SYSTEMATIC

BIOLOGY
MODULE 2
MISS GERLYN ICUTANIM ASTROLABIO, MSBio
Course Facilitator
MICROTAXONOMY
AND
MACROTAXONOMY
 What is Microtaxonomy and
Macrotaxonomy?
• Mayr and Ashlock (1991) have divided the taxonomy into two levels:
• Microtaxonomy, the level which deals only the problems related to
species.
• Macrotaxonomy, the level which deals with the problems and principles
of higher taxa (from subgenus and above) only.
SPECIES CONCEPT
AND
SPECIATION OF
MICROTAXONOMY
 SPECIES
• are dynamic, evolving individuals. They are real evolutionary groups and
not categories that are created as a direct function of perceived
distinction.
 PHENON
• Phenon a convenient term for the different forms or phenotypes that
may occur within a single population; composed of intrapopulation
variants.
• Includes many of the “varieties” (older literature), the sexes (when there
is sexual dimorphism) age stages, seasonal varieties and morphs
(individual variants).
 TAXON
• Taxon are populations, which are the material of
classification
• Defined by Simpson (1961) as a group of real
organisms recognized as a formal unit at any
level of a hierarchic classification
• A named taxonomic group of any rank that is
considered sufficiently distinct by taxonomists
to be formally recognized and assigned to a
definite category
TWO ASPECTS
1. Taxon always refers to concrete
zoological objects, thus, species is
not a taxon but a category e.g.;
robin (Turdus migratorius) is a
taxon.
2. Geographic isolates within a species become taxa
only when they are formally as subspecies
• Subspecies replaced the term variety in 19th Century.
• An aggregate of phenotypically similar populations of
a species inhabiting a geographic subdivision of the
range of that species and differing taxonomically from
other populations of that species.
• Ex. Ornate Box turtle subspecies
• Terrapane ornate ornate
• Terrapane ornate luteola
 CATEGORY
• Designates rank or level in a hierarchic classification.
• It is a class whose members are all taxa that are assigned a given rank.
• The species category is a class whose members are species taxa.
• Terms such as species, genus, family, and order designate categories.
• A category is thus an abstract term, a class name, while the taxa placed in
categories are concrete zoological objects.
 THREE GROUPS OF CATEGORIES
• Species category
• Categories for distinguishable populations within species (intraspecific
categories)
• Categories for taxa above the species level, that is, higher taxa (collective
categories)
 SPECIATION
• Speciation is how a new kind of plant or animal
species is created. Speciation occurs when a
group within a species separates from other
members of its species and develops its own
unique characteristics.
• There are five types of speciation: allopatric, peripatric, parapatric,
and sympatric and artificial.
 ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION
• Allopatric speciation occurs when a species separates into two separate
groups which are isolated from one another.
• A physical barrier, such as a mountain range or a waterway, makes it
impossible for them to breed with one another.
• Each species develops differently based on the demands of their
unique habitat or the genetic characteristics of the group that are passed
on to offspring.
 PERIPATRIC SPECIATION
• When small groups of individuals break off from the larger group and form
a new species, this is called peripatric speciation.
• Unique characteristics of the smaller groups are passed on to future
generations of the group, making those traits more common among that
group and distinguishing it from the others.
• Let’s consider a community of birds. Most of them are blue and some are
red.
• The red group which is the smaller one gets isolated from the larger blue
group.
• Now the next generation of the smaller group will also be red, which is a
different trait from the main blue group. Such modification in gene
frequency is known as Genetic Drift.
• With the passage of time, many changes will occur and red birds will arise
as completely different species.
 PARAPATRIC SPECIATION
• In parapatric speciation, a species is spread out over a large geographic area.
• Although it is possible for any member of the species to mate with another
member, individuals only mate with those in their own geographic region.
• Instead of being separated by a physical barrier, the species are separated by
differences in the same environment.
• Sometimes a species that is formed by parapatric speciation is especially suited
to survive in a different kind of environment than the original species.
• Sometimes parapatric speciation occurs because of polluted and contaminated
habitat.
• There is a high level of metals such as lead and zinc because of mining activities
that get absorbed in the soil and affect the growth of certain plants.
• For example, Buffalo grass (also known as vanilla grass) is found in Asia and
Europe.
• It was also found in North and South America. The buffalo grass could not survive
in soil having metals. Over time adaptation develops and now it can tolerate
metals and the seeds pass this character to the next generation also.
 SYMPATRIC SPECIATION
• Sympatric speciation occurs when there are no physical barriers preventing
any members of a species from mating with another, and all members are in
close proximity to one another.
• A new species, perhaps based on a different food source or characteristic,
seems to develop spontaneously.
• The theory is that some individuals become dependent on certain aspects of
an environment—such as shelter or food sources—while others do not.
• For example, the insect, Rhagoletis pomonella (apple maggot fly), is an example
of sympatric speciation. Initially, the apple maggot flies lay their eggs on
hawthorn fruit (a relative of apple).
• In the 19th century, a distinct form of maggot fly emerged that lay eggs on
apples only. This happened when apples were brought to North America.
• So now, two distinct groups of apple maggots are found: one laying eggs on
apples and the other laying eggs on hawthorns.
 Mechanism of Reproductive Isolation Or
Hybridization Barriers
• Collection mechanism, behaviors and physiological processes that prevent the
members of two different species that cross or mate from producing offspring,
or which ensure that any offspring that may be produced is not fertile.
• These barriers maintain the integrity of a species over time, reducing or directly
impeding gene flow between individuals of different species, allowing the
conservation of each species’ characteristics.
 GEOGRAPHIC ISOLATION
• Speciation started because populations were prevented from
interbreeding by geographic isolation
• Species occur in different areas
*Any physical barrier that separates two or more groups of
organism.
*Allopatric speciation.
 ECOLOGICAL ISOLATION
• Species occur in same region, but occupy different habitats so rarely
encounter each other
*Reproductively isolated
*Sympatric speciation
 TEMPORAL ISOLATION
• Species that breed during different times
of day, different seasons or different years
cannot mix gametes
*Reproductive isolation
*Sympatric isolation
 BEHAVIORAL ISOLATION
• Unique behavioural patterns & rituals isolate species
• Prevents members of a species from mating. It is one
of many processes that lead to speciation.
• Through this process, members of a population
diverge over time in their behaviors.
• This continues until they can no longer mate. They
then become separate species.
 MECHANICAL ISOLATION
• Morphological differences can prevent successful mating
• Two species are mechanically isolated from one another when their reproductive organs
are too different from one another to allow interbreeding between the two species.
• This prevents the species from successfully breeding and creating a hybrid that will most
likely be sterile.
• Even if two species are fairly closely related and the members of the species succeed in
courting one another, they will not be able to copulate due to their different reproductive
organs.
 GAMETIC ISOLATION
• Sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize the eggs of another
species and vice versa.
• Mechanism:Biochemical barriers
sperm cannot penetrate egg
Receptor recognition: lock & key between egg & sperm
• Chemical incompatibility
Sperm cannot survive in female reproductive tract
 VARIATION OF
SPECIES OF
MICROTAXONOMY
• Adaptation is a characteristic that improves an individual’s ability to
survive and reproduce in a particular environment.
• Adaptations may be behaviors that help an organism find food, protect
itself, or reproduce.
• Scientists think that as populations have changed over time, new species form.
• Newer species descend from older species. It was proposed that evolution,
happens to population gradually over long periods of time.
• The scientist gathered this information through fossil records and common
ancestry.
• Evolution process in which populations gradually change over time.
• Evidence that organisms evolve can be found by comparing living organisms to
each other and to the fossil record.
• The process of evolution is indicated by fossil records and common ancestry.
• It was proposed that evolution happens through a process called natural
selection.
 The four parts of natural selection are:
1. Overpopulation (some eggs survival –other do not)
2. Inherited Variation (Every individual has its own combination of traits)
3. Struggle to survive (some die because of predators, starvation, and
disease)
4. Successful Reproduction (those best adapted to the environment have
many offspring that survive)
 New Species
• A new species can form when a group of individuals remains isolated
from the rest of its species long enough to evolve different traits.
• This isolation can be due to climate, changing landforms, interspecies
interaction, or genetic mutations and bring about speciation.
• The Grand Canyon squirrel populations represent an example of species variation
due to changing landforms.
• As the Colorado River cut through the landscape, it caused the squirrel population
to become separated into two groups.
• The two groups, although similar in appearance, cannot reproduce with each
other because they have developed into two separate species.

Kaibab squirrel Albert Squirrel

The three steps of speciation are:
• 1. Separation (part of a population becomes separated from the rest)
• 2. Adaptation (the separated group may evolve different sets of traits)
• 3. Division (two separated groups may become very different; groups may not
be able to interbreed anymore)
 DNA RESISTANCE
• Genetic resistance it occurs when alterations to the DNA makes the
species stronger and allows them to survive in any environment that they
may encounter.
 SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST
• The biological concept of fitness is defined as reproductive success.
• In Darwinian terms the phrase is best understood as "Survival of the form that
will leave the most copies of itself in successive generations.“
• Organisms that have adapted to their changing surroundings pass on the traits
that protect their offspring.
 INTERACTION BETWEEN
ORGANISMS
• There are four ways that species and individuals affect each other:
competition, symbiotic, predator and prey.
 COMPETITION
• When two or more individuals or populations try to use the same resource,
such as food, water shelter, space or sunlight.
• One of the major factors that influence the extent and duration of the
competition is the density of the individuals or the number of organisms
residing in an area.
• If the number increases rapidly, the available resources begin to deplete,
leading to ecological competition.
 INTRASPECIFIC COMPETITION
• Intraspecific competition is a type of competition between the members of the
same species that compete for limited resources.
• Intraspecific competition can involve both direct and indirect interactions. Direct
interactions occur between species occupying the same niche or community, but
indirect interactions occur between the same species occupying a different niche.
• Intraspecific competition is an important regulator of the population size and can
also act as a selective factor for evolution.
• Example- Plants
• Different plant species produce various types of chemical substances that
discourage other plants of the same species from growing around them.
• The competition between organisms is usually for space, nutrients, and water
around the plants.
• The plant produces chemical substances like phytotoxins that are harmful even
against the organisms of the same species.
 INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION
• Interspecific competition is a type of competition between two
individuals of different species competing for the same resources.
• Interspecific competition is an important factor that regulates ecological
communities and also acts as an agent of natural selection.
• Example- Corals
• Corals are found at the base of oceans where they line rocks and compete with
other species of the ecosystem.
• These corals filter organic material present in the water as well as various
autotrophic bacteria to complete their energy needs.
• They also compete with other aquatic organisms like fishes for the availability of
nutrients and sunlight.
• They cover large surfaces of the ocean bed in order to obtain enough sunlight for
the autotrophic bacteria.
 Direct and Indirect Competition
• Direct competition is an interaction where the species living in an ecosystem directly
influence each other by affecting the availability of resources in the ecosystem.
• Indirect competition is a form of competition where the species influence the availability
of resources indirectly. The species involved in indirect competition usually exist in
different ecological niches.
• Direct and indirect competition can be observed in both interspecific as well as
intraspecific competition.
• These types of interactions allow studies on the behavior of the species and their lifestyles.
• Example of Direct competition- Animals
• Direct competition in animals can be observed in the case of zebras
residing in the same ecological niche.
• The zebras compete with each other when the grass and leaves in the
environment become scarce.
• Example of Indirect competition- Animals
• Indirect competition can also occur between zebras occurring at different
but related ecosystems.
• Zebra present near the pond might affect other zebras that occur away
from the pond by decreasing the amount of water in the river. This is a
form of indirect competition where the species do not interact with each
other but are related by means of a resource.
INTERFERENCE, EXPLOITATION, AND
APPARENT COMPETITION
• Interference competition is a type of competition where the competing
individuals directly influence the process of foraging, reproduction of
others, or prevent the establishment of the species in an environment.
• Interference competition involves fighting, stealing, and combat among
species to obtain resources.
• Example of interference competition-
Flamingos
• Interference competition can be observed
in flamingos where the paired flamingos
are more aggressive towards single birds
for food and survival.
• The paired flamingos directly interact
with a single flamingo and might indulge
in fights to protect their mates as well as
offspring.
• Exploitative competition is a form of indirect competition where the species
are connected by a common limiting resource that acts as an intermediate. The
common resource can be space, water, or other similar resources.
• Example of exploitative competition- Spiders
• Exploitative competition can be observed in the spider population composed of
young spiders.
• When the population density increases and the food resources decrease, it
causes a reduction in the growth of new spiders.
• Even though no direct interaction occurs between young spiders, the number
of fewer fit spiders tends to decrease. The fitter species feed on the available
nutrients resulting in even less availability to weaker individuals.
• Apparent competition is also a type of indirect competition where both the
competing species are preyed upon by the same predator.
• For example, if species A and B are preyed upon by predator C, the increase in
population A might cause a decrease in the population of B as predator C feeds
on species A and become more fit which then affects the population of species
B.
• Example of apparent competition- Skinks
• The population of skinks in an area decreases after the
introduction of rabbits.
• It is because both the skinks and rabbits are preyed upon
by ferrets. The introduction of rabbits to the area causes
the immigration of ferrets to the same area.
• Thus, the ferrets feed on both the skinks and the rabbits
for food, reducing the population of both species.
 SYMBIOSIS
• Symbiosis is a term describing any relationship or interaction between two
dissimilar organisms. The specific kind of symbiosis depends on whether
either or both organisms benefit from the relationship.
• Clownfish and Anemone
• The symbiotic relationship between an
anemone (Heteractis magnifica) and a
clownfish (Amphiron ocellaris) is a classic
example of two organisms benefiting the
other;
• the anemone provides the clownfish with
protection and shelter, while the
clownfish provides the anemone nutrients
in the form of waste while also scaring off
potential predator fish.
 MUTUALISM
• A mutualistic relationship is when two organisms of different species
"work together," each benefiting from the relationship.
• The bee and the flower. Bees fly from
flower to flower gathering nectar, which
they make into food, benefiting the bees.
• When they land in a flower, the bees get
some pollen on their hairy bodies, and
when they land in the next flower, some
of the pollen from the first one rubs off,
pollinating* the plant.
• This benefits the plants. In this mutualistic
relationship, the bees get to eat, and the
flowering plants get to reproduce.
 COMMENSALISMS
• A relationship between two organisms in which one organisms benefits
and the other is unaffected.
 PARASITISM
• Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship, or long-term relationship
between two species, where one member, the parasite, gains benefits that
come at the expense of the host member.
 OBLIGATE PARASITISM
• Obligate parasites are completely dependent on the host in order to complete
their life cycle.
• Obligate parasitism can be found in many different types of organisms, like
plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and viruses. Head lice are obligate parasites; if
removed from the human scalp, they will soon die.
 FACULTATIVE PARASITISM
• Facultative parasites do not rely on the host in order to complete their life
cycle;
• A specific example is the nematode species Strongyloides stercoralis. This
is a type of roundworm that can cause the disease strongyloidiasis when
it infects humans, but it can also be found free-living.
 ECTOPARASITISM, ENDOPARASITISM,
AND MESOPARASITISM
• Ectoparasites are parasites that live on the outside of the host’s body, such as
lice and ticks. Endoparasites, like nematodes and hookworms, live inside the
host. Mesoparasites enter the host’s external openings, such as the outer ear
or the cloaca.
 BASIC PRINCIPLES
OF CLASSIFICATION
IN
MACROTAXONOMY