests introducing the funda
mental symmetric forms s =x + y and q= xy. The equation, rewritten
as xy (x + y) =x 2 + y 2 + 1, takes the form
sq =s 2 - 2q + 1; (1)
q = xy:
X +y = -7 x+y
�
-3]
xy -10 xy 10
(3)
x+y -1 x +y =
xy 2 xy
(they correspond, in a certain order, to the four systems obtained in
Solution 1). The numbers x and y must be the roots of the respective
Arithmetic and Combinatorics 27
quadratic trinomial
t 2 + 7t - 10 j t 2 + 3t - 10 j t 2 - 3t + 2 .
Of these, only the second and the fourth have integer roots; these are,
respectively,. -5, 2 and 1, 2. So (x, y) is one of the pairs (-5, 2), (2, -5),
(1, 2), (2, 1).
Problem 8, Solut ion 3
with discriminant
D = x 4 + 4(x - 1)(x 2 + 1) = x 4 + 4x 3 - 4x 2 + 4x - 4, (6)
which must be a perfect square in order that equation (5) has an integer
root y.
Suppose x > 2. Then the following inequalities hold:
D - (x2 + 2x - 4) 2 2 0(x - 1) > 0,
=
2
D - (x + 2x - 2) 2 -4(x - 1 ) (x - 2) < 0,
showing that D is strictly comprised between the squares of two skip
consecutive integers x 2 + 2x - 4 and x 2 + 2x - 2. Therefore D has to be
the square of x 2 + 2x - 3. This, however, cannot be the case, since this
or y = -5. So (2, 1) and (2, -5) are all pairs of integers ( x ,. y ) with
last number is of different parity than D (see (6)).
The only possibility that remains is that x 2. Equation (5) then be
=
x > 1, satisfying the equation. Symmetry yields two other pairs (1, 2)
and ( -5, 2); and there are no more- as the argument shows.
P roblem 8, Solut ion 5
Assume that the integers x, y satisfy the equation. Its left side is the
sum of two addends, one of which must be 2:: 1 and the other one � 0.
Let e.g. y 2 ( x - 1) 2:: 1, x 2 (y - 1) � 0. Then x 2::2, y # 0, y � 1.
If y = 1, then of course x = 2 (just look at the equation).
Assume y < 0 for the sequel (remember that y 0 has been excluded).
=
x(8 + 2) (8 - x) = 8 2 + 1.
Expanding and regrouping,
8x 2 - x 3 - x 2 + x 3 - 28x 2 + 8 2 x - x 2 + 28x - 8 2 1;
=
Equality f (x) = 0 implies that both inequalities in (7) must turn into
equalities. Now, f(x) = ! (2) means that x = 2, while s2 = 9 means that
s = -3. Hence y = s- x = -5. Recalling the case of y = 1 (mentioned
=
Regarding the second case, we now have z3 = y2 = x > 0. Since x, y,
z have to be integers, z3 = y2 forces that z is itself a perfect square:
z = u2, with u being a positive integer. Thus y = ±u3, x u6. By =
:
{
z6 (y2 +x)z3 + (y4 xy 2 + x2)
= _ _
2 2n + 2 2n + 1 = (2 n + 1) 2 ,
·
k = 0, 1, 2, . . , n 1 we obtain
. -
Arithmetic a nd Combinatorics 31
q2 - 3q + 2 0, = (3)
and to postulate X n = Aa n + B (3 n , where a and (3 are the roots of that
equation (provided they are distinct). Now, equation (3) has roots a = 2
and (3 = 1, yielding X n = A 2 n + B. From the initial data xo 0, x 1 = 1
· =
we get
A + B = 0, 2A + B = 1.
Thus A = 1 and B = -1, i.e., X n 2 n - 1. As in the first solution, we
hence obtain Yn (2 n + 1) 2 .
=
If one prefers (unwisely enough) to work out a recursive formula for the
Yn S, that is also possible. Squaring the equation that defines X n+2 we
obtain
x;+2 = 9x; + l - 12x n X n+ l + 4x ;,
whence by setting x� Yn - 2 n+2 and denoting X n X n+l by Zn :
=
This simplifies to
12zn = -Yn+2 + 9Yn+l + 4 yn - 18 · 2 n+2 . (4)
Consider Zn+l :
Zn+l = X n+1 X n+ 2
= X n+l (3x n+l - 2x n )
=3x�+ l - 2x n X n+l
=3(Yn+l - 2 n +3) - 2zn .
32 Solutions
Multiply this by 12 and insert expression (4) ( and the analogous expres
sion for 12z n+l ) :
-Y n+ 3 + 9y n +2 + 4Yn+l - 18 · 2 n+3
36(Yn+l - 2 n+3) - 2( -Y n +2 + 9Y n+l + 4yn - 18 · 2 n+2 ).
The powers of 2 cancel out and we are left with
Problem 11
The sequence (a n } i s defined recursively by
ao = 1 , for n = 2, 3, 4, . . . .
Show that each a n is an integer.
Problem 11, Solution 1
We proceed by induction. The first t hree terms ao = 1 , a1 = 2 and a 2 = 5
are integers. Fix n � 3 and assume that the aks are integers for all k :::; n ;
we will show that a n+l i s a n integer also. According t o the defining
formula, a n - 1 (a;_ 2 + 1)fa n -3 i thus
=
Arithm etic a nd Combinatorics 33
The numbers an- 1 . an- 2 , an- 3 are integers, by the inductive assumption.
The last formula shows that an-1 and an- 2 are coprime. Now,
a! + 1 =
and hence
All the aks occurring in this equality are whole numbers. So the prod
uct (a� + 1)a�_ 2 is divisible by an-1 · And since an- 2 and an-1 are
coprime numbers, an-1 has to be a divisor of a� + 1. Consequently,
an+l = (a� + 1)/an_1 is an integer. This completes the inductive step.
P roblem 1 1 , S o lut ion 2
According to the definition,
Replacing n by n + 1 we obtain
This shows that the sequence ((an + l + an-1) /an) is constant . It begins
with (a2 + ao)/a1 = (5 + 1)/2 = 3, and hence (an+l + an-d ian = 3 for
all n ; equivalently,
an +1 = 3 an - an-1 for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Since ao = 1 and a1 = 2 , this forces that all the ans are integ�rs.
34 Solutions
Fi( n - 1 ) + 1
F2n = for n = 2, 3, 4, . . .
F2 (n-2 )
equivalently,
where a 1+-
= -- 1--
v'5 , f3 = -- v'5
2 2 .
( Readers not familiar with this expression may like to derive it from
the recursion (1) , employing the techniques described in the solution to
P roblem 10, this book. ) Notice that a + f3 = 1, a - f3 = v'5 , a /3 = -1.
Thus
a4n -2 _
( a f3) 2n-3 ( a 4 + /3 4 ) + f3 4n-2
5
a 4n -2 _
2 ( a f3) 2n - 1 + f3 4n-2
5
Arithmetic a nd Combinatorics 35
4 ) 2 + ,8 4
= a - 2(a,B
5
(a - ,8) 2 = 1 ·
= 5 '
equality (3 ) results, proving our claim (2). It j ust remains to use the fact
that the Fibonacci numbers are integers.
Problem 12
Find all functions f mapping non-negative integers into non-negative
integers and such that f (f ( n)) + f ( n) = 2n + 6 for every integer n � 0 .
P roblem 12, Solut ion 1
Suppose f satisfies the given equation
J (f(n)) + f(n) = 2n + 6 n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
for (1)
Assuming f(n) = f(m) for some n, m � 0 we get f(f(n)) = j(f(m)),
whence by (1) n = m. Thus f i s injective. Denote:
f(O) = a, f ( a ) = b, f ( b ) = c, f(c ) = d, f ( d ) = e. (2 )
Setting in (1) n = 0 , a, b, c we obtain, respectively,
b + a = 6, c + b = 2a + 6, d + c = 2b + 6, e + d = 2c + 6. (3)
If a were zero, all the numbers in ( 2 ) would be zero, in contradiction
to b + a = 6. So a =I= 0 , and by injectivity f(a) =I= f(O), i.e. , b =I= a. Since
a + b = 6, we see that a =I= 3.
Subtract the first equation of ( 3 ) from the second, the second from the
third, and the third from the fourth:
injectivity.
If q = f(1) = 1, contradiction with equation (7) is evident.
If q = !(1) = 5 then, by (7), ! (5) = 3. Setting in equation (1), first,
n = 5, and then n = 3, we obtain
! (3) + f (5) = 16 and !(!(3)) + !(3) = 12;
hence f (3) = 16 - ! (5) = 13 and f(f(3)) = 12 - f (3) = - 1, a contradic
f (n) = n + 2 for n = 0, 1 , 2, . . . .
and it is readily verified that this function indeed satisfies t he given
equation (1).
Arithmetic and Combinatorics 37
that is,
r k+l + 2r k - 6 = 0,
where r k = a k +l - a k . Write r k = X k + 2; the equation becomes
in (11) is negative for large even m ; and if xo < 0 then it is negative for
large odd m.)
Therefore xo must be 0, whence ro = 2; i.e. , a 1 - ao = 2. This i n view
of definition (9) means that f(n) - n = 2.
38 Solutions
to know their values! Just note that if A # 0 then the term 2k is negligi
=
The ideas of the Solution 1 and Solutions 2/3 can be neatly combined
to produce a fourth one. Consider the sequence of iterates (9) and their
recursion equation (10):
Arithmetic a nd Co mbinatorics 39
a3 3a l - 2ao,
a4 6ao - 5a l + 18,
a5 = lla 1 - 10ao - 12,
as 22ao - 21a l + 54,
a7 43a l - 42ao - 72,
(15)
In the Solutions 2 and 3, the sequence (a k } was generated by an arbitrary
initial term ao = n. Now let us take n = 0 and n = 1, and denote the
resulting sequences (a k } by (P k } and (q k }:
P 5 = llp l - 12,
P6 54 - 21p l ,
qs = 76 - 21%
q7 43q l - 1 14.
These numbers have t o be non-negative. So w e get the two-sided esti-
mates:
12 < p < -
- 54 1 14 < q < -
76
1 1 - l - 21 ' -
43 - l - 21 '
Each one of these intervals contains only one integer, and hence p 1 = 2,
q 1 = 3. Formulas (15) applied to (a k } = (P k } and (a k } = (q k } now pro
duce
PO = 0, Pl = 2, P 2 = 4, P3 = 6 ( and so on )
and
qo = 1, q 1 = 3, q2 = 5, q3 = 7 ( and so on ) .
The general rules P k = 2k and q k = 2k + 1 are easily guessed and equally
easily proved by induction, based on the recursion formula ( 14 ) . Restate
them more explicitly as:
P roblem 13
Assume this is not the case. Take an integer k with 2 k > na for all
nice n. Let q be the (unique) integer such that qa < 2 k :::; (q + 1)a. Set
r = 2 k - qa; thus 0 < r ::5 a.
There i s a (unique) integer j � 0 for which
equivalently,
(2i q + 1 ) a 1 < 2H k :::; (2 i q + 1 ) a.
-
xJ. �2 + a -2 1 ( 1 - �2J ) or J 0 1 2 )
Case 3. 1/2 ::; r < aj2. Define
= �' . - !I ! ! ! • • •
·
a - 1 ( 1 - -:-1 )
a - 1 ( 1 - -.1 - ) < na - 2 k < -1 + --
=
In each of the three cases we have found a nice number m greater than
n. It follows that there are infinitely many nice numbers.
Problem 13, S olut ion 3
Consider the binary representation of 1/a :
� (O.c1c 2 c3 . . . ) 2 with C k E {0, 1} for k = 1, 2, 3, . . . . (1)
a =
m a n integer,
k T k E ( ! , 1] .
Recalling that 1 < a < 2, we get
with T k .+ -a1 E (1, 2).
Hence
1
2 k a1
· - � m k + 1 < (2 k + 1) · a , -
42 Solutions
1 1
- + - = 1. (2)
a b
The reasoning will be based on the well-known theorem which says that
if a, b are any positive irrational numbers satisfying equation (2) then
the sets
A= { lna J : n E N } and B = { l nb J n E N }
:
nb = 2 k + r, r E (0, 1 ) irrational.
There exists a (unique) exponent j ;:::: 1 such that 2ir E ( 1 , 2). We claim
that 2 k+i E A . Suppose not ; then 2 k+i E B, i.e. , 2 k+i = Lm bJ for some
m E N:
m b = 2 k+i + s , s E (0, 1 ) irrational.
Hence
(2i n - m ) b = (2i +k + 2i r) - (2 k+i + s ) = 2i r - s .
The number on the right side belongs to the interval (0, 2) ; that on the
left is a multiple of b > 2. This is obviously a contradiction. Thus,
indeed, 2 k+i E A ; the proof is complete.
Arithmetic a nd Combinatorics 43
Remark
There exists numbers a > 2, arbitrarily close to 2, such that the set of
integers "nice with respect to a" is finite.
Take for instance a number whose reciprocal has the binary representa
tion
1
-;;= (0.0 � � 1 � 1 � 1 . . . . . . ) 2
m
where m � 1 and m i > m for each �-
m. The first binary digit of u after the point is either a zero or a one
followed by a block of mi zeros (for some i). In either case, the "fractional
part" of u satisfies the estimate
c' = { c1 + 1
sets in that family.
Define the operation c �--+ c', acting in {1, 2, . . . , 3n}, by
c < 3n, if
c = 3n if
- the cyclic shift ( mod 3n). To each set C E :F assign the set
c ' = {c' I c E C}.
Remark
= 4?
{ 1 , 2, . . . , 3n } (k fixed, 1 :::; k :::; 3n) .
If n is even, the tiling is trivially possible. Thus let n be odd and suppose
the chessboard has been tiled as described. In each 3 x 3-tile, colour blue
the three cells (unit squares) adj acent to its left edge, colour red the three
cells adjacent to its right edge, and colour green the three cells in the
middle; the 2 x 2-tiles remain uncoloured.
Enumerate the columns (vertical lines) of the board 1 through n. S up
pose there are b i blue cells, 9i green cells, ri red cells and u i uncoloured
1, . . . , n.
cells in the i-th column. Clearly, Ui is even, and the sum b i + 9i + ri + Ui
is equal to n 2 , an odd number. Therefore
=
bi + 9i + ri = 1 (mod 2) for i = (1)
The right neighbour of a blue cell is a green cell; the right neighbour of
. - 2;
a green cell is a red one. Thus b i = 9 i + l ri + 2 and we restate relations
( 1 ) as
= 0, . . . , n - 3.
or - which is the same -
In the two leftmost columns of the board there are no red cells ; so
r1 = r 2 = 0, and relations (4) imply
Ti 0
= ( mod 2 ) for i non-divisible by 3. (5)
In the rightmost column there are no blue or green cells; so b n = 9 n = 0,
whence by (1): T n = 1 ( mod 2 ) . This in view of conditions (5) shows
that n must be divisible by 3.
In conclusion, if the board can be tiled as required, then n is divisible by
2 or 3. The converse implication is obvious.
Problem 1 5 , S o lution 2
The easy "if" part results from "uniform" tilings, using tiles of only one
of the two kinds. It is however worth noticing that if n > 6 is divisible
by 3 or 2, then one can tile the n x n-board actually using at least one
tile of either kind ( the reader may try to show that ) .
Problem 1 6
The four points can be distributed between the two bases of a prism in
two fashions: 3 + 1 or 2 + 2.
First case ( 3 + 1): Choose three points out of four ( this can be done in 4
ways ) ; they span a triangle, which we take for the base of a prism . Link
A rithmetic a nd Combinatorics 47
the fourth point with one of the vertices of that base (3 possibilities) ;
the connecting segment will be a side edge of the prism , which is thereby
fully determined.
Second case (2 + 2): S plit the given set of four points into two pairs
(there are 3 ways to do that) ; label the points in one pair A, B and
those in the other C, D . The points A, B are supposed to lie in one
=
base of the prism under construction, and C, D in the other. Take one
of the segments AC, AD, BC, CD to be a side edge of the prism (4
possibilities ) ; again, the prism is determined.
Thus we can construct 4 3 12 prisms of the first type and 3 4 = 12
· ·
prisms of the second type, and this gives 24 as the final outcome.
Problem 16, Solution 2
PR , PS or Q R , QS or PR, QS or PS, Q R.
This defines four possible cases. We claim that in each case the prism is
uniquely determined.
In each one of the first two cases, we have already one base triangle (and
the side edge P Q ) ; translate that triangle by the corresponding vector
(PQ or QP) to get the other base.
Consider the third case, with P Q , PR, QS being edges of the prism.
=
Complete the p&allelograms P Q R'R and PQ SS' (note that R' =f. S and
S' =f. R) ; the points R' and S' are the remaining two vertices of the prism.
The fourth case is analogous.
We see that, on the total, there exist 6 4 24 triangular prisms with
·
edge. ) Show that there are at least 494 white squares in S. Moreover,
show that 494 is the exact bound.
Problem 17, S o lution 1
If every two squares in a certain set can be linked (within that set) by
a path consisting of consecutively adjacent squares, we will say that the
set is connected.
We are going to prove a fact slightly more general than requested:
For any positive integer n, the number of white squares in every con
nected set of n squares is not smaller than (n - 1 )/4.
This is trivially true for n = 1, 2. Fix an integer n > 2 and assume
inductively that the claim holds for all positive integers smaller than n.
Take any connected set S composed o f n squares.
Define the distance between two squares as the minimum number of
edges one has to cross while going from one square to the other, along an
admissible path (within S) . Choose and fix a pair of squares A, B E S
whose distance is a maximum; denote their distance by m . ( Since n > 2,
m > 1.) Thus there exists a path CoC 1 . . . Cm - 1 C m , composed of squares
Ci E S, with Co = A, Cm = B. Remove from S square Cm - 1 together
with those squares adj acent to C m - 1 whose distance from A is exactly
m. Denote by S' the set that remains.
Note that square Cm - 2 has not been removed (its distance from A is
m - 2 and not m ). So we have removed at most four squares, and hence
I S' I = n' � n - 4.
One of the squares C m - 1 and C m is white, and these two squares have
been moved from S ; so there is at least one white square in the set S \ S'.
We now show that S' is connected. Choose a square D E S'. There exists
a path EoE 1 . . . E k- 1 E k in the set S, with Eo = A, E k = D ; of course,
k :::;m (by the maximality of m ) .
Squares Eo, E 1 . . . . , E k- 2 obviously belong to S' (the distance from A to
each of them is less than m - 1 , so they have not been removed from
S in the formation of S') ; the question is whether E k- 1 also belongs
to S'. S uppose not. The only removed square distant from A by less
than m is C m - 1 · Hence Ek- 1 = C m - 1 and k = m. But then the square
D = Ek , adjacent to Ek- 1 , i.e. , to Cm - 1 , has distance m from A ; and
this means that this square should have been removed - contrary to its
choice (D E S') .
S o every square D E S' can be linked with A within S'. The connect
edness of S' follows and the induction hypothesis applies: there are at
least ( n' - 1 ) / 4 white squares in S'. And since S \ S' contains at least
one white square, we conclude that the number of white squares in S is
A rithmetic a nd Combinatorics 49
I
L i
i=l W
w 1+
>
I
-1 L: n i
4 i= l
1
=
4 (n - 1 ) ,
completing the induction step.
The claim i s proved. For an argument that for n
1976 the bound
r(n -
=
Problem 18
Consider a n alphabet consisting o f three symbols a, b, c. How many
n-character words with the following properties ( 1) and (2) can be com
posed?
Consequently
i.e.
(3)
The initial ans are: a 1 = 1, a 2 = 0 ; a few subsequent terms are computed
using (3) :
Remark
The explicit formula (4) could be derived from (3) without guessing,
by the usual method of solving linear recursions (compare Problem 10,
Solution 3, for instance) .
� (n �: � k ) 2 k+l
� (n - :
=
) 21+2
2 � n - : - l 2 1+1
- l
=
=
( )
= 2a n-1 (for n 2:: 4) ,
52 Solutions
I n Pi I = (
iEK
n - k)! (2)
= n ! - IU Pi I ·
A permutation is feasible if and only if it does not belong to any Pi ·
Thus
n
F (n )
i=2
By the Inclusion-Exclusion Principle, and in view of equality (2),
n n
= L I Pi l - L I Pi n P; l + . . . + (-1) n-1 1 n Pi I
i= 2 i <i i= 2
n-1
L:c- 1) k +l L: 1 n Pi I
k =1 KC{2, .. ,,n} iEK
I K I =k
n-1
(n - 1)! L (- 1) k +l n k.� k .
k=1
Consequently,
n-1 n-k
n-1 n-k
F (n) = n! - (n - 1)! L (-1) k + 1 - 1
k.
- = (n - 1)! L( - 1) k -- .
k.1
k =1 k =O
For n = 9 this quantity evaluates to 148329. This is the number sought.
54 Solutions
Problem 20
We are considering paths ( Po, P1 , . . . , Pn ) of length n over lattice points
in the plane (i.e. , points (x, y) with integer coordinates) ; for each i, the
points Pi-1 and Pi are assumed to be adjacent on the lattice grid. Let
F (n ) be the number of those paths that begin in Po = (0, 0) and end in
a point Pn lying on the line y = 0. Prove that F (n) = e:) .
Problem 20, Solut ion 1
f (n , k) = f (n - 1, k - 1) + 2f (n - 1 , k) + f (n - 1 , k + 1 ) . (1)
{�
There exists only one feasible path of length 0 (both its endpoints coin
ciding with the origin) . So
for k = 0,
f (O , k ) = (2)
for k =f. 0.
k= . . . -4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4
n=O : 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 : 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 0
2 : 0 0 1 4 6 4 1 0 0
3 : 0 1 6 15 20 15 6 1 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
g (n, k ) = ( ) 2n
n+k
for n, lkl = 0, 1, 2, . . . (3)
( ) ( ) ( )
( � ;� ) ( � ;� ) C ;:)
2n 2n - 1 2n - 1
g (n, k) = +
n+k n+k-1 n+k
n
+2 +
n 2 n 1 n
{�
g (n - 1 , k - 1 ) + 2 g (n - 1 , k) + g (n - 1 , k + 1 ) ; (4)
and moreover,
for k = 0 ,
g (O, k ) = (5)
for k #- 0 .
The recursion formulas ( 1) and ( 4) for .f and g are the same, and so are
the initial values (2) and (5) . So the guess (3) was correct. Hence, in
particular,
if � = [1 , 0] , then c 2j - l = 1 , c 2 j = 0 ;
if � = [0, 1] , then C 2j - 1 = 1 , c 2j = 1 ;
if Pj-lPj = [- 1 , OJ , then C 2j-1 = 0, c 2j = 1 ;
if Pj - l Pj = [0, - 1] , then c 2j-l = 0, c 2 j 0 .
=
(x 2 + X + X + 1) (x 2 + X + X + 1) · · · (x 2 + X + X + 1) (6)
Problem 21
Determine all real polynomials P ( x) o f degree not exceeding 5, such that
P(x) + 1 is divisible by (x - 1) 3 and P(x) - 1 is divisible by (x + 1) 3 .
Problem 2 1 , S olution 1
Let P(x) be as required; then
b - 3a = p + 3a,
c - 3b + 3a = q + 3p + 3a,
- 3c + 3b - a = 3q + 3p + a,
3c - b = 3q + p,
-c = q + 2.
Luckily enough, this system of five equations with five unknowns is quite
easy to solve and yields
P(x) = (x - 1) 3 (- i x 2 - �x - 1 ) - 1,
P(x) = (x + 1) 3 (- ix 2 + �x - 1) + 1.
Each of them produces the final formula P(x) = - ix 5 + �x 3 - 1;x,
defining the unique polynomial with properties a s needed.
58 Solutions
P(x) = -
Assume x n + 4 = F(x)G(x),
where
F(x) = A (x - z 1 ) · · · (x - z k ), G(x) = B (x - Z k+ t ) · · · (x - Zn ) ,
with non-zero constants A and B, satisfying A B = 1. The factors F ( x)
and G ( x) are assumed to have positive degrees and integer coefficients.
So 0 < k < "n and A = B = ±1. The free terms of F (x) and G (x), equal
respectively to (-1) k Az 1 · · · z k and (-1) n -k Az k+ l · · · z n , should also be
whole numbers. Their absolute values 4 k / n and 4 ( n -k ) j n are comprised
strictly between 1 and 4 (as 0 < k < n) , and their product is equal to 4.
Hence, each of them equals 2, which means that k n/2, and we arrive
=
Pn (x) = x 2n + (x + 1) 2n + 1
is divisible by the trinomial T (x) = x 2 + x + 1 .
Problem 23, Solution 1
Note that T (x - 1) x 2 - x + 1 , and so
=
x 2n+6 + (x + 1) 2n+6 x 2n (x + 1) 2 n
_ _
x 2n (x 6 - 1) + (x + 1) 2n ( (x + 1) 6 - 1)
is divisible by T( x ) , for every integer n 2: 0. Since
Po(x) 3, P1 (x ) = 2T (x) , P2 (x ) = 2T(x ) 2 ,
=
Algebra 61
and
Pn (f3) = (f3 2 f + ((/3 + 1) 2 f + 1
equals j ust an + {3 n + 1.
V'lriting a natural number n in the form n = 3 k + r , with r being 0 , 1 or
2, we obtain
Pn (f3)
{3
= a 3k +r + {3 3k+r + 1
= a r + {3 r + 1
=
if r = 0,
0 if r = 1 or r = 2.
Conclusion: T(x) divides Pn (x) if and only if r ¢. 0 (mod 3) .
P roblem 24
and thus
x 7 - x 6 + x 5 + x 2 - x + 1 = (x 2 - x + 1) { x 5 + 1) .
It is evident from (1) and (2) that the divisibility of Pk (x) by x 5 + 1 is
equivalent to the divisibility of the polynomial
j ust as needed.
Problem 25
Find all pairs o f real numbers a, b such that the polynomials
P (x) = x 4 + 2ax 2 + 4bx + a 2 and Q (x) = x 3 + ax + b
have two distinct common real roots.
Problem 25, S o lut ion 1
Suppose x 1 and x 2 are real roots of P(x) and Q (x) (x 1 =/= x 2 ) . They are
also the roots of
X l + X 2 = -3bja,
Since, by assumption, x 1 =/= x 2 and Q (x l ) = Q (x 2 ) = 0, we obtain
0 =
Xl - X2
x� - x� + ax1 - ax 2
=
X l - X2
=x 21 + x 1 x 2 + x 22 + a
(x l + X 2 ) 2 - X l X 2 + a
(-3bfa) 2 .
So b = 0 and 0 < D = -4a3, i.e. , a < 0.
And conversely, if b = 0 > a, then the polynomials
have the common roots � and - �· Thus the pairs sought are
those of the form (a, 0) with a < 0.
64 Solutions
The derivative of P (x) equals 4Q (x) . Thus if x 1 and x 2 are real roots
of both P(x) and Q (x ) , then they are double roots of P(x ) , and conse
quently
In what follows, all sums are cyclic over the triple (x, y , z) (thus, e.g. ,
the symbol I: sin x denotes the sum sin x + sin y + sin z, etc.) . Write
w = x + y + z. Then, by assumption,
2: cos x = a cos w , L sin x = a sin w .
Hence
2: cos(y + z) L cos(w - x)
L (cos w cos x + sin w sin x)
(cos w) 2: cos x + (sin w ) 2::sin x
a cos 2 w + a sin 2 w = a.
A lgebra 65
Adding and subtracting these two equalities, we obtain two new ones:
"'"' e -i:z: = ae -iw .
L...,
Consequently,
2a -.e•1-w L e ix + -.1 - e -ix
e-•w L
2: e i(x-w> + 2: e i(w-x)
L (ei(w-x) + e-i(w-x} )
= 2 I: cos (w - x ) ,
and the claim results.
Problem 27
If a, b, c are pairwise distinct real numbers, show that the value of the
expression
--
b - e + --
a - b + -- c-a
1 + ab 1 + be 1 + ca
is never equal to zero.
P roblem 27, Solution 1
Multiply the given expression by the product of the three denominators
and denote the resulting expression by F(a, b, c):
F(a, b, c) =
(a - b )(1 + bc) (1 + ca) +
+(b - c) (1 + ca)(1 + ab) + (c - a) (1 + ab) (1 + be). (1)
We have to show that if a =/= b =/= c =/= a, then F(a, b, c) =/= 0; and this fol
lows directly from the transformation:
F(a, b, c) = (a - b) + (a 2 - b 2 )c + (ca - bc)abc
+(b - c) + (b2 - c 2 )a + (ab - ca)abc
+(c - a) + (c 2 - a2 )b + (be - ab)abc
= ca 2 - b 2 c + ab 2 - c 2 a + bc 2 - a 2 b
(a - b) (b - c) (c - a).
=
66 Solutions
Let a = tan a , b = tan ,B, c tan -y with a , ,B, -y E (-7r/2 , 7r/2) . Since a,
=
v the differences ,B - 'Y and 'Y - a; the sum (3) is seen to be equal to
'Y - a, a - ,B lie there, too, and are different from zero. It follows that
the factors of the product (4) are different from zero, and this is j ust
what we need to conclude the proof.
Problem 2 8
Now,
x = (x + 1) - 1 = p -1=- p -1
(y + 1) ( z + 1) 12
68 Solutions
and analogously
p - 1,
= 15 z=- p
y
20 - 1.
Setting P = 60 and P = -60 yields the two triples (x, y, z ) = ( 4, 3, 2) and
( -6, - 5 , -4) .
P roblem 29
Solve the system of equations
Xt(Xt - 1) = X2 - 1
X2(X2 - 1) = X3 - 1
Let (x1, . . . , x n )
be a solution. Note that Xi
� 1 =? Xi+t 1.
� Assume
Xio ::; 0 for a certain io. Then = + Xio+l 1 Xi0(xi0 - 1) 1,
� and all sub
sequent ( cyclically ) XiS 1;
are � in particular, Xio 1,
� a contradiction.
Thus all XiS must be positive. Now the system implies that all the
differences Xi - 1 are simultaneously positive, negative or zero. In the
first two cases we multiply all the equations and cancel the non-zero
product TI(xi - 1) ( which appears on both sides ) , with the result that
n = Xi 1. This however contradicts the fact that all XiS
are greater than
1 or they are all smaller than 1.
The only possibility that remains is that Xi = 1
for all i. Clearly, this is
a solution.
Problem 29, Solution 2
P roblem 30
Solve the system of equations
X
2xy = 1,
2 + y 2 + --
x+y
in real numbers x, y.
Problem 30, S o lut ion 1
If x, y are a solution, then clearly x + y > 0. Assuming x + y > 1, we
get from the first equation
1
2xy
= X 2 + y 2 + -- >
x 2 + y 2 + --
2xy = (x + y) 2 = X + y > 1,
x+y x+y x+y x+y
a contradiction. A similar contradiction is yielded by assuming that
x + y < 1 ( the inequalities have to be reversed ) . Thus x + y must be 1,
and the second equation of the system becomes 1 = x 2 - (1 - x ) , with
roots x = 1 and x = -2 . So the system has two solutions ( x, y); these
are: (1, 0) and ( - 2 , 3).
Problem 30, S o lut ion 2
Multiply the first equation by (x + y ):
(x 2 + y 2 ) (x + y) + 2xy = x + y.
Adding x 2 + y 2 to both sides of this equation, we are driven by standard
manipulations to a nice factorization:
(x 2 + y 2 ) (x + y) + (x + y) 2 = (x 2 + y 2 ) + (x + y);
(x 2 + y 2 ) (x + y - 1) + (x + y)(x + y - 1) = 0;
(x 2 + y 2 + x + y) (x + y - 1) = 0.
The first factor cannot be zero because the sum x + y is positive ( this is
obviously implied by the system ) . So x + y - 1 must be zero. Inserting
y = 1 - x into the second equation of the system we find the two solutions
(x, y) = (1, 0) and (x, y) = ( 2 , 3)
-
.
Problem 31
Solve the system of equations
x 2 + Y2 + z 2 = 2 , x + y + z = 2 + xyz
in real numbers x, y, z.
70 Solutions
Problem 3 1 , S o lution 1
Two equations and three unknowns? This is a clear indication that there
must be some inequality hidden behind the problem statement.
Suppose x, y, z satisfy the system. Write
u = yz, v= zx, ws = x + y + z, q = xyz.
= xy,
From the first equation of the system we get x 2 + (y - z) 2 = 2 - 2 u .
The left-side expression is a non-negative number. Hence u � 1; analo
gously, v, w � 1 , and therefore
( 1 - u )( 1 - v ) ( 1 - w ) � 0. (1)
By the definition of s, u , v , w ,
s 2 = (x + y + z) 2 = 2 + 2(u + v + w ) ,
and so u + v + w = !s 2 - 1. Moreover, vw + wu + uv = sq and
uvw = q 2 • Thus we can transform the left side of ( 1 ) as follows:
( 1 - u ) ( 1 - v ) ( 1 - w ) 1 - ( u + v + w ) + ( vw + wu + uv ) - uvw
=
= 1 - ( !s 2 - 1 ) + sq - q 2 = 2 - !(s - q) 2 - h 2 .
tremum point:
1 - yz = 2Ax, 1 - zx = 2Ay, 1 - xy = 2Az. (3)
Multiplying the first of these equations by x, the second by y and the
third by z, we get
xyz = x - 2Ax 2 = y - 2Ay 2 = z - 2Az 2 • (4)
For any fixed value of A, the function 1/; (t) = t - 2At 2 can take the value
xyz at two distinct points, at most; so the system (4) forces that two of
x, y, z must be equal. Let e.g. x = y. Then the system (3), accompanied
by the equation of the sphere, becomes
1 - xz = 2Ax, 1 - x 2 = 2Az, 2 - 2x 2 = z 2 . (5)
The second and the third equation of (5) result in z 2 = 4Az. So we
have either z 0 (yielding x = y ± 1) or A = !z, which inserted into
= =
the first equation gives 3xz 2. This together with the last equation
=
with = ±1. Comparing the values of f at these points we find out that
€
(4)
This has to hold for all i. Since a2 + c 2 > 0, equation ( 4) can be solved
either for Yi +l or for Yi ( Yi+ l = (a/c)yi or Yi = (cja) Yi+ l ) · If any one of
the· numbers (y 1 , . . . , Yn ) were zero, we could infer (inducting forward or
backward) that all the YiS are zero, in contradiction to Yia =I 0. Conse
quently the product p = Yl Yn is different from zero. Multiplying the
n equations (4) we obtain a np = c np, and hence a n = e n .
· · ·
If the numbers a and c were equal, equations ( 4) would force that all the
YiS are equal; and this is impossible, their sum being zero and product
non-zero. Therefore a =I c. The equality a n = e n then implies that n
is an even number and c = -a ( =I 0) . Hence b = - (a + c) = 0. We go
back to the system (1) , which becomes simply
Xi-l - Xi + l = 0 for i = 1, . . . , n . (5)
Algebra 73
This means that the even-indexed x i s must be equal and the odd-indexed
x i s must be equal; if they are, system (5) is satisfied.
=
So we can formulate the answer:
If a = b = c 0, the XiS can be arbitrary real numbers.
=
In all the other cases, the general solution of the system (1) is
( x t . . . . , X n ) = ( t, . . . , t),
with t an arbitrary real number.
Problem 32, Solut ion 2
Squaring yields
a 2 x i2_1 + 2 a bXi -1Xi + b 2 x i2 = a 2 x i2+ 1 + 2 abx i2+ 1 + b 2 x i+2 1 .
This holds for i = 1, Adding these equations we obtain
. . . , n. n
n n n
(a 2 + b 2 ) I.> � + 2ab L X i-1Xi (a 2 + b 2 + 2ab) L: x � ,=
i= 1 i= 1 i= 1
whence ( in view of the assumption ab =f:. 0)
n n
2 L X i-1Xi 2 L: x � . = (6)
i= 1 i= 1
Rewrite this as n n n
2 L Xi - 1Xi = L: x� + L: x i:. 1 ,
i= 1 i= 1 i=1
i.e.,
n
L ( Xi - Xi - 1 ) 2
0; =
= i 1
the equality x 1 = = X n follows. (Another argument consists in notic
· · ·
also implies x 1 · · · = x n . )
=
74 Solutions
= =
The equality b = 0 implies c -a. Substitution into equations (1) then
=
yields
a(x i -1 - Xi+I ) = 0 for i 1, . . . , n. = (7)
If a = 0 then we have a b c 0 and all the equations of the system
=
lent to
b + --
a + --
-- c < 2,
u-a u-b u-c
i.e. , to L < R where
L a(u - b) (u - c) + b(u - c) (u - a) + c(u - a)(u - b),
R = 2(u - a) (u - b) (u - c) .
Algebra 75
i.e. ,
-u 3 + 4uv - Babe > 0. (2)
The claimed inequality (1) is immediately implied by (2).
Problem 34
Let a, b, e, d be positive real numbers with abed = 1. Show that
a 2 + b 2 + e 2 + d 2 + ab + ae + ad + be + bd + cd ;::: 10.
Problem 34, Solution 1
In view of the well-known inequality x + (1/x) ;:::2 for x > 0 and be
cause of abed 1, =
ab + ed + ae + bd + ad + be = ab + -1 + ae + -1 + ad + 1 > 6 .
ab ae ad - -
Since
and since
a + b ;:::2Vab, e + d ;:::2�,
76 Solutions
we have
a 2 + b 2 + c2 + d 2 + ab + ac + ad + be + bd + cd
----
a 2 + b2 + c 2 + d 2 -- a + b + c + d v abed
Problem
J 4 - 4 -
4r;-;
> > = 1 (1)
(the root mean square, the arithmetic mean, and the geometric mean).
Denote the sum a + b + e + d by 8. Then the left inequality of ( 1 ) implies
a 2 + b 2 + e2 + d 2 ;::::8 2 f 4, and the right one says that 8 ;:::: 4. Therefore
a 2 + b2 + e 2 + d 2 + ab + ae + ad + be + bd + ed
a 2 + b2 + c 2 + d 2 + (a + b + e + d) 2
2 2
= - > --
8 2 82
;:::: 8 + 2
=
58 2 5 16 ·
8 - 8
10 .
=
l
1 0 · {Ya5b5e5d5
=
l
1 0 . {YiS = 1 0 .
Problem 35
If, for some reason, one prefers not to invert, one can start from inequal
ities (1) and (2), and continue like this:
----
ab < ab
a + b + 2 - 2 -rab + 2
= --
2y
2y + 2 '
where y stands for -lab; according to (2) , 0 :5 y :5 vf'i. It now suffices to
--
show
y2
<
- vl'i - 1
2y + 2 (3)
or, which is the same,
y2 - 2 (v'2 - 1)y - 2 ( v'2 - 1) :5 0. (4)
The roots of this quadratic trinomiai are y 1 = vf2 and Y 2 = vf2 - 2, and
hence inequality (4) reduces to
This holds because 0 :5 y :5 vf'i, so the second factor is positive, while the
first one is negative or zero. Equality occurs for y = vf2 only; i.e., when
(1) and (2) become equalities; and this is the case only for a = b = v'2.
78 Solutions
Starting with the second inequality of (1) and the resulting estimate (2)
( ...;;;b� v'2 ) , we transform the given expression as follows:
ab .;;;b.
a +...;
b +;;I; 2
( )
a+b+2
..rab � + -b- + - 2 -1
...;;;b ...;;;I; ...;;;I;
=
and so � � v'2.
/a + {F_ = a + b > 2 (6)
V "b v� ...;;;I; - ,
Transformation (5) hence leads to the estimate
1
v'2 =
V2 - 1,
+1
just as required, equality holding (in (6) , hence in the claimed inequality)
if and only if a = b = h.
P roblem 35, S o lut ion 4
equivalently,
-1 + -1 + -2
a b ab -> h + l. (7)
-- 1 + -- 1 + 2
> v'2 + 1·'
2 sin x 2 cos x 4 sin x cos x -
Algebra 79
- + -- + -- - 2v'2 + 2.
equivalently,
1 1 2
> (8)
sin x cos x sin 2x
-- + -- -
Denote the left side by f (x) and examine the derivative:
cos x sin x 4 cos 2x
f'(x) -
sin2 x cos 2 x sin2 2x
-=---
This is positive when sin x > cos x and negative when sin x < cos x; con
()
sequently, f (x) decreases in (0, 11) 4] and increases in [1r I 4, 1r 12), attaining
the minimum value
7r 1 1 2
f - = + + = vIn
2 + vIn2 + 2.
4 sin(7rl4) cos(7rl4) sin(7rl2)
Inequality (8) is proved, and the condition for equality is x = 1r I 4, which
corresponds to a b v'2.
= =
Problem 36
The real numbers a i , b i , q , di are such that 0 � c i � a i � bi � di and
a i + bi ci + d i for i = 1, 2, . . . , n. Prove the inequality
=
n n n n
II a i + II bi � II Ci + II di.
i=l i=l i=l i=l
Problem 36, S olution 1
( n + l - Cn + l ) C
a < ( dn+ l - b n + l ) D.
and this is exactly the inductive claim (2) . The assertion results by
induction.
Problem 36, Solut ion 2
n
II Ci = ( a l - r 1 ) ( a 2 - r 2 ) · · · ( a n - rn )
i=l
is equal to a 1 a 2 · · · a n plus the sum of terms
a •1· · · a '"· ( -r31 ) · ( -rJn-/o ) (0 :5 k :5 n 1).
· · · · ·
- (7)
Algebra 81
Since 0 :::; a i :::;bi for i = 1, . . . , n, we see that each term (7) is dominated,
in absolute value, by the corresponding term (6) . So the joint sum of all
the numbers (6) and (7) is non-negative.
Now, the sum of all numbers (6) equals II d i - II bi ; the sum of all
numbers (7) equals II Ci II a i. Consequently,
-
n n n n
II di - II bi + II Ci - II ai � 0,
i=1 i =1 i =1 i =1
as claimed.
Problem 37
n n + 1 - -45 n n for n 2.
< >
_ (4)
We now estimate the ratio L j R from below:
L
=
((n + 1)n+1 + 1 ) n-1 ( nn + 1 ) -n
R n+2 n+1
>
( (n + 1 )n+l ) n- 1 ( nn + 1 ) -n ;
n+2 n+1
and we continue the estimate, using inequalities (4) and (3):
- L en + 1)n+1 ) n- 1 ( � . � ) -n
>
R n+2 4. n + 1
-
(n + 1)n2 +n - n n (� ) n
1 - 2
=
(n + 2) n 1
( n : 1 ) n2 (� ) n ( : :�) n� 1
=
= (� ) n (( n : 1 ) n ) n ( ::� n+ 1 nn ++ 21 2
,
(} ' 9 ' '
>
-45 n -94 n 31 nn ++ 21 2
,
9 n 1
(}
>
-5 . 3 ;
and this number exceeds 1 for n 2. Thus � >
R , as asserted.
L
n
(
� ln 1 + (n + 1)n+ 1
n+2
) >
(
_1_ ln 1 + n n
n-1 n+1 ·
)
So the problem reduces to showing that f (n + 1) > f (n) for n � 2, where
f (x) =
x-1 x+1
(
_1_ ln x"' + 1 ) =
ln(x"' + 1) - ln(x + 1)
x-1
.
1-)
( x"' (lnx x+ +1 1) - - x - 1) - (ln(x"' + 1) - ln(x + 1) )
we get
( )
(x - 1) 2
_1_ x"' (ln x + 1) _ _1 _ _ ln(x"' + 1) - ln(x + 1) .
X-1 Xx + 1 X+1 (x - 1) 2 .
Since (x"' + 1) / (x + 1) < xx -1 for x > 1, the numerator of the last dis
played fraction fulfills the estimate
x"' + 1
ln(x"' + 1) - ln(x + 1) = In -- < ln x x -1 = (x - 1) ln x.
x+1
Therefore
!'(x) > --
X-1
-1 (
x"' (ln x + 1) --
X "' + 1
-
1
X+1
- --
ln x
X-1
)
(xx+ 1 - 1) - (x + 1) ln x
(x - 1) (x "' + 1 ) (x + 1) ·
=
Problem 38
(1)
To prove this guess, take logarithms on both sides: inequality (1) is
equivalent to
v'n + 1 · ln yn > yn ln v'n + 1, ·
i.e., to
l n ..;n l n v'n+l 9 £
> � 10r n � .
y r=
n v n +1
This holds because the function f (x) = (ln x)jx is strictly decreasing for
x � v'9 = 3 (the derivative f'(x) = (1 - ln x)jx2 is negative for all x > e;
and since. 3 > e, we are done) .
Problem 3 8 , Solution 2
We will use the well-known relation ( 1 + �r < e, which holds for all
positive integers n. Inequality (1) is equivalent (via squaring) to
( 1 + -n1 ) n+../n(n+l)
and raising both sides to the power � + ..;n brings this to the form
Qn
n > for (2)
Hence
6
9
< e2· 06 < 7.846 < 8 < ::; n,
proving (2) .
Algebra 85
Remark
J1i R
The use of a calculator can be avoided if we resort to another well-known
inequality (1 + �f + 1 > e, holding for all n � 1 ; in particular, we have
(18/ 1 7) 1 8 > e. Since =
< 1 + l8 , we get q n :$ ( 2 + l8 n )
( ) ( ;;: ) )
for n � 9. Knowing just that e < 2.8, we obtain e 2 < 7.84, and so
( 1
1
1 + ;;:+
1 n 2+1/1 8
q
n
< < e2 + 1/1 8 =
e 2 e l/ 1 8 < 7.84 .
18
17
< 9 :$ n .
Prob lem 39
Prove the inequality
(1)
2n
--- · ·
smaller than 2/3 , as can be verified directly. Thus estimate (5) is proved,
and we are done.
Remark
holds for any real numbers at, a 2 , . . . , a r . Find conditions for equality.
Problem 40, S olution 1
:m:: ) ·
Denote the given expression by Fr (a l , . . . , a r ):
Fr (a1, . . . , a r ) = t ( t
n=l m=l
(1)
.
Clearly, Fr ( O, . . , 0) 0. Now, for r 1 we have F1(a1) = a V 2 ;::: 0,
= =
� mam+arr + a2r� .
(m=1
+
) (4)
hence
i.e.,
(5)
where
1 1
C mn (m + r) (r + n ) 2r(m + n )
2r(m + n) - (m + r)(r + n)
(m + r)(r + n ) 2r(m + n )
·
=
(r - m) (r - n )
2r(m + r) (r + n ) (m + n ) ·
A lgebra 89
Writing
r k
b k = -- for k = 1 , . . . , r - 1
-
r+k
we thus have
1 bmb n
C mn =
2r m + n
- - · ---
t t a m a n x m+n ) .
Q(x) = (
n=l m=l m +n
90 Solutions
P r oblem 41
For a fixed integer n 2: 1 find the least value of the sum
Four proofs of (1) are presented below! Now, taking inequality (1) for
granted, we just match each term of S with the corresponding term of
the constraint condition, to obtain
A lgebra 91
( (�k xi ) - k)
= x(x - 1) L x i + k(1 - x)
i=O
= (x - 1)
k
= (x - 1) L (xi - 1)
j=l
k
= L (x - 1)(x i - 1) :2: 0
j=l
because the factors in each term of the last sum agree in sign.
Second proof of {1).
k+1(
.!. ) ( .!. )
For fixed x, k consider the arithmetic mean and the geometric mean of
the k + 1 numbers, one of them being xk and the others equal to 1/ x:
_1_ xk + .!_ + . . . + :2: xk . .!_ 1/(k+ l ) = 1;
. • •
X X X X
� --.,....._...,
k k
hence xk + (kjx) ;::::k + 1, which is just a restatement of {1).
Third proof of {1).
The Bernoulli Inequality {1 + a) k . ;:::: 1 + ka holds for all a :2: - 1 and
( )
every integer k ;:::: 1. Set a = x - 1, thus obtaining: xk ;:::: 1 + k (x - 1).
Hence
x k 1 1 + k (x - 1) + -1 = x + -1 - 1 + -1 > 1 + -1 .
- + -X >
- -
k k X X k k
92 Solutions
!' ( x ) x k - 1
= _ x
-2 { <
>
0 for x E (0, 1) ,
0 for x E (1 , oo ) ,
we see that f (x) takes at x = 1 its (global) minimum value 1 + (1/k).
Proble m 4 1 , S o lution 2
, (4)
2 n n! n.
where m k . = (n!)/k for k = 1, 2, . . . , n, and consider the m positive num
bers:
. . . , x: , . . . ' x: .
------
(5)
P r oblem 42
is positive for x E (0, ! .J5 ) and negative for x E ( ! .J5, 1) . Thus the
maximum value of f(x) is attained at x = ! .J5. Consequently, the prod
uct p( x, y) is maximized at x = ! .J5, y = 0. This corresponds to placing
points B and C symmetrically with respect to the midpoint of AD, at
the mutual distance BC = ! .J5.
P roblem 42, Solution 2
i.e. ,
4 1 / 5 f (x) 2/ 5 � t '
equality holding only when 4x 2 = 1 - x 2 ; that means, for x = i v'5 . Con
clusion as before.
Problem 42, S o lut ion 3
Problem 43
Find all functions f: JR. � JR. satisfying the equation
x 2 j (x) + f (1 - x) = 2x - x 4 for x E R
Problem 43, Solution 1
Rewrite this as
K (x)f(x) = (1 - x)M (x), (4)
K ( x) and M ( x) denoting the polynomials in square brackets:
K (x) 1 - x 2 (1 - x) 2
(1 - x + x 2 )(1 + x - x 2 ),
M (x) 2 - (1 - x) ( (1 - x) 2 + 2x - x 4 )
= 2 - (1 - x) (1 + x 2 - x 4 )
1 + x - x2 + x3 + x4 - x 5
= ( 1 + x 3 )(1 + x - x 2 )
= ( 1 + x)(1 - x + x 2 ) ( 1 + x - x 2 )
= (1 + x)K(x) .
Equation (4) takes the form
K(x)f(x) = (1 - x 2 )K(x),
implying f(x) = 1 - x 2 , unless K (x) = 0 . In this latter case . we get
x 2 (1 - x) 2 = 1 (by the definition of K (x)), and this is equivalent to say
ing that
96 Solutions
The first equation of (5) has no real roots and the second one has two
roots:
a = ! (1 + ¥'5 ) and f3 ! (1 - ¥'5 ) ;
= (6)
these roots of x 2 x + 1 satisfy
=
a + /3 = 1, a /3 = - 1; a 2 = a + 1, {3 2 = f3 + 1. (7)
In conclusion, f (x) = 1 - x 2 for all x =f a, {3. And for these two ex
ceptional values of x equation (1) yields
f(/3 ) + a 2 f(a) -a 2 {3 2 - a 2 = - 1 - a 2 ,
=
which is j ust the first equation of (9) . Thus the two equations {9) do not
yield a unique evaluation of f(a), f(f3) . In fact, f{a) can be any real
number c, and then
f(f3) = - (a 2 + 1) - a 2 c = - (a + 2) - (a + 1)c.
Thus the general solution of equation (1) is
f(x)
{
1 - x2 for x =f ! (1 ± ¥'5 ) ,
c (arbitrary real number) for x = ! { 1 + ¥'5 ) , (1 0 )
- ! {5 + ¥'5 ) - ! (3 + v'5 )c for x = ! (1 - ¥'5 ) .
=
Problem 43 , Solution 2
Ax 4 + Bx 3 + Cx 2 + A(1 - 2x + x 2 ) + B (1 x) + C = 2x - x 4 ,
-
equivalent to
x 2g(x) + g(1 - x) = 0. {12)
Replacing x by 1 - x,
(1 - x) 2 g(1 - x) + g(x) = 0. {13)
Viewing {12) and (13) as a homogenous system of two linear equations
with unknowns g(x) and g(1 - x), compute its determinant:
x2
I I
1 2 2 {14)
1 (1 - x) 2 = x (1 - x ) - 1.
If the determinant is different from zero, the system has only the triv
ial solution g(x) = g(1 - x) = 0. If the determinant is zero, then the
two equations {12) and {13) are linearly dependent ; g(x) may be gi¥en
any value, and then g(1 - x) can be computed from any one of these
equations. (We see that the uniqueness conjecture fails.)
Now, the determinant {14) vanishes if and only if x satisfies one of the
equations {5) from Solution 1; equivalently, if x is one of the numbers
a, (3 given by {6). Equation {12) with x = a and with x = (3 becomes,
respectively,
Since (a f3) 2 = 1, the two equations (just obtained) coincide. Denote g(a)
by d; then g( f3) = -a 2 d. Hence by definition {11) (and formulas {7))
Let A and B be real numbers different from zero. Prove that the function
f(x) = A sin x + B sin ( ../2 · x) is not periodic.
98 Solutions
0,
Since each period of sin x is a multiple of 21r , and similarly that each
period of sin ( V2 · x ) is a multiple of V2 · 21r, we are again led to a con
tradiction with the irrationality of ¥2.
Problem 45
Find all monotonic functions f : lR � lR satisfying the equation
f(x) ! x + f (�x)
!x + ! · �x + f ( ( �) 2x)
=
! x + ! · �x + ! · ( i)2x + f ( ( �) 3 x)
= !x + ! · �x + ! · ( �) 2 x + · · · + ! · ( �) n - l x + f ( ( �) n x)
1 (3)n J(( n ,
!x · �-\ + �) x)
4
i.e. ,
(2)
Now, keep x fixed and let n vary. The sequence ( ( i) n x ):= is decreasing
l
if x > 0 , and increasing if x < 0 ; the same is the behaviour of the sequence
(f ( ( � t x ) ):=1; the value f (O) is its lower (upper) bound, not necessarily
sharp. Thus there exists a finite limit (maybe, depending on x):
g(x) f ( ( � t x) .
n -+oo
= lim
100 Solutions
Assume that g(u) < g(v) for some positive numbers u and v, and choose
an f with
0 < e < ! (g(v) - g(u)) . (3)
By the definition of a limit, we have
f ( ( � r u) < g ( u) + f for n large enough (4)
and
! ( (�rv) > g(v) - e for n large enough. (5)
Pick an integer k so large that inequality ( 4) holds for n = k . Next, find
an integer m so large that estimate (5) holds for n = m and, moreover,
( � ) mv < (�) k u. Since f is strictly increasing, and in view of condition
(3), we hence obtain
0 < f ( ( � ) k u) - f ( (�) m v)
(g(u) + ) (g(v) - )
< �:: - e
= g(u) - g ( v) + 2e < 0
- obviously a contradiction. This means that g ( u) = g ( v) for any posi
tive numbers u and v. In other words, there exists a common limit
lim f ((�rx) = for every X > 0.
C
n->oo
f (x) = b
{
S ince f has to be increasing on lll, we arrive at the final result:
2x + a for x < 0,
for x = 0, (6)
2x + c for x > 0,
where a, b, c are arbitrary constants such that a � b � (Clearly, every c.
h(x) =
{
b, according as x is negative, positive or zero. So we obtain, in limit,
a
b
for x < 0,
for x = O,
c for x > 0,
which is nothing else than the formula ( 6 ) , worked out in the first solu
tion.
Problem 46
(a !, - 1)/(2a m ) ,
102 Solutions
is negative. The assumption that "almost all" terms are positive has
driven us to a contradiction.
P roblem 46, S olut ion 2
Let d n = an+l - an . By the recursion, 2anan+l = a � - 1, and so
(1)
cot 2 (} - 1
cot 20 = ----
2 cot (}
Now, let t E (0, 1) be the unique number such that a0 = cot ?rt. Then,
according to the above, a 1 = cot 27l't, a2 = cot 41l't, and by induction,
n
an = cot 2 1l't for n = 0, 1, 2 , . . . (3)
These values of the cotangent function are well defined. ( Indeed: assum
ing n is the least index such that cot 2 n 1l't makes no sense, i.e. , 2 n t is
n l
an integer, we would get that 2 - t is an "integer and a half" , implying
n l
an - l = cot 2 - 7l't = 0, contrary to the condition that the sequence has
Algebra 103
Prove that a1 = b1 = c 1 = d1 = 0.
Problem 47, S o lution 1
Define s n = a n + bn + C n + d n . Conditions imposed on the given se
quences imply that S k+ r = S k and s n +1 = 2s n for n = 0, 1 , 2, . The
last equality entails ( by induction ) s n = 2 n so for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . Thus
. . .
2 k+r so = 2 k so, and hence so = 0. This yields s n = 0 for all n ;::: 0. Con
sequently, we get for n ;::: 1:
a n + Cn (a n - 1 + b n - 1) + (cn - 1 + d n - 1) = S n - 1 = 0.
= (1)
Wn+l =
(an + bn ) 2 + (b n + Cn ) 2 + (en + dn ) 2 + (d n + a n ) 2
2(a; + b; + c; + d;) + 2(a n bn + bn Cn + Cn d n + dn a n )
= 2w n + 2(a n + Cn ) (bn + d n ) ·
104 Solutions
a 1 = b1 = c1 = d1 = 0 .
P roblem 4 7 , Solution 2
Introduce the polynomials
P roblem 48
The sequences xo, x�, x 2 , . . . and yo, Y l . Y 2 , . . . are defined by:
xo = YO = 1 ,
Xn + 2
Xn + 1
y; + 2 for n = 0 , 1 , 2 , . . .
Yn+l 2yn
a n = X n +- .../2 '
bn - Yn - ...J2 for_
n = 0, 1 , 2 , . . .
X n .../2 Yn + ...J2
Denote the common value of ao and bo by .>. :
1 - v'2
.>. = = ao = bo.
1 + v'2
---
The recursion formulas that define the sequences (xn ) and ( Yn ) yield the
analogous formulas for ( a n ) and ( bn ) :
x,.+l2 + ...j2
=
x,.+
= X n .../2 . 1 - ...J2
-1
Xn + .../2 + .../2
= >. a n ,
b n+l = Yn+l - ...J2
Yn+l + .../2
Y�y,.+2 ...j2
2
_
y�+2 + v'2
2y,.
(Yn - .../2) 2
(Yn + .../2) 2
106 Solutions
-3 x + 2
= 2 3 ,
x+2
f o f o f o f(x) = g o g(x)
=
Algebra 107
-1712 x + 2
= (2)
x + -1217
Compare these expressions with the initial Yn S:
( � ) 2 + 2 17
Yo = 1, Y2 2 . � -12 .
= -
f o · · · o f(x) = YnX +2
______.,
2"
X + Yn . (3)
�(x) = � o � (x)
Yn · YnX +2 +2
= YnX + 2Yn x +
---
x + y n + yn
=
(y;, + 2)x + 4yn
2yn x + (y; + 2)
y; + 2 x + 2
--
= 2 yny;_ +' 2
--x + 2 yn
= Yn+lX +2
X + Yn+l '
showing that (3) holds with n replaced by n + 1 . By induction, claim (3)
is true for every integer n ;:::: 1. Now, setting in (3) x 1 we get in view
=
of representation (1)
X 2 n Yn1 ++Yn2
= -- .
The number on the left side equals f (x 2 n - l ); that on the right side
equals f( Yn )· And since f(x) is strictly decreasing, we conclude that
X2n-l = Yn·
108 Solutions
Xn + 2 2 + ---
for
So uo = 2, and
U n+ I = 1 + X n + I = 1 + ---= 1 1
Xn + 1 Xn + 1 = 2 + -
Un .
Consider the sequence vo, VI , v 2 , . . . defined by
( 1 ) Vn+ I = 2vn+I + --
vo = 1, Vn+ I = UnVn for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (5)
We obtain
Vn +2 = U n + I Vn+ I = 2 + - Vn + I ,
Un Un
i.e. ,
Vn +2 = 2vn + I + Vn for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . (6)
This is a homogeneous linear recursive equation of the second order. The
sequel is routine (see Problem 10, Solution 3, for instance) : the general
solution of equation (6) has the form
Vn = Aa n + B /3n for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
0 n + I _ 13n + I
Xn = U n 1 = VnVn+ I 1 = Vn+IVn- Vn
_
_
0 n + I 13n +I .'
_
= = _
(7)
that the wns obey the same recursion that defines the Yn S· That means,
we have to show that
Wn+ l =
w n2 + 2
-
for n = 0, 12 (8)
2 Wn , , . . .
where 'Y n stands for (a/ (3 f" ; the last equality is valid also for n = 0 (easy
verification) .
Notice that 'Yn + l 7;. Consequently,
=
w n2 + 2
_ Wn + - 1
__
2w n = -2 Wn
J2 'Yn + 1 1 · --
'Yn - 1
= - · --
+ -
2 'Yn - 1 J2 'Yn + 1
J2 . ('Yn + 1) 2 + bn - 1) 2
=
2 ('Yn - 1) ('Yn + 1)
J2 . 'Y; + 1
'Y; - 1
In 'Y n +l + 1
= v�·
'Yn + l - 1 - Wn+l for
_
n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
Equality (8) is settled, and the proof is complete.
Problem 49
and
Compute
1 10 Solutions
Problem 49 , S o lution 1
(2 - VJ ) n = a n - bn v'3 j
this last sequence converges to zero because 2 - va is a number between
0 and 1 .
Note that bn 2': 1 for all n 2': 1 . Therefore
a n = bn v'3 + (2 - J3 t = y'3 + (2 - J3 ) n
bn bn bn
which is v'3 in limit.
Problem 4 9 , S olut ion 2
The implicit definition of the ans and bn s can be easily made into recur
sive formulas. Since
(2 + J3 t +l (2 + v'3 t (2 + VJ ) = (a n + b n VJ ) (2 + VJ )
= (2a n + 3b n ) + (a n + 2bn ) v'3
(and since va is irrational) , we infer
(ao = 1 , bo 0) ;
= (I)
( �::� ) = ( i � ) ( �: )
in the matrix form,
p = 2 + v'3, q = 2 - v'3.
ao = 1 , bo = 0 and a 1 = 2, b 1 = 1 ,
A lgebra 111
A + B = 1, C + D = 0, Ap + Bq = 2, Cp + Dq = 1,
with the solution
A = B = �. C = -D = i J3.
Thus
an A + B (qjp) n
Apn + Bqn
bn C + D (q jp) n ·
Cp n + Dq n
Since 0 < qfp < 1, this ratio tends to AJC = J3 as n --+ oo .
We again use the recursive formulas (1). Denote the ratio a n fbn by Xn .
Formulas (1) imply
n
where
f (x) = 2x +3 1 .
x + 2 = 2 x +_2 '
_
_
l = 2ll ++23 , -
and therefore
X 1 + X2 + · · · + X n = ( Yo - Y 1 ) + ( Y1 - Y2 ) + · · · + (Yn - 1 - Yn )
= YO - Yn = 1 - Yn < 1, (3)
as needed.
P roblem 50, S olut ion 2
The initial x n s are
X2 = X 1 · l = � ! , X3 = X 2 � = � · ! · � � X4 = X 3 � = � · ! · � · � ,
· • •
X k = 21 · 41 · 63 · 85 · 7 · · · 2k 10
2k - 3 for k = 1 , 2, 3, . . . .
Multiply the numerator and the denominator of this fraction by the
product of even integers from 2 to 2k - 2:
(1 · 3 . 5 -· 7 . . . (2k - 3)) (2 . 4 . 6 . . . (2k - 2))
Xk =
(2 . 4 . 6 · · · (2k - 2)) 2 (2k)
= (2k - 2)!
(
= 4 k-1 1 2kk -- 12 . 2k1 . )
(2kk -- 12) . ( - 2k2k- 1 )
Continue the transformation as follows:
_ 1
X k = 4 k- 1 1
X l + X 2 + · · · + X n = .!_
4°
(00) -
4
(n )
_!_n 2n = 1 -
4 n()
_!_n 2n . (5)
This number is smaller than 1 . Done.
Remark
Solution 2 does not differ from Solution 1 in any essential way ; the Yn S of
Solution 1 are expressed by the explicit formula Yn = 4 - n ( 2: ) ; equalities
(2) and (3) closely correspond to (4) and (5). ( In fact, Solution 2 indicates
how the idea of introducing the sequence ( Yn } in Solution 1 might have
arisen. )
Problem 5 0 , Solution 3
It is obvious that all the XkS are positive numbers. Rewrite the given
recurrence as
X 2 + X 3 + · · · + Xn + (2n + 2)x n + l = x 1 .
Hence
X l + X 2 + X 3 + + Xn 2: 1
• • • (7)
( for a certain n 2: 2); equivalently: x2 + x 3 + · · · + Xn 2: 1 - X t. i.e. ,
3 + · · + Xn -> 1 - 1 = 1
X 2 + X-=-
-- ----
•
(8)
Xl Xl
-
Xk - - (9)
114 Solutions
X k+ 1
the last equality follows from ( the recur
X k+l /x k = (2k - 1)/ (2k + 2)
sion formula from the problem statement ) . The induction step ( from (9)
to (10)) is done; thus inequality (9) holds for all k = 1, 2, . . . , n-1.
Now set i n ( 9 ) k = n - 1:
� >- 2n - 3. (11)
Xn 1 -
The fraction o n the left equals (2n - 3)/ (2n), according t o the definition
of the sequence. So the estimate (11) yields 1/ (2n) ;:::: 1 - obviously a
contradiction. Hypothesis (7) must have been wrong, which means that
the assertion is true.
Problem 51
A sequence of real numbers ao, a 1 , a 2 , . . . satisfies the recurrence ia n I =
a n - 1 + an +1 for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . Show that a n+9 = a n for all n.
P roblem 5 1 , Solution 1
The sequence contains infinitely many non-negative terms. Choose one
of them. By the given recurrence, it is equal to t he sum of the two
neighbouring terms, one of which must be non-negative. So we have two
non-negative terms in succession: a m ;::::0, a m +l ;;:::0. Then
. . . , b, 2b - a, b - a, -b, a, a + b, b, -a, a - b, b, 2b - a,
I n the case where a ;;:::b, the corresponding piece i s
Algebra 1 15
In either case, the two leftmost listed terms coincide with the two right
most ones, the two pairs being separated by a block of length 7. This
yields the desired periodicity.
Problem 5 1 , S olut ion 2
ABCDEFGHJA
with vertices
l l l i Y I - x i - y i - I Y I + x i - I IY I - x i + y,
and in its backward form, we express a m and a m+9 through x and y as
follows:
l l l i x l - Y l - x l - l x l + y l - l l x l - Y l + x.
a m+9 = (2)
am =
(3)
If we denote the expression on the right side of equation (2) by g(x, y ) ,
we get that the right side of equation (3) i s j ust g(y, x ) . S o the problem
reduces to showing that g(x, y) g(y, x ). The verification of this identity
=
is a more or less automatic task, rather tedious. (Without going too much
into details, let us j ust observe that in view of the symmetry between the
roles of x and y , one only needs consider three main cases: 0$x $y;
x $ 0 $ y; x $ y $ 0 ; but then they split into subcases . . . )
Solutions: Geometry
Problem 52
Construct a right triangle ABC with a given hypotenuse c such that two
of its medians are perpendicular.
Problem 52, S olution 1
Assume the right angle is at C and the two perpendicular medians are
issued from the vertices A and C. Choose the coordinate system with
origin at B and with A on the x-axis. Let R be the midpoint of AB and
P the midpoint of BC. Suppose C has coordinates (u, v); thus
Substitute this into the former expression to get u = �c. So the point
D = (�c, O) is the foot of the altitude from C.
The method o f construction follows: draw t he semicircle with diameter
AB of the given length c; partition this segment in the ratio
AD : DB = 1 : 2.
Draw the perpendicular to AB through D ; it will intersect the semicircle
at C, the third vertex of the triangle sought.
Problem 52, S olut io n 2
A R w B
Hence, P is obtained as the point of intersection of k1 and k3 . The vertex
C is the point of intersection of line B P and circle k .
Problem 5 3
Let ABC be a triangle, AC =I= BC. Assume that the internal bisector of
angle AC B bisects also the angle formed by the altitude and the median
emanating from vertex C. Show that ABC is a right triangle.
Problem 5 3 , Solut ion 1
D
Let 0 be the circumcentre of triangle ABC. S ince AD = BD, the arcs
AD and BD are equal, and so they subtend equal angles ACD and
BCD; thus ray CD is the bisector of angle C. According to assumption,
it bisects angle H eC E; in other words, angles H eC D and DC E are
equal.
Lines CHe and DE are parallel ( both are perpendicular to AB) . There
fore
LEDC = LHeCD = LDCE,
which means that CDE i s an isosceles triangle: CE = DE . Note that
also triangle CDO is isosceles: CO = D O . Since 0 lies on line DE,
EO = ± (DO - DE) = ±(CO - CE) (1)
( plus sign if E lies on segment DO, minus sign otherwise) . Hence, points
E and 0 coincide; otherwise CEO would be a non-degenerate triangle
and equality (1) could not hold. The circumcentre coincides with the
midpoint of side AB only if AB is the diameter of the circumcircle.
Thus LAC B = 90° .
Pro blem 5 3 , Solut ion 2
Let E and He have the same meaning as in Soh1tion 1 ; let a, b, c be the
lengths of sides BC, CA, AB and let a, {3, 'Y be the sizes of angles A, B ,
C , respectively. By assumption, angles AC B and He C E have a common
bisector, and this means that angles ACHe and BCE are equal:
LBCE = LACHe = 90° - L CAHe = 90° - a ;
120 Solutions
hence
AB = BC, CD = DE, EF = FA ,
prove that the altitudes ( produced ) of triangles BCD, DEF, FAB, em
anating from vertices C , E , A , concur.
Problem 54, Solution 1
Consider three circles W I . w 2 , w3 , centred at D , F, B , respectively; W I
passing through C and E ; w 2 passing through E and A; and w 3 passing
through A and C . Let w 2 and w3 intersect at A and A'. Similarly, let w3
and W I intersect at C and C '. Finally, let W I and w2 intersect at E and
E'.
Points A and A' are symmetric across the line connecting the centres F
and B of circles w2 and w3 ; thus AA' ..l F B . This means that the altitude
of triangle F A B , dropped from A, is contained in line AA'. Analogously,
the other two altitudes considered in the problem are contained in lines
CC' and EE'.
Geometry 121
Now, line AA' i s the power axis o f circles W 2 and W 3 j lines c c ' and EE'
are the power axes of the pairs w 3 , w 1 and w 1 1 w 2 . For a triple of pairwise
intersecting circles whose centres are not collinear, it is a well-known fact
that the three power lines determined by pairs of these three circles are
concurrent. This proves the claim.
Problem 54, S olut ion 2
o oB · AC + on · GE + DF · EA
= o:B (oc 01 ) + on . (DE - oc ) + oF (01 - DE )
. - .
= 01 - ifF + OC · DB + DE · FD
(FA. - PO ) . IfF + (PC - PO ) J5B + (P"E - PO ) · FD
.
= PA · BF + PC · DB + PE · FD + PO · (lfD + DF + F"B ) .
In the sum obtained, the first two summands vanish, according to as
sumption; and the vector sum in the parentheses is the zero vector.
Therefore PE · FD = 0, and this is j ust what we wished to prove.
Problem 55
Let ABCDEF be a regular hexagon with M and N points on diagonals
CA and CE ( respectively ) such that AM = CN . If M , N and B are
collinear, prove that AM = AB.
Problem 55, Solution 1
Triangles ABM and CDN are congruent, as AB = CD = a ( the length
of the side of the hexagon ) , AM = CN ( by assumption ) , and
LM AB = LNCD = 30°.
Therefore
LDNC = LBMA = LNMC,
122 Solutions
and consequently
Also LDOB = 1 20° , where 0 denotes the centre of the hexagon. Since
0 lies on the circle with centre C and radius a, it follows that also N lies
on this circle. Hence AM = CN = CO = a = AB.
Prob lem 55, Solution 2
eM = ( 1 - x) GA,·
Since B lies i n line with M and N , there exists a real number t such that
cB = ( 1 - t) · CM + t · eN = ( 1 - t) ( 1 - x) · cA + tx · GE.
O n the other hand, EB = � ( EC + EA ) , whence
cB = GE + EB = C'E + � (- C'E + ( CA: - C'E ) ) = � · GA - ! · C'E.
The representation o f a vector as a linear combination of cA and cE is
unique. Thus, equating the coefficients in the formulas above we obtain
( 1 - t) ( 1 - x) = �. tx = - 1.
These equations, combined, yield t + x = 0. Hence t -x and the sec
ond equation becomes x 2 = l · Thus AM = x = l v'J = A B .
=
e=
3- iv'3
2
Writing CN : CE = AM : AC = .X , we have CM : CA = 1 - .X , so that
m = ( 1 - .X)a, n = .Xe (.X real positive) .
G eometry 123
/l Vl
= --
e>. - b a>. - d
--
Since LBDC and LBEC are right angles, BCDE is a cyclic quadrilat
eral, and hence
LBCD = 180° - LBED = LBEF. (1)
Therefore BEF and BCD are similar triangles, and we get
EF -
- CD
=
B E BC
(2)
Analogously, considering the similar triangles CD G and C BE, we have
DG -
- CD
= (3)
B E CB
The asserted equality EF = DG follows immediately from relations (2)
and (3) .
Problem 56, S o lut ion 2
Since the right sides of equations ( 4 ) and (5) are equal, so are the left
sides.
Problem 56, Solut ion 3
The repeated use of the Pythagorean Theorem will also do the job:
b.BFE : EF 2 + BF 2 BE 2 ;
=
b.CGD : CD 2 = CG 2 + DG 2 ;
b.BEC : BE 2 + CE 2 = BC 2 ;
b.BDC : BC 2 BD 2 + CD 2 ;
b.CGE : 2
cc + EG 2 CE 2 ;
b.BFD : BD 2 BF 2 + DF 2 .
If we add these six equalities (and cancel the terms BF 2 , B E 2 , CD 2 ,
CG2 , CE 2 , BC 2 , BD 2 that appear on both sides) , we are left with
Problem 57
Let CC1 be the altitude in triangle ABC and let N P be the altitude in
triangle A 1 B1N .
Geometry 1 25
Write
The right triangles BtCtC and BtN A t are similar ( LABtN being their
common angle), and therefore BtCt : EtC = BtN : BtA t ; equivalently,
(c + p) x (x + y) : (3c), or
: =
xy = 3c2 + 3cp x 2 •
- (2)
The altitude of the right triangle ABC satisfies the well-known equality
h 2 p(c - p); hence, by the Pythagorean Theorem for triangle BtCt C ,
=
as wished.
Problem 5 7, S olution 2
Segments AB and AtBt are diameters of two concentric circles whose
common centre is M , the midpoint of AB . Since LACE and LAtNBt
are right angles, points C and N lie on those circles. Line BtN cuts
the smaller circle in two points (which can coincide, in the limit case) .
Denote them by X and Y , with X lying closer to B t and Y closer to N ;
point C coincides with either X o r Y .
1 26 Solutions
Express d in terms of b, c .
a,
Comparing equations (2) and (5) , we see that angle HAN equals BED,
hence also BAD (inscribed angle sub tended by the same arc B D ) . There
fore
L H AB = LH AN - L BAN = LBAD - LBAN = LN AD. (6)
= LN AP - LN AD = LDAP.
Comparing equations (3) and (4) , we see that LN AP = LCBE, and in
view of (1) we get L H AK = LN AP; thus by ( 6 ) :
L B A K = L H AK - LH AB (7)
On account of relations ( 6 ) and (7) , we have the following pairs of similar
right triangles:
i::J.H AB "' b.N A D , b.BAK "' b.DAP.
Consequently AH B K and AN DP are similar quadrilaterals, which im
plies that H AK and NAP are similar triangles. Thus
AK AP
=
AH AN
In other words, d/a = cfb, and we obtain the desired result:
ac
d= -.
b•
AD sin a AN : AC AN · AB
Hence
AB · AE -d
( 12)
AC · AD b
=
Equations (11) and (12) result in d 2 f (ac) dfb, and s·o, finally, d = acfb.
=
express the area of any one of these triangles, we may apply either the
formula: {product of sides) / {4R) or: {base times altitude)/2. And thus:
AB · BC · A C B C · AH AC
area ABC = = => a= AH = AB · -
4R 2 2R '
AC · AD · CD CD · AN AD
area ACD = => b = AN = AC · -
4R 2 2R '
AD · AE · DE DE · AP AE
area ADE = => c= AP = AD · ,
4R 2 2R
AB · A E · BE B E · AK AE
area ABE = d = AK = AB · - .
4R 2 2R
Therefore
AB · AC · AD · AE
ac = = bd,
4R 2
implying d = ac fb .
Remark
Let he be the altitude from C and let Pe be the exradius from M to the
midpoint of AB . With the usual notation
BC = a, CA = b (= a), AB = c, a + b + c = 2s,
R = UA = UB = UC, F = area ( ABC )
we restate the claim as
2R < he + Pe < 4R. (1)
Using the well-known formulas
a2 c
abc = -
R=- 2F ,
he = - F ,
Pe = --
4F 4F ' c c
8 -
we have used the fact that the triangle is isosceles (a = b), so that
s - a = a + 2b + c - a = - 2a +-c - a = c .
2 2
132 Solutions
The segments AT1 and AT2 are. equal, as they are the tangents from A
to the excircle. Thus AT1 = AT2 = c/2, and consequently CT2 = a + c/2
(with a and c standing for the lengths of BC and A B) . The right triangles
CHU and CT2 M are similar, and hence
CM CT2 = a + c/2 = 2 + !:_
= •
CU CH a/2 a
The proposed inequality says that the ratio C M : CU should be com
prised between 2 and 4, and so we are left with showing that
c
0 < - < 2.
a
The lower estimate is evident, and the right one is so too, due to the
triangle inequality c < a + b = 2a.
Geometry 1 33
Problem 60
The diagonals AC and BD of a convex quadrilateral ABCD intersect in
E. Let F1 , F2 and F be the areas of trian�s ABE, CDE and quadri
lateral ABC D, respectively. Show that y F1 + ..jF; :::; ../F. When does
equality hold?
Problem 60, Solut ion 1
Denoting the areas of triangles BC E and DAE by F3 and F4 , we have
to show that
...jF;+ M :::; VFl + F2 + F3 + F4 .
D
A B
By squaring, this is equivalent to
(1)
Let K and L be the feet of perpendiculars dropped to line AC from D
and B , respectively. (They can lie on or outside segment AC . ) Write
BL = b, DK d, AE = m, C E = n. Then
=
(Readers who have not encountered that formula are invited to provide a
proof, which is not at all difficult - using, e.g., the more familiar F = ps ,
with p the inradius, plus a similarity argument.)
The factor {s - A 1 A 2 ) in (1) is the distance from Ao to the point of
contact of the incircle with side AoA 1 . To make it a maximum, the
incentre should be chosen on ray AoM as far from Ao as possible; and
this is the case (given the conditions of the problem) when P is the
midpoint of arc P1 P2 .
Problem 6 1 , Solut ion 2
( � . o),
They intersect pairwise at the points
Ao = --
' pv-qu ' 2 -- pv+qu ' pv+qu
-
-
1 [1 ( p - u p-u )
x i and Yi standing for the coordinates of A i · Substituting these coordi
nates,
q . u-p + v +q u-p ]
F = - -
2 u pv - qu + pv + qu +
+ pvv -- qu · --"-
pv + qu pv + qu pv - qu
1 ((p - u) f u) · 2pv + 2v(u - p)
2 (pv - qu)(pv + qu)
v (p - u) 2
=
:;; · p 2 v 2 q 2 u 2 i
_
136 Solutions
-
here u, v are constants and p, q are variables satisfying p 2 + q 2 = 1 =
( )
u2 + v2.
. .
Therefore p 2 v 2 - q 2 u 2 p 2 v 2 (1 - F 2 )u 2 p 2 - u 2 , and hence
= =
v (p - u) 2 v p - u v 2u
� p2 - u2 � p + u = � - P + u .
F = = 1
Recalling that 0 < u < p :::; 1 , we see that F is a maximum when
2u
p+u
is a minimum, i.e . , when p is a maximum, i.e. , when p 1. This corre
=
t2
Let the angles Ao, A 1 , A 2 of triangle AoA 1A 2 have sizes a , {3 , 'Y · Now,
A1M is the bisector of LP1 A 1A 2 ; therefore L P1A1M 90° - (/3/2) , so
=
=
Geometry
( ) (cot �2 - tan 2 )
1 37
sin a
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 '
we can express the product of the numbers tan(/3 /2) and tan (I /2) by
their sum:
a
tan 2 tan 2I = 1 tan 2 tan 2
f3 {3 + tan 21 .
Hence
sin a
( a a a
F = -- cot 2 2 + 1 - tan 2 + cot 2
2
The angle a is constant. Consequently the area F is maximized when
the sum tan(/3 /2) + tan(l /2) is minimized.
Now, one can set 1 = 180° - a - {3 and examine this sum by calculus,
as a function of the single variable {3 ; one can also use the convexity of
( )
tan x to deduce that this sum is a minimum when {3 = I· But we prefer
to use a more elementary argument:
. {3 + I
{3 + tan -I sm
( � + �)
tan - 2 2
cos - cos -I
=
2 2 {3
cos ( � + �) + cos( � - �)
2 2
2 sin
=
a
2 cos 2
. a
= /3 - 1
sm 2 + cos -2-
For a fixed a , this is a minimum when cos((/3 - 1)/2) = 1, i.e., when
=
{3 1, and we arrive at the same conclusion as in the two previous solu
tions.
Problem 62
would intersect another face, less distant from P than contrary to the1r ,
choice of Assume without loss of generality that the edges not parallel
1r .
When ( i, j, k) range over the set of the eight triples of plus-minus ones,
then each one of the expressions i, j, k, ij , ik, jk, ijk takes values +1
and - 1 equally often. Therefore the sums L; i, L; j , L; k , L; ij , L; ik,
t Pm � (8 + X ?: i +
L; jk, L; ijk are zero, and hence
m=l
=
• ,J ,k
· · ·
•,J,k
)
+ xyz ?: ijk = 1. (2)
+ [� ?: (jk + ij kx) ] (1 - y 2 ) ( 1 - z 2 ) (v · w) .
• ,,,k
140 Solutions
The first sum in square brackets equals 1, and the second one equals 0;
see the argument preceding definition (2) . Thus
8
L PmUm = (1 - x 2 ) u2 .
m= l
Analogously, by cyclicity,
8 8
L PmVm = (1 - y 2 ) v 2 , L PmWm = (1 - z 2 ) w 2 .
m=l m= l
Equalities (3) , which hold for m = 1, , 8, now imply
. . .
8
L P m · PA� = (1 - x 2 ) u 2 + (1 - y 2 ) v 2 + (1 - z 2 ) w 2
m =l
u2 + v 2 + w 2
<
a 2 + b2 + c2
=
4
In view of (2) , this sum is a weighted mean of the eight numbers
PA�, . . . , PA�
(with weights P I , , P 8 ) · At least one of those numbers does not exceed
. . .
4
and this is exactly what had to be proved.
Problem 6 3
Do there exist two cubes such that each face of one of them meets each
face of the other one (possibly at an edge or a corner)?
Problem 6 3 , Solution 1
Suppose a cube C has vertices (±1, ±1, ±1) and let be a plane not 1r
Let C, C' be the two cubes. Assume C has edge length 1 and C' has edge
length � 1. Choose two opposite faces of C'; visualize them horizontally
and call them B and T (base and top) . Denote by 1{. the half-space
consisting of all those points that lie below or on the plane of B. Suppose
it contains at least two non-adjacent vertices A, B of C. Let M be the
midpoint of AB. Clearly, M belongs to 1{. .
I f AB i s a space diagonal o f C then M i s the centre o f C, and consequently
every point of C lies within distance ! v'a from M . Since the distance
between B and T is at least 1, the top face T is disjoint from C.
If AB is a face diagonal of C then M is the centre of the corresponding
face, whose all points lie therefore within distance � v'2 from M . Since
also this number is smaller than 1 , the face in question (of C) cannot
reach T.
Now assume there are no two non-adj acent vertices of C in 71.. This
means that 1{. contains either no vertex or exactly one vertex of C, or
exactly two vertices of C, linked by an edge. Among the remaining (8 or
7 or 6) vertices of C one can find four points that span a face of C. As
they are situated strictly above the plane of B, that face has no point in
common with B.
Thus, in any case, C has a face that does not meet either B or T. A pair
of cubes with the proposed property does not exist.
Remark
An analogous problem might be considered in the four-dimensional space:
do there exist two 4-cubes in R.\ each 3-face of one cube meeting each
3-face of the other one? The answer, rather unexpectedly, is yes .
Example: let C be the 4-cube whose vertices are the· 16 points
(±1, ±1, ±1, ±1).
Pick those points that have an even number (four, two o r none) o f co
ordinates equal to 1 - there are eight of them - and adjoin to that
142 Solutions
set another eight points, each having one coordinate equal to 2 or -2,
and the remaining three coordinates 0. These sixteen points also span a
4-cube C' with the property as needed: if you choose arbitrarily a 3-face
of C and a 3-face of C', those two "faces" (3-cubes) will have at least one
common vertex! (To verify this, without having to deal with too many
cases, can be a nice challenging exercise in itself. )
The olympiad problem , discussed above, has been motivated by this
four-dimensional example.
Problem 64
< h m < dm + R
d m = Vmhm -
V 4 - 4
whence
(1)
Geometry 143
(2)
In triangle A 1A A3, let LAk be the greatest angle and let i, j be the
2
two remaining indices in { 1 , 2, 3 } . The triangle is not obtuse-angled,
and so the size of LAk is comprised between 1r / 3 and 1r /2. As O ' is
the circumcentre of A 1 A A3, the angle LAiO' Aj = 2 · L Ak is comprised
2
between 27r / 3 and 1r . Therefore cos ( LAiO'Aj ) ::::; - 1 / 2 and we obtain,
by the Law of Cosines and by inequality (2) ,
(3)
and similarly
so that inequalities (3) become
(4)
Denote by w the sum
(5)
The analogous sum of vectors Vk is the zero vector �
(6)
this is j ust a restatement , in terms of vectors, of the fact that point 0 is
the gravicentre of the system of equal point masses placed in the vertices
of the regular tetrahedron.
We now multiply, in the sense of inner product , both sides of equation
(5) by vector Ut :
u1 w• = u1 · ( ut + u2 + ua + u4) . (7)
Similarly, multiplying equation (6) by v1 we obtain
( size of angle AiOAj ) is smaller than the angular distance between any
two vertices of a regular tetrahedron ( of edge 1 ) inscribed in the sphere.
The analogous construction involving solid angles, performed with use
of a regular tetrahedron, produces a partition of the sphere into four
congruent tr-iangular quarters ( spherical triangles ) , of area 1r R 2 each.
We have shown that the largest of the spherical triangles AiAjAk has
area at least 1r R 2 , whereas its "sides" ( circular arcs ) are strictly shorter
than those of a triangular quarter.
These two inequalities contradict each other. Intuitively, this is easy to
believe; a rigorous proof is less easy!
M arcin E Kuczma
graduated with a PhD
in Pure Mathematics
from the University of
u Warsaw. He is now a
Senior l nstru ctor in
Pure Mathematics in
the University's l nstit
ute of M athemati cs.
His research specialty is real analysis.
Erich Windischbacher
has worked as a high
school tea cher in
Graz, Austria for more
(p
than 30 years. He has
also taught at the Karl
Franzens University in
Graz and at the
Peda gogical lnstitute
for tea chers.
E N R l C H M E N T S E R l E S l SBN 1 8 7 6 4 2 0 0 2 2