CENTRAL PHILIPPINE UNIVERSITY

Jaro, Iloilo City

Life Sciences Department

Developing a Sustainable, Eco-friendly, and Genetically Stock Enhancement Program

for Seahorses (Hippocampus spp.) and Humphead Wrasses (Cheilinus undulatus)

through Population Genetics Principles

Fundamentals of Genetics

A.Y. 2023-2024 - First Semester

Submitted by:

Bernal, Rex J P.

Bienes, Gecel Joy L.

Humadas, Vida Patricia Marie D.

Morta, Kurt

Pe, Cheddie Yinche P.

Ramos, Mary Cletani L.

Introduction

Seahorses (Hippocampus spp.)

Short-snouted Seahorse. Photo © Hans Hillewaert

Seahorses, classified within the genus Hippocampus in the class Actinopterygii,

exhibits a captivating array of distinctive biological characteristics that make them subjects of

profound interest within marine ichthyology. Characterized by horse-shaped heads enveloped

in bony external plates and possessing elongated prehensile tails, seahorses present a unique

aesthetic marked by the absence of scales. Their habitat preferences extend to shallow,

sheltered locals, including seagrass beds, coral reefs, and mangroves, resulting in a global

distribution across diverse marine environments. The size variance among seahorse species is

notable, ranging from the diminutive Pygmy Seahorses, measuring only about 1.5 to 2.5 cm,

to larger species like the Pot-Bellied Seahorse, which can reach lengths of up to 35 cm. This

diverse size range underscores the adaptability of seahorses to various niches within their

habitats.
 A noteworthy aspect of seahorse biology is their typical reproductive strategy, where

males assume a preeminent role by harboring eggs within a specialized pouch. This

reproductive modality is accompanied by intricate courtship rituals, involving elaborate

dances and chromatic shifts, contributing substantively to mate selection and reproductive

success. In conjunction with their deliberate, albeit slow, swimming behavior, seahorses

employ their prehensile tails as anchors, affording them precise maneuverability within their

surroundings. This unique adaptation is complemented by a dietary preference for small

crustaceans and plankton, with the absence of a stomach facilitating expeditious food passage

through their digestive system.

The current state of seahorse populations is a cause for grave concern, with several

species facing the designation of critically endangered. Seahorse populations are critically

endangered due to a combination of habitat loss from coastal development and degradation of

marine ecosystems, along with overexploitation driven by their unique reproductive strategy,

making them susceptible to exploitation for traditional medicine and the aquarium trade.

These threats collectively jeopardize their survival and reproductive success. (Vincent, 2011)

Furthermore, inadvertent entanglement in fishing gear exacerbates their vulnerability, with

bycatch in trawls and other fishing apparatus intended for different marine species posing a

substantial threat to seahorses (Foster et al., 2013). Their delicate anatomical features and

slow swimming behavior make them particularly prone to incidental capture, intensifying the

decline in their numbers.

Seahorses, listed under Appendix II of CITES, face conservation challenges due to

insufficient information on their distribution and abundance. The incidental bycatch nature of

seahorse trade complicates the effectiveness of export quotas. CITES recommends a 10 cm

height minimum size limit for traded specimens, balancing biological and socio-economic

factors. Urgent research is needed to assess seahorse conservation status, considering spatial
and temporal variations. SEA LIFE Sydney Aquarium collaborates with organizations on a

project aiming to breed and release White's seahorses back into the wild, contributing to the

conservation of this endangered species.

Humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus)

Humphead wrasse (male). Photo © WaterFrame/Alamy Stock Photo

The humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus), commonly known as the Napoleon

wrasse, stands out as a remarkable coral reef inhabitant in the Indo-Pacific region. One of the

largest among wrasse species, these fish can attain impressive lengths of up to 6 feet (2

meters). They are protogynous hermaphrodites, so sometimes a female will become a male,

and turn from a female’s rusty red-orange colors to a male’s bright blue-green colors. Older

males will have a more prominent hump on their foreheads than younger fish. Their

preferred habitats include clear lagoons and seaward reefs, where they seek areas with

abundant coral cover and diverse structures for shelter. Notably, humphead wrasses exhibit a

predominantly solitary behavior, often being found alone or in small groups. With relatively

slow growth rates, these fish boast extended lifespans, surviving for several decades.

Understanding their size, appearance, coloration, habitat preferences, and behavior is crucial
for conservation efforts, particularly as humphead wrasses face threats such as overfishing

and habitat degradation in their natural environments.

Humphead wrasses (Cheilinus undulatus) employ distinctive reproductive strategies

that contribute to their ecological significance. Notably, these fish exhibit a unique

reproductive phenomenon known as protandry, where individuals initially function as males,

and some may later transition to females. Dominant males, characterized by a prominent

hump on the forehead, play a key role in this process. Reproduction often involves the

formation of spawning aggregations, where multiple individuals gather at specific sites

during particular times of the year. These aggregations are critical for successful reproduction

and the subsequent survival of offspring. Following spawning, female humphead wrasses

release numerous tiny, buoyant eggs into the water column. These eggs, dispersed by ocean

currents, eventually give rise to hatching larvae that settle in suitable habitats. Despite

minimal parental care in general, there are indications from some studies that males may

engage in brief periods of egg guarding after spawning. Understanding these reproductive

strategies is vital for the conservation of humphead wrasses, aiding efforts to protect their

spawning aggregations and ensure the sustainability of their populations in the face of various

environmental challenges.

As of January 2022, the humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) is classified as

"Endangered" on the IUCN Red List, primarily due to the heightened risk of overfishing,

habitat destruction, and illegal trade. These threats stem from the species' large size, slow

growth rates, and unique reproductive strategy called protandry, where some individuals

transition from males to females. The removal of significant individuals through overfishing

poses a substantial threat to population dynamics. Habitat degradation, caused by activities

like dynamite fishing and coastal development, further endangers the humphead wrasse,

exacerbated by the impacts of climate change, including coral bleaching. The species'
dependence on spawning aggregations makes them vulnerable to overfishing during these

critical events. Despite international regulations, illegal trade persists due to the high market

demand for humphead wrasses in the aquarium trade and as a delicacy. Conservation efforts

require strict measures, sustainable fisheries management, and global cooperation to ensure

the enduring survival of the humphead wrasse.

Current conservation approaches for the humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) are

diverse and tailored to the specific circumstances of different regions. In Australia, Western

Australia has implemented complete protection since 1998 due to low stocks and

susceptibility to overfishing, while Queensland has a Coral Reef Fin Fish Management Plan

prohibiting most take since 2003. China's Guangzhou province requires permits for

humphead wrasse sale for conservation. Indonesia allows fishing under specific conditions,

and the Maldives banned exports in 1995 for recreational diving concerns. Niue, Palau, and

Papua New Guinea have strict regulations on fishing, buying, and exporting, including size

limits. The Philippines, despite a technical prohibition on live fish exports, faces challenges

with illegal movements, particularly in Palawan. These measures collectively aim to protect

the humphead wrasse from overexploitation and ensure sustainable management across

various regions.

Importance of population genetics in conservation

In order for us to conserve and to naturally grow the population of Seahorses and

Humphead wrasse, We must protect them in their natural habitat. Future species evolution,

population viability, and genetic variation within populations are the main concerns of

conservation genetics. The scientific foundations of conservation biology, a crisis-oriented

field of biodiversity management, come from a combination of conservation genetics,

ecology, and habitat management. (Woodruff, 2001)

A. Understanding genetic diversity and its importance

The combined differences in the DNA of all individuals in a species make up the

genetic diversity of that species. Genetic diversity causes the overall diversity in the DNA

between the individuals of a species. individuals to have different characteristics (Minter et

al., 2021)

Genetic diversity provides society with a range of options for plant and animal

breeding to improve productivity and resilience in agriculture, forestry, fisheries and other

biodiversity-dependent sectors (e.g. medicine, engineering). Recent analyses show that

genetic diversity has declined globally over the past century in wild populations, that

geographic ranges are shrinking, resulting in dramatic losses of genetically distinct

populations for most species and that remaining genetic diversity is not well safeguarded in

situ or ex-situ. Major drivers of genetic diversity loss include climate change, habitat

fragmentation and destruction, overharvest, and reduction of population sizes. (Hoban et al.,

2021)

B. Genetic drift and its impact on small populations

Genetic drift results from the sampling error inherent in the transmission of gametes

by individuals in a finite population. (Andrews, 2010) It is a change in allele frequencies in a

population from generation to generation that occurs due to chance events. To be more exact,

genetic drift is changed due to "sampling error" in selecting the alleles for the next generation

from the gene pool of the current generation. Although genetic drift happens in populations

of all sizes, its effects tend to be stronger in small populations. (Khan Academy, n.d.) The

gamete pool of a population in generation t is the total pool of eggs and sperm produced by

the individuals in that generation. If the gamete pool were infinite in size, and if no selection

or mutation were acting at a locus with two alleles (A and a), we would expect the proportion
of gametes containing the A allele to exactly equal the frequency of A, and the proportion of

gametes containing a to equal the frequency of a. (Andrews, 2010)

The effects of genetic drift can be acute in small populations and for infrequently

occurring alleles, which can suddenly increase in frequency in the population or be wiped

out. For small populations, genetic drift can result in a significant change in gene frequency

in a short period. (Choudhuri, 2014)

C. Inbreeding and its consequences

Inbreeding has always been observed in the plant and animal kingdom. Inbreeding is

the mating of organisms closely related by ancestry. The closest type of inbreeding is

selfing, or self-fertilization, the union of male and female sex cells produced by the same

organism. Linebreeding, another form of inbreeding, that involves a selection of mates based

on their relationships to a certain superior ancestor. Mating between close relatives is useful

in the retention of desirable characteristics or the elimination of undesirable ones, but it often

results in decreased vigor, size, and fertility.

Low genetic diversity is defined as the absence of mutations in a species' DNA. This

may indicate that there are fewer chances to adjust to changes in the environment. A loss of

habitat is a common cause of low genetic diversity. For instance, populations of a species

shrink when its habitat is destroyed or fragmented. Because fewer individuals can live in the

remaining habitat and fewer individuals breed to pass on their alleles, tiny, fragmented

populations can result in a loss of genetic diversity. Additionally, in small populations, there

is a limited selection of partners. People will eventually all become linked and be compelled

to mate with relatives. Inbreeding is occurring here. Animals that are inbred frequently have

two identical individuals that are inbred through close family relationships. When populations
are tiny and there are few mating opportunities, inbreeding frequently occurs. Inbred people

typically have lower health alleles because both parents passed on the same gene. An inbred

child may be unwell if this allele has dangerous mutations. We refer to this as inbreeding

depression. (Minter et al., 2021)

D. The role of genetics in restocking programs

Genetics should always be considered in restocking programs for it plays a crucial

role in stock population. Population genetics help maintain the overall health of the stocks

and avoid detrimental effects that might persist in generations to come. Genetics in restocking

programs ensures balance and genetic diversity. For instance, natural selection operating on

the genetic variation present in wild populations will select particular genotypes and gene

complexes that maximize the fitness of individuals in a specific environment. Co-adapted

genotypes will arise, and these genotypes are likely to differ from population to population

depending on local selective forces. Restriction of gene flow between populations will

promote the adaptive divergence of different populations.

Designing a sustainable and genetically sound restocking program

A. Identifying suitable habitats

Seahorses are found in a variety of shallow water habitats, such as seagrasses,

mangroves, corals, sponges, seaweeds, and shallow depressions in mud and sandy bottoms.

They thrive in calm and shallow waters, with a particular affinity for seagrass beds,

mangroves, estuaries, and coral reefs. On the other hand, humphead wrasses inhabit diverse

marine environments, residing in lagoon reefs and steep outer reef slopes at depths of up to

200 feet (61 meters). They are distributed across the warm waters of the Pacific Ocean, the
Indian Ocean, and the Red Sea. In these regions, they mainly occupy coral reef edges and

drop-offs, showcasing their adaptability to various underwater topographies.

To identify suitable habitats for seahorses and humphead wrasses researchers can

utilize bathymetric light detection and ranging (LiDAR) which provides detailed information

about the seafloor topography, helping identify underwater structures conducive to the needs

of seahorses and humphead wrasses. According to the study of Wilson N. et al (2019),

topo-bathymetric LiDAR is becoming an increasingly valuable tool for benthic habitat

mapping, enabling safe, efficient data acquisition over coral reefs and other fragile

ecosystems. Additionally, deploying underwater drones also called remotely operated

vehicles (ROVs) equipped with cameras and sensors to conduct thorough surveys of coral

reefs, capturing data on reef health and biodiversity. As stated in the Impact of Underwater

Drones on Ocean Exploration and Conservation Underwater by Marcin Frąckiewicz (2023),

drones have become crucial for ocean conservation, revolutionizing scientific exploration of

the ocean. Technological advancements have enhanced their effectiveness, making them

lighter and more maneuverable. These drones can now explore depths of up to 6,000 meters,

performing tasks such as capturing photos and videos, collecting samples, and providing

real-time data. This technology marks a significant leap forward in the capabilities of ocean

observation, enabling scientists to study the underwater world in unprecedented ways.

B. Selecting appropriate individuals for restocking and maintaining genetic diversity

The restocking of seahorses and humphead wrasses is increasingly benefitting from a

sustainable and eco-friendly approach, highlighting the critical significance of preserving

biodiversity and upholding a delicate ecological balance. Promotes genetic diversity and

allows for informed decisions about release sites based on ecological insights. Leveraging

genetic screening and tracking tools is vital in contemporary conservation, especially for
restocking involving seahorses and humphead wrasses. These technologies leverage

advanced methods, such as DNA sequencing and molecular markers, to analyze the genetic

diversity and health of individuals. The benefits include the identification and selection of

individuals with sturdy genetic traits, ensuring the long-term viability of the population.

D. Monitoring the success of the program

The integration of smart buoy technology with AI-driven monitoring offers an

innovative approach to evaluating the success of the conservation program for seahorses and

humphead wrasses. This technology involves deploying sensor-equipped buoys to collect

real-time data on various environmental parameters. The gathered data is then processed by

AI algorithms, providing insights into the ecosystem's health. This approach eliminates

manual monitoring, reducing the risk of errors, and enables quick detection of environmental

changes. Moreover, AI-driven monitoring allows for the identification and tracking of

individual organisms, offering valuable information on the behavior and well-being of

seahorses and humphead wrasses. By combining these technologies, the program gains a

holistic and proactive strategy, ensuring continuous data collection, informed

decision-making, and long-term success in safeguarding these marine species. Adapting the

proposed buoy system of Lu, H.-Y et. al. (2022) for collecting water temperature and velocity

measurement data facilitated the inclusion of prediction capabilities. The prediction results

were further utilized to develop another AI function to estimate the feeding requirement for

offshore cages using water velocity.

Policy recommendations for local government units and concerned agencies

In order to protect endangered species like seahorses and humphead wrasses, regional

and local governmental organizations must lead successful conservation efforts in

collaboration with related authorities, given their crucial role as stewards of local ecosystems.

The imminent extinction of these notable species emphasizes how urgent it is to have strong

regulations that combine scientific knowledge with community involvement and sustainable

practices. To support local government entities and interested parties in their efforts to protect

these valuable species and their ecosystems, the following policy proposals are meant to

serve as a guide and source of advancement.

A. Importance of adopting restocking programs

The majority of species have dispersed ranges, and many of them have small, isolated

populations that are inbred, have little genetic variety, and are less fit and able to adapt.

Genetic erosion affects an estimated 1.4 million isolated populations of vulnerable species,

and for non-threatened plus threatened species, the figure rises to around 150 million isolated

populations with genetic issues (Frankham, 2022). In restocking programs, fingerlings can be

obtained by a variety of reproductive systems, which can also be used to infer changes in the

genetic variability of progeny, stress, and broodstock mortality (Lopera-Barrero et al., 2014).

According to the IUCN (2013), conservation stocking and relocation of threatened species

should only be used as a "last resort" and should not be carried out before threats have been

lessened or removed. Fischer and Lindenmayer (2000) provide a thorough analysis of animal

relocations and conclude that restocking efforts have a better chance of success when the

source population is a wild one, a high number of animals (n>100) are released, and the

threat that caused the population decreases is eliminated.

B. The role of government in funding and supporting conservation efforts

Governments play a vital role in championing and supporting conservation efforts on

both national and international scales. They allocate funds for scientific research, biodiversity
assessments, and the implementation of critical conservation projects. Through legislation

and policies, governments establish protective laws, wildlife protection acts, and regulations

that safeguard endangered species and their habitats. These efforts extend to the creation and

management of protected areas like national parks and marine reserves, preserving essential

ecosystems. Government agencies enforce these laws, combat illegal activities threatening

wildlife, and monitor wildlife trade to ensure compliance. Moreover, they actively engage in

public awareness campaigns, educating communities about the importance of conservation

and encouraging sustainable practices. International collaboration and diplomacy also form a

significant part of their role, participating in global treaties and providing financial aid to

support conservation initiatives in developing nations. Ultimately, governments serve as

pivotal forces, wielding legislative power, financial resources, and the ability to mobilize

comprehensive action in the pursuit of effective and sustainable conservation practices.

By 2050, there won't be a single way to achieve a significant comeback of marine life.

Instead, recovery necessitates the thoughtful stacking of several complementary measures,

which we refer to as recovery wedges. These steps will all work together to boost the

recovery rate and help it meet or surpass the 2.4% annual growth target across various

ecosystem components. To reconstruct the marine ecosystem significantly by 2050,

significant extra funding for restoration and an extension of protection measures to cover

50% of the ocean's surface are expected to cost at least US$10–20 billion annually. Creating a

global MPA network that protects 20–30% of the ocean would cost between $5 and $19

billion a year (Barbier et al., 2018)

A global alliance of diverse interests, including governments, corporations, resource

users, and civil society, is needed to rebuild marine life. These interests must be aligned

around an evidence-based action plan that is backed by a strong policy framework, a science

and education plan, quantitative targets, metrics for success, and a business plan. Assembling
the scientific, socioeconomic, and technological know-how needed to restore marine life and

the ability to use it all takes leadership (Bäckstrand et al., 2017).

C. Collaboration with NGOs and other stakeholders

Local, regional, and national stakeholders will also need to actively supervise,

participate in, and cooperate with the rebuilding of marine life. Different countries have

different levels of preparedness and ability to put recovery wedges into practice. Cooperation

to restore marine life should be flexible enough to adjust to different cultural contexts; locally

developed strategies may work best (Duarte et al., 2020). New governance structures can

learn from the mistakes made in the past in some countries to prevent making the same

mistakes elsewhere. Rebuilding marine life should take advantage of effectively formulated

marine policies, management strategies, and technological advancements to foster a learning

curve that will accelerate results in the future while cutting costs (Suggett et al., 2019).

Currently, the majority of private protected areas are not listed on the WDPA and are,

as a result, mostly ignored by the global community: they are frequently excluded from

national or ecoregional planning and effectively ignored by governments. This could be the

result of administrators and owners of private protected places being reluctant to give

information freely, or it could be the result of the government's inability to gather statistics on

these sites (Dudley, 2008). An increasing awareness of the potential for success goals for

private land protection, particularly both the quantity and scope of private protected areas

have dramatically increased as a result of the growth of means and incentives for doing so.

NGOs raise money either openly or privately for the acquisition of property for protection, or

accept land gifts straight from contributors: these comprise big worldwide NGOs like

International Conservation and The Nature Conservancy, in addition to several regional and

local examples (Dudley, 2008). Corporate contributions, set aside, or area management for
conservation, driven by the need for positive public relationships; as a compromise or a

counterbalance to other undertakings; as "green" certification stipulates it; as an investment in

the future; or because of the individual's personnel. Unwilling relinquishment of some

managerial rights in reaction to statutory limitations. Governments keep an eye on private

conservation efforts, by assessing both the private sector's management goals and

safeguarded areas and their effectiveness (Dudley, 2008).

Conclusion

Population genetics is the study of the genetic composition of populations, including

distribution and changes in genotype and phenotype frequencies in response to the processes

of natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow. It should be considered as one of

the main and important basis for the conservation of the endangered seahorses and humped

head wrasse. Its main concern is genetic variation within the population. Genetic drift,

mutation, and poor gene flow are all contributing to low genetic diversity, and with its global

decline over the past century, population genetics is timely and relevant to be considered.

This ensures higher adaptability, survival rate, and spawning of fitter offspring.

The application of population genetics in restocking programs revolutionized the

contemporary approaches to bio-conservation of endangered species such as seahorse and

humped head walruses that mainly focuses on habitat management. Restocking programs

with a hint in population genetics ensure long-term sustainability and are environmentally

friendly by targeting stock health and genetic diversity leading to quality and highly adaptive

offspring. This is very impactful in preserving biodiversity and upholding a delicate

ecological balance. Also, leveraging genetic screening and tracking tools is vital in

contemporary conservation, especially for restocking involving seahorses and humphead

wrasses to help to analyze the genetic diversity and health of individuals. This provides ease
in the identification and selection of individuals with sturdy genetic traits, ensuring the

long-term viability of the population.

With all these laid out approaches considering possible advantages and disadvantages

in conserving the endangered species, we highly urged the government, NGO’s, and other

concerned bodies to start investing now in sustainable and environmentally friendly species

conservation through restocking programs with a hint in population genetics. This thoroughly

answers the problem of endangered species, low genetic diversity caused by genetic drift,

poor gene flow, and anthropogenic pressures.

References

Anderson, C., et. al. (2005) Ecological assessment of the Queensland coral reef fin fish

fisheryhttps://fish.gov.au/Archived-Reports/2012/reports/Documents/Anderson_et_al

_2005_ecological_assessment_CRFFF_submission.pdf

Andrews, C. (2010). Natural Selection, Genetic Drift, and Gene Flow Do Not Act in Isolation

in Natural Populations | Learn Science at Scitable. Nature.com.

https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/natural-selection-genetic-drift-and

-gene-flow-15186648/

Bäckstrand, K. et al. Non-state actors in global climate governance: from Copenhagen to

Paris and beyond. Env. Polit. 26, 561–579 (2017).

Barbier, E. B., et al.(2018). How to pay for saving biodiversity. Science 360, 486–488 . This

study provides estimates and funding mechanisms to pay for biodiversity conservation

globally, including estimates of investment and benefits for conserving marine

biodiversity.

Campbell H. et al. (2021). Genetic diversity is considered important but interpreted narrowly

in country reports to the Convention on Biological Diversity: Current actions and

indicators are insufficient. Biological Conservation, 261, 109233.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109233

Duarte, C. M.,et al. (2020). Rebuilding marine life. Nature, 580(7801), 39-51.

Dudley, N. (Editor) (2008). Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories.

Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. x + 86pp. WITH Stolton, S., P. Shadie and N. Dudley

(2013). IUCN WCPA Best Practice Guidance on Recognising Protected Areas and

Assigning Management Categories and Governance Types, Best Practice Protected

Area Guidelines Series No. 21, Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. xxpp

Fischer J., Lindenmayer D. B. (2000). An Assessment of the Published Results of Animal

Relocations. Biol. Conserv. 96 (1), 1–11. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3207(00)00048-3

Foster, S. J., & Vincent, A. C. (2004). Life history and ecology of seahorses: implications for

conservation and management. Journal of Fish Biology, 65(S1), 1-61.

Frankham, R. (2022). Evaluation of proposed genetic goals and targets for the Convention on

Biological Diversity. Conservation Genetics, 23(5), 865-870.

Frąckiewicz, M. (2023, May 10). The impact of underwater drones on Ocean Exploration and

conservation. TS2 SPACE. https://ts2.space/en/the-impact-of-underwater

-drones-on-ocean-exploration-and-conservation/#gsc.tab=0

Genetic drift (article) | Natural selection. (n.d.). Khan Academy.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/natural-selection/population-geneti

cs/a/genetic-drift-founder-bottleneck#:~:text=Genetic%20drift%20occurs%20in%20a

ll

IUCN (2013). Guidelines for Reintroductions and Other Conservation Translocations.

Available at: https://www.iucn.org/content/guidelines-reintroductions-and-

other-conservation-translocations

Koldewey, H. J., et al. (2019). Seahorses: An identification guide to the world's species and

their conservation. WildNature Press

Kuiter, R. H. (2009). Seahorses and their relatives. Sea Challengers.

Life history and ecology of seahorses: implications for conservation

Lopera-Barrero, N.M.,et al(2014). Genetic diversity and paternity of Brycon orbignyanus

offspring obtained for different reproductive systems. Semin-Cienc Agrar. 35

Lu, H.-Y.,et al. (2022). A low-cost AI buoy system for monitoring water quality at offshore

aquaculture cages. MDPI. https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/22/11/4078:541–554.

Minter, M., et al. (2021). What Is Genetic Diversity and Why Does it Matter? Frontiers for

Young Minds, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/frym.2021.656168

Russell, B. (Grouper & Wrasse Specialist Group). 2004. Cheilinus undulatus. The IUCN Red

List of Threatened Species 2004: e.T4592A11023949.

https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T4592A11023949.en. Accessed on

08 December 2023.

Russell, B. C., & Craig, M. T. (2012). Groupers of the World: A Field and Market Guide.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262095169_Groupers_of_the_World_A_Fie

ld_and_Market_Guide_by_Matthew_T_Craig_Yvonne_J_Sadovy_de_Mitcheson_Phi

llip_C_Heemstra

Sadovy, Y., & Cheung, W. L. (2003). Near extinction of a highly fecund fish: the one that

nearly got away. Fish and Fisheries, 4(1), 86-99.

Suggett, D. J. et al. Optimizing return-on-effort for coral nursery and outplanting practices to

aid restoration of the Great Barrier Reef. Restor. Ecol. 27, 683–693 (2019).

Supratim Choudhuri. (2014). Bioinformatics for beginners : genes, genomes, molecular

evolution, databases and analytical tools. Academic Press Is An Imprint Of Elsevier.

Wiley Online Libraryhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com › abs Conservation and management of

seahorses and other Syngnathidae.

https://www.google.com/amp/s/phys.org/news/2019-12-seahorse-aims-recover-endan

gered-species.amp.

Wilson, N. et al (2019). Mapping seafloor relative reflectance and assessing coral reef.

Research Gate.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337510178_Mapping_Seafloor_Relative_Re
 flectance_and_Assessing_Coral_Reef_Morphologywith_EAARL-B_Topobathymetric

_Lidar_Waveforms

Woodruff, D. S. (2001). Populations, Species, and Conservation Genetics. Encyclopedia of

Biodiversity, 811–829. https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-12-226865-2/00355-2