Ai SkyTrain Pre Feasibility Study Final Release Version RFP 2018

SkyTrain CONSORTIUM
SkyTrain
Pre-Feasibility
Assessment
THE
ACCRA
SKYTRAIN™ A SOUTH AFRICA - GHANA -
BRICS PARTNERSHIP
SYSTEM PROJECT
The Public Transit System of the Future
for Ghana … Here Now
CONFIDENTIAL
This Ai Capital document is strictly confidential and not for unauthorized circulation.
December 2018
SkyTrain Pre-Feasibility Assessment
THE ACCRA SKYTRAIN™ SYSTEM PROJECT
Table of Contents
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND PROJECT BACKGROUND 03
The Vision for the Accra SkyTrain™ - an Integrated Elevated Light Rail Urban Transit System for Accra
The Development Model in respect of the Accra SkyTrain™ System:
Strategic Objectives of the Accra SkyTrain™ System:
Spatial Concept Plan – Economic Deliverables:
Development Corridors & Nodes:
Abbreviated Financial Perspective:
The SkyTrain™ Solution – Tomorrows Public Transport Solution Today
The encapsulated solution is appropriately named - SkyTrain™
2. AN OVERVIEW OF SKYTRAIN™ TECHNOLOGY 05

1. Technology – Propulsion System:
2. Technology – The Rail-Car:
3. Technology – The Control System
4. Technology – General Features
6. Technology – Safety & Security:
7. Environmental & Economic Benefits:
3. AN OVERVIEW OF PROPOSED PHASESS & ROUTINGS – ACCRA SKYTRAIN™ SYSTEM 08

Phase 1: (Pink, Green & Gold Routes)
Phase 2: (Blue Route)
Phase 3: (Black Route)
Geotechnical Considerations
4. CONSOLIDATED SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE – PROPOSED ACCRA SKYTRAIN™ SYSTEM 14

Population Data: Greater Accra (Region in Ghana):
Capital Value Amortisation Calculations - Full System
Projected Fare Computations
Operating Personnel Structure & Costs (in 2018 Values)
Projected Operating Cost Summary (in 2018 Values)
Consolidated Financial Summary (in 2018 Values)
5. ANALYTICAL AND FINANCIAL ASSESMENT 17

1. Capital Input Cost Assessment
• SkyTrain™ Operations Centre - Central System Control Room & Management Suite
• SkyTrain™ Stations Including Localised Train Control Systems:
2. Gross Income
3. Capital Amortisation & Finance Charges:
4. Operating Costs:
5. Power Generation Costs:
6. Miscellaneous Costs:
7. Residual Net Profits:
6. PROJECTED RIDERSHIP CURVES – PER ROUTE & CONSOLIDATED 20

7. SKYTRAIN™ COMPARATIVE COMPETIVENESS FACTORS 23
8. PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION PARTNERS 24
9. CONCLUSIONS & BUDGETARY PARAMETERS 25
ANNEXURE “A” Skytrain & Brt Routes 27

ANNEXURE “B” Population Profile Of Greater Accra Region 27
ANNEXURE “C” Electricity Situation Ghana - Challenges & Opportunities 28
ANNEXURE “D” Geotechnical Properties Of Accra Shales (1973) 57
ANNEXURE “E” Accra Brt – Looking Back To Look Forward 65
ANNEXURE “F” African Development Fund - Ghana Urban Transport Project 77
ANNEXURE “G” Accra - Smarter Cities Report 109
ANNEXURE “H” Towards An Effective Transitioning Of Public Transport System In Ghana 125
ANNEXURE “I” Harnessing Land Values - Report 4 - Public Transport Literature Review - 2015 140
ANNEXURE “J” What Works In Private Provision Of Brt Services - A Case Study Of Accra & Addis-Ababa 194
ANNEXURE “K” Eight Of The Cheapest African Cities For Public Transportation 207
ANNEXURE “L” Integrated Transport Plan For Ghana - Report On Transport Modes 208
ANNEXURE “M” Press Article: Transport Minister Slams Ndc Government (February 2018) 290
ANNEXURE “N” Press Article: Government’s Renewed Commitment To Accra Light Rail Project Lures Investors 292
Ai Capital SkyTrain Feasibility Assessment | 2

capital • media • finance
#1 Pink Route Kwame Nkrumah Circle >>>> Adenta West, Madina & Return
1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND PROJECT BACKGROUND
#2 Green Route Kwame Nkrumah Circle >>>> Pakuase (previously up to Amasaman) & Return
The Vision - Accra SkyTrain™ System - An Integrated
Elevated Light Rail Urban Transit System for Accra:
#3 Gold Route Pakuase >>>> Adenta West & Return.
The Accra SkyTrain™ System aims to provide a highly efficient, cost

effective, reliable, safe and very accessible public transport network that #4 Blue Route Kasoa >>>> via Accra Mall >>>> Ashaiman & Return.
is capable of providing the backbone of an integrated public transport

solution for the Greater Accra Region, with the focus being on the Accra #5 Black Route Kwame Nkrumah Circle >>>>> Downtown Commuter Loop
Metropolitan Area.
Apart from the economic and development rationale for the proposed
The SkyTrain™ initiative will provide an essential catalyst in respect of SkyTrain™ initiative, showcasing Accra as a technologically advanced,
supporting the growth and development strategies of the Ghanaian environmentally inspired city, the focus of the project will be on
National Government and the various Accra Metropolitan Area enhancing the quality of life of Accra City’s currently estimated 6.8
municipalities, thereby propelling Accra into a true world-class African million inhabitants (2018 population projection) through the creation of a
City-of-the-Future. sustainable, smart, green-conscious economy that adds to the vibrancy
of the city as a whole.
The proposed SkyTrain™ initiative provides for the development of four
(4) routes, three (3) of which are comprised of radial routes that originate Once fully operationalised, the Accra SkyTrain™ System will carry over
in the very heart of City of Accra, at the newly developed Kwame 386,000 of Accra’s citizens on their daily business - mostly to and from
Nkrumah Circle, and one (1) route that provides an intra-city commuter work, school and university, but also to and from Accra’s shopping malls,
loop distribution service emanating from this same point-of-origin, viz. doctor and hospital visits, restaurants and entertainment venues.
the SkyTrain™ Terminus also to be located at Kwame Nkrumah Circle. The Accra SkyTrain™ System will also provide a convenient, high speed
link to and from the Kotoka International Airport with a SkyTrain™ station
These three (3) radial routes, which extend to the north-west, north-east envisaged being located at Terminal 3.
and east respectively, are scoped to provide an aggregated reach of
126.4 kilometres (mostly by means of elevated bi-directional track). A symbol of excellence, the Accra SkyTrain™ System will represent
Importantly these radials represent ‘Development Corridors’ that being the leading catalyst in respect of infrastructure development,
will serve, as borne out by the international literature, to dramatically innovation and optimization of a harmonious balance between the
enhance high-grade development of retail, commercial and residential residential, industrial, commercial and entertainment sectors of Accra’s
nodes across the extended Metropolitan Area of Accra. urban society.
The project envisages a total track length across all routes of 259.15 The Accra SkyTrain™ System will constitute a fundamentally important
kilometres (mostly configured in a bi-directional format) served by 67 component of the envisaged Accra Metropolitan Area and will serve to
stations, including the Main Terminus at Kwame Nkrumah Circle, 5x capacitate development in a highly cost effective and efficient manner,
Terminal Stations, 3x Interchange Stations (at Accra Mall, Adenta West by providing the City of Accra with a fully integrated medium/high-
& Pokoasi) and 59 Line Stations, with service provided by approximately capacity public transport system that will interconnect the various highly
378 rail cars (including 18 spare units) each with a carrying capacity of populated regions and suburban areas of the city on a 24 hours-a-day
up to 150 passengers each. and 365 days-a-year basis – in other words, the provision of ubiquitous,
around-the-clock public transport that is fundamentally inexpensive,
This infrastructure, when installed, will provide just fewer than 771,800 safe, reliable, comfortable and accessible. The Accra SkyTrain™ System
daily journeys with a peak commuter capacity of 53,972 passengers will also interconnect with all the other forms of public transport available
per hour. On the assumption that most riders will make return or multiple in Accra presently.
trips per day, this equates to a daily service capacity of roughly 386,000
riders per day.
The Development Model in respect of the Accra
The intention is provide service to the citizens of Accra at approximately SkyTrain™ System:
an equivalent of US$ 3.85 per day or slightly less. This service is
designed to provide unlimited mileage and/or journeys for a flat rate The guiding concept in respect of the Accra SkyTrain™ System
fee, whether per day, per week or per month. On this basis, the average envisages a pre-existing urban environment that requires to be
working citizen of Accra would be able purchase their total monthly fundamentally decongested, and in which the layout, infrastructure,
travel needs for around US$ 117.00 per month, without the necessity for future development and economy activity is centred around the citizens
any government subsidy. and inhabitants of the City of Accra, and which otherwise, in form and
function represents a traditional metropolis, containing a central city
From this ‘Feasibility Assessment’ it is apparent that the proposed routes core and its commuter-linked suburbs.
contemplated herein are potentially sustainable on an individual, stand-
alone basis, or on a component part thereof. Our preferred developmental mode for the Accra SkyTrain™ System is
D(F)BOT, viz. (Design, Finance, Build, Operate and Transfer) and will
However, the optimal approach would be best served by a comprehensive see us invest circa US$ 2.441 billion in the project.
implementation of a fully integrated network that comprises of all five (5)
of the proposed routes (implemented in three (3) phases) as set-out This developmental mode specifically envisages that the Accra
and proposed herein. Of course, the construction programme would SkyTrain™ System Operating Entity will be granted at least a 30-Year
require to be suitably phased in conjunction with the City of Accra and Exclusive Concession Operating Agreement (E-COC) by the Ghanaian
the Ministry of Transport of the Government of Ghana. Government, in order that Ai Capital (or its nominee) does indeed
design, finance, build, operate, and then, upon termination of such
It is our submission that the suggested routes, considering all Exclusive Concession Operating Agreement, transfers the entire Accra
relevant factors pertaining to overall viability, should follow the SkyTrain™ System, to the specified assign of the Ghanaian Government.
following Order of Priority for implementation purposes: Consequent to the above-mentioned arrangement, and as is envisioned

hereunder, an implicit right is assumed to accrue, to extract a reasonable • Development intensity is typically along movement corridors and at
profit, a right that is assumed to be inalienable. the intersection of these routes.
ABBREVIATED FINANCIAL PERSPECTIVE:

Strategic Objectives of the Accra SkyTrain™ System:
In amplification of the aforementioned, the following is a highly
1. To enhance the economic opportunities for the citizens and summarised tabulation of the forward looking financial projections that
inhabitants of the City of Accra by means of reducing, aa far are envisioned for the Accra SkyTrain™ System:
as possible, their average monthly transportation costs, whilst
simultaneously increasing convenience and peak-travel time ITEM DESCRIPTION MONTHLY ANNUAL
windows, and moreover, to help create an environment that is Gross Income from Ticket Sales $45 190 288 $542 283 462
conducive to economic development to the broader benefit of the
Less: Capital Amortisation & Finance Charges $21 252 741 $255 032 890
citizens of Accra.
Gross Operating Income Estimates $23 937 548 $287 250 572
2. To fulfil the role of a primary catalyst with regard to infrastructure Operating Costs:
investment and development across the entire Accra Metropolitan Total Operational Personnel Costs $725 208 $8 702 500
Region.
Total System Maintenance Costs $250 000 $3 000 000
3. To be a fundamental ‘change agent’ with regard to helping to create Total Power Generation Costs - Internal $1 100 952 $13 211 423
a 24-hour city, that comprises a lively global destination with an SG&A Costs:
inclusive, accessible and vibrant culture, including these goals: Total Sales & Marketing Costs $180 000 $2 160 000
• Providing easy access to city-wide destinations that
Total General Administrative Costs $120 000 $1 440 000
accommodates residential, retail, industry, hospitality, office and
education offerings within its confines, making the city a Total Miscellenous Operating Costs $90 000 $1 080 000
highly liveable experience, as well as being a plausible and Less: Total Operating Cost Estimates $2 466 160 $29 593 923
credible international gateway; and NETT OPERATING PROFIT BEFORE TAX $21 471 387 $257 656 649
• Creating a harmonious balance between residential, industrial,
commercial and entertainment areas resulting in reduced costs The summarised financial projections as set out above indicate a
and enhanced profits and value-growth for developers, owners, projected NPBT expectation in the order of US$ 21.471 million per
tenants and businesses alike. month and annualised at approximately US$ 257.656 million.

4. To implement a sustainable and green urban public transport Against this, the required capital investment that will be required to give
system, including addressing the following particular goals: effect to the development, construction and commissioning of the Accra
• By reducing the carbon footprint compared to developments of SkyTrain™ System entails a financial commitment of circa US$ 2.441 billion.
similar size, scope and social impact of other public transport
modes and systems; More details in respect of the financial aspects of the Accra SkyTrain™
• By scaling the use of sustainable energy; and System can be found in the appropriate sections hereunder.
• By reducing ambient urban noise and thereby contributing to a
better quality urban environment The SkyTrain™ Solution – Tomorrows Public
Transport Solution Today
5. To accommodate and facilitate clusters-of-excellence that can
leverage their location based on the benefits of access to a Large-scale metropolitan growth and development initiatives such as
ubiquitous, reliable and inexpensive public transport system, the Accra SkyTrain™ System project confers many different benefits,
but also brings many challenges that must be satisfactorily addressed
6. To enhance the quality of life in the Accra Metropolitan Region: so as to secure the eventuating economic momentum and to ensure a
• Create substantially improved economic and employment sustainable future growth trajectory.
opportunities within the region for its residents, citizens and
current users; and This Pre-Feasibility Assessment and its attendant proposals are intended
• Strengthen the region’s economy and the region’s infrastructure. to put forward a viable solution in respect of the public transportation
challenges being presently encountered in Accra, although it is not
Spatial Concept Plan – Economic Deliverables: intended as a panacea, and most certainly does not intend to derogate
from the other public transportation solutions that may be contemplated to
DEVELOPMENT CORRIDORS & NODES: be introduced within the broader ambit of the broader Accra Metropolitan
Area, such as the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) initiatives for example.
• The Accra SkyTrain™ System postulates the establishment of five
(5) Development Corridors, each being located along the designated | In short, this Pre-Feasibility Assessment and its attendant proposals
Pink, Blue, Gold, Green & Black SkyTrain™ routes respectively postulate a comprehensive, yet at the same time a selective deployment
as set out herein below, with the intention that these corridors will of a novel elevated light rail system using unique, proprietary technology
take advantage of exposure and visibility associated with the Accra that has been specifically conceived and developed for low economic
SkyTrain™ System. resource settings that are typically encountered in the emerging market
• The Accra SkyTrain™ System Development Corridors will form crucial economies of the world, such as in Ghana.
and integral components of existing spatial planning institutionalised
by the Local Municipalities of the broader Accra Metropolitan Area, The encapsulated solution is appropriately named - SkyTrain™.
and these principles should be carried forward in the Accra
SkyTrain™ System Development Plan. The SkyTrain™ product is presently being seriously considered by a
• Bulk of commercial land-use should be made available in close significant number of cities and governments across Africa, and beyond,
proximity to the Accra SkyTrain™ System Development Corridors in principally on the basis that it adequately meets most, if not all, of the
order to fully leverage economic development. key decision criteria essential in respect of the selection of an efficient,
• Accra SkyTrain™ System Development Corridor will need to provide affordable and thoroughly modern urban mass transit system. SkyTrain™
access extending economic development potential and the ability to - presented by Ai Capital - as the sole exclusive and duly authorised
affect balanced growth. representative for SkyTrain™ technology for Ghana specifically.

SkyTrain™ is therefore a cogent, rational and intelligent solution to a to the desired rail-car acceleration rate and speed all controlled by high
difficult urban problem that afflicts most of not all rapidly growing cities utility Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC’s).
today, viz. that of providing adequately efficient, safe and affordable
public transportation. Excellent system reliability and safety is achieved by using these sturdy,
proven industrial components. The SkyTrain™ power propulsion units
The distribution of the population cohorts across each of the five (5) are completely contained in sound-insulated housing units. SkyTrain™
notional routes varies quite considerably similar, as do the respective blowers propel air, under low pressure, via a semi-sealed duct built into
route lengths. Additionally, the peak-hour utilisation of the Accra the runway. The pressurized air pushes against a rigid propulsion plate
SkyTrain™ System over any 24-period is assumed, for the purposes of attached to the bottom of each SkyTrain™ rail-car.
this Pre-Feasibility Assessment to be close to identical (with the exception
of the ‘Black Route’ which is specified as unidirectional single track This propulsion plate acts like an upside down sail on a sailboat, propelling
format. The ‘Ridership Utilisation Curves’ illustrated below, illustrate the each SkyTrain™ rail-car forward, and also helping to stop it when air flow
respective route profiles, whilst the absolute ridership numbers show is reversed. The enclosed propulsion plate is rigidly attached underneath
specific variabilities related to the particular population densities and the SkyTrain™ rail-car, thereby preventing derailment.
demographic characteristics of each ‘rider catchment area’.
Air propulsion eliminates the problems of heavy rail traction. Wear on
Also, the specific critical determinants of each respective route (with wheels and tracks are reduced to a minimum. The use of stationary
the possible exception of the ‘Gold Route’) means that, from a practical air-blower units permits optimum design of power plants in relation to
perspective, each route is separable whilst maintaining financial viability, specific requirements for each route segment. Major cost savings are
and could easily be executed in a phased approach, with each route obtained by appropriate sizing of air blowers for each route section,
being implemented sequentially if so required. circa every 1.25 kilometres on average.
The electric motors on the SkyTrain™ air blowers are sturdy,
However, In order to optimise the overall system viability, it is proposed completely independent units.
the Accra SkyTrain™ System is executed sequentially in three (3) distinct
phases, as follows:
PHASES ROUTE DESCRIPTORS
Phase 1
#1 Pink Route #3 Gold Route #2 Green Route
Phase 2 #4 Blue Route
Phase 3 #5 Black Route
2 AN OVERVIEW OF SKYTRAIN™ TECHNOLOGY
SkyTrain™ is a fully automated, high-reliability, high-efficiency and

extremely cost-effective public mass transit system that uses a 1.1. Diagrammatic illustration of Air Propulsion System
proprietary, patented air propulsion to drive a lightweight, high volume
rail mounted rail-car. Because the purpose of these motors is to pump air, not drive the
rail-car, maintenance requirements are minimal. Variable speed motors
SkyTrain™ technology is truly unique - with the established goal of increase efficiency and minimize any loss of energy. These large,
reducing cost through simplicity. powerful motors provide SkyTrain™ with a wide range of air movement
SkyTrain™ conceptually embodies 5 definitive aspects: capability, and therefore a very dynamic propulsion range, while
• Air Propulsion keeping the cost of operation and maintenance at a minimum.
• Aerodynamic Efficiency
• Elevated Operation
• Energy Efficient
• Environmentally Friendly
SkyTrain™ combines low capital cost, high performance, easy and fast
implementation, environmental compatibility, comfort and reliability through
its unique air propulsion technology. Internationally patented, SkyTrain™
technology, uses steel wheels and rails on an elevated runway, and is
designed for safe, economical and environmentally friendly applications.
The advantages of SkyTrain™ flow directly from the system’s

uncomplicated concepts and extremely high payload to weight ratio.This
results in demonstrably reduced installation, operation and maintenance
costs in comparison with conventional mass transit systems.
1. TECHNOLOGY – PROPULSION SYSTEM:

SkyTrain™ is driven by a pneumatic propulsion system which converts
electrical power into air flow and therefore transmits thrust directly to the 1.2. Diagrammatic illustration of Air Propulsion System
SkyTrain™ rail-car without gears or any intervening electrical circuits.
The fixed location, stationary power propulsion units reduce wear
Stationary electrical blowers, located close to the passenger stations and allow simple, efficient and timely maintenance, because they are
produce the necessary pressurized air, which is generated according entirely separated from the moving SkyTrain™ rail-cars.

Full system redundancy is ensured by linking blower units in tandem

within the overall system design. The light weight of SkyTrain™ rail-cars ensure that energy is not wasted
2. TECHNOLOGY – THE RAIL-CAR: by having to move heavy deadweight; the extreme simplicity and high
Free of the weight of on-board traction / propulsion systems and motors, reliability of the SkyTrain™ system results in significantly reduced
the SkyTrain™ rail-car is very light and simple, carrying 2 to 3 times more maintenance requirements.
people per ton of deadweight than most other mass transit alternatives.
Steel wheels combined with lightweight rail-car construction ensure SkyTrain™ rail-cars are equipped with modern, efficient roof mounted
reduced noise and vibration levels. HVAC units. These air-conditioning units have been widely used by the
transit industry and provide maximum comfort at a minimum cost.
The SkyTrain™ rail-cars embody state-of-the-art aerodynamic
features, which ensure optimal energy requirements. Acceleration and deceleration is smooth and efficient; traction noise and
vibration are minimized; SkyTrain™ rail-car speed can reach 80 kilometres
In fact the SkyTrain™ system is exceptionally energy efficient, being at per hour (km/h) in urban applications, although all calculations in this
least four (4) times more efficient than a modern diesel-powered bus, Feasibility Assessment are based on 60 kilometres per hour (km/h).
and uses green-energy in terms of being powered by renewable energy
sources (solar and or wind-turbine).The SkyTrain™ rail-cars are fully The combination of pneumatic propulsion and non-axle wheel design
compliant with NFPA, ADA and other U.S. codes and standards. permits SkyTrain™ rail-cars to climb steep gradients up to 12% and
traverse sharp curves with a radius as low as 25 meters. This makes
SkyTrain™ an ideal solution for implementation in constrained and
cluttered urban settings.
1.3 Typical SkyTrain™ Articulated Rail-Car
3. TECHNOLOGY – THE CONTROL SYSTEM

SkyTrain™ operation is fully automatic. No drivers are required on-board.
High reliability automation systems are used for protection, control
and supervision of the SkyTrain™ rail-car operation. This significantly
reduces operational cost.
SkyTrain™ has joined forces with Siemens to produce a ‘cutting edge’ transit
control system. The system is fully automated and uses proven Programmable
Logic Controllers (PLC’s). This ‘Industrial Automation’ approach is extremely
reliable, safe and eliminates any potential for human error. 5. TECHNOLOGY – FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF
SKYTRAIN™ INFRASTRUCTURE:
SkyTrain’s™ modular philosophy enables the standardized development
of numerous reusable modules. These pre-programmed modules can The implicit design characteristics of SkyTrain™ facilitates very cost
be applied from project to project with a minimum of alteration and effective and rapid construction and installation, being comprised
maximum reliability. The SkyTrain™ Control System is also the centre mostly of modular, pre-fabricated elements that are relatively simple to
of all vital functions including communications and station supervision. install and commission.
The fixed runway of SkyTrain™

consists of a pre-fabricated
box beam, which supports
the track and SkyTrain™ rail-
cars, and through which the
air circulates to provide the
required propulsive power.
For purposes of rapid construction and minimum disruption to

surrounding activities, the SkyTrain™ runway is erected in pre-fabricated
modular sections in pre-stressed concrete or steel, which may be readily
lifted into place by day or night.
1.4 SkyTrain™ Control Room
4. TECHNOLOGY – GENERAL FEATURES

SkyTrain™ with its exclusive right-of-way and comparatively short
headways is designed to carry up to 24,000 passengers per hour per
direction, although we have specified the Accra SkyTrain™ System to
accommodate only 12,000 passengers per hour per direction based
on a balance of need and economic feasibility, however considerable
design flexibility remains to accommodate future growth or any changes
in planning that may eventuate.

by OWLS – an Austrian company, provides fully integrated audio,

visual and infra-red surveillance capabilities, including crowd control
systems, allowing for full real-time oversight of all security aspects of
the stations, runways and all other components of the entire installation.
This surveillance system is included in the state-of-the-art LED track and
station lighting system.
An added benefit of the ‘Safe City Smart City’ solution – is the

integration of a Wi-Fi network operating across the entire SkyTrain™
network system.
Generally, the SkyTrain™ stations are also elevated above street level,
ensuring a fully optimal urban footprint.
7. ENVIRONMENTAL & ECONOMIC BENEFITS:

The greatest benefit of SkyTrain™ is its generally favourable influence on
patterns of land use. SkyTrain™ is highly energy efficient and well-suited
to using electricity sourced from renewable sources, such as solar, wind
and bio-fuels.
In the case of the envisaged Accra SkyTrain™ installation, it proposed to

provide a fully independent dedicated power supply system in order to
ensure that is not grid dependent, and does not place additional strains
on the already stressed Ghana national electricity grid.
There is minimal noise emission and no air pollution generated by the

SkyTrain™ system. Of vital importance, traffic congestion and grade
crossing incidents are completely eliminated.
SkyTrain™ generates economic growth and development, increasing the

surrounding land value while at the same time alleviating the necessity
6. TECHNOLOGY – SAFETY & SECURITY:
to build costly infrastructure.
SkyTrain™ rail-cars travel on an elevated and exclusive runways,
eliminating grade crossing congestion and the potential for accidents.
Automation includes redundant and high reliability systems. Operation
of rail-cars is supervised by an automatic train protection system.
The SkyTrain™ propulsion concept has the intrinsic safety feature of an

air buffer between propulsion plates which helps to prevent collision
between SkyTrain™ rail-cars. SkyTrain™ rail-cars can not derail;
propulsion plates inside the duct are rigidly connected to the rail-car
undercarriage.
Research has shown that similar elevated rail mass transit systems
Dual propulsion and friction emergency brakes are provided. Friction have had a significant impact on the development of urban areas
brakes on the SkyTrain™ rail-car are not required except for parking near stations. For example, in Vancouver, Canada, between 1991 and
at stations and are essentially redundant because the rail-cars can be 2001, the population living within 500m of the local SkyTrain™ system
stopped using the propulsion system alone. increased by 37%, compared to the regional average of 24%, and it was
the key catalyst for investment and property development, with more
Emergency exits at both ends of the SkyTrain™ rail-car allow easy than $5 billion of private money having been invested within 10~15
passenger evacuation. The non-electrified SkyTrain™ runway itself acts minute walking distance of the SkyTrain™ system.
as a passenger escape route. Two-way communication between rail-car
and central control is standard. SkyTrain™, because of its comparatively low capital cost and its very
low operating costs in addition to its deployment flexibility, is ideally
In respect of operational safety and security, it is envisaged to deploy suited to an emergent urban metropolitan area such as Accra, and will
a unique system that is an embedded component and aspect of the have the added benefit of significantly driving property quality and value
entire SkyTrain™ system. The ‘Safe City Smart City’ solution provided enhancements to the benefit of all.

for one- directional travel Terminal Station to Terminal Station.

AN OVERVIEW OF THE PROPOSED ROUTE – ACCRA
3 The route topography on the preferred ‘Pink Route’ alignment shows an
SKYTRAIN™ SYSTEM
elevation range of 9m ASL to about 86m ASL, with a total climb of 101m and
a total descent of 58m mover the course of the route, and at incline/decline
PHASE 1: (PINK, GREEN & GOLD ROUTES)
gradients that are well within the 12o operating specification of SkyTrain™.
The following diagram provides a high level perspective of the proposed The following tabulation represents a summary of the ‘Pink Route’:
Phase 1 installation for the envisaged Accra SkyTrain™ System:
PINK ROUTE
Kwame Nkrumah Circle >>> Adenta West, Madina
Total Drainage Population (Projected for 2018 per 2010 Census Data) 1 115 417
Max. Ridership per 24-Hour Period - % of Regional Population 25,81%
Max. Theoretical Ridership Number per Peak Hour (to Max. Available Cap.) 11 995
Total Daily Riders on this Route 171 534
Route Distance - One-Way 24,30 km
Track Distance - Total Installed Track 48,60 km
Total No. Stations 12
Average Headway 2,03 km
Total Rail Cars Required (Rolling Stock) 84
Total Projected Infrastructure Investment Required under D(F)BOT $458 366 504
The Pink Route, is the anchor route of Phase 1 of the proposed Accra
SkyTrain™ System and comprises a total route length of approximately
24.3 kilometres x 2 directions = a total track length of 48.6 kilometres, Total Projected Infrastructure Investment required under a D(F)BOT
with 12 discrete SkyTrain™ stations (and possibly 2 additional stations regime for the ‘Pink Route’ equates to an estimated US$ 458 366 504.
for later addition, depending on traffic patterns & rider volumes)
therefore indicating an initial average headway of 2.03 kilometres The following table demarcates the full route planning and headway
between stops, with an aggregate mean trip time estimate of 43 minutes distances for the ‘Pink Route’:
HEADWAY
STATION LOCATION ROUTE DESCRIPTION
(KM)
Main Terminus Station @ Kwame Nkrumah Circle, Accra City Centre Commence from SkyTrain™ Terminus Station 1
Proceeding east for ~1.0 kilometres along Ring
Station #2 @ Silver Cup Bus Stop, Ring Road Central 1,00
Road Central to the SkyTrain™ Station 2❷
Continuing east for ~1.5 kilometres on Ring Road
Station #3 @ Circle Kaneshie Bus Terminus, Ring Road Central 1,50
Central to SkyTrain™ Station 3❸
@ Presidential Palace Complex, Junction of Liberation Continuing east & then north on Liberation Road
Station #4 1,50
Road & Jawarhalal Nehuru Road for ~1.5 kilometres to SkyTrain™ Station 4❹
@ 37 Military Hospital, Junction of Liberation Road & Continuing north on Liberation Road for ~1.3
Station #5 1,30
Achimota Road kilometre to SkyTrain™ Station 5
@ Kotoka International Airport Passenger Terminal 3, Continuing north on Liberation Road via Marina
Station #6 3,20
Airport Road Mall for ~ 3.2 kilometres to SkyTrain™ Station 6❻
@ Accra Mall, Junction of Liberation Road & N1 Continuing north on Airport By-Pass & Liberation
Station #7 2,40
Freeway Road for ~2.4 kilometers to SkyTrain™ Station 7❼
[INTERCHANGE TO BLUE ROUTE]

@ Okpolongo Bus Stop, Junction of Liberation Road & Continuing north on Liberation Road for ~2.5
Station #8 2,50
La Bawaleshe Road kilometres to SkyTrain™ Station 8❽
HEADWAY
(KM)
@ University Hospital & University of Ghana, Junction of Continuing north parallel to Liberation Road for
Station #9 2,30
Liberation Road & J.B. Danquah Road ~2.3 kilometres to SkyTrain™ Station 9❾
@ Rawlings Circle, junction of New Road & Westland Continuing north parallel to Liberation Road for
Station #10 3,30
Boulevard Road ~ 3.3 kilometres to SkyTrain™ Station 10❿
@ Kwabenya Bus Stop, Junction of Liberation Road & Continuing west on Westland Boulevard Road
Station #11 1,50
Haatso-Atomic Road for ~ 1.5 kilometres to SkyTrain™ Station 11⓫
Continuing north on Liberation Road for 3.8
Terminal Station @ Adenta West, Madina, Nayanyo Street. 3,80
kilometres to SkyTrain™ Terminal Station 12⓬

The following tabulation represents a summary of the ‘Green Route’:

The Green Route, is the secondary route on respect of Phase 1
of the proposed Accra SkyTrain™ System and comprises a total GREEN ROUTE
route length of approximately 20.25 kilometres x 2 directions Kwame Nkrumah Circle <<< >>> Pokoasi
= a total track length of 40.50 kilometres, with 13 discrete Total Drainage Population (Projected for 2018 per 2010 Census Data) 718 263
SkyTrain™ stations (and possibly 1 additional station for later
addition, depending on traffic patterns & rider volumes) therefore
indicating an initial average headway of 2.25 kilometres between Max. Theoretical Ridership Number per Peak Hour (to Max. Available Cap.) 11 992
stops, with an aggregate mean trip time estimate of 26 minutes Total Daily Riders on this Route 171 486
for one- directional travel Terminal Station to Terminal Station.
The route topography on the preferred ‘Green Route’ alignment Track Distance - Total Installed Track 40,50 km
shows an elevation range of 9m ASL to about 84m ASL, with a Total No. Stations 13
total climb of 99m and a total descent of 56m mover the course of Average Headway 1,56 km
the route, and at incline/decline gradients that are well within the
12o operating specification of SkyTrain™.
Total Projected Infrastructure Investment required under a D(F)BOT regime for the ‘Green Route’ equates to an estimated US$ 399 634 384.
The following table demarcates the full route planning and headway distances for the ‘Green Route’:
STATION LOCATION HEADWAY ROUTE DESCRIPTION

(KM)
Terminus Station @ Kwame Nkrumah Circle, Accra City Centre Commence from SkyTrain™ Terminus Station 1❶
@ Accra North Post Office, junction of Nsawam Road Proceeding north for ~500 metres along Nsawam
Station #2 500 metres
(N6) & New Town Road Road (N6) to SkyTrain™ Station 2❷
Proceeding north for ~1.0 kilometres along
Station #3 @ Princeway Hotel, off Nsawam Road (N6) 1,00
Nsawam Road (N6) to SkyTrain™ Station 3❸
Proceeding north-west for ~800 metres along
Station #4 @ Alajo-Kotobabi Taxi Rank, off Nsawam Road (N6) 800 metres
Nsawam Road (N6) to SkyTrain™ Station 4❹
@ Ghana Technology University College (GTUC) Proceeding north-west for ~1.1 kilometres along
Station #5 1,10
Junction of Nsawam Road (N6) & Adaman Crescent Nsawam Road (N6) to SkyTrain™ Station 5❺
@ Tesano Police Station, junction of Nsawam Road Proceeding north for ~1.1 kilometres along
Station #6 1,10
(N6) & 1st Tesano Crescent Nsawam Road (N6) to SkyTrain™ Station 6❻
@ Adjacent to Mount Horeb School, at Nsawam Road Proceeding north for ~1.25 kilometres along
Station #7 1,25
(N6) & 11000 George W Bush Highway (N1) Nsawam Road (N6) to SkyTrain™ Station 7❼
Proceeding north-west for ~900 metres along
Station #8 @ Phersons Health College, off Nsawam Road (N6) 900 metres
Nsawam Road (N6) to SkyTrain™ Station 8❽

(KM)
@ St. Johns Bus Station, Achimoto Retail Centre, at Proceeding north-west for ~2.3 kilometres along
Station #9 2,30
Nsawam Road (N6) & St. Johns Dome Road Nsawam Road (N6) to SkyTrain™ Station 9❾
@ St. Johns Hospital & Fertility Centre, off Nsawam Proceeding north-west for ~1.2 kilometres along
Station #10 1,20
Road (N6) Nsawam Road (N6) to SkyTrain™ Station 10❿
Proceeding north-west for ~2.7 kilometres along
Station #11 @ Ofankor School, off Nsawam Road (N6) 2,70
Nsawam Road (N6) to SkyTrain™ Station 11⓫
@ Rev. John Teye Memorial School, off Nsawam Road Proceeding north-west for ~1.7 kilometres along
Station #12 1,70
(N6) Nsawam Road (N6) to SkyTrain™ Station 12⓬
Proceeding north-west for ~3.4 kilometres along
Terminal Station @ Pokoasi (Mayflower Beacon School Complex) 5,70 Nsawam Road (N6) to the SkyTrain™ Terminal
Station 18⓯

The Gold Route, is the final and least critical route on respect of Phase The following tabulation represents a summary of the ‘Gold Route’:
1 of the proposed Accra SkyTrain™ System and comprises a total
route length of approximately 21.15 kilometres x 2 directions = a total GOLD ROUTE
track length of 42.30 kilometres, with 5 discrete SkyTrain™ stations, Pokoasi <<< >>> Adenta West
depending on traffic patterns & rider volumes) therefore indicating Total Drainage Population (Projected for 2018 per 2010 Census Data) 520 419
an initial average headway of 4.23 kilometres between stops, with an
aggregate mean trip time estimate of 21 minutes for one- directional
travel Terminal Station to Terminal Station. Max. Theoretical Ridership Number per Peak Hour (to Max. Available Cap.) 12 000

The route topography on the preferred ‘Gold Route’ alignment shows Route Distance - One-Way 21,15 km
an elevation range of 84m ASL to about 86m ASL, with a total climb
of 7m and a total descent of 5m mover the course of the route, and Track Distance - Total Installed Track 42,30 km
at incline/decline gradients that are well within the 12o operating Total No. Stations 5
specification of SkyTrain™. Average Headway 4,23 km
Total Projected Infrastructure Investment required under a D(F)BOT regime for the ‘Gold Route’ equates to an estimated US$ 375 488 065.
The following table demarcates the full route planning and headway distances for the ‘Gold Route’:
HEADWAY
(KM)
[INTERCHANGE TO GREEN ROUTE]

Proceeding south and east ~21.15 kilometres along
Terminal Station @ Pokoasi (Mayflower Beacon School Complex)
Haatso-Atomic Road to SkyTrain™ Station 1
Note: Route Stations are presently undefined (Estimates: 3 Stations) Intermediate 3 Stations are presently undefined.
21,15
Proceeding east and north-east for ~21.15
Terminal Station @ Adenta West, Madina, Nayanyo Street. kilometres along Haatso-Atomic to SkyTrain™
Station 2
The following tabulation represents a summary of the ‘Blue Route’:

PHASE 2: (BLUE ROUTE)
BLUE ROUTE
The following diagram provides a high level perspective of the proposed Kasoa <<< >>> Ashaiman
Phase 2 installation for the envisaged Accra SkyTrain™ System: Total Drainage Population (Projected for 2018 per 2010 Census Data) 2 309 328
Average Headway 2,25 km
Total Projected Infrastructure Investment Required under D(F)BOT $1 100 865 997
The Blue Route, is the sole component of Phase 2 of the proposed Accra
SkyTrain™ System and is the single longest route of the whole Accra
SkyTrain™ System and comprises a total route length of approximately 60.7
kilometres x 2 directions = a total track length of 121.40 kilometres, with
2 spur-lines that access specific neighbourhoods via single bi-directional
tracks, and 24 discrete SkyTrain™ stations (and possibly 6 additional
stations for later addition, depending on traffic patterns & rider volumes)
therefore indicating an initial average headway of 2.25 kilometres between
stops, with an aggregate mean trip time estimate of 1 hour 8 minutes for
one- directional travel Terminal Station to Terminal Station.
The route topography on the preferred route shows an elevation range

of 9m ASL to about 33m ASL, with a total climb of 55m over the course
of the route, and at incline/decline gradients that are well within the 12o
operating specification of SkyTrain™.

Total Projected Infrastructure Investment required under a D(F)BOT regime for the ‘Blue Route’ equates to an estimated US$ 1 100 865 997 – the
largest route investment for the entire Accra SkyTrain™ System.
The following table demarcates the full route planning and headway distances for the ‘Blue Route’:

(KM)
Proceeding east for ~1.7 kilometres along
@ Kasoa New Market Junction, Kasoa, off Mankessim
Terminus Station 1,70 Mankessim Road (N1) from SkyTrain™ Terminal
Road (N1)
Station 1 West
Station #2 @ Iron City Taxi Rank, Kasoa, off Mankessim Road (N1) 2,30
Mankessim Road (N1) to SkyTrain™ Station 2 West
Station #3 @ Marcbeas Hotel, off Mankessim Road (N1) 1,10
Station #4 @ Tuba Junction Bus Stop, off Mankessim Road (N1) 3,50

(KM)
@ Finney Hospital & Fertility Centre, off Mankessim Proceeding east for ~1.8 kilometres along Mankessim
Station #5 1,80
Road (N1) Road (N1) to SkyTrain™ Station 5 West
Proceeding east for ~2.5 kilometres along Mankessim
Station #6 @ West Hills Mall, off Mankessim Road (N1) 2,50
Road (N1) to SkyTrain™ Station 6 West
Proceeding east for ~2.0 kilometres along Mankessim
Station #7 @ Global Cinemas, off Mankessim Road (N1) 2,00
Road (N1) to SkyTrain™ Station 7 West
Proceeding north-east for ~1.7 kilometres along
Station #8 @ Tetegu Bus Stop, off Mankessim Road (N1) 1,70
@ Galleys Shops & Residence, off Mankessim Road Proceeding north-east for ~800 metres along
Station #9 0,80
(N1) Mankessim Road (N1) to SkyTrain™ Station 9 West
Station #10 @ Benjy’s Lodge, off Mankessim Road (N1) 1,50
Station #11 @ Mallam Junction Station, off Mankessim Road (N1) 1,00
Proceeding north-east for ~1.9 kilometres along George
Station #12 @ Awoshie Junction on George W. Bush Highway 1,90
Washington Highwayto SkyTrain™ Station 12 West
Station #13 @ Hong Kong Bus Stop, off George W. Bush Highway 1,90
Washington Highway to SkyTrain™ Station 13 West
Station #14 @ Lapaz Bus Stop, off George W. Bush Highway 1,80
Proceeding east for ~1.5 kilometres along George
Station #15 @ Unibank, Abeka, off George W. Bush Highway 1,50
@ Junction of Achimoto Road & George W. Bush Proceeding east for ~2.6 kilometres along George
Station #16 2,60
Highway Washington Highway to SkyTrain™ Station 16 West
@ Petroleum Commision of Ghana, off George W. Proceeding east for ~2.3 kilometres along George
Station #17 2,30
Bush Highway Washington Highway to SkyTrain™ Station 17 West
Station #18 @ Fedex Headquarters, off George W. Bush Highway 1,10
Station #19 @ African Regent Hotel, off George W. Bush Highway 1,00
Proceeding north ~800 metres to SkyTrain™ Terminal
Terminal Station @ Accra Mall 0,80
Station 20
INTERCHANGE TO PINK ROUTE

@ East Legon Police Station, off the Accra-Tema Proceeding east for ~3.1 kilometres along the Accra-
Station #2 East 3,10
Motorway (N1) Tema Motorway (N1) to SkyTrain™ Station 2 East
@ Coca Cola Roundabout, off the Accra-Tema Proceeding east for ~5.0 kilometres along the Accra-
Motorway (N1) Tema Motorway (N1) to SkyTrain™ Station 3 East
@ Boundary Road West Interchange, off the Accra- Proceeding east for ~4.7 kilometres along the Accra-
Tema Motorway (N1) Tema Motorway (N1) to SkyTrain™ Station 4 East
Proceeding east then north for ~7.3 kilometres along
@ Tema Station, Ashaiman, Tema, off the Accra-Tema
Terminal Station East 7,30 the Accra-Tema Motorway (N1) to SkyTrain™Terminal
Motorway (N1)
Station 5 East

(KM)
North East / South West for ~1.0 kilometres along
Terminal Station - @ Shiashie Shuttle - Bi-Directional Spur Line providing
~1,0 Lagos Avenue to and from SkyTrain™ Terminal
Central service into and out off Shiashie Residential Area
Station 20⓴ Central
@ Tema Shuttle - Bi-Directional Spur Line providing North / South for ~10.6 kilometres along Harbour
Terminal Station - East ~10,6
service into and out off Tema Industrial & Port Area Road to and from Terminal Station - East

length also of 6.35 kilometres, and which accesses the downtown city
PHASE 3: (BLACK ROUTE) area of Accra.
The following diagram provides a high level perspective of the proposed The Black Route features 10 discrete SkyTrain™ stations therefore
Phase 3 installation for the envisaged Accra SkyTrain™ System: indicating an initial average headway of 640 metres between stops,
with an aggregate mean trip time estimate of 26 minutes for one-
directional travel Terminal Station to Terminal Station.
BLACK ROUTE
Accra City Centre Commuter Distribution
Total Drainage Population (Projected for 2018 per 2010 Census Data) 718 263
The Black Route, is the sole component of Phase 3 of the proposed Average Headway 0,64 km
Accra SkyTrain™ System and is the shortest route of the whole Accra Total Rail Cars Required (Rolling Stock) 42
SkyTrain™ System, comprising a total route length of approximately
6.35 kilometres x 1 unidirectional line, and therefore with a total track
Total Projected Infrastructure Investment required under a D(F)BOT regime for the ‘Black Route’ equates to an estimated US$ 107 593 690.
The following table demarcates the full route planning and headway distances for the ‘Black Route’:
HEADWAY
(KM)
Terminus Station @ Kwame Nkrumah Circle, Accra City Centre Commence from SkyTrain™ Terminus Station 1❶
@ Adabraka Police Station ( District Police Proceeding south for ~900 metres along Kwame
Headquarters), Kwame Nkrumah Ave Nkrumah Avenue to SkyTrain™ Station 2❷
Proceeding south for ~250 metres along Kwame
Station #3 @ Junction of Kwame Nkrumah Ave and Castle Road 250 metres Nkrumah Avenue to SkyTrain™ Station 3❸
Proceeding south for ~650 metres along Kwame
Station #4 @ Junction of Kwame Nkrumah Ave and Liberia Road 650 metres Nkrumah Avenue to SkyTrain™ Station 4❹
@ Junction of Liberia Road and Barnes Road (Museum Proceeding east for ~700 metres along Liberia
for Science & Technology) Road to SkyTrain™ Station 5❺
Proceeding east for ~600 metres along Liberia
Station #6 @ Junction of Liberia Road and Independence Avenue 600 metres Road to SkyTrain™ Station 6❻
Proceeding north-east on Independence
Station #7 @ Greater Accra Regional Hospital on Castle Road 950 metres Ave. then north-west on Castle Rd ~950m to
SkyTrain™ Station 7❼
@ Junction of Castle Road & Barnes Road (Ghana Proceeding west for ~800 metres along Castle
Museums & Monuments Board) Road to SkyTrain™ Station 8❽
Proceeding north west on Barnes Road till the
@ Junction of Barnes Road and Farrar Road (Ghana
Station #9 900 metres junction with Farrar Road for ~900m to SkyTrain™
Museums & Monuments Board) Station 9❾
Proceeding north on Akasanoma Road for 600m
Terminal Station @ Kwame Nkrumah Circle. 600 metres returning to Kwame Nkrumah Circle to SkyTrain™
Terminal Station 1❶
GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Published geotechnical data indicates that the shales on which the greater Accra generally lies may present substantial construction problems
in certain areas of the city and its surrounds where clay-shales predominate.
It is therefore is considered essential that a detailed precision geotechnical survey of the proposed route (and its alternates) as part of a
Comprehensive Feasibility Study before any decision-to-proceed is contemplated.
Additionally, it must be stated that no verification and/or validation of this routing has been obtained from the relevant municipal authorities
with regards to rights-of-way permitting and approvals or land-use approvals (either indicative or binding), this, along with a detailed and high
precision three dimensional (3D) survey of the built-environment and its installed utilities (including, but not limited to, water, electricity, sewer
and gas lines) as well as the immediate surrounding in the locale of the proposed routings (and their alternates) must also constitute part of the
documentation in respect of a Comprehensive Feasibility Study.

4 CONSOLIDATED SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE – PROPOSED ACCRA SKYTRAIN™ SYSTEM
The narrative contained in the following section represents an analytical and financial implication assessment of the data contained in the
below tabulation:
Population Data: Greater Accra (Region in Ghana)

The following graphics and tabulations provide an overview of the
baseline demographic data and concomitant assumptive extrapolations
utilised in the composition of this Pre-Feasibility Assessment:
Potential Rider Population Contributions by Region in the Greater Accra

Source: Ghana Statistical Service (web)
Explanation: Area figures of districts are derived from geospacial data. Greater Accra Pink Blue Gold Green Black
Regions (Local Route Route Route Route Route
Municipalities)
Sept 2010 Sept. 2013 Sept. Accra Metropolis 567 548 567 548 Nil 567 548 567 548
Accra Region Census Proj, 2018 Proj.
Ada East Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
1 Accra Metropolis 1 665 086 1 795 115 2 837 738
Ada West Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
2 Ada East 71 671 75 937 120 042
Adenta Municipal 130 657 Nil 130 657 Nil Nil
3 Ada West 59 124 62 590 98 943
Ashaiman Muncipal Nil 320 987 Nil Nil Nil
4 Adenta Municipal 78 215 82 652 130 657
Ga Central Municipal Nil 196 650 196 650 Nil Nil
5 Ashaiman Muncipal 190 972 203 052 320 987
Ga East Municipal 78 614 124 273 Nil Nil Nil
6 Ga Central Municipal 117 220 124 398 196 650
Ga South Munipal 74 167 74 167 74 167 74 167 74 167
7 Ga East Municipal 147 742 157 227 248 546
Ga West Municipal Nil 370 833 Nil Nil Nil
8 Ga South Munipal 411 377 451 180 713 230
Kpone Katamanso Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
9 Ga West Municipal 219 788 234 584 370 833
La Dade Kotopon
10 Kpone Katamanso 109 864 116 541 184 229 Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
Municipal
11 La Dade Kotopon Municipal 183 528 194 812 307 961 La Nkwantanang 187 883 Nil Nil Nil Nil
Madina Municipal
12 La Nkwantanang Madina Municipal 111 926 118 852 187 883
Ledzokuu/Krwor 76 549 76 549 Nil 76 549 76 549
13 Ledzokuu/Krwor Municipal 227 932 242 120 382 746 Municipal
14 Ningo Prampram 70 923 75 243 118 945 Ningo Prampram Nil Nil 118 945 Nil Nil
15 Shai Osudoku (Dangme West) 51 913 54 986 86 922 Shai Osudoku Nil 86 922 Nil Nil Nil
(Dangme West)
16 Tema Metropolis 292 770 310 853 491 400
Tema Metropolis Nil 491 400 Nil Nil Nil
Accra Total 4 010 051 4 300 142 6 797 712
1 115 417 2 309 328 520 419 718 263 718 263
Not
Ghana (Total) 24 658 823 26 427 760 TOTAL AVAILABLE POPULATION 5 381 690
Calculated
The capital and largest city of Ghana is Accra, which has an urban population of 2.27 million. The Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA)
has an additional 4 million inhabitants, which makes it the 11th largest metro area in Africa.

CAPITAL VALUE AMORTISATION CALCULATIONS -

FULL SYSTEM FARE COMPUTATION
FULL SYSTEM FULL SYSTEM

Total Capital Value Estimate $2 441 948 639 Estimated Daily Ridership @ Steady State 385 898
Monthly Equivalent 11 737 737

Efective Interest Rate 10%
Effective Daily Fare $3,85
Term 30 Years
Monthly Equivalent $117,10
Financing Instrument Used Debt & Equity Instruments
Required Gov. Underpin $-
$-21 252 741 Payable per month
TOTAL GROSS REVENUES FROM TICKETS $45 190 288
PINK ROUTE ONLY PINK ROUTE ONLY

Estimated Daily Ridership @ Steady State 85 767
Total Capital Value Estimate $458 366 504
Term 30 Years
Financing Instrument Used Debt & Equity Instruments
Required Gov. Underpin $-
$-3 989 250 Payable per month
TOTAL GROSS REVENUES FROM TICKETS $10 043 666
BLUE ROUTE ONLY BLUE ROUTE ONLY

Total Capital Value Estimate $1 100 865 997
Term 30 Years
Financing Instrument Used Debt & Equity Instruments Required Gov. Underpin $-
$-9 581 045 Payable per month TOTAL GROSS REVENUES FROM TICKETS $10 046 604
GOLD ROUTE ONLY GOLD ROUTE ONLY

Term 30 Years
GREEN ROUTE ONLY

GREEN ROUTE ONLY
Term 30 Years Monthly Equivalent $117,10
BLACK ROUTE ONLY

BLACK ROUTE ONLY
Total Capital Value Estimate $107 593 690 Monthly Equivalent 1 301 728
Efective Interest Rate 10% Effective Daily Fare $3,85
Term 30 Years Monthly Equivalent $117,10
$-936 408 Payable per month TOTAL GROSS REVENUES FROM TICKETS $5 011 651

OPERATING COST SUMMARY
MONTHLY Technical Maintenance Team

NUMBER OF
PERSONNEL COSTS TOTAL COST TO
POSITIONS SkyTrain Rail-Car Vehicle
COMPANY technical Maintenance Team 12 $12 500
Executive Team SkyTrain Rail-Car Vehicle
Cleaning Team 36 $10 500
Chief Executive 1 $14 583
Chief Financial Officer 1 $12 500 SkyTrain Track Maintenance Team 12 $12 500
Chief Operating Officer 1 $10 417 Sub-Total 60 $35 500
Chief Engineer 1 $10 417 TOTAL MONTHLY PERSONEL COSTS $725 208
Chief Commercial Operations 1 $8 333
Sub-Total $56 250 MONTHLY TOTAL
POWER GENERATION COSTS COST TO COMPANY
Management Team
PPA with a bespoke 120 Mw Renewable Power Generation Vendor
GM: Station Operations 1 $8 333 using CSV plus Bulk Storage or similar, with PPA being negotiated
on a Capital Cost Plus Margin. Assumption is that the required CSV $1 100 952
GM: Line Operations 1 $8 333 Power Storage Plant is able to run 321 Blower Units & Power to 56
Stations for 24 hours around the clock - at a Fixed Price
GM: Power Generation 1 $8 333
GM: Systems Maintenance 1 $8 333 Total Power Generation Costs $1 100 952
GM: Ticket Sales & Commercial 1 $6 667 MONTHLY TOTAL

MISCELLENOUS COSTS COST TO COMPANY
GM: Human Resources 1 $6 667
Various Sales & Marketing Costs $180 000
GM: Legal & Compliance 1 $6 667
Various General & Administrative Costs $120 000
Sub-Total $53 333
Cost of Maintenance $250 000
Operational Team
Various Micellenous Operating Costs $90 000
Station Managers 201 $255 000
(67 Stations x 3 Shifts) Various Micellenous Costs $150 000
Station Assistants Total Power Generation Costs $640 000
(67 Stations x 3 Shifts) 201 $159 375
TOTAL MONTHLY OPERATING COST ESTIMATE $2 466 160
Queing Assistants 201 $89 250
(67 Stations x 3 Shifts)
Cleaners & Janitors 402 $76 500
(67 Stations x 2 x 3 Shifts)
Sub-Total 1 005 $580 125
CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL SUMMARY (IN 2018 VALUES)

FULL SYSTEM Y-O-Y GROWTH FORECAST (US$ MILLIONS)
Monthly Annual Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6 Y7 Y8 Y9 Y10
Gross Income from Ticket

$45 190 288 $542 283 462 $462,30 $577,87 $780,13 $858,14 $943,95 $991,15 $1 040,71 $1 092,74 $1 147,38 $1 204,75
Sales
Less: Capital
Amortisation & Finance $21 252 741 $255 032 890 $255,03 $255,03 $255,03 $255,03 $255,03 $255,03 $255,03 $255,03 $255,03 $255,03
Charges
Gross Operating Income

$23 937 548 $287 250 572 $207,26 $322,84 $525,09 $603,11 $688,92 $736,12 $785,67 $837,71 $892,35 $949,72
Estimates
Operating Costs:
Total Operational
$725 208 $8 702 500 $8,70 $9,22 $9,78 $10,36 $10,99 $11,65 $12,34 $13,09 $13,87 $14,70
Personnel Costs
Total System Maintenance

$250 000 $3 000 000 $3,00 $3,18 $3,37 $3,57 $3,79 $4,01 $4,26 $4,51 $4,78 $5,07
Costs
Total Power Generation

$1 100 952 $13 211 423 $13,21 $13,61 $14,02 $14,44 $14,87 $15,32 $15,78 $16,25 $16,74 $17,24
Costs - Internal
SG&A Costs:
Total Sales & Marketing

$180 000 $2 160 000 $2,16 $2,29 $2,43 $2,57 $2,73 $2,89 $3,06 $3,25 $3,44 $3,65
Costs
Total General
$120 000 $1 440 000 $1,44 $1,53 $1,62 $1,72 $1,82 $1,93 $2,04 $2,17 $2,30 $2,43
Administrative Costs
Total Miscellenous
$90 000 $1 080 000 $1,08 $1,14 $1,21 $1,29 $1,36 $1,45 $1,53 $1,62 $1,72 $1,82
Operating Costs
Less: Total Operating

$2 466 160 $29 593 923 $29,59 $30,97 $32,42 $33,95 $35,55 $37,24 $39,01 $40,88 $42,85 $44,92
Cost Estimates
NETT OPERATING
$21 471 387 $257 656 649 $177,67 $291,86 $492,67 $569,16 $653,37 $698,88 $746,66 $796,83 $849,50 $904,80
PROFIT BEFORE TAX

FULL SYSTEM GOLD ROUTE ONLY

Item Description Monthly Annual Item Description Monthly Annual
Gross Income from Ticket Sales $45 190 288 $542 283 462 Gross Income from Ticket Sales $10 047 524 $120 570 284
Less: Capital Amortisation & Finance Less: Capital Amortisation & Finance
$21 252 741 $255 032 890 $3 267 944 $39 215 324
Charges Charges
Gross Operating Income Estimates $23 937 548 $287 250 572 Gross Operating Income Estimates $6 779 580 $159 785 607
OPERATING COSTS:
Total Operational Personnel Costs $725 208 $8 702 500 OPERATING COSTS:
Total System Maintenance Costs $250 000 $3 000 000
Total Personnel Costs $177 125 $2 125 500
Total Power Generation Costs - Internal $1 100 952 $13 211 423
Total Power Generation Costs - Internal $282 392 $3 388 702
SG&A COSTS:
Total Miscellenous & General Costs $29 381 $352 568
Total Sales & Marketing Costs $180 000 $2 160 000
Total General Administrative Costs $120 000 $1 440 000
Less: Total Operating Cost Estimates $488 898 $5 866 770
NETT OPERATING PROFIT BEFORE TAX $6 290 682 $75 488 190
Less: Total Operating Cost Estimates $2 466 160 $29 593 923
GREEN ROUTE ONLY
Item Description Monthly Annual
PINK ROUTE ONLY
Gross Income from Ticket Sales $10 040 843 $120 490 121
Less: Capital Amortisation & Finance
Gross Income from Ticket Sales $10 043 666 $120 523 991 $3 478 094 $41 737 124
Charges
Less: Capital Amortisation & Finance
$3 989 250 $47 871 004 Gross Operating Income Estimates $6 562 750 $162 227 244
Charges
OPERATING COSTS:
OPERATING COSTS: Total Personnel Costs $268 125 $3 217 500

Total Personnel Costs $256 750 $3 081 000
BLACK ROUTE ONLY
BLUE ROUTE ONLY Item Description Monthly Annual
Item Description Monthly Annual Gross Income from Ticket Sales $5 011 651 $60 139 816
Gross Income from Ticket Sales $10 046 604 $120 559 251 Less: Capital Amortisation & Finance
$936 408 $11 236 899
Less: Capital Amortisation & Finance Charges
$9 581 045 $114 972 540
Charges Gross Operating Income Estimates $4 075 243 $71 376 714
Gross Operating Income Estimates $465 559 $235 531 791
OPERATING COSTS:
OPERATING COSTS: Total Personnel Costs $202 750 $2 433 000
Total Personnel Costs $427 375 $5 128 500 Total Power Generation Costs - Internal $42 392 $508 706
Total Power Generation Costs - Internal $810 458 $9 725 495 Total Miscellenous & General Costs $4 411 $52 927
Total Miscellenous & General Costs $84 322 $1 011 862
NETT OPERATING PROFIT BEFORE TAX $-856 595 $-10 279 145 NETT OPERATING PROFIT BEFORE TAX $3 825 690 $45 908 284
5 ANALYTICAL AND FINANCIAL ASSESMENT
The entire Accra SkyTrain™ System is predicated on various assumptive factors that require to be validated in terms of a Comprehensive Feasibility
Study to Bankable Conclusion and that, inter alia, include the following respective Component Elements (indicating their estimated cost aggregations):
1. CAPITAL INPUT COST ASSESSMENT

The following elements represent the essential capital components of the envisaged Accra SkyTrain™ System:
SkyTrain™ Operations Centre - Central System Control Room & Management Suite
Comprises of a specifically designed state-of-art building to house the integrated Central System Control Room and the corporate Management
Suite on a fully furnished basis – at an estimated system component cost of circa US$ 3.529 million;

SkyTrain™ Stations Including Localised Train Control Systems:

Overall, the proposed system design encompasses the provisioning of sixty seven (x67) SkyTrain™ stations of varying specifications, ranging from:
• The main SkyTrain™ Terminus which is proposed to be located at Kwame Nkrumah Circle;
• SkyTrain™ Terminal Stations (x5) each being located at:
a) Adenta West, Madina, Nayanyo Street.; and
b) Amasaman Area Market off Nsawam Road (N6); and
c) Tema Station, Ashaiman, Tema, off the Accra-Tema Motorway (N1); and
d) Pokoasi (Mayflower Beacon School Complex); and
e) Kasoa New Market Junction, Kasoa, off Mankessim Road (N1)
• SkyTrain™ Route Inter-Change Station being located at the Accra Mall, Junction of Liberation Road & N1 Freeway (facilitates changes
between Blue Route and Gold Route;
• Regular SkyTrain™ Stations (x61), which range in size according to the ridership profile of the specific locality concerned.
The estimated integrated component cost for the delivery and commissioning of this particular category of infrastructure is estimated at circa US$ 281.258 million.
The total aggregated cost of the full Accra SkyTrain™ System infrastructure requiring installation is therefore estimated to be US$ 2,441, 948, 639.00
(or US$ 2.441 billion).
SkyTrain™ Elevated & Ground-Based Track:
The required SkyTrain™ elevated & ground-based track along with all required sub-systems & components installed over a track distance of
259.15 kilometres of the envisioned Accra SkyTrain™ System, and is estimated at an integrated component cost, including for the delivery and
commissioning of this specific category infrastructure is estimated at circa US$ 2,031,000,000.00 (or US$ 2.031bn).
This cost estimated provides for dual-direction track with the exception of the Black Route which is specifically designed as a short-distance single
direction loop-track.
SkyTrain™ Rail-Car Rolling Stock:
The preliminary design concept, taking onto consideration the potential patronage of the SkyTrain™ along with a nascent assessment of likely
uptake based on origin-and-destination assumptions for the time being, and crucially, the ab initio specification that the overall system capacity
should be limited to no more than 12,000 passengers / hour / direction, provides a quantification of the requirement in respect the SkyTrain™ rail-
car vehicles equating to 360 units (with spare capacity of 18 units) thus totalling a need for 378 of these 150-passenger class SkyTrain™ rail-cars.
The estimated integrated component cost for the delivery and commissioning of this particular category of infrastructure is estimated at circa US$ 89.73 million.
The estimated capital redemption is proposed on a 30-year amortisation schedule for the above-mentioned at presently achievable rates by means
of a fully de-risked and wrapped bond, priced at a coupon cost of approximately 10% p.a.
This would engender a monthly finance instalment of US$ 21.253m against projected steady-state gross revenues of circa US$ 45.190 million per
month (assuming that the effective daily price for a ticket is circa US$ 3.85 per rider – or ~US$ 117.00 per month), leaving an operating margin of
US$ 23.937 million per month in order to meet all operational costs, which are estimated in total at US$ 2.466m per month, therefore delivering an
estimated monthly net profit before tax (NPBT) of US$ 21.471 million (or an annualised US$ 257.657 million) for the Concession Operator as an
operating nett profit before tax (NPBT).
This highly summarised forward-looking financial projection, which is expressed in 2. GROSS INCOME
2018 US$ terms, can best be illustrated by the illustrative table immediately below: The Gross Income from Ticket Sales is postulated on the
sustained sales of an average of 385,898 daily return
INHERENT IN THE ABOVE PROJECTIONS ARE THE journeys for an estimated 771,796 discrete one-way
FOLLOWING SALIENT CONSIDERATIONS: journeys) across the entire Accra SkyTrain™ System at
an effective equivalent daily ticket price of ~US$ 3.85 per
FULL SYSTEM day (or US$ 117.00 per month).
This number of paid-for return-trip journeys represents
Gross Income from Ticket Sales $45 190 288 $542 283 462 just 14.34% of the eligible ridership able to use the Accra
Less: Capital Amortisation & Finance Charges $21 252 741 $255 032 890 SkyTrain™ System by way of living in the respective
catchment areas of one of the five (5) proposed routes.
OPERATING COSTS: This ratio is believed to be reasonably prudent as an
underlying assumptive factor.
Total Operational Personnel Costs $725 208 $8 702 500
Total System Maintenance Costs $250 000 $3 000 000 3. CAPITAL AMORTISATION &
FINANCE CHARGES:
Total Power Generation Costs - Internal $1 100 952 $13 211 423
As mentioned above, the capital deployed to implement
SG&A COSTS: the required infrastructure, in the amount of an
Total Sales & Marketing Costs $180 000 $2 160 000 estimated US$ 2.441 billion, is anticipated being able
to be financed in terms of fully de-risked and wrapped
Total General Administrative Costs $120 000 $1 440 000 bond instrument available to Ai Capital. This particular
financing instrument will have a nominal term of 30 years,
and so effectively matches the depreciation profile of the
Less: Total Operating Cost Estimates $2 466 160 $29 593 923 specific infrastructure, and is available at market-related
NETT OPERATING PROFIT BEFORE TAX $21 471 387 $257 656 649 rates. The computed amortisation & finance charges are
consequently projected to amount to US$ 21.752 million
per month.

This reflects then, a monthly projected Gross Operating Profit of US$ 5. POWER GENERATION COSTS:
23,937 million, from which the monthly Operating Costs of the Operating
Power, aside from the amortisation and financing costs of the large
Concession, viz. the Accra SkyTrain™ System entity, must be funded.
infrastructure platform envisaged by the Accra SkyTrain™ System, is the
next biggest operating cost.
4. OPERATING COSTS:
Personnel Costs (tabulated and shown herein above): Additionally, it is well documented that Accra’s power grid is
The envisaged personnel compliment required to effectively operate the insufficiently developed, unreliable and expensive, and is consequently
business comprises the following associated headcount: not a candidate to supply power to a large power user such the Accra
The projected headcount therefore equates to an Executive Team of 5 SkyTrain™ System, that requires absolute security of power supply
individuals; a Management Team of 7 individuals; an Operational Team insofar as it will supply a functionally critical public requirement.
of 1 005 individuals and a Technical Maintenance Team of 60 individuals
– with a headcount total of 1 077 individuals at an aggregated of cost-to- Importantly, therefore the conceptual approach that has been taken in
company of the equivalent of US$ 725,208.00 per month. this regard is that the Accra SkyTrain™ System operating entity should
acquire its electricity requirements either from a self-owned Independent
Power Producer (IPP), or alternatively, from a bespoke 3rd party owned
OPERATING PERSONNEL STRUCTURE Independent Power Producer (IPP). Either solution is required to
generate circa 120Mw – enough to run approximately 321 Propulsion
UNIT- MONTHLY
TITLE NUMBER OF COST-TO TOTAL COST TO Blowers that are envisioned to be located across the Accra SkyTrain™
POSITIONS COMPANY COMPANY System together with all 67 SkyTrain™ stations.
Executive Team
The resultant Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) in respect of the
Chief Executive 1 $14 583 $14 583
above shall be based shall purchase, at a flat rate, all of the 120 Mw of
Chief Financial Officer 1 $12 500 $12 500 renewable power that is produced using concentrated solar technology
Chief Operating Officer 1 $10 417 $10 417 (CSV) or similar.
Chief Engineer 1 $10 417 $10 417
Additionally the power vendor platform shall also offer bulk power
Chief Commercial storage technology via molten salt technology (or similar) in order to
1 $8 333 $8 333
Operations
provide sufficient reliable power for 24 hours around the clock.
Sub-Total 5 $56 250 $56 250
A requirement of the prospective PPA is that it will be negotiated on a
Management Team fixed cost-of-capital basis plus a suitable margin.
GM: Station Operations 1 $8 333 $8 333
Our preliminary calculation indicates that a price structure on this basis
GM: Line Operations 1 $8 333 $8 333
should not exceed US$ 1.1 million per month – which is what has been
GM: Power Generation 1 $8 333 $8 333 integrated into the summarized financial projections set out above.
GM: Systems
1 $8 333 $8 333
Maintenance 6. MISCELLANEOUS COSTS:
GM: Ticket Sales & Miscellaneous costs, such as audit fees, consultant fees, travel costs
1 $6 667 $6 667
Commercial
and so forth, are specified under a global allocation of costs of US$
GM: Human Resources 1 $6 667 $6 667 150,000.00, which is deemed to be operationally sufficient.
GM: Legal & Compliance 1 $6 667 $6 667
Sub-Total 7 $53 333 $53 333
7. RESIDUAL NET PROFITS:
The entire concept of the Accra SkyTrain™ System project, is that it
Operational Team should be prosecuted, preferably under a D(F)BOT (Design, Finance,
Station Managers Build, Operate and Transfer) structure.
201 $1 667 $255 000
Station Assistants This then envisages that the Accra SkyTrain™ System entity will be
201 $1 042 $159 375 granted at least a 30-year Exclusive Operating Concession by the
Queing Assistants
Ghanaian Government in order to indeed design, finance, build, operate,
201 $583 $89 250 and then transfer the entire Accra SkyTrain™ System upon termination of
such a Concession Operating Agreement.
Cleaners & Janitors
402 $250 $76 500
(67 Stations x 2 x 3 Shifts)
Consequent to the above-mentioned arrangement, as is envisioned
Sub-Total 1 005 $3 542 $580 125 herein, an implicit right accrues to extract a reasonable profit, and
is therefore assumed to be inalienable. The summarised financial
Technical Maintenance Team
projections set out above indicate a projected expectation in the
SkyTrain Rail-Car Vehicle
12 $1 042 $12 500 magnitude of US$ 21.471 million per month, annualised at approximately
technical Maintenance Team US$ 257.656 million per annum.
SkyTrain Rail-Car Vehicle
36 $292 $10 500
Cleaning Team
SkyTrain Track
12 $1 042 $12 500
Maintenance Team
Sub-Total 60 $2 375 $35 500
TOTAL MONTHLY
PERSONNEL COSTS
1077 $725 208

We conducted further analysis in order to determine which of the regional

PROJECTED RIDERSHIP CURVES – PER ROUTE &
6 CONSOLIDATED populations extrapolated above fell into so-called ‘ridership drainage areas’
that, in terms Origin-and-Destination (O&D) analysis, might be serviced
by one of the particular routes that re specified in the context of this Pre-
An assessment was conducted on the current population demographics
Feasibility Assessment, viz. either one of the Pink Route, or the Green
of the greater Accra Metropolitan Area in order to determine what the likely
Route, or the Gold Route, or the Blue Route, or the Black Route respectively
package levels of the Accra SkyTrain™ System are likely to be. It should be
and as the case may be.
noted that the last national census, was conducted in Ghana in 2010. Since
then, the office of Ghana Statistical Services issued a population estimate In this analysis, we tabulated the population growths attributable to each
in respect of the Greater Accra Region as at September 2013 (see below): particular area across the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area and added it
to the Census Data Baseline after having computed the effect of the official
annual urbanisation rate of 3.1% per annum which was officially published
during the course of 2015.
This tabulated data is therefore as follows:
Potential Rider Population Contributions by Region in the Greater Accra

Greater Accra Regions (Local
Pink Route Blue Route Gold Route Green Route Black Route
Municipalities)
Accra Metropolis 567 548 567 548 Nil 567 548 567 548
Ada East Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
Ada West Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
Adenta Municipal 130 657 Nil 130 657 Nil Nil
Ashaiman Muncipal Nil 320 987 Nil Nil Nil
Ga Central Municipal Nil 196 650 196 650 Nil Nil
Ga East Municipal 78 614 124 273 Nil Nil Nil
Ga South Munipal 74 167 74 167 74 167 74 167 74 167
Ga West Municipal Nil 370 833 Nil Nil Nil
Kpone Katamanso Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
La Dade Kotopon Municipal Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
La Nkwantanang Madina
187 883 Nil Nil Nil Nil
Municipal
Ledzokuu/Krwor Municipal 76 549 76 549 Nil 76 549 76 549
Ningo Prampram Nil Nil 118 945 Nil Nil
Shai Osudoku (Dangme

Nil 86 922 Nil Nil Nil
West)
Tema Metropolis Nil 491 400 Nil Nil Nil
1 115 417 2 309 328 520 419 718 263 718 263
TOTAL AVAILABLE POPULATION 5 381 690
Please note that the derived data from this interpretation specifies the
notional potential population quantum available for each of the five (5)
routes (please note that there is some data overlay).
Additionally, the National Population Council Secretariat, Greater Accra
Regional Office issued a statement that the present and forward-looking rate of Also, the population quantum in respect of the Accra Metropolis has, for
urbanisation for the Greater Accra was expected to be circa 3.1% per annum. the purpose of the exercise, been distributed evenly across all of the five
(5) routes, on the basis that each route runs, at least partially, through the
In the absence of any other readily available official data, we have territory denoted as being the Accra Metropolis, however no hard data
applied a computation to the established baseline data available to us, exists with regard to the distribution densities of that population quantum,
and the indicative forward-looking rates of population growth provided which aggregates to approximately 2.8 million people (or 49.7% of the
from official sources in order to extrapolate the following Population overall ‘Total Available Population’).
Distribution Table for our current purposes, as follows:
Some Local Municipalities in the Greater Accra fall outside of the Route
Scope of the Accra SkyTrain™ System and are therefore indicated as NIL in
terms of ‘Potential Rider Contributions by Region’.
In total there are some 5.698 million potential riders available that might
potentially wish to make use of the proposed Accra SkyTrain™ System in its
proposed embodiment of five (5) discrete routes.
The distribution of the population cohorts across each of the five (5) notional
routes is reasonably similar, as are the respective route lengths. Additionally,
the utilisation of the Accra SkyTrain™ System over any 24-period is
assumed, for the purposes of this Feasibility Assessment to be identical.
Therefore the ‘Ridership Utilisation Curves’ illustrated below, are essentially
identical in terms of their respective profiles, whilst the absolute ridership
numbers show some marginal variability related to the characteristics of
each ‘rider catchment area’.
Also, the broad similarity of the critical determinants of each respective
route, mean that, from a practical perspective, each route is separable whilst
maintaining financial viability, and could easily therefore be executed in a phased
approach, with each route being implemented sequentially if so required.



7 SKYTRAIN™ COMPARATIVE COMPETIVENESS FACTORS

8 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION PARTNERS
The Accra SkyTrain™ System project and the exciting technology embodied
in this project has allowed Ai Capital to secure a cohort of exceptional
strategic partners that will ensure a successful implementation of this phase
and subsequent phases of this exciting project.
The adjacent logos represent the name-plates of our selected strategic

technical partners and key vendors.
A thumbnail biography of each follows below:
The Ghana Infrastructure Investment Fund (GIIF), is the GoG’s infrastructure investment
fund, with a mandate to originate, structure, develop and invest in infrastructure-related
projects across Ghana. GIIF is the SkyTrain™ Projects anchor equity investor and local
project development partner.
The Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA) is South Africa’s leading development
finance institution, with deep rail investment experience, having led the financing of the
Gautrain project in South Africa. DBSA has invested in projects in Ghana and is supporting
the SkyTrain project through both its financing capabilities for the projects development phase,
as well as debt financing requirements.
Ai Capital is the ‘Project Lead’ for the Accra SkyTrain™ Consortium and will co-ordinate
the entire project. Ai Capital was established by institutional investment partners for the
express purpose of developing and implementing transformative infrastructure invest-
ments in Africa. AI Capital’s combined pool of specialized infrastructure capital currently
stands in excess of US$ 14 billion.
Bunengi is the Exclusive License Holder for ‘Aeromovel Technology Package’ inter alia
for Ghana and will therefore lead the Project Team. Bunengi is a black women-owned
Infrastructure Development Company based in Sandton, Johannesburg. Bunengi, with a
13-year track record, is a well-established and competent developer of large, complex
and capital intensive projects, and is ideally suited to lead this team.
Aeromovel is the Brazilian OEM that has exclusively licensed the SkyTrain™ technology to
Bunengi Holdings for the African continent.
Siemens are world leaders in Train Control & Safety Systems, and are the vendor of the
train safety systems and also in respect the Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC’s) -
both fundamental design element for SkyTrain™.
WBHO is the largest and most influential construction company in South Africa and
brings a superb array of engineering and construction skills and insight, in particular,
with regard to complex, large and sophisticated construction projects. WBHO have the
essential technical capacity to fulfil the EPC-role in the various phases of the envisioned
SkyTrain™ Project.
WSP Parsons Brinckerhoff Africa is the local operation of one of the largest consulting
engineering firms in the world, and has a very strong presence in the South African and
African markets. WSP Parsons Brinckerhoff has a history of well over 100 years, and has
particular strengths in mass urban transport systems, and brings world-class expertise to
the Team.
Infraset (Aveng Group) are leaders in the production of pre-stressed, reinforced and
pre-fabricated concrete components for rail applications, and will be the primary vendors
for the SkyTrain™ Elevated Track Runways and Stations.
Marco Polo (South Africa), a wholly owned subsidiary of Marco Polo Brazil, are the
strategic supply vendor for the SkyTtrain™ Rail-Cars, and the fabrication of the advanced,
lightweight composite materials used in the construction of these vehicles.

9 CONCLUSIONS & BUDGETARY PARAMETERS

It is further estimated that the duration for functional completion of a yet-
In conclusion, the sleek, silent, clean, energy-efficient, spatially- to-be-defined Phase 1 of the SkyTrain™ Project, would be approximately
optimised SkyTrain™ is designed to be an excellent neighbour and is twelve (12) months from date of signature of final contracts, with the entire
an ideal mass transport option in all city and urban environments, but Accra SkyTrain™ System, as contemplated herein, taking around thirty-six
based on our evaluation, this is particularly true with regard to Accra months (36) months for full installation and commissioning.
SkyTrain™ System.
Furthermore, we wish to confirm our willingness to engage in this
Based on the expected fully loaded, fully commissioned illustrative cost project under the auspices of various financial structures, models and
of US$ 9.422 million per single direction running kilometre (which are arrangements.
subject to financial variations based on an eventual comprehensive
geotechnical and spatial survey, and confirmation of required ‘rights- of- These include but are not limited to the following:
way’ and other various contractual issues) – and considering the currently 1. DB&T (Design, Build and Transfer)
projected route distances totalling 132.75 kilometres (which equates to 2. DBOT (Design, Build, Operate and Transfer)
a single direction installed track distance of 259.15 kilometres), and the 3. D(F)BOT (Design, Finance, Build, Operate and Transfer) – which is our
anticipated station density of 67 stations (of all categories) in total – then preferred transaction mode.
the rough indicative infrastructure cost aggregates to an approximate … or any permutation or variant of the aforementioned.
estimate of US$ 2.441 billion.
We stand ready, willing and able to negotiate a concession agreement in
This capital cost / infrastructure cost valuation will form a key component accordance with the laws of Ghana for unsolicited bids and consequently
in the determination of the Financial Operating Model and the consequent invite the Ministry of Railways Development to advise us how best to
ticket pricing policies (including the provision of any available government proceed on the most expeditious basis possible.
financial underpins guarantees or subsidies).
Resource Equality
Bunengi is a preferred investment corporation
operating across Africa. Our strategy encompasses
our commitment to transform the livelihood of
Africans through world class investment solutions
in agriculture, resources, infrastructure and social
infrastructure. We also partner global investors and
support their operations in Africa.
www.africainvestor.com www.africainvestor.com/ai-capital www.bunengigroup.com

Thank you www.bunengigroup.com
for your kind Tel: +27 (0) 11 784 1042 | Fax: +27 (0) 11 784 5569
attention. 93
34 Protea
Impala Road, Chislehurston, Sandton, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa
group

SkyTrain
CONSORTIUM
SkyTrain
Annexures
A SOUTH AFRICA - GHANA -
BRICS PARTNERSHIP
SkyTrain ANNEXURE “A”
SKYTRAIN & BRT ROUTES
Legend
ACCRA
BRT
Local Area name
Rail
Sky Train Route
Sky Train Route
Sky Train Route
➤
Data SIO, NOAA, U.S. Navy, NGA, GEBCO
Image © 2018 CNES / Airbus
N
Data SIO, NOAA, U.S. Navy, NGA, GEBCO
© 2018 Google 10 km
Image © 2018 CNES / Airbus
© 2018 Google
ANNEXURE “B”
POPULATION PROFILE OF GREATER ACCRA REGION
PROFILE OF GREATER ACCRA REGION Mortality (number of children who die by age five) was reported at 61
The Greater Accra Region lies on the south-eastern part of the country deaths per 1,000 live births. Maternal Mortality Rate (the number of
along the gulf of guinea and has coastal savannah, a little forest deaths due to pregnancy related causes to the number of women of
area inland towards the Eastern Region in the Ga district, and miles child-bearing age, 15 - 49 years) in the region, was 355 per 100,000 live
of beautiful coastline especially in the rural parts of the region. The births in 2010, this was lower than the national value of 485 per 100,000
population of the region grew from 2,905,726 in 2000 to 4,010,054 in live births.
2010. With a growth rate of 2.5% the population is estimated to increase
to 5.9 million by 2040. The male and female population represents The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of the region is slightly lower (2.5) as
48.3% and 59.1% respectively of the total population. The age structure compared to the national TFR of 4.0, indicating that on the average
of the region indicates that, the proportion of the population aged 0 -14 women in the Greater Accra Region give birth to three children. In
(under 15 years) is 31.3%, and those aged 15-64 and 65+ are 62.5% addition there are two births per every 100 adolescents in the region,
and 3.5% respectively. which is the lowest among the regions. With regards to Contraceptive
Prevalence Rate (CPR), the use of modern contraceptives among
The region occupies a total land area of 3,245 sq. km, which makes it the currently married women, it was 19.4 % in 2014, one of the lowest in the
smallest region of the country in terms of land size. It has a population country. In 2013, the HIV prevalence rate in the region was 2.7%, higher
density of 1,235.8 people per sq. km. The region is 90.5% urban with an than the national HIV prevalence of 1.3%.
annual urban growth rate of 3.1%. It experiences more inflows of people
from other parts of the country than people moving out the region, this For more information, contact the regional office.
therefore gave the region a net migration value of 1,275,425 in 2010. Office Location
With regards to the economy, the labour force participation rate for National Population Council Secretariat
population aged 15 - 64 is almost 74.7%. Greater Accra Regional Office
Regional Coordinating Council Building
The region recorded the lowest Infant Mortality Rate (deaths of infants P. O. Box MB 196
under age one) in 2011. Thirty-seven infant deaths per 1,000 live births Accra
were recorded in that year. Child Mortality Rate (deaths of children Telephone: 030-225-2703
between ages one and four) was 19 deaths per 1,000 live births and
Under Five
ANNEXURE “C”
SkyTrain ELECTRICITY SITUATION GHANA - CHALLENGES
& OPPORTUNITIES
The Electricity Situation in Ghana:

Challenges and Opportunities
Ebenezer Nyarko Kumi1
Abstract
In the past decade, Ghana has experienced difficult for the utility companies to recover
severe electricity supply challenges costing the cost of electricity production.
the nation an average of US $2.1 million in
loss of production daily. This situation has In the face of these challenges, however,
developed even though installed generation Ghana could achieve universal access by
capacity has more than doubled over the the year 2020 with an annual electrification
period; increasing from 1,730 MW in 2006 rate of about 4.38 percent. 82.5 percent
to 3,795 MW in 2016. The peak electricity of Ghana’s population had access to
demand only increased by 50 percent during electricity by 2016. Solving Ghana’s
this same period, increasing from 1,393 MW electricity challenges would require measures
in 2006 to 2,087 MW in 2016. The electricity including, but not limited to, diversifying
supply challenges can be attributed to a the electricity generation mix through the
number of factors, including a high level development of other hydro power and
of losses in the distribution system, which renewable energy sources for which the
is mainly due to the obsolete nature of country has huge potential, expanding the
distribution equipment, as well as non- prepaid metering system to include all public
payment of revenue by consumers. Other and private institutions, restructuring the
factors are overdependence on thermal tariff regime to ensure utilities can recover
and hydro sources for electricity generation their cost of generation, and promoting
and a poor tariff structure, which makes it energy efficiency programs.
Center for Global Development
2055 L Street NW
Fifth Floor
Washington DC 20036 Ebenezer Nyarko Kumi. 2017. “The Electricity Situation in Ghana: Challenges and Opportunities.”
202-416-4000 CGD Policy Paper. Washington, DC: Center for Global Development. https://www.cgdev.org/
publication/electricity-situation-ghana-challenges-and-opportunities
www.cgdev.org
1
University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani, Ghana
This work is made available under
the terms of the Creative Commons CGD is grateful for contributions from the Nathan Cummings Foundation and Pritzker Innovation
Fund in support of this work.
Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0
license.
CGD Policy Paper 109

www.cgdev.org
September 2017
Ai Capital SkyTrain Annex | 27

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
Contents
Preface ................................................................................................................................................ 1
Executive Summary ......................................................................................................................... 2
Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Ghana's Electricity Situation .......................................................................................................... 6
The Electricity Access Situation ................................................................................................ 6
The Electricity Demand and Supply Nexus ............................................................................ 8
The Electricity Generation Mix ............................................................................................... 11
The Structure of Ghana’s Power Sector ..................................................................................... 14
National Stakeholders ............................................................................................................... 14
Regional Stakeholders ............................................................................................................... 16
International Agencies .............................................................................................................. 16
Challenges and Opportunities in Ghana’s Electricity Sector .................................................. 17
Losses in the Electricity Distribution System ....................................................................... 18
Tariff Structure ........................................................................................................................... 19
Diversity in the Electricity Generation Mix .......................................................................... 20
Energy Efficiency Measures..................................................................................................... 25
Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................... 25
References........................................................................................................................................ 27

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
Preface
CGD’s work on energy has focused principally on definitions of energy access, data analysis,
and the efficacy of international tools available to spur investment in the power sector in
developing countries. Ghana has been, since independence in 1957, a bellwether country for
development trends and this is also true with energy. As one of the first African countries to
aggressively pursue electrification, Ghana has among the highest access rates on the
continent. Yet, the country also suffers from chronic power shortages and has struggled to
expand capacity to meet growing demand. To better understand Ghana’s context and the
role of international actors, we commissioned this paper from Ebenezer Nyarko Kumi from
the Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Department at the University of Energy and
Natural Resources in Sunyani, Ghana. Kumi outlines the web of challenges that Ghana faces
in expanding its power sector and some of the opportunities for national and international
actors to contribute toward greater progress.
Todd Moss
Senior Fellow
Center for Global Development

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
Executive Summary
Ghana’s electricity sector dates back to the Gold Coast era where electricity supply was
mainly from diesel generators owned by industrial establishments including factories and
mines as well as other institutions such as hospitals and schools. The sector was
revolutionised with the completion of the Akosombo Hydroelectric Power Station which
also saw the export of electricity to neighbouring countries including Togo, Burkina Faso
and Benin. Electricity demand has since grown significantly to the point where supply is not
enough to meet the demand, resulting in severe power crises over the last decade. In a bid to
solve the crisis, a power sector reform was implemented in the late 1990s to open up the
electricity market for private sector participation to help deal with the power crises.
Ghana committed to universal access to electricity as far back as 1989 when only 15–20
percent of the population had access to electricity. The National Electrification Scheme was
established to oversee and implement the National Electrification Master Plan which sought
to extend electricity to every part of the country by the year 2020. Through programmes like
the Self-Help Electrification Program (SHEP), the scheme has been able to extend electricity
to about 82.5 percent of the population as of the end of 2016. However, more efforts will be
needed to ensure universal access is attained by the year 2020.
Demand for electricity in Ghana has increased by about 52 percent over the last decade
(2006–2016) whiles installed generation capacity has more than doubled over the same
period. In spite of this, the country still suffers from persistent power supply challenges. This
situation can be attributed to the fact that most of the installed generation facilities are not
available for generation due to fuel supply challenges. Ghana’s electricity sector has been
heavily dependent on the Akosombo Dam which has seen water levels drop consistently
below acceptable operational levels. In recent times however, significant amounts of thermal
generation sources running on mostly natural gas have been introduced into the sector. The
problem with these sources is that supply of natural gas by the West African Gas Pipeline
(WAGP) has been very unreliable.
Other challenges plaguing the sector include high levels of distribution losses, lack of
revenue due to the non-payment of bills and also poor tariff structure, which makes it
difficult for the power utilities to make significant investments to improve the sector due to
financial constraints. Opportunities, however, remain in the sector for the introduction of
renewable energy sources into the generation mix, seeing that the country has potential for
solar power generation and other renewable energy sources. In light of this, the necessary
regulatory frameworks have been provided notable among these is the passage of the
Renewable Energy Act in 2011.

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
Abbreviations
ACEP African Center for Energy Policy
AfDB African Development Bank Group
BPA Bui Power Authority
CIDA Canadian International Development Agency
CSO Civil Society Organisation
DFO Distillate Fuel Oil
EC Energy Commission
ECG Electricity Company of Ghana
ECREEE ECOWAS Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency
ERERA ECOWAS Regional Electricity Regulatory Authority
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEDAP Ghana Energy Development and Access Programme
GEF Global Environment Facility
GHG Green House Gas
GoG Government of Ghana
GRIDCo Ghana Grid Company
GWh Giga Watt Hour
HFO Heavy Fuel Oil
IEA International Energy Agency
IPP Independent Power Producer
IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency
ISSER Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research
kV Kilo Volt
kWh Kilo Watt Hour
LCO Light Crude Oil
LNG Liquified Natural Gas
MCC Millenium Challenge Corporation
MOFEP Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning
MOP Ministry of Power
Mscf Million Standard Cubic Feet
MW Mega Watt
NED Northern Electricity Department
NEDCo Northern Electricity Distribution Company
NES National Electrification Scheme
NG Natural Gas
NITS National Interconnected Transmission System
PURC Public Utilities Regulatory Commission
PWD Public Works Department
SHEP Self Help Electrification Programme
T&D Transmission and Distribution
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
USAID United States Agency for International Development
VALCO Volta Aluminum Company
VRA Volta River Authority
WAGP 3
West African Gas Pipeline
WAGP Co West African Gas Pipeline Company
WAPP West Africa Power Pool

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
Introduction
Electricity is one of the major determinants of the economic prosperity of any country. It
plays a significant role in undertaking daily activities from cooking, lighting, heating to
powering machines in the industrial sector. Electricity is also essential for quality healthcare
delivery, education, transport, effective communication, mineral exploration and many more;
serving as the building block on which every sector of a nation’s economy thrives. This
emphasizes how crucial and indispensable electricity is for human existence in the 21st
century.
Ghana’s electricity sector dates back to the colonial days of the Gold Coast, where electricity
supply was mostly from isolated diesel generator plants dispersed across the country.
Industrial establishments such as mines and factories, municipalities and other institutions
including hospitals and schools owned most of these systems. The Gold Coast Railway
Administration established the first public electricity generation system in 1914, to supply
electricity for the operations of the railway sector in Sekondi (ISSER, 2005). This was
extended to Takoradi in 1928. By the year 1955, electricity had been extended to some major
cities in Ghana including Kumasi, Tema, Accra, Nsawam, Tamale and Bolgatanga under the
auspices of the Public Works Department (PWD). However, in 1947, an Electricity
Department was established within the Ministry of Works and Housing to take over
electricity supplies from the Public Works Department and the Railways Administration.
The major electricity source during this period was Diesel Generator Plants.
The completion of the Akosombo Dam Project over the Volta River in 1972 provided a
total installed capacity of 912 MW for electricity generation. Although the primary aim of the
project was to provide electricity for the aluminium industry, it also made it possible for
most of the major electricity consumed to be switched from diesel generators to
hydroelectricity. The major consumers of electricity during this period were the Volta
Aluminum Company (VALCO) and the National Electricity Distribution Company. The
completion of the Akosombo Dam also saw the Volta River Authority (VRA), managers of
the Akosombo Hydroelectric Power Station, commence supply of electricity to neighbouring
Togo and Benin. In 1982, the Kpong Hydroelectric Power Station was commissioned,
increasing the installed generation capacity by 160 MW.
Ghana, in spite of the increase in generation capacity, experienced its first electricity crisis in
1984. This was a result of a severe drought that occurred between 1982 and 1984, during
which the total inflow into the Akosombo Dam was less than 15 percent of the long term
expected total. The crisis led to the introduction of Thermal Power Plants into Ghana’s
generation mix. The first of these thermal plants was a 550 MW facility (Tapco and Tico) at
the Takoradi Thermal Plant managed by VRA. The total installed capacity of thermal power
plants in Ghana has increased to 2,053 MW as at the end of 2015 (Energy Commission of
Ghana, 2016a). Electricity crisis has become a household phenomenon in Ghana leading to
the adoption of the local word “Dumsor” to describe the situation. In December 2013, the
400 MW Bui Hydroelectric Power Station was commissioned to provide electricity to
support the peak load of the country, which has been on an ever-increasing trajectory.

capital • media • finance 5
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& OPPORTUNITIES
This paper presents the state of the electricity sector in Ghana and discusses the roles of the
various stakeholders in the sector. It also discusses pertinent issues relating to demand and
supply of electricity including unfulfilled and future demand for electricity. The paper
concludes with a discussion of the challenges plaguing the electricity sector and the
opportunities available in sector.
Ghana's Electricity Situation

Ghana’s power sector has, over the past decade, been plagued with power supply challenges
resulting in considerable impact on the economic situation of the country. The World Bank
ranked electricity as the second most important constraint to business activities in the
country and estimated that Ghana lost about 1.8 percent of GDP during the 2007 power
crisis (Mathrani, et al., 2013). Also, the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research
(ISSER) at the University of Ghana estimated in a 2014 study that Ghana, on the average,
lost production worth about US $2.1 million per day (or, US $55.8 million per month)
through the power crisis alone (ISSER, 2015). This means that the country lost about US
$680 million (2 percent of GDP) in 2014 due to the power crisis.
The Electricity Access Situation

The International Energy Agency (IEA) reports in the 2016 World Energy Outlook that as
at 2014, only 35 percent of the population of sub-Saharan Africa had access to electricity
(IEA, 2016). Table 1 presents global electricity access rates as at the end of 2014.
Table 1: Global electricity access rates in 2014—Regional aggregates
Population Urban Rural

Electrification
without electrification electrification
Region rate
electricity rate rate
%
(millions) % %
Developing countries 1,185 79 92 67
Africa 634 45 71 28
- North Africa 1 99 100 99
- Sub-Saharan Africa 632 35 63 19
Developing Asia 512 86 96 79
- China 0 100 100 100
- India 244 81 96 74
Latin America 22 95 98 85
Middle East 18 92 98 78
Transition economies
1 100 100 100
& OECD
WORLD 1,186 84 95 71
Source: (IEA, 2016)
6 Ai Capital SkyTrain Annex | 33

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Ghana’s committment to achieving universal access to electricity by the year 2020, started in
1989 with the establishment of the National Electrification Scheme (Ministry of Energy,
2010). The National Electrification Scheme (NES), which is one of Ghana’s flagship
projects, serves as the principal instrument leading the efforts to extend electricity to all parts
of the country over a thirty-year period from 1990–2020. At the start of the scheme, only 15-
20 percent of Ghana’s population had access to electricity (Ministry of Power, 2016). Recent
electricity access reviews have put access rates at 66.7 percent in 2009, 80.51 percent in 2015
and 82.5 percent in 2016 (Ministry of Power, 2016). The trend shown in Figure 1 indicates
an annual increase in electricity access rate of 2.60 percent. At this rate, Ghana is likely to
miss its target of attaining universal access to electricity by the year 2020 by a 5 percent
margin. Universal access can, however, be attained by the year 2022, unless measures are put
in place to accelerate the process; in which case the target could be achieved by 2020 with an
annual increase of 4.38 percent in electrification rate.
Figure 1: Trend for electricity access rates for Ghana
100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
Access Rate (%)
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
Business as Usual (BAU) Accelerated Rate to 2020
Source: (Ministry of Power, 2016)
The high electricity access rate is the result of the combined efforts of the National
Electrification Scheme (NES) and the Ghana Energy Development and Access Project
(GEDAP). Under the NES, the National Electrification Master Plan was developed which
laid out strategies to extend electricity access to cover the entire country by 2020. During the
first phase of the NES, all District Capitals and towns/villages enroute to the district capitals
were connected to the grid. The scheme has been a significant driver of electricity access
through discrete programs including the Self-Help Electrification Scheme (SHEP). Under
the SHEP, communities seeking to be connected to the national grid ealier than scheduled in
ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
the National Electrification Master Plan were expected to contribute some of the logistics
required to complement government’s efforts. These communities had to provide low
voltage electricity poles and electricity meters in addition to ensuring that at least 30 percent
of households in the community were wired (Kemausuor & Ackom, 2016). This made
electricity extension to some communities take place earlier than it would have, if the
government alone were to bare the full cost.
The objective of the Ghana Energy Development and Access Project (GEDAP), which
commenced in 2007 and funded by the World Bank, is to improve the operational efficiency
of the electricity distribution system and increase the population’s access to electricity
through improving the distribution network to reduce losses, enhancing the capacity of the
managers of the distribution system and introducing renewable energy as a means of
improving access to electricity.
It is, however, important to note that electricity access does not only mean having a house
connected to the electricity grid but also ensuring the reliable supply of affordable electricity
to the household (Mensah, Kemausuor, & Brew-Hammond, 2014). Unfortunately, Ghana’s
power sector seems to be suffering the curse of unreliable power supply, which could
negatively impact the achievements made towards universal access. Ghana suffered severe
power rationing/load shedding in the years 1983–1984, 1997–1998, 2003, 2006–2007, 2011–
date; a situation that could be largely attributed to fuel supply challenges including the low
levels of water in the Akosombo dam and natural gas shortages.
The Electricity Demand and Supply Nexus

Ghana has experienced an increase of 49.8 percent in peak load over the last 10 years;
increasing from 1,393 MW in 2006 to 2,087 MW in 2016 (Energy Commission of Ghana,
2016a; VRA, 2015; Energy Commission of Ghana, 2017). This translates into an annual
increase of 4.29 percent in peak load over the period shown in Figure 2. Generation capacity
on the other hand has more than doubled over the same period; from 1,730 MW in 2006 to
3,759 MW in the year 2016, an average annual increase of 8.60 percent. In addition, the
installed generation capacity saw a 29.14 percent increase in 2015 over the 2014 figure of
2,831 MW and a further 3.79 percent increase in 2016; whereas demand decreased by 1.88
percent in 2015 before increasing by 7.97 percent in 2016. In spite of this, the country is still
confronted with power supply shortage, which has been the case over the last decade.

ANNEXURE “C”
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Figure 2: Peak electricity demand versus installed generation capacity from 2006 to
2016
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
MW
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Peak Electricity Demand Installed Generation Capacity
Source: (Energy Commission of Ghana, 2016a; VRA, 2015; Energy Commission of Ghana, 2017)
Gross electricity consumption in Ghana took a rather sharp decline from 9,059 GWh in
2006 to 7,413 GWh in 2007 (a reduction of 18.2 percent of the 2006 figure) before rising
steadily by an annual average of 10.8 percent till 2014. This trend, however, declined by 11.3
percent from 2014 to 2015 before increasing by 15.3 percent in 2016, as shown in Figure 3
(Energy Commission of Ghana, 2016a; Energy Commission of Ghana, 2017).
Electricity consumers in Ghana are classified into industrial, residential, non-residential and
street lighting by the Energy Commission of Ghana. Industrial, sometimes referred to as
Special Load Tarrif (SLT), consumers are those who use electricity for industrial purposes
including VALCO, the mining companies and other production and manufacturing facilities.
Residential consumers refer to homes in both rural and urban sectors of the country whereas
non-residential consumers are mostly commercial facilities. The electricity consumed by
street lights across the country is captured under the street lighting class. The electricity
consumption trend shown in Figure 3 indicates that, the past decade has seen the industrial
sector, the residential sector, and non-residential sector emerge as the three top consumers
of the electricity in the country. Export and street lighting account for the least in terms of
electricity consumption. It is interesting to note that the amount of electricity lost in
transmission and distribution (including commercial losses) was higher than the
consumption for the non-residential sector. On average, transmission and distribution losses
account for 21.9 percent of total electricity comsumption annually.

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
Figure 3: Electricity consumption pattern for Ghana from 2006 to 2016
16,000
14,000
12,000
Electricity (GWh)
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Industrial Residential Non-residential
Street lighting Export T & D Losses
Source: (Energy Commission of Ghana, 2016a; Energy Commission of Ghana, 2017)
One of the major problems plaguing Ghana’s electricity sector is the amount of electricity
not accounted for in terms of transmission and distribution losses. The historic trend of
these losses are presented in Figure 4. Transmission losses account for only 3.9 percent.
However, distribution and commercial losses by the Electricity Company of Ghana account
for as much as 16.2 percent of the gross electricity supply.

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
Figure 4: Transmission and distribution losses as a percentage of gross electricity

supply
25%
20%
15%
Losses (%)
10%
5%
0%
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Transmission Losses ECG Losses NEDCo Losses
The electricity consumption pattern for Ghana has been heavily impacted by the challenges
that the Volta Aluminium Company (VALCO) has been facing over the past 2 decades.
VALCO has, since its establishment, been the largest individual consumer of electricity in
Ghana. As of 2001, the peak power demand for VALCO was 27 percent of total peak
demand in Ghana whereas its energy demand was 33 percent of the total energy demand for
Ghana (Power Systems Energy Consulting (PSEC) & Ghana Grid Company (GRIDCo),
2010). Following the electricity crises, the operations of VALCO were severely hampered
resulting in the complete shutdown in 2004. VALCO, however, resumed operations in 2011
at 20 percent capacity (1 potline), accounting for 3.5 percent of total electricity consumption
of Ghana (VALCO, 2017).
The Electricity Generation Mix

The electricity generation mix in Ghana has mainly been from hydro and thermal sources,
with the country taking steps to introduce significant amounts of renewable electricity to
diversify the mix. At the end of 2016, the generation mix stood at approximately 57.21
percent of thermal against 42.79 percent of hydro sources as shown in Figure 5. Renewable
generation sources haven’t played any major role in the generation mix, contributing only 0.2
percent to the generation mix in 2016. Prior to 2016, the only renewable facility feeding
directly into the national grid being the 2.5 MW solar photovoltaic plant owned by the Volta
River Authority in Navrongo. A 20 MW solar plant owned by BXC Ghana was completed in
2016 to boost the amount of renewable energy sources in the generation mix. Also, a 100
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ANNEXURE “C”
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kW biogas electricity generation facility was connected to the national grid in 2016. The
Energy Commission of Ghana reports a total of 500 kW of installed solar PV systems (both
grid connected and with battery backup) owned by individuals and institutions (EADTF,
2014). Figure 5 shows a clear drift from heavy dependence on hydro sources to thermal
sources with the details of the generating facilities outlined in Table 2.
Figure 5: Historic electricity generation mix from 2006 to 2016
100%
90%
80%
70%
Generation Mix (%)
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Hydro Thermal Renewable

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
Table 2: Installed generation facilities in Ghana as of 2016

Installed Dependable
% of Installed
Plant Capacity Capacity
Capacity
(MW) (MW)
Hydro
Akosombo 1,020 1,000
Bui 400 360 41.6%
Kpong 160 148
Sub-Total 1,580 1,508
Thermal
Takoradi Power Company (TAPCO) 330 300
Takoradi International Company

340 320
(TICO)
Sunon Asogli Power (Ghana) Limited
200 180
(SAPP) - IPP
Sunon Asogli Power (Ghana) Limited

180 170
(SAPP2) - IPP
Cenit Energy Ltd (CEL) - IPP 126 100
Tema Thermal 1 Power Plant 57.8%

126 110
(TT1PP)
Tema Thermal 2 Power Plant
50 45
(TT2PP)
Mines Reserve Plant (MRP) 80 70
Kpone Thermal Power Plant (KTPP) 220 200
Karpowership 235 220

Ameri Plant 250 240
Trojan 25 22
Genser 30 18
Sub-Total 2,192 1,995
Renewables
Safisana Biogas 0.1 0.1
VRA Solar 2.5 2 0.6%
BXC Solar 20 20
Sub-Total 22.6 22.1
Total 3,795 3,525 100.0%
Source: (VRA, 2015; Energy Commission of Ghana, 2016b; Energy Commission of Ghana, 2017)

13
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The Structure of Ghana’s Power Sector

Ghana’s power sector, before the late 1990s, was a vertically integrated monopoly, which
had the Volta River Authority (VRA), generating and transmitting electricity to every region
of the country while also distributing to the Northern Sector through its subsidiary the
Northern Electricity Department (NED). The Electricity Company of Ghana was
responsible for electricity distribution in the southern sector of the country. Power sector
reform in the late 1990s saw the Volta River Authority (VRA), split into a separate
generation and transmission system operations which also made it possible for other
Independent Power Producers (IPP) to enter the market. Edjekumhene, Amadu and Brew-
Hammond (2001) identify power supply constraints vis-à-vis growing electricity demand as
well as the difficulties associated with securing financial support from the traditional
financiers of the sector, including the World Bank, as the major drivers of the power sector
reform in Ghana. Stakeholders in Ghana’s power sector cut across national, regional and
international institutions as demonstrated in Figure 6. They include policy making and
implemention institutions, regulatory agencies, generation, transmission and distribution
companies, consumers, research and advocacy groups as well as financial institutions.
National Stakeholders
The Ministry of Energy is responsible for formulating, monitoring and evaluating policies,
programmes and projects for the power sector in Ghana with financial support from the
Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (MOFEP). The Ministry is also directly
responsible for the implementation of the National Electrification Scheme in various parts
of the country.
The Energy Commission (EC) and the Public Utilities Regulatory Commission (PURC) are
responsible for regulating the activities of the power sector. The EC is responsible for
technical regulation of the power sector, including licensing of operators and also advising
the Minister of Energy on matters relating to energy policy and planning. The PURC, on the
other hand, is an independent regulatory agency responsible for economic regulation of the
power sector, specifically approving rates for electricity sold by distribution utilities to the
public. PURC is also responsible for monitoring the quality of electricity services delivered
to consumers.

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
Figure 6: Stakeholders in Ghana’s power sector
Regional National International
Policy Makers
& Ministry of Ministry of Finance &
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Global Environment Facility

Development Partners & Intergovernmental Agencies (Including World Bank,
Energy Economic Planning
Authority (ERERA)
ECOWAS Regional
Implementers
Regulatory
Electricity
(GEF), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Etc.

Energy Public Utilities Regulatory
Regulators Commission Commission
Generators Imports Volta River Bui Power Independent Power

West African
Authority Authority Producers

Power Pool
(WAPP)
Transmitters Ghana Grid Company (GRIDCo)
Northern Electricity
Renewable Energy and
Electricity Company
ECOWAS Centre for
Distributors Distribution Company

Energy Efficiency
Exports of Ghana (ECG)

(NEDCo)
(ECREEE)
Consumers Residential, Non-Residential &

Bulk Customers
Industrial Customers
Non-Governmental Organizations, Civil Society Organizations (CSO) & Research

Institutions
15

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
Power generation in Ghana is carried out by three major groups; the Volta River Authority
(VRA), Bui Power Authority (BPA) and Independent Power Producers (IPP). The sources
of generation include hydro power plants, thermal power plants and solar photovoltaic
power plants. The Volta River Authority, a state-owned company, is the largest electricity
generation company in Ghana with a total installed capacity of 2,435 MW as at the end of
2015 , which makes up 66.1 percent of the country’s total installed capacity (VRA, 2015;
Energy Commission of Ghana, 2016b). VRA also owns what used to be the largest solar
photovoltaic plant in the country, a 2.5 MW plant situated in Navrongo. The Bui Power
Authority manages the Bui Hydro Power Plant whose installed capacity is 400 MW. The
Independent Power producers together contribute a total installed capacity of 850 MW to
the generation mix including a newly installed 20 MW solar photovoltaic plant owned by
BXC Ghana. In 2016, a 100 kW biogas electricity generation facility was connected to the
grid (Energy Commission of Ghana, 2017).
The transmission of electricity from the generation companies to the distribution companies
is done through the National Interconnected Transmission System (NITS) owned and
operated by the state-owned Ghana Grid Company Ltd (GRIDCo).
Distribution of electricity to final consumers is the responsibility of two state owned

companies, the Electricity Company of Ghana (ECG) and the Northern Electricity
Distribution Company (NEDCo). ECG distributes electricity to the southern sector of
Ghana whiles NEDCo distributes electricity to the northern sector.
KITE, Energy Foundation (EF), The Energy Center – KNUST and other non-
governmental organizations including the African Center for Energy Policy (ACEP) in
Ghana provide different kinds of support to the power sector including research, advocacy
and the promotion of energy efficiency and renewable energy solutions.
Regional Stakeholders
Regional bodies like the West African Power Pool (WAPP) and the ECOWAS Regional
Electricity Regulatory Authority (ERERA) promote interstate electricity trade in the West
African sub-region. Whereas WAPP supports the development of power generation and
transmission facilities, ERERA provides the regulations for these interstate electricity
exchanges. ECOWAS Centre for Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency (ECREEE) on the
other hand contributes to improving access to modern, reliable and affordable energy
services, energy security as well as the reduction of energy related externalities such as GHG
emissions and local pollution.
International Agencies
Ghana’s power sector has received enormous support from international agencies. The
support ranges from technical assistance in developing power infrastructure to financing
power infrastructure projects. There has also been support towards the development of the
renewable energy sector from these international agencies.

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
International Development Partners and Intergovernmental Agencies including the World

Bank Group, the African Development Bank (AfDB), USAID and CIDA have been the
bedrock of financial support for the development of various power projects in Ghana
including the financing of the Akosombo and Kpong hydropower plants as well as
investments towards the achievement of universal access to electricity by the year 2020
(Edjekumhene, Amadu, & and Brew-Hammond, 2001). The United States Power Africa
Initiative launched in 2013 aims at increasing electricity access in sub-Saharan Africa by
adding more than 30,000 megawatts of cleaner, more efficient electricity generation capacity
and 60 million new homes and business connections. The technical assistance provided by
Power Africa to the Ghana government helped to bring the CenPower (348 MW) IPP
transaction to a financial closure. The initiative also facilitated the development of Ghana’s
first offshore natural gas field, the Jubilee fields (USAID, 2017). Other projects currently
benefiting from the Power Africa support include Bridge power (400 MW), Ghana 1000
(375 + 375 MW), Amandi (192 MW), Globaleq (450 MW) and Jacobsen (400 MW), as well
as a number of renewable energy projects (USAID, 2017). The Millenium Challenge
Corporation (MCC) and the GoG signed a US $498.2 million “Compact II” whose keystone
project aims to improve the creditworthiness of the Electricity Company of Ghana (ECG)
and the management of the Northern Electricity Distribution Company, the nation’s off-
takers and distributors of electric power, by supporting the transformation of their
management and operation to private sector principals (USAID, 2017).
The international community has not only provided financial support to Ghana’s power
sector but also support the sector with technical know-how. The construction of the various
power sector infrasture have been carried out by international companies. Impregillo-Recchi
constructed the Akosombo and Kpong hydropower plants. Sinohydro Corporation Limited
constructed the Bui hydropower plant with financial support from the Exim Bank of China
and GoG. Other projects include Sunon Asogli Power (Ghana) Limited and the BXC Ghana
solar project which were all carried out by the Chinese.
The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), United Nations Environments

Programme (UNEP) and Global Environment Facility (GEF) have provided supports
leading to the promotion and development of renewable energy and energy efficiency
programmes in the country. These efforts resulted in the passage of the Renewable Energy
Act and also the implementation of various programmes aimed at improving energy
efficiency in the country.
Challenges and Opportunities in Ghana’s Electricity Sector

The Ministry of Energy and the Energy Commission developed various policy and
regulatory instruments to guide the operation of the electricity sector, following the
implementation of the power sector reform in the late 1990s. These include the National
Electrification Scheme aimed at spearheading the achievement of universal access to all
Ghanaians by the year 2020; the National Energy Policy and its accompanying National
Energy Stratey which outlines GoG’s policy directions towards addressing the challenges
facing the energy sector; the Renewable Energy Act 2011, the Feed-in Tariff and Net
Metering Schemes to help promote the development and implementation of renewable
17
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& OPPORTUNITIES
energy for electricity generation and other energy uses. The Public Utilities Regulatory
Commission (PURC) established to ensure equity and fairness in the pricing of electricity in
the country provides various levels of support towards the development and implementation
of these instruments. It is however unfortunate that, in spite of these measures, the sector
has not been able to provide satisfactory service to consumers over the past decade owing to
a number of challenges including lack of diversity in the electricity generation mix, high
levels of losses plaguing the distribution systems, and a poor tariff structure impacting on the
financial stability of the utility companies. Addressing these challenges in addition to
implementing demand side management (DSM) measures to help promote efficient use of
electricity and the adoption of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind and mini-hydro
could help improve the present situation.
Losses in the Electricity Distribution System

Ghana’s electricity distribution system has suffered lots of setbacks over the past decade. It
has been reported in Figure 4 of this report that, about 21.7 percent of gross electricity
generated over the last decade has been lost annually through transmission and distribution.
Whereas transmission losses for this period only averaged 3.9 percent, distribution losses
which also includes commercial losses accounted for 16.2 percent annually by the nation’s
biggest distribution company ECG. These losses can be associated with inefficiency of some
equipment in the distribution systems due to their obsolete nature and also the loss of
revenue for electricity consumed due to non payment of bills and power theft. It is reported
that at the end of 2015, the Government of Ghana owed ECG to the tune of GH¢ 950
million in subsidies and non-payment of bills by state institutions incuding ministries,
departments, and agencies (MMDAs) (Bokpe, 2016). The private sector and individuals also
owed ECG some GH¢ 610 million (Bokpe, 2016). These debts have made it difficult for the
distribution companies and the other institutions they owe including the VRA to meet their
obligations to their suppliers including WAPGCo.
The nationwide implementation of prepaid electricity metering systems for both the private
sector and government agencies holds the potential of helping the utility companies properly
account for the electricity consumed. Whiles prepaid meters are been implemented among
some in the private sector, those in the government sector are still on credit meters, hence
the huge debt levels. The state owned utility companies are not autonomous since the
government appoints the board members and some top management officials. This
interference makes it difficult for the utilities to fully hold government institution
accountable for the electricity they consume. One challenge to the implementation of the
prepaid metering system in the private sector is the lack of education on the part of the
utility companies to the consumers. A successful implementation of the prepaid metering
system in both the private and public sector will ensure funds are available for the effective
operation of the sector including the replacement of obsolete transmission and distribution
equipment to help improve on the technical losses.

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
Tariff Structure
The Public Utilities Regulatory Commission (PURC) incorporated the Automatic
Adjustment Formula (AAF) with the aim of sustaining the real value of the tariffs by
adjusting it, based on variations in factors such as fuel price (light crude oil, natural gas, etc),
foreign exchange, inflation and generation Mix. PURC has also instituted the lifeline tariff
for low income consumers with significantly low consumption levels at tariffs below the cost
of electricity provision, in consonance with the Government of Ghana’s Poverty Reduction
Strategy (GPRS). Figure 7 presents the trend in the average end user tariff for Ghana over
the past decade. The figure also shows the impact the exchange rate has on the tariff paid by
the consumers and the amount available to the utility companies. The weak state of the local
currency against the United States dollar significantly affects the revenue available to the
utilites because of foreign exchange losses.
Figure 7: Trend in average end user electricity tariff for Ghana from 2006 to 2015
0.25 4.5
Average Electricity Tariff (US$/kWh)
Exchange Rate (US$/GH¢)

0.2 3.5
3
0.15
2.5
2
0.1
1.5
0.05 1
0.5
0 0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Average Electricity Tariff (US$/kWh)
Exchange Rate (US$/GH¢)
The African Development Bank group reports the average end user electricity tariff across
Africa in 2010 to be US $0.14 per kWh and was produced at an average cost of US $0.18 per
kWh (AfDB, 2013). The case of Ghana, as shown in Figure 7, is no different from the rest
of the continent. This makes it difficult for the electricity utility companies to recover their
cost of operation. This phenomenon coupled with debts owed the utilities in subsidies and
unpaid bills by the government and other agencies goes to affect their ability to provide
reliable electricity to consumers.
Electricity tariffs are grouped into six (6) categories; residential, non-residential, special load
tariff (SLT) – low voltage, special load tariff (SLT) – medium voltage, special load tariff
(SLT) – high voltage and special load tariff (SLT) – high voltage – mines (Energy

ANNEXURE “C”
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Commission of Ghana, 2016b). The residential and non-residential categories are classified
into consumer below 50 kWh, 51–300 kWh, 301–600 kWh and those above 600 kWh
(Energy Commission of Ghana, 2017). All residential consumers enjoy some form of
government subsidy for the first 50 kWh of electricity a priviledge which should have been
given to only consumers whose total monthly consumption is less than 50 kWh. This means
the residential sector tariffs are unrealistic, making it difficult for the utility companies to
fully recover the cost of providing elerctricity. This situation also encourages the inefficient
use of electricity in the residential sector; putting more pressure on the power utilities.
Restructuring the tariff regime to ensure that subsidies are directed to only the poor in the
society would go a long way to help save the utility companies from financial crises.
The PURC, in taking steps to review the tariff structure, undertook a major tariff review in
2013 where the state owned utitlity companies, VRA, GRIDCo, ECG and NEDCo
presented proposals seeking upward adjustment of tariffs. This exercise resulted in an
upward review of tariffs although not up to the levels requested by the utility companies.
The government also introduced the energy sector levies to help repay the debts owed by the
utitlity companies.
Diversity in the Electricity Generation Mix

Ghana has been heavily dependent on hydro sources, mainly from the Akosombo dam, for
electricity generation as demonstrated in Figure 5 and Table 2. This has been because hydro
sources are known to provide the cheapest source of electricity as compared to thermal and
renewable energy sources. It is therefore not surprising that for 2006/2007, the period the
Akosombo dam experienced its lowest water levels, the country recorded the lowest amount
of electricity generation. Figure 8 shows the relationship between average water levels
recorded for the Akosombo dam and annual electricity generation.

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
Figure 8: Average water levels vs. electricity generation
275 14,000
270
12,000
265
Electricity Generated (GWh)

260 10,000
Water Level (ft)
255
8,000
250
6,000
245
240 4,000
235
2,000
230
225 0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Average Water Level at Akosombo Total Electricity Generation

Akosombo Power Generation
The total installed generation capacity at the end of 2016 was 3,795 MW with proportions as
follows; 57.8 percent thermal, 41.6 percent hydro and 0.6 percent renewable. All the thermal
facilities presented in Table 2 run on natural gas (a cheaper fuel source compared to liquid
fuels) as the primary fuel source, with the exception of the CENIT Power Plant and the
Karpowership power plant, which depend solely on liquid fuels (LCO/DFO and HFO
respectively). This makes natural gas supply very crucial for the effective operation of
Ghana’s electricity sector.
The West African Gas Pipeline, transporting natural gas from Nigeri desktop-j06n6jv@ad a,
has been the major supplier of natural gas for electricity generation until the commissioning
of the Atuabo gas processing facility owned by the Ghana Gas Company in 2015 (Boadu &
Aklorbortu, 2015). Gas supply from Nigeria has, however, not been reliable with the
Nigerians citing non-payment of debt as one of the major reasons. Figure 9 shows the total
natural gas imports through the West African Gas Pipeline between 2009 and 2015. The
Atuabo gas processing facility is capable of supplying up to 150 Mscf per day to the western
power generation enclave at the Aboadze thermal facility with supplies from the Jubilee oil
fields. Plans are underway to process natural gas from the Tweneboa, Enyenra, Ntomme
(TEN) oil fields to augment supplies from the Jubilee fields and make Ghana self sufficient.
However, the Tema thermal power enclave still depends on natural gas supply through the
WAGP. The key challenges that have been experienced in the reliability of gas supply
include: Inadequate supply; planned and unplanned supply interruptions; and domestic and
international payment deficits. The Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC), in a

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
bid to diversify natural gas supply, signed an agreement in 2015 for the development of an
LNG facility which has the capacity to receive, store regasify and deliver at steady state an
equivalent of 500 Mscf of natural gas per day at Tema (GNPC, 2015).
Figure 9: Natural gas imports via WAGP

35,000,000
30,000,000
Natural Gas Import (Mscf)
25,000,000
20,000,000
15,000,000
10,000,000
5,000,000
0
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Crude oil prices have had significant impact on crude oil imports for electricity generation.
Figure 10 shows the relationship between average crude oil prices and the crude oil imports
for electricity generation in Ghana. It is worth noting that crude oil imports were lowest
when prices were highest in 2011, a situation that resulted in the highest natural gas import
levels as shown in Figure 9.
Figure 10: Average crude oil prices

120 1000
900
Crude Oil Import (kilotonnes)
100
Average Crude Oil Prices
800
80 700
(US$/barrel)
600
60 500
400
40 300
20 200
100
0 0
2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018
Average crude oil prices Crude oil for electricity generation

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
Ghana has potential for alternative sources of electricity including medium-sized

hydropower, mini hydropower and other renewable energy sources mainly solar and wind
energy. Developing these potential sources will reduce the burden on the traditional
electricity generation facilities, help reduce the losses in transmitting electricity over long
distances from generation centres (mostly located in the south) to the consumption centres
in the middle and northern part of the country. These sources will, in the long run, help
reduce the import of crude oil and natural gas and could go a long way to impact positively
on the cost of electricity to both generators and consumers alike.Renewable Energy Options
Renewable energy provides viable alternatives to the power crises, seeing that the country is
endowed with abundant renewable energy resources particularly solar. The Renewable
Energy Act was therefore passed into law in 2011 to provide the legal framework for the
adoption of renewable energy sources into the generation mix. Following the passage of the
Renewable Energy Act, the Energy Commission has developed regulations for the sub-
sector including the renewable energy grid code and together with the PURC developed
feed-in tariffs for investment in the sector. The Act provides for the establishment of a
Renewable Energy fund to provide financial resources for the promotion, development,
sustainable management and utilization of renewable energy sources. The fund also provides
financial incentives for the development of mini grid and off grid renewable power systems
for remote areas and island communities. Under the feed-in tariff scheme the PURC is
mandated to set the feed-in tariff rates for the sector based on which developer could sign
power purchase agreements with the distribution companies following a written approval
from the PURC.
Ghana receives between 4.5–5.6 kWh/m2/day of solar radiation annually as presented in

Figure 11. Although this puts Ghana in a good position for solar electricity projects, a
UNEP report launch in 2015 estimates the solar electricity pontential for Ghana at 150 MW
taking into account the capacity of the grid transmit intermittent generation sources (UNEP,
2015). 22.5 MW of this potential has been exploited in two grid connected facililties; 20 MW
BXC plant at Mankoadze and 2.5 MW VRA plant in Navrongo. About 500 kW has also
been installed with or without battery storage by individual homes and institutions. This still
leaves over 100 MW of potential untapped. The Energy Commission under the auspicies of
the Ministry of Energy has introduced the National Rooftop Solar PV Programme as a
means of providing capital subsidy for the development of rooftop solar PV systems to
residential facilities. The programme seeks to help reduce the burden on the conventional
power generation facilities. Under the programme, the client after purchasing the balance of
systems including the inverter, battery and charge controller can receive a maximum of 500
Wp solar panels from the programme (Energy Commission of Ghana, 2016c). Also, about
76 private institutions have been given provisional licences by the Energy Commision to
undertake grid connected solar projects (UNEP, 2016).

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
Figure 11: Solar radiation map for Ghana
Source: (EADTF, 2014)
Ghana’s total hydro power potential is estimated at 2,480 MW but only 1,580 MW has been
exploited in the form of the Akosombo, Kpong and Bui power stations leaving about 900
MW untapped (IHA, 2015). The Energy Commission has identified potential sites for
medium-sized and mini-hydro sites in Figure 12. Five of these medium-sized potential sites
including Juale (87 MW), Pwalugu (48 MW), Daboya (43 MW), Hemang (93 MW), and
Kulpawn (36 MW) are undergoing feasibility studies (IHA, 2015). Nine other potential mini-
hydro sites have been estimated to provide a total of 2.64 MW in various locations accros
the country (Ahiataku-Togobo & Amankwa, 2006). Exploration and development of the
other potential sites could impact greatly on the electricity situation in the country in the near
future.
Figure 12: Potential hydro and wind power sites in Ghana
Source: (EADTF, 2014)
24
ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
Wind speeds measures at various locations across the country range from 6 m/s to 9 m/s
(EADTF, 2014). Whiles there are no existing wind power facilities presently operating in the
country, Figure 12 presents potential wind power sites indentified by the Energy
Commission. The Volta River Authority, as part of its diversification programme, plans to
implement upto 150 MW of wind energy projects of 74 MW capacity each along the cost of
Keta in the Volta Region and Ada in the Greater Accra Region (VRA, 2016).
Energy Efficiency Measures

The easiest approach GoG has adopted to dealing with the power crises has been to build
new power plants, an approach that requires high capital investments. The Energy
Commission has developed rules and regulations that feed into the national policy of energy
efficiency and conservation. The Commission has since 2007 implemented programmes that
have saved Ghana a lot of investments which would have otherwise gone into building of
power plants. One of such programmes is the energy efficiency standards and labellings for
air conditioners under which every air conditioner imported into the country is required to
meet a certain minimum energy efficiency standard set by the Energy Commission and
verified by the Ghana Standards Authority. This projected was estimated to offset the
national peak demand by about 250 MW (Gyamfi, Amankwa Diawuo, Kumi, Sika, &
Modjinou, 2017) The commission carried out another programme to replace all incandescent
bulbs with compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), a project which ended up saving 200–240 MW
of generation capacity (Gyamfi, Amankwa Diawuo, Kumi, Sika, & Modjinou, 2017). In a
refrigerator rebate scheme, the commission sought to replace all second-hand inefficient
refrigerators with new and more efficient ones that bare energy efficiency labels similar to
that of the air conditioners. These programmes have helped to reduce the burden on the
generation facilities and more could be achieved if the citizenry are educated to practice
energy saving measures.
Conclusions
Ghana has been committed to providing universal access to electricity by the year 2020. This
has seen the establishment of the National Electrification Scheme, in which programmes
such as the SHEP has extended electricity to about 82.5 percent of the population of Ghana
as of the end of 2016. This pace of electrification, however, cannot guarantee the country
universal access to electricity by the year 2020 unless the annual average electrification rate is
increased from 2.6 percent to 4.4 percent.
The electricity sector in Ghana has been plagued with severe power supply challenges,
characterised by persistent load shedding over the last decade. These challenges are not as a
result of lack of installed generation capacity since the total installed generation capacity is
far above the peak power demand for the country. The challenges can however be attributed
to the unavailability of adequate generation capacity due to fuel supply challenges, inefficient
distribution systems leading to high distribution losses and loss of revenue resulting from
non payment of bills as well as a poor tariff structure; making it difficult for electricity utility
companies to recover their investments in the sector.

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
Efforts aimed at addressing some of these challenges include the MCC Compact II which
seeks to provide financing for the enhancement of the grid infrastructure to mitigate some
of the distribution losses and also provide technical as well as managerial capacity to the
country’s distribution companies. The government is also developing the other gas resources
from the country’s oil fields to provide stability in supply of natural gas to the nation’s
thermal generation facilities. There has also been proposals to establish an LNG
regasification unit to augment local gas supply.
The country has potential in smaller hydro power and renewable energy sources which when
fully exploited, would bring diversity into the country’s generation mix thereby curbing the
heavy dependence on the Akosombo dam and the major thermal generation facilities. The
role of renewable energy in helping achieve electricity self sufficiency cannot be over
emphasized. The introduction of the Renewable Energy Act has provided the impetus for
development of the sector. However, the government needs to strengthen the enforcement
of the of the Act and the various sub regulations as well as introducing more incentives to
attract investments into the renewable energy space.

ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
References
AfDB. (2013). The High Cost of Electricity Generation in Africa. Retrieved from African
Development Bank Group: https://www.afdb.org/en/blogs/afdb-championing-
inclusive-growth-across-africa/post/the-high-cost-of-electricity-generation-in-africa-
11496/
Ahiataku-Togobo, W., & Amankwa, K. (2006). Hydro Power Development in Ghana. Retrieved
August 2017, from http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/import/52380_Mr._Kennedy_
Amankwa.pdf
Boadu, K. A., & Aklorbortu, D. K. (2015). Prez Mahama unveils Atuabo Gas Plant; Says it's a
game changer. Retrieved from Graphic Online: http://www.graphic.com.gh/news/
general-news/prez-mahama-unveils-atuabo-gas-plant-says-it-s-a-game-changer.html
Bokpe, S. J. (2016). Government owes ECG GH¢728 million; Repayment to be spread over 5 years —
Terkper. Retrieved from GRAPHIC ONLINE: http://www.graphic.com.gh/news/
general-news/government-owes-ecg-gh-728-million-repayment-to-be-spread-over-5-
years-terkper.html
EADTF. (2014). The Ghana Energy Access (GhEA) Database. Retrieved Feb 2017, from Energy
Access Data Task Force: http://151.80.133.24:90/gheatweb/Home/Project
Edjekumhene, I., Amadu, B. A., & and Brew-Hammond, A. (2001). Power Sector Reform in
Ghana: The Untold Story.
Energy Commission of Ghana. (2016a). National Energy Statistics (2006-2016). Retrieved from
Energy Commission of Ghana: http://energycom.gov.gh/files/National%20
Energy%20Statistics_2016.pdf
Energy Commission of Ghana. (2016b). 2016 Energy (Supply and Demand) Outlook for Ghana.
Retrieved from The Energy Commission of Ghana: http://energycom.gov.gh/files/
Energy%20Commission%20-%202016Energy%20Outlook%20for%20Ghana_final.pdf
Energy Commission of Ghana. (2016c). Energy Commission of Ghana. Retrieved from National
Rooftop Solar PV Programme: http://www.rooftopsolar.energycom.gov.gh/about-nrp
Energy Commission of Ghana. (2017). National Energy Statistics (2007 - 2016). Retrieved from
http://energycom.gov.gh/files/ENERGY_STATISTICS_2017.pdf
Eshun, M., & Amoako-Tuffour, J. (2016). A Review of the Trends in Ghana’s Power Sector.
Energy, Sustainability and Society.
GNPC. (2015). GNPC and Quantum Power Signs an Agreement to Construct Tema LNG Terminal.
Retrieved August 9, 2017, from Ghana National Petroleum Corporation:
http://www.gnpcghana.com/press3.html
Gyamfi, S., Amankwa Diawuo, F., Kumi, E. N., Sika, F., & Modjinou, M. (2017). The
Energy Efficiency Situation in Ghana. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.
IEA. (2016). World Energy Outlook 2016. International Energy Agency, Paris.
IHA. (2015). Ghana: assessing the sustainability of new hydropower sites. (A. Khalil, Producer)
Retrieved August 4, 2017, from International Hydropower Association:
https://www.hydropower.org/blog/ghana-assessing-the-sustainability-of-new-
hydropower-sites
ISSER. (2005). Guide to Elerctric Power in Ghana. Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic
Research, Accra.

27
ANNEXURE “C”
& OPPORTUNITIES
ISSER. (2015). Electricity insecurity and its Impact on Micro and Small Businesses in Ghana.
Electricity Insecurity and Its Impact on the Economy of Ghana. Accra: Institute of Statistical,
Social and Economic Research.
Kapika, J., & Eberhard, A. (2013). Power-Sector Reform and Regulation in Africa: Lessons from
Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Namibia and Ghana. Retrieved from
http://www.hsrcpress.ac.za/downloadpdf.php?pdffile=files%2FPDF%2F2305%2FPSe
Book.pdf&downloadfilename=Power-sector%20reform%20and%20regulation%20
in%20Africa%20-%20Entire%20eBook
Kemausuor, F., & Ackom, E. (2016). Toward universal electrification in Ghana. WIREs
Energy Environment, 6(10).
Mathrani, S., Santley, D., Hosier, R., Bertholet, F., Braud, A., Dawson-Amoah, G., . . .
Reinoso, G. (2013). Energizing Economic Growth in Ghana : Making the power and Petroleum
Sectors Rise to the Challenge. Retrieved from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/
485911468029951116/Energizing-economic-growth-in-Ghana-making-the-power-and-
petroleum-sectors-rise-to-the-challenge
Mensah, G. S., Kemausuor, F., & Brew-Hammond, A. (2014). Energy access indicators and
trends in Ghana. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 30, 317–323.
Ministry of Energy. (2010). Natinoal Energy Policy. Retrieved from http://www.petrocom
.gov.gh/assets/national_energy_policy.pdf
Ministry of Power. (2016). Power News. The Official News Magazine for the Ministry of Power,
Maiden Edition. Accra.
Power Systems Energy Consulting (PSEC) & Ghana Grid Company (GRIDCo). (2010).
Ghana Power Reliability Assessment. Power Systems Energy Consulting.
UNEP. (2015). Ghana Solar Export Potential Study. Geneva: UNEP.
UNEP. (2016). GE-TOP Ghana Strategy Proposal – Realizing solar PV projects in a cross-border
power supply context. Geneva: UNEP.
USAID. (2017). Ghana: Power Africa Fact Sheet. Retrieved from USAID: https://www.usaid
.gov/powerafrica/ghana
VALCO. (2017). History. Retrieved from Volta Aluminium Company (VALCO):
http://www.valcotema.com/about-us/history.html
VRA. (2015). Power Generation: Facts and Figures. Retrieved March 20, 2015, from Volta River
Authority: http://vraghana.com/resources/facts.php
VRA. (2016). Wind Energy. Retrieved August 2017, from Volta River Authority:
http://www.vra.com/our_mandate/wind_energy.php

ANNEXURE “D”
SkyTrain GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF ACCRA SHALES (1973)
4/16
GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF ACCRA SHALES
PROPRIETES GEOTECHNIQUES DES ARGILES SCHISTEUSES D'ACCRA

rEOTEXHMHECKME CBOflCTBA CJ1AHUEB M3 AKKPbl
J . W .S . D E G R A F T - J O H N S O N , D ire cto r
H .S . B H A T IA , P rin c ip a l R e s e a r c h O ffic e r
S . L . Y E B O A , R e s e a r c h O ffic e r , B u ild in g and R o a d R e s e a r c h In s titu te , K u m a si (G hana)
S Y N O P S I S . In a n y country, the u p s u r g e of building activities in the w a k e oi industrialisation m a k e s it i m p e r a t i v e to

a s c e rtain in s o m e detail the e n g i n e e r i n g p r operties of the sub-soil in that g e o g r a p h i c a l region. T h i s is especially true in
t w o m a j o r cities of G h a n a w h i c h lie m o s t l y o n shales. In this p a p e r a st u d y of the g e o t e o h n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of the s h a l e s
of A c c r a h a s b e e n undertaken. T h e scudy g r o u p s the shales into soft ( u n c e m e n t e d ) s h a les a n d h a r d ( c e m e n t e d ) Bhal e s e a c h
of w h i c h c a n b e further d e s c r i b e d a s s an d y , silty o r clayey. A i a n g e of prop e r t i e s a r e g i v e n for e a c h type of shale a n d it
h a s b e e n realised that the p r o b l e m sha l e s a r e ge n e r a l l y of the soft type. T h e c l a y e y shal e s h a v e the t e n d e n c y to d e v e l o p
v e r y high swe lling p r e s s u r e s .
INTRODUCTION resting o n c l a y e y shales, the g e n e r a l n a t u r e of the d a m a g e

b e i n g in the f o r m of c r a c k i n g
S h a l e is o n e of the p r e d o m i n a n t s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s in
A c c r a w h i c h h a s a n d m a y c o n tinue to s u p p o r t a lar g e p r o FORMATION OF SHALES
portion of the civil e n g i n e e r i n g w o r k s in G h a n a ' s u r b a n
T h e shales a r e highly consolidated clays, silts a n d
centres. T h e u p s u r g e of t h e s e building activities in A c c r a
s a n d s o r a m i x t u r e of all the th r e e tractions of soil d e r i v e d
in r e c e n t y e a r s h a s m a d e it n e c e s s a r y to study in s o m e
f r o m the w e a t h e r i n g of r o c k s . T h e particles of sand,
detail the geotechnical pro p e r t i e s of the sub-soil in that
silt a n d clay o btained a s a result of w e a t h e r i n g of rock,
region.
get d e p o s i t e d in s e a o r riv e r b e d 6 in layers. T h e s e
layers a r e subjected, to h i g h o v e r b u r d e n p r e s s u r e s , w h i c h
A n earlier p a p e r (de G r a f t - J o h n s o n et al. (1967)
tend to eject w a t e r f r o m the s e d i m e n t s , resulting in the
d i s c u s s e d the consolidation a n d sw e l l characteristics of
particles c o m i n g v e r y close to e a c h other. If after full
A c c r a mottled clays. T h e s e cl a y s a r e in fact the in-situ
consolidation of s u c h layers, the s e d i m e n t s a r e left for
w e a t h e r i n g p r o d u c t s of A c c r a shales.
c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e without a n y further i n c r e a s e of o v e r
b u r d e n p r e s s u r e significant c h a n g e s in the physi c a l a n d
In this p a p e r the g e otechnical p r o p e r t i e s of the
s o m e t i m e s c h e m i c a l characteristics of the deposits start
s h ales a r e d i s c u s s e d . T h e shal e s b e l o n g to the D e v o n i a n
taking place. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n of s u c h c h a n g e s in sedi
age, a n d their p r o perti e s a r e r a t h e r c o m p l e x d u e p r i m a
m e n t a r y deposits is called diagenesis. G e n e r a l l y d u r i n g
rily to the w i d e r a n g e in texture a n d tne n a t u r e of the
the p r o c e s s of d i a genesis the z o n e of contact b e t w e e n
diagenetic b o n d s d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g the geological history
particles d e v e l o p l arge p r e s s u r e s d u e to h e a v y o v e r
of the deposits. T h e s h a l e s of A c c r a , for e x a m p l e , c a n
b u r d e n a n d s u c h p r e s s u r e s tend to p r o d u c e the recrystalli-
b e divided texturally into t h r e e m a i n gr o u p s , the sandy,
zation of clay particles, thus d e v e l o p i n g m o l e c u l a r b o n d s
silty a n d clay e y shales. T h e s h a l e s b e l o n g i n g to a n y o n e
b e t w e e n t h e m . F u r t h e r a d h e s i o n b e t w e e n the particles c a n
of the textural g r o u p s c a n fall further into the c a t e g o r y of
b e attributed to the precipitation of soluble c e m e n t i n g
either c e m e n t e d o r u n c e m e n t e d shales. U n c e m e n t e d s hales
m a t e r i a l s available in the p o r e w a t e r of the s e d i m e n t s .
a r e generally soft shales, w h i c h h a v e m o s t l y v e r y u n p r e
T h e v a r i o u s sta g e s of sh a l e f o r m a t i o n s f r o m silt a n d clay
dictable e n g i n e e r i n g properties, especially those with clay
deposits, to their t r a n s f o r m a t i o n into r o c k s h a v e b e e n
texture. T h e c l a y e y s hales a r e of e x p a n s i v e type a nd
fully d i s c u s s e d e l s e w h e r e ( U n d e r w o o d (1967)). B j e r r u m
p r e s e n t s e v e r a l p r o b l e m s to the building industry. A l r e a d y
(1967) p r e s e n t e d the p r o c e s s of Sha l e f o r m a t i o n s in a
it h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d that c o n s i d e r a b l e d a m a g e h a s b e e n
simplified m a n n e r s h o w i n g the p r o c e s s of consolidation of
c a u s e d in A c c r a to p a v e m e n t s a n d m a n y light s tructures
97

ANNEXURE “D”
4/16
NATURAL MOIS O n the other h a n d if the clay is left for a n appreciable

SYM-DESCRIPTION OF SOIL STRUCTL.
TURE CONTENT DRY DENS
BOL FEATURES A T T E R B E R G ’S ITY PCF length of t i m e u n d e r the load the p r o c e s s of diagenesis
L IM IT S - % Xd sets in. T h e b o n d s cr e a t e d within the soil structure b y
-
£>-
-5 Red s a n d y clay _ ,2 0 40 60
diagenetic p r o c e s s e s d e p e n d o n consolidation pressure,
Gravelly sandy clay time, m i n e r a l n a ture of the sedi m e n t s , p o r e fluid,
reddish b r o w n t e m p e r a t u r e etc. In c a s e the b o n d s a r e v e r y strong the
s e d i m e n t s b e c o m e indurated a n d turn into rock. B j e r r u m
Haematitit: micac- Lat. zone
e-- --Tdilfl
o u s sandstone a-*-# (1967) states that o w i n g to the p r e s e n c e of these bonds,
the d e t e rmination of the m a x i m u m pre-existing consoli
Fine laminated Joints
NO dation p r e s s u r e c a nnot b e d o n e f r o m consolidation tests.
s a n d s t o n e with and
b a n d s of shales partings
C HEMICAL A N D PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Soft m u d d y sticky Cut out
colour banded,shale channels S e v e r a l attempts h a v e b e e n m a d e to classify shales
z o n e disintegration 8 joints ME using s u c h properties as texture (Pettijohn, 1957), degrei
of c e m e n t a t i o n (Mead, 1936), c h e m i c a l a n d mineralogical
co m p o s i t i o n (Grim, 1962) a n d fissility (Ingram, 1953).
Light grey to Laminat- M e a d (1936) d e s c r i b e s the shales as either c o m p a c t i o n
darksectile shales edjstrott shales o r c e m e n t e d shales. C o m p a c t i o n shales a r e
tied believed to h a v e b e e n consolidated b y the w e i g h t of ov e r -
l y i n g s e d im e n t s w i t h o u t d e v e l o p i n g a n y i n t e r -
D a r k shales with g r a n u l a r b o n d s . I n t h e c e m e n te d s h a l e s t h e i n -
Laminat
sandstone partings
ed d o w t e r g r a n u l a r c e m e n t i s b e l i e v e d t o b e d ue t o
m i c a c e o u s in nwards e i t h e r th e p re s e n c e o f c h e m ic a ls such a s t h o
nature se o f c a lc a r e o u s and f e r r u g in o u s n a t u r e o r
t h e r e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f th e c l a y m in e r a ls .
116 T h e s h a l e s o f A c c r a w h ic h i n c l u d e m u d s to n e s ,
D a r k shales intact Straight
i n t e r b e d d e d s i l t s t o n e s a n d c l a y e y s h a l e s m ay
structure. l a m inat be g r o u p e d i n t o t w o , n a m e l y , s o f t o r u n c e m e n te d
ion fe w s h a le s a n d h a r d o r c e m e n te d s h a l e s . S h a l e s o f
joints e i t h e r g r o u p m ay b e f u r t h e r d e s c r i b e d a s c l a -
y e y , s i l t y , o r s a n d y d e p e n d in g on t h e p a r t i c l e
Very thin b e d d e d s iz e d e t e r m in a tio n .
Unweat
shole with breccio A s t u d y o f t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e c h e m ic a l p r o
hered p e r t i e s o f m a t e r ia ls i n a num ber o f p r o f i l e s
of pyrites 8 quartz w ith d e p th in d ic a t e s th e p re s e n c e o f c a lc a r e
o us t f e r r u g i n o u s a n d h i g h l y s i l i c e o u s s h a l e s .
F a w n coloured Unweat A t y p i c a l d e e p p r o f i l e i s show n i n f i g u r e 1 .
shales hered
In th e p r o f ile ,a b o u t 20 f e e t o f m a t e r ia l n e a r
Very fine grey sh Finely lam th e s u r fa c e h as c o m p le te ly w e a th e re d and l a t e -
ales pyrite vein inated r i s e d t o v a r i o u s d e g r e e s .T h e a c c o m u la t io n o f
ir o n i n t h i s l a y e r te n d e d t o g iv e r e d c o lo u r
X Insitu m o i s t u r e content. t o th e w e a th e re d m a t e r ia l.B e lo w 2 0 f e e t i s a
6 f e e t t h i c k o f l a t e r i s e d m ic a c e o u s s a n d y
0 Liquid limit. s h a le a n d s h a le s a n d s to n e .
A P lo s t ic lim it .
U n d erlying the lateritic z o n e w a s 23 feet thick shale

FIG.l: T Y P I C A L D E E P S H A L E S P R O F I L E O F
layer, w e a t h e r e d to v arious degr e e s , as s h o w n in
A C CRA SHALES
figure 1. T h i s layer h a d b a n d s of shales a n d sandstones.
T h e s a m p l e s h a d r a n d o m joints a n d partings a n d the
r e c o v e r y of the material w a s v e r y poor. T h e w a t e r
s e d i m e n t a r y deposits of sand, silt a n d clay particles,
content in the s a m p l e s w a s relatively higher than those
u n d e r increasing o v e r - b u r d e n p r e s s u r e . T h e p r o c e s s of
s a m p l e s r e c o v e r e d f r o m l o w e r depths. T h e next u n d e r
consolidation is a c c o m p a n i e d b y the out-flow of w a t e r
lying layer b e t w e e n 51 feet a n d 70 feet w a s again a
f r o m p o r e s till a n equilibrium w a t e r content is established.
p r o d u c t of considerable w e a t h e r i n g with cut out channels,
This pr e s s u r e , o n the geological t i m e scale, r e a c h e s a
joints a nd partings in the s a m p l e s . T h e s a m p l e s obtained
p e a k value at w h i c h deposits u n d e r g o s e c o n d a r y consolida
f r o m this z o n e w e r e soft a n d m u d d y w i t h d a r k a n d light
tion, tending to r e d u c e the w a t e r content further. If as a
g r e y bands. T h e z o n e b e t w e e n 71 a nd 98 feet h a d m i c a
result of erosion or r e m o v a l of o v e r b u r d e n the unloading
particles orientated parallel to the laminations a n d though
c o m m e n c e s o n the deposited materials, the soil m a y
the shales t h e m s e l v e s w e r e well laminated, the stratifi
partly swell d u e to r e c o v e r a b l e strain en e r g y " in clay
cation w a s a bit irregular. A t pla ces the s a m p l e s w e r e
particles, w h i c h tend to regain their original shape.
b r o k e n out but the r e c o v e r y w a s generally good. From
98

ANNEXURE “D”
4/16
98 feet to 150 feet the shale s a m p l e s h a d intact structure shale s a m p l e s at this levei n a d b r e c c i a z o n e s of pyrites,
w i t h m in o r d i s t r i o a n c e a and. n ew j o i n t s . B e l o w w h i c h tended to p r o d u c e v e r y h i g h v o l u m e c h a n g e s o n
150 f e e t t h e s h a l e s a m p le s w e re c o m p l e t e l y u n drying.
u n w e a th e r e d w i t h f l a t b e d d in g a n d t h e r e c o
v e r y w a s a lm o s t 1 0 0 % . The
TABLE 1: SHOWING T H E C H E M I C A L A N D X - R A Y ANALYSIS

(F TY P I C A L S A M P L E S O F A C C R A SHALES
Analysis on Oven Dried

Samples at 105°C
Serial Depth Loss at Loss on CaO IH Quartz Mica Kaolin
Location Value Fe2°3
No. ft. 105°C Ignition Si02 % % % %
* v 3 *2 %
at %
900°C-%
1. Black Star Square 22-24 1.68 8.45 61-6Q 8.4 9.21 11.74 5.2 - - - -
2. It 1! II 30-31 1.24 9.25 62. 84 15.71 9.86 2.34 4.8 39 8 53 XX
3. II It ft 35-37 1.10 6.82 73.81 5.45 12.14 0.84 - - - - -
A. tt H It 45-47 0.84 5.47 79.23 6.23 8.21 0.41 4.4 36 5 59 -
5. tt tt ft 60-62 0.54 4.81 75.63 5.81 11.63 1.02 4.9 34 7 59 -
6. tt tt It 18-20 2.43 9.82 50.93 15.60 21.30 4.31 4.8 42 4 54 XX
7. High Street Accra
Opposite Ghana 26 1.24 9.96 63. 84 5.65 8.10 6.62 4.6 32 6 62 XX
Commercial Bonk
fa. tr tt 11 46 1.38 4.42 74.81 5.65 12.10 1.71 5.9 35 7 59 X
9. it tt ti 51 1.29 8.44 64.96 5.41 11.85 1.15 5.9 - - -
10. it 11 ti 53-57 0.98 10.71 65.63 3.75 13.25 0.64 4.1 31 8 61 •! -

11. Agriculture Deve•
lopment Bank
Site m, Accra, 5-10 - 11.35 50.91 16.31 20.21 0.37 6.5 - - - -
Back of Ambassa•
dor Hotel
12. If tl ft 10-15 - 12.56 53.54 6.96 25.31 0.28 6.8 - - - -
13. ft tl tl 15-20 - 5. HI 71.81 6.26 13.68 0.29 7.4 - - - -
14. ft ft tl 20-25 - 8.60 61.64 3.23 22.79 0.36 4.7 - - - -

15. ff fl 11 25-30 - 8.14 61.09 4.55 21.95 0.29 5.1 - - - -
x Traces. xx More than traces.
T h e c h e m i c a l a n d m i n e r a l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n at in a r e a s of restricted rainfall u n d e r vegetation of g r a s s e s

different depths and at v a r i o us sites in A c c r a is s u m m a and h e r b a c e o u s plants w h i c h is the c a s e with A c c r a . T h e
ri sed in T a b l e 1. N o t e that c a l c i u m oxide at a d e p t h of a b s e n c e of c a r b o n a t e s at l o w e r depths c a n b e attributed
23 feet in s a m p l e N o . l is 11. 74% w h e r e a s at l o w e r depths to the high d e g r e e of solubility of c a r b o n a t e s u n d e r high
the c a l c i u m oxide is v e r y sma l l . T h e p r e s e n c e of C a O or pressures.
c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e at s h a llow dep t h s c a n b e attributed to
the deposition of soluble h a s e s of c a l c i u m in the top h o r i
z o n of the profile duri n g evaporation. Felt (1950) explains
that this p r o c e s s of calcification is typically m a i n t a i n e d
99

ANNEXURE “D”
4/16
BASIC G R O U P I N G O F A C C R A S H A L E S
In o r d e r to s e p a r a t e the soft o r u n c c m e n t e d shales

f r o m the h a r d o r c e m e n t e d snales, s a m p l e s w e r e s u b
jected to six c y c l e s of "wetti n g a n d d r y i n g . " The
s a m p l e s w e r e 2 i n c h e s in d i a m e t e r a n d 2 i nc h e s high.
E a c h c y c l e c o m p r i s e d 42 h o u r s of heating the s a n p l e s
at 70 to 75°C in a n oven, cooling the s a m p l e s for
3 h o u r s at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e a n d then s u b m e r g i n g t h e m
in w a t e r for 5 h o u r s . T h e s a m p l e s w e r e b r u s h e d after
we t ting a n d d r y i n g to get rid of loose m a t erial, t h e
difference in w e i g h t of a s a m p l e b e t w e e n t w o c o n s e c u t i v e
PA R T IC L E IN M IL LIM E TE R S
he a tings in a n o v e n w a s c o n s i d e r e d loss of w e i g h t in a Grading curves of s a n d y shales of A c c r a
single cycle. (1) BH 3 . 2 2 - 0 " - 2 6 - 0 " (3) 9H 3. 5 3 '-0 " -5 7 '-o "
(2) BH. 2. 39’- 0 " - 4 5 - 0 " (4) BH.4. 6 5 - 0 " - 6 9 - 0 "
T h e soft sh a l e s a m p l e s g e n e r a l l y c r u m b l e d to
fine g r a i n e d sizes after 2 o r 3 cycles, w h e r e a s the
c e m e n t e d s a m p l e s wi t hstood 6 c y c l e s of wetting a n d
d r y i n g w i t h n o n e of the s a m p l e s e x c e e d i n g a total loss
of 8%.
T h e s t r o n g c h e m i c a l b o n d s p r e s e n t in the
c e m e n t e d s h a l e s m a k e d i s p e r s i o n difficult. B e c a u s e
of this it is r a t h e r difficult to d e t e r m i n e ac c u r a t e l y
the phys i c a l properties. T h e soft o r u n c e m e n t e d
s h a l e s a r e relatively e a s i e r to d i s p e r s e . T h e particle
size deternination indicates that the s hales v a r y
texturally f r o m s a n d y to clayey. T h e r a n g e of g r a d i n g s
0.0001 O.OOI 0.01 0.1 I 2 10
is s h o w n in figure 2.
P A R T IC L E IN M IL L IM E T E R S
Grading c u r v e s of cloy shales of A c c r o
T h e A t t e r b e r g s limits of soft shaie s a m p l e s a r e (1) BH. 3. 3 5 - 0 " - 3 7 -0 " (3 ) BH. 3. 2 4 - 0 " - 2 5 '-0 "
(2) BH. 3. 2 5 '-0 " — 2 7 '-0 " (4 ) BH. 3. 3 0 '-0 " — 3 2 - 0 "
plotted o n C a s a g r a n d e s plasticity chart in figure 3. T h e (5) BH. 3. 2 9 '- 0 " - 3 0 '- 0 "
g r o u p i n g of sandy, silty a n d clay s h a l e s is v e r y dis
tinctly s e e n in figure 3. T h e s a n d y a n d c laye y shales
u e e m to fall a b o v e the A - line w h e r e a s the silty shales
FIG. 2: TYPICAL GRADING CURVES OF
ACCRA SHALES
fall b e l o w the A-line. S m i l h a n d R e d l i n g e r (1953) noted
that the a t t e r b e r g s limits for F o r t U n i o n clay s hales
fall a b o v e the A - L i n e . A s i m i l a r finding w a s r e p o r t e d
b y N o o r r a n y a n d Giz i e n s k i (1970) for s u b - m a r i n e clays
f r o m G u l f of M e x i c o . In either case, h o w e v e r , the plot
w a s for c l ayey shales only.
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES
A classification of shal e s b a s e d o n the c o m p r e s s i v e

strength, p e a k a n d residual s h e a r strength, activity
ratio, potential swell, m o d u l u s of elasticity, a n d
p r e d o m i n a n t clay m i n e r a l s w a s p r o p o s e d b y U n d e r w o o d
(1967). H e g a v e r a n g e s of v a l u e s of th e s e physical
pro p e r t i e s a n d indicated that they co u l d b e u s e d to
distingiish the p r o b l e m shales f r o m the n o n p r o b l e m
shales.
U n c o n f i n e d c o m p r e s s i o n tests o n A c c r a shales
indicated that the s a m p l e s g e n erally fail at strains Liquid Limit - %
b e t w e e n 1.5% a n d 3. 5%. T h e c o m p r e s s i v e strengths
v a r y f r o m 30 psi to 3, 000 psi w i t h the c o r r e s p o n d i n g
m o d u l u s of elasticity v a r y i n g f r o m 1000 psi to 200, 000
FIG. 3: POSITION O F T H E S O F T S H A L E S O F
ACCRA ON THE CASAGRANDES
psi. T h e s a m p l e s w h i c h exhibited hi gh c o m p r e s s i v e
PLASTICITY CHART.
st r e n g t h s u p to 3, 000 psi a r e g e n e r a l l y of the c e m e n t e d
100

ANNEXURE “D”
4/16
fy p e o f s h a le .F o r t h is ty p e o f s h a le ,th e
s h e a r s t r e n g t h c a n be c o n v e n i e n t l y d e t e r m i n e d
I n t h e u n c o n f in e d c o m p r e s s iv e s t r e n g t h t e s t .
T a b le 2 show s a r a n g e o f v a l u e s f o r b o t h
c e m e n te d a n d u n c e m e n te d s h a l e s *
C o m p a r i n g the r a n g e of p r o p e r t i e s with the classifi
cation cha r t p r o p o s e d b y U n d e r w o o d (1967) it m a y be
s e e n that s o m e of these shales a r e p r o b l e m shales
exhibiting l o w b e a r i n g capacity, t e n d e n c y to rebound,
a n d high swelling potential.
Consolidat ed u n d r a i n e d tests w e r e r u n o n 43
s a m p l e s of soft shales. T h e tests indicated that the
c o h e s i o n v a r i e d f r o m 3 to 16 psi. a n d the values of the
angle of internal friction vari e d f r o m 16 to 26.
F i g u r e 4 s h o w s a h i s t o g r a m of the distribution of the
angle of internal friction. T h e test s h o w s that m o s t of
the s a m p l e s h a v e angle of internal friction b e t w e e n
18° a n d 22°.
T h e m o d u l u s of e lasticity s h o w n in table 2w a s
o b t a in e d f r o m u n c o n f in e d c o m p r e s s iv e s t r e n g t h
t e s t s « A t one b u ild in g s it e ,h o w e v e r ,a .c y c lic
p l a t e l o a d i n g t e s t w a s d o n e .T h e t e s t w a s d o n e
on w e a t h e r e d c l a y s h a l e i n a 1 2 f t . d e $ p F ig . i
e x c a v a t i o n on a 1 2 I n c h e s d ia m e t e r
plate. D u r i n g e a c h of the first four cycles of loading,
the p r e s s u r e w a s i n c r ea s e d f r o m z e r o to 3 tons per
s q u a r e foot, a n d then the plate w a s u n l o a d e d a n d the
TABLE 2o RANGE OE PROPERTIES 0 ? SOFT

AND CEMENTED ACCRA SHALES
Partici® Sis« Atterberg's Uncon

LLraits In-Situ
Specific D r y fined A n g l e of M o d u l u s of L i n e a r
Moisture
T y p e of Shales G rav i t y D e n s i t y C o m p Shear Elasticity Swell
Sand Silt Clay L.L P. I. Content
Gs. L b s / f t 5 ressive Plane Psi.
% Strength
Psi
Uncemented
S a n d y Shales 55-85 5-25 5-8 21-30 N.P. 8-15 2.65 108 60 47° 2000 0.2
(13 s a m p l e s ) to to to to to to to
12 2.94 112 1800 52° 4000 0.7
35-60 40-63 3-12 25-40 3-12 8-13 2.65 104 30 1500 0.5
o
Uncemented
CO
Silty Shales to to to to to to
(10 s a m p l e s ) 2.90 110 1200 49° 15000 2.5
Uncemented 0-22 35-48 30-55 30-55 12-35 9-14 2.68 105 80 41° 3200 2.5
C l a y Shales to to to to to to
<14 s a m p l e s ) 3.10 116 2000 51° 60000 15.0
Cemented 2.71 106 180 unpredic 55000 0.05
Shale - - - - - 2-5 to to to table to to
(11 s a m p l e s ) 2.94 116 3000 200000 0.08
101

ANNEXURE “D”
4/16
m a t e r i a l a l l o w e d to r e b o u n d . T h e Loading a n d unloadi n g T h e m o d u l u s of elasticity in the first cy cle w a s 1, 300 psi.

w e r e r e p e a t e d this w a y for four cycles. D u r i n g the A f t e r f o u r c y c l e s of loading a n d un l o a d i n g the m o d u l u s
fifth c y c l e the load w a s i n c r e a s e d steadily to 9 tons p e r h a d i n c r e a s e d to 8,400 psi. It is believed that the
s q u a r e foot. T h e resulting load deflection c u r v e is t r e m e n d o u s i n c r e a s e in the m o d u l u s af ter only four cycl e s
s h o w n in figure 5. of loading a n d u n l o a d i n g is d u e to the h e a v e of the m a t e r i a l
L oad - T o n s /s q .ft. w h e n the o v e r b u r d e n w a s r e m o v e d .
R e b o u n d of the sides a n d b o t t o m of an e x c a v a t i o n in
sh a l e is a c o m m o n p h e n o m e n o n a n d it h a s b e e n noticed b y
P e r t e r s o n (1958), P e r t e r s o n a n d P e t e r s (1963) a n d
S m i t h a n d R e d l i n g e r (1953). R e b o u n d in sha l e s is attri
b u t e d to b o t h swelling a n d r e l e a s e of s t o r e d strain e n e r g y
in addition to the effects of load r e m o v a l ( B j e r r u m , 1967).
ELASTIC A N D PLASTIC D E F O R M A T I O N S
IN S H A L E
E a c h load sustained 12 hours.
In o r d e r to st u d y the n a t u r e of d e f o r m a t i o n s in the
FIG. 5: FIELD LOAD-DEFORMATION shales, a set of field tests w e r e r u n o n a 12 inch. dia.
CURVES FOR A CCRA SHALE plate in a n e x c a v a t i o n at a d e p t h of a b o u t 12 feet f r o m
TABLE 3 SHOWING THE ELASTIC A N D PLASTIC D E F O R M A T I O N

O F A C C R A S H A L E S IN T H E L A B O R A T O R Y A N D T H E F I E L D
Field Plate L o a d i n g Tes t Laboratory Loa d i n g Test
Field D ial Deforma 4a Deforma à i

Press A e AP Dial R e a d i n g A e Ap
ure Reading - 10~3 tion u n d e r Ae
- x 10-3 tion u n d e r A e
a given a given
T.S.F. Load Unload Loading
load Unload- load
ing ing
o~i 30 4 30 26 4 Ü .154 32 26 32 6 26 4.4
4“! 57 18 53 39 14 0.35 54 45 28 9 19 2.11
1 -2 105 32 87 73 14 0.192 84 60 39 24 15 0.625
2-3 153 50 121 103 18 0.175 93 72 33 21 12 0.572
3-4 207 83 157 124 33 0.266 107 86 35 21 14 0.667
4-5 301 141 218 140 78 0.558 125 11)5 39 20 19 0.950
5-6 366 263 225 103 122 1.18 153 133 48 20 28 1.40
6-7 514 450 251 64 87 2.92 187 171 52 14 38 1.71
7-8 747 658 297 89 208 3.20 242 225 71 17 54 3.18
8-9 962 905 304 57 247 4.33 291 275 66 16 50 3.13
9-10 1227 1166 322 61 261 4.28 318 317 53 11 42 3. 82
the g r o u n d surface. In this set of test results, the plate lab o r a t o r y tests w e r e calculated. T h e total d e f o r m a t i o n s
w a s l o a d e d in cyclic i n c r e m e n t s of 0. 25, 0. 5, 1.0 ton/ in the c a s e of l abo r a t o r y tests as s h o w n in c o l u m n s (7)
sq. ft. E a c h c y c l e co n sisted of loading a n d alter the a n d (8) of T a b l e 3 a r e s m a l l e r than the field d e f o r m a t i o n s .
d e f o r m a t i o n u n d e r that load w a s c o m p l e t e , the plate
w a s u n l o a d e d . D u r i n g the s u b s e q u e n t cycle, the load T a b l e 3 indicates that plastic d e f o r m a t i o n at loads
w a s i n c r e a s e d to the next high e r level a n d d e f o r m a t i o n u p to 1 ton/sq.ft. in the l a b o r a t o r y tests, w a s h i g h e r than
b o t h after loading a n d u n l oading r e c o r d e d . S i m i l a r r e c o r d e d in the field. This co u l d b e attributed to g r e a t e r
tests w e r e c o n d u c t e d in the laboratory o n undisturbed d i s t u r b a n c e of l aboratory s a m p l e s , d u e to their re b o u n d ,
s a n p l e s obtained f r o m the s a m e site in a n o e d o m e t e r . w h e n o v e r b u r d e n w a s r e m o v e d . U p to 5 tons/sq.ft.
T h e elastic a n d plastic d e f o r m a t i o n s u n d e r e a c h load p r e s s u r e s , the plastic d e f o r m a t i o n s both for the field a n d
w e r e s e p arated, as s h o w n in T a b l e 3, a n d the ratio of lab o r a t o r y tests w e r e relatively s m a l l . W h e n the loads
plastic to elastic d e f o r m a t i o n s b o t h for the field a n d w e r e i n c r e a s e d b e y o n d 5 tons/sq.ft. the plastic d e f o r m a
10?

ANNEXURE “D”
4/16
“ tio n s in cre a se d , c o n firm in g the re s u lts in p re v io u s

s e rie s o f te s ts . The re s u lts o l th is s e rie s of te s ts both
in the la b o ra to ry and fie ld w e re re a so n a b ly co m p a ra b le .
The te s t re s u lts in d ic a te d th a t the shales had a tendency B LA C K STAR S Q U AR E A C C R A
to show p re -c o n s o lid a tio n p re s s u re s up to 5 to n s /s q .ft. DEPTH OF S A M P LE = 2 4 .O FT.
I N I T I A L M O IS T U R E C 0 N T E N T = I5 . 4 %
beyond w h ich the d e fo rm a tio n s w e re r e la tiv e ly h ig h e r.
D R Y D E N S IT Y = 115.7 L B S / C U . F T
S W E LLIN G CHAR AC TER ISTIC S
The s w e llin g p ro p e rtie s of the shales have proved

d e trim e n ta l to m any c iv il cnginee r in g s tru c tu re s in •
A c c ra w h e re damage has been caused to pavem ents and

lig h t s tru c tu re s .
PRESSURE T O N S /F T
In som e a re a s o f A c c ra , cla ye y shales a re m et T h e effect of different pressures on the linear swell
in the p r o f ile a t depths o f 30 f t . and b e lo w . The after the sample has b e e n allowed to swell und e r
m o is tu re contents at these depths re m a in g e n e ra lly at restrain of 0.075 tons/sq.ft.
12 to 16 p e r cent thro u g h o u t the y e a r and th is m ay be
c o n sid e re d the e q u ilib riu m m o is tu re co n ten ts. The
shales a t these depths do not seem to undergo.any
vo lu m e changes due to the fa c t th a t the m o is tu re
co n ten t re m a in s co n stan t thro u g h o u t the y e a r.
Some of the cla ye y sh a le s, h o w e ve r, a re

encountered a t r e la tiv e ly sh a llo w depths o f between
10 and 12 f t . The m o is tu re content in these shales
is betw een 6 and 10 p e r ce n t d u rin g the d ry seas on,
w hereas a fte r the r a in y se a so n the m o is tu re content
in c re a s e s to values betw een 16 and 22 p e r c e n t. T h is
v a ria tio n in m o is tu re co n ten t causes the s w e llin g and
s h rin k a g e in th e c la y e y shales w h ich in tu rn causes
d is tre s s o f v a ry in g m agnitude to pavem ents and lig h t
s tru c tu re s .
Studies on the s w e llin g c h a ra c te ris tic s w e re c a rr ie d

o u t on sam ples obtained fr o m s h a llo w depths. A num F IG . 6: T Y P IC A L S W E L L AN D CONSOLIDATION1
b e r o f sa m p le s fr o m the "b la c k s ta r s q u a re " s ite in CU RVE OF T H E S H A LE A F T E R T H E S A M P L E
A c c ra and fr o m about the sam e depth w e re placed under HAS B E E N S A T U R A T E D UNDER A
v a ry in g r e s tr a in in g p re s s u re s o f 0 .5 , 1 .0 , 2 .0 , 4 .0 to n s / R E S T R A IN T O F 0. 075 T O N /F T 2.
s q . f t . A fte r the sam ples had attained e q u ilib riu m u n d e r
such r e s tr a in in g p re s s u re s , they w e re flooded w ith
w a te r and a llow ed to s w e ll. When no fu r th e r s w e llin g
was re c o rd e d , the sam ples w e r e loaded in stages up to
9 to n s /s q .ft. and th e ir co n so lid a tio n c h a ra c te ris tic s
o b se rve d . I t was obs erved th a t sarrples h a ving n o m in a l
r e s t r a in t such as 0 .0 75 t o n s / s q . lt . , showed v o lu m e tric
s w e ll a fte r s a tu ra tio n o f about 19%, the s w e ll d e cre a sin g
to 13, 9, 7 and 4% u n d er r e s tra in in g loads o f 0 .5 , 1 . 0 ,
2 .0 and 4 to n s /s q .ft. re s p e c tiv e ly . W hether th is re p r e
sents the ty p ic a l w o rk in g cond itio n s of shale d u rin g
c o n s tru c tio n is ye t to be d e te rm in e d . The re s u lts of
a ty p ic a l s e rie s o f te sts a re show n in fig u re s 6 and 7.
I t was fu r th e r , noted, th a t in a ll the cases the sam ples
needed re lo a d in g (in clu d in g the in it ia l r e s tr a in in g load)
o f 8 - 9 to n s /s q . f t . to b rin g them back to the o rig in a l 0.01 01 10 10 100
vo id r a tio o r c o n d itio n of no s w e ll, a t w h ich the s a tu ra P re s s u re K g / c m 2 ( T o n s / f t . 2)
tio n was com m enced. A ll the sam ples had in it ia l
m o is tu re content between 6 and 8% and these m o is tu re F IG .7: S W E LL AND C O N S O LID A TIO N CURVE OF
contents in cre a se d to va lues between 20 and 22%, a fte r THE SH A LE A F T E R T H E S A M P L E HAS
the te s t. B E E N SA TU R A TE D UNDER A R E S T R A IN T
OF 4 T O N S /F T 2 .
103

ANNEXURE “D”
4/16
CONCLUSION
3. Felt, E . J . (1950), "Soil Seri e s N a m e s A s a B a s i s
for Interpretive Soil Classification for
L a b o r a t o r y a n d field studies o n shales h a v e b e e n
E n g i n e e r i n g p u r p o s e s , " S y m p o s i u m o n the
in p r o g r e s s for m a n y y e ars. H o w e v e r , s h a l e s a re Identification a n d Classification at Soils,
a m o n g the m o s t difficult r o c k s to analyse a n d satisfac A . S . T . M . , Sp. T e c h . P u b . N o . 113,
torily classify b e c a u s e of their g r a i n size a n d the p p . 62- 79.
c o m p l e x i t y of their m i n e r a l fraction. T h i s study
indicates that A c c r a shales m a y b e g r o u p e d into soft 4. G r i m , R . E . (1962), " C l a y M i n e r a l o g y in Relation
o r u n c e m e n t e d shales a n d h a r d o r c e m e n t e d shales a nd
to E n g i n e e r i n g P r o p e r t i e s of M i n e r a l o g y ,
that shales in e a c h of these g r o u p s could b e further M c G r a w - H i l l B o o k Co. N e w Y o r k
s e p a r a t e d into sandy, silty or clayey s h a l e s d e p e n d i n g C h a p t e r 5.
o n the particle size distribution.
5. I n g r a m , R . L . (1953), "Feasibility of M u d H o c k s " ,
T h e soft a n d h a r d s h a l e s m a y b e se p a r a t e d b y Bulletin, Geological Society at A m e r i c a ,
r u n n i n g a "wetting a n d drying" test as discussed. Vol. 64.
T h e c e m e n t e d shales h a v e relatively high er 6. N o o r a n y , I, a n d Gizienski, tj.F. (1970)-" E n g i n e e r i n g

c o m p r e s s i v e strengths nnrf higher m o d u l u s of elastic ity
P r o p e r t i e s of S u b m a r i n e Soils: State-af-the-
whilst the unceraented sh a l e s generally exhibit l o w e r Art. R e v i e w * 1, Jau. Soil M e e h . Division,
c o m p r e s s i v e strengths. P r o c . A . S . C . E . , V o l .96 N o . S M . 5,
p p .1736-1762.
T he d a t a i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s a n d y a n d s i l t y
s h a le s h a v e v e r y l i t t l e p o t e n t i a l t o s w e l l
b u t t h e c la y e y s h a le s c a n d e v e lo p s w e ll p r e s 7. P E r te r s o n ,R . (1 9 ^ 8 ), "R ebo und i n th e B e a rp a w
s u r e s v® t o 9 t o n s p e r s q u a r e f o o t . I n t h e a V Shale, W e s t e r n C a n a d a " , Bull. G e o . Soc. of
senoe o f. r e s t r a i n t th e l i n e a r s w e ll c o u ld be A m e r i c a , V o l . 69, N o .9 p p . 1113- 1123.
u p t o 1556«
8. P e t e r s o n , R . , a n d P e t e r s , N . ( 1 9 6 5 ) , lie a v e o l
T h i s study h a s b e e n a n at t e m p t to u n d e r s t a n d S p i l l w a y S t r u c t u r e s on C la y S h a le s " ,C a n a d
th e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e m a r i n e s h a l e s car A c c r a ia n G e o te a tin ic a l J o u r n a l , V o l . l , N o . l , p . 5 -1 5
an d i t i s h o p e d t h a t i n c o u r s e o f t i m e m o re
d a ta w i l l be a v a ila b le to en h an ce th e p r e s e n t
k n o w le d g e o f th e s e s h a le s . 9. P e t t i j o h n , F . J . ( 1 9 5 7 ) , " S e d im e n t a r y R o c k s "
2 n d E d . H a r p e r and B ros . New Y o r k
REFERENCES
10. S m ith ,C .K .a n d R e d lin g e r J . F . ( 1 9 5 3 ) , " S o i l
P r o p e r t i e s o f F o r t U n io n C l a y S h a le " ,
1. B j e r r u m , L. (1967), " P r o g r e s s i v e F a i l u r e in
P r o c . 3 r d I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on
S .H .F .S .Z u r ic h ,V o l.1 , p p .6 2 -6 6 .
Slopes of O v e r c o n s o l i d a t e d Plastic C l a y
a n d C l a y Shales: T h e 3r d T e r z a h i Lecture",
J o u rnal of the Soil M e c h a n i c s Division, 1 1 . U n d e rw o o d , L . B . ( 1 9 6 7 ) , " C l a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d
P r o c . A S C E , Vol. 93, N o . S M 5, pp. 1-50 I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f S h a le s " ,J o u r n a l o f th e
S o i l M e c h a n ic s D i v i s i o n , P r o c . A . S . c . E .
\ T o l . 9 3 , N o .S M .6 , p p . 9 7 - 1 1 6 .
2. D e Graft*Jo h n s on, J . W . S . , Bhatia, H . S . a nd
Gidigasu, M . D . (1967) " T h e Consolidation
a n d Sw e ll Characteristics of A c c r a Mottled
Clays", P r o c . 3r d A s i a n R e g i o n a l Conf.
S . M . F . E . , Haifa, Israel, Vol . I p p . 75- 8u.
104

ANNEXURE “E”
SkyTrain ACCRA BRT – LOOKING BACK TO LOOK FORWARD
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ANNEXURE “E”
Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift–Norwegian Journal of Geography, 2015

Vol. 69, No. 1, 28–37, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00291951.2014.992808
The bus rapid transit system in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area, Ghana:
Looking back to look forward
ERNEST AGYEMANG
Agyemang, E. 2015. The bus rapid transit system in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area, Ghana: Looking back to look forward. Norsk
Geografisk Tidsskrift–Norwegian Journal of Geography Vol. 69, 28–37. ISSN 0029-1951.
The first decade of the 21st century witnessed a proliferation of bus rapid transit systems in many cities worlwide. Successful transit
systems, especially in poor cities, have been lauded and presented as models for other cities to emulate. However, little attention has been
given to unsuccessful transit systems, even though reasons for their failures could be beneficial to poor cities planning to invest in mass
public transport. The author examines the militating factors in the demise of Ghana’s first bus rapid transit system and draws useful lessons
for the present and future. Qualitative data from interviews, surveys, and in-depth key informant interviews are analysed and presented in
thematic narratives. They are complemented with quantitative (travel time) data. The results show that recurring traffic congestion,
passengers’ inadequate comfort and personal security, resistance from existing public transport operators, lack of legal status for a bus rapid
transit (BRT) system, and limited advertising led to the collapse of the pilot system in the Greater Accra Metroplitan Area (GAMA). The
author concludes that the success of present and future BRT systems is and will be a function of multiple stakeholder consultation and
participation, privatization of day-to-day operations, promotion of multimodalism, and planning with the commuter in mind.
Downloaded by [Ernest Agyemang] at 00:15 19 February 2015
Keywords: bus rapid transit system, GAMA, Ghana, public transport, thematic narrative analysis
Ernest Agyemang, Department of Geography & Resource Development, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 59, Legon, Ghana. E-mail:
eagyemang@ug.edu.gh
Introduction The growing list of cities in developing countries that have

successfully implemented BRT systems have served as models
In many developing countries, public transport provision does not for other cities that plan to invest in similar schemes.
seem to have kept pace with the fast-growing urbanization. Thus, While successful BRT systems are often highlighted (Jeffer-
disequilibrium between increasing demand and the limited supply son 1996; Gomez 2004; World Bank 2004; Hidalgo et al. 2007;
of transport has resulted in congested central areas, poor levels of Lindau et al. 2010), studies of the socio-economic and
service from public transport operators, limited high-occupancy operational difficulties that accompany these success stories
vehicles for mass transit, increases in private car use, and traffic are often lacking (Gilbert 2008). Using illustrations from a
mixes with safety implications (Agyemang 2009; Oteng-Ababio & defunct BRT system in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area
Agyemang 2012). Consequently, urban mobility in developing (GAMA), I critically examine the socio-economic and opera-
countries is constrained by the lack of ease of accessibility to tional challenges that emerging BRT cities in developing
various parts of cities, especially for low-income earners and the countries need to address to ensure sustainable BRT operations.
vulnerable in societies, who are locked in a web of perpetual
‘transport poverty’ (UN-Habitat 2013). However, the negative
externalities associated with urban mobility in developing coun-
tries could be minimized by the establishment of the bus rapid
Literature review
transit (BRT) system, which has been credited with promoting Gilbert (2008) opines that in view of the limited success that has
social equity, environmental and atmospheric cleanliness, and accompanied mass transit options in cities of the developing
economic prosperity (IEA 2002; Wright 2002; Fouracre et al. countries, the few successful ones have received tremendous
2003; Deng & Nelson 2011). In addition, in most developing recognition. They are often seen as role models for others to
countries the paucity of resources for embarking on large-scale rail emulate without due assessment of their strengths and weak-
transit projects, such as seen in the developed world, makes the nesses. A few of these role models include Curitiba’s BRT,
BRT system a cost-effective alternative for mass transportation. which has been described as ‘the world’s cradle for bus rapid
In the developing world, the BRT concept is generally transit (BRT) [and] one of the most successful bus transit
believed to have started in Curitiba, Brazil. It is now ubiquitous systems in the Western Hemisphere’ (Lindau et al. 2010, 17).
in other South American countries, including Bogota (Colum- While Jefferson (1996) focuses extensively on the benefits of
bia) and Quito (Ecuador). In Asia, cities such as Nagoya the system, including observed flow rates of 22,000 passengers
(Japan), Taipei and Beijing (China), Bangkok (Thailand), Delhi, per hour (in each direction), Lindau et al. (2010) praise
Pune, and Hyderabad (India), Dhaka (Bangladesh), Jakarta Curitiba’s unique feat of using busway corridors to direct its
(Indonesia), and Seoul (Korea) have either introduced or are at future growth.
various stages of implementing a BRT system. Africa has not Bogota’s Transmilenio is another example of a successful
been left out of the global BRT revolution. The continent’s first BRT. Declared ‘the world’s most important urban transport
extant BRT system has been operational since March 2008 in project’ (Gilbert 2008, 443), the Transmilenio was awarded the
Lagos (Nigeria). Currently, similar schemes are being tested in Stockholm Partnership Prize in 2002, and transport authorities
Cape Town (South Africa) (Deng & Nelson 2011), and in both from 37 different countries visited it during its first five years of
Dakar (Senegal), and Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) (ITDP 2003). operation. Bogota city authorities and the World Bank touted its
© 2015 Norwegian Geographical Society

ANNEXURE “E”
NORSK GEOGRAFISK TIDSSKRIFT 69 (2015) Bus rapid transit system in Greater Accra Metropolitan Area 29
virtues all over the world (Gomez 2004; World Bank 2004; educational, industrial, and commercial hub continued to attract
Hidalgo et al. 2007). people from all over Ghana. By contrast, the city’s public
Gilbert’s (2008) critical examination of Bogota’s ‘Miracle transport has been erratic and has not responded to the
Cure’ provides rare but practical insights into the socio- urbanization trend. For example, Addo (2002) notes that until
economic and operational bottlenecks that emerging BRT cities the late 1980s, two state-owned bus companies – Omnibus
should be wary of. He notes that Bogota’s success story has not Services Authority (OSA) and City Express Service (CES) –
been without problems. Criticisms of the system range from provided frequent, safe, and comfortable intra-urban services in
‘insensitive’ increases in fares, controversies in the third-phase GAMA. However, due to rising financial losses, mismanage-
expansion, deteriorating bus stations, overcrowding and delays, ment, and stiff competition from the private sector, both of the
insecurity, to the perceived incompetence of the central execut- bus companies collapsed, which paved the way for private-
ive agency (Gilbert 2008). sector transport operations, popularly referred to as trotro.
Other studies of BRT planning and operational challenges in According to Abane (2011), trotro is a local Ghanaian
the developing countries have focused on the role of existing expression meaning ‘three pence’, which is the fare charged
transport operators, and have confirmed that addressing opposi- for local trips in trucks (known as ‘mummy trucks’) in GAMA
tion sentiments and involving existing transport operators may in the late 1950s and 1960s. Today, the word loosely refers to
go a long way to ensuring the successful planning and all vehicles engaged in commercial transport, including Nissan
subsequent execution of BRT systems. For example, in Bogota Urvans, Toyota Hiace minibuses, and the 207 series Mercedes-
the deliberate policy of involving local bus companies fostered Benz buses (Fig. 1). Fouracre et al. (1994) explains that in
both a sense of ownership among existing transport operators
GAMA the conversion of c.10,800 minibuses to intra-urban

and their willingness to cooperate with the new system (Gilbert operations due to a 1989 ban on their use for inter-urban
2008). Failure to do this could have resulted in ‘the Quito transport gave impetus to the trotro transport system. The trotro
experience’, when ‘the army’s tanks had had to intervene to operators have unionized into very powerful groups, of which
crush a strike by the bus owners who did not want to let the new the Ghana Private Road Transport Union (GPRTU) by far is the
system open’ (Ardila-Gomez 2004, 343). Similarly, the failure largest (Agyemang 2009). The trotro transport system has had a
of Johannesburg city authorities to involve South Africa’s virtual monopoly for over two decades. The trotro is readily
United Taxi Association Forum (UTAF) prior to the launch of available, accessible, convenient, and above all affordable, as
its BRT system led to a series of mass protests. Later, a BRT bus the term trotro connotes.
travelling from Soweto to the central business district was
Due to its relatively low carrying capacity of c.12–15
reportedly fired at and a passenger and policewoman were hit
passengers, a trotro may not queue for long at terminals. As
by bullets. Other individuals suspected of conniving with the
shown in Fig. 1, most trotros collect passengers en-route and
city officials in implementing the BRT system have suffered a
not necessarily at specified bus terminals. Passengers are
similar fate (Dugger 2010).
allowed to board a trotro and then pay their fare to the
I therefore concur with Hildago & Graftieaux’s (2008)
conductor, referred to in local parlance simply as the driver’s
conclusion that fear of protests and unrest has caused cities to
‘mate’. In Fig. 1, the assistant is the man wearing a sleeveless
involve incumbent public transport operators in direct negotia-
shirt. The dynamism in trotro operations, as seen in the
tions with existing operators (e.g. Mexico City, Lean, and
possibility for drivers to re-route through minor corridors or
Jakarta) or to give incumbents extra points in the bidding
even drive on road shoulders during peak hours, in addition to
processes (or to give entry barriers to outside bidders) (e.g.
allowing passengers to embark or disembark at any location of
Bogota, Pereira, Guayaquil, and Sao Paulo). It should be noted
their choice on heavily trafficked roads despite the practice
that longstanding cultural and behavioural factors may also
impede the success of BRT systems in the developing world. being illegal, are seen as advantages that have further popular-
This has been observed in the Indian city of Ahmedabad, where ized the ‘trotro culture’ in GAMA.
planning for the Janmarg BRT systems was fiercely opposed by In recent years the trotro transport system has been criticized
religious groups whose structures fell within the proposed bus by the general public for its poor operational and safety
route network (Kadri 2010). standards as well as for personal security issues during late
evening operations. Addo (2002) found that the trotro transport
unions had not been able to regulate effectively the behaviour of
their members. Thus, drivers and their assistants could be
Case study of GAMA’s transport system discourteous to passengers and other road users while knowing
Accra, Ghana’s capital since 1877, is one of the most populated very well that severe sanctions were rarely applied, even when
and fastest growing metropolises in Africa. According to the reports were made to the executive members of the unions. In
Ghana Statistical Service (2012), in 2010 the Greater Accra earlier studies, I found that some trotro drivers and their
Metropolitan Area had an estimated 3.7 million inhabitants. In assistants arbitrarily increased their fares, especially during
earlier studies, I considered that the city’s growth might be evening peak-hour journeys, after heavy downpours, or shortly
accounted for primarily by rural–urban migration in response to after an increase in the price of fuel has been announced by the
rapid industrialization and expansion in the commercial sectors authorities; very often, this resulted in violent altercations with
between 1960 and 1970 (Agyemang 2009; 2013). passengers (Agyemang 2009; 2013).
The boom in the service sector during the late 1980s and Many commuters prefer to share taxis, which may charge two
1990s led to further increases in the migratory flow of people or three times the trotro fare (Addo 2002). However, the
into GAMA. Thus, the primacy of GAMA as an administrative, proliferation of taxis has contributed to severe traffic congestion

ANNEXURE “E”
30 E. Agyemang NORSK GEOGRAFISK TIDSSKRIFT 69 (2015)

Fig. 1. A white 207-series Mercedes-Benz trotro stopping for passengers in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area
and environmental pollution in GAMA (Armstrong-Wright version of a BRT system on the 20 km ‘Kimbu–Adenta’
1989; Fouracre et al. 1994). As a social policy intervention, a highway in GAMA (shown as the first BRT line in Fig. 2).
quasi-private bus company called Metro Mass Transit Limited This functioned until 2007.
(MMTL) was established in October 2003 to offer intra-city, GAMA’s pilot BRT system was characterized by a fast, time-
intercity, and long-distance transport options to commuters to bound trip connection between the Kimbu terminal (in GAMA)
GAMA and beyond. In September 2005, the MMTL piloted its and Adenta town in the Greater Accra Region, with Tetteh
Fig. 2. The ﬁrst and proposed BRT lines within the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area

ANNEXURE “E”
Although the propriety of GAMA’s pilot BRT system may be

subject to future discussions, I have chosen to focus on factors
that militated against it as well as useful lessons that could be
learnt from its demise. The relevance of this focus is established
by Ghana’s recent adoption of an Urban Transport Project
which will introduce a pilot BRT system operating between
Accra’s business district and Kasoa in the Central Region of
Ghana.
Following the success of the pilot system in GAMA, the BRT
project will be replicated in cities across the Greater Accra
Region, Ashanti Region, and Central Region of Ghana. The
philosophical basis and regulatory framework of the new BRT
system as well as its anticipated socio-economic and environ-
mental benefits have been thoroughly elaborated elsewhere
(Nuworsoo 2006; Finn et al. 2009).
Fig. 3. A wooden kiosk (opposite a NEOPLAN bus) serving as a sales

Data and methods
point for bus rapid transit (BRT) tickets in the Greater Accra Metropol-
itan Area Qualitative data
I used primarily qualitative data from interviews, surveys, and
Quarshie acting as a central transport hub and changeover point. in-depth key informant interviews carried out in 2008 in order
Eight buses, four in each direction, were used in its daily to understand the socio-economic and operational factors that
operations in 2005. The buses were to set off from the depots at led to the collapse of GAMA’s BRT.1 Information on the day-
15-minute intervals and drivers were expected to complete each to-day operations of the express service was generated through
trip in c.45 minutes. Four more buses (two at each depot interviews with MMTL drivers and passengers who had
respectively) were reserved for use in emergency situations such participated in the pilot project. Six drivers were approached
as accidents, breakdown of ‘operational’ buses, or during peak and interviewed at two major terminals at Kimbu and Adenta
hour travels. Thus, 12 buses in total were designated for use in while their buses queued to pick up passengers. The interviews
lasted 15–25 minutes on average, depending on the time of the
the pilot BRT system. Prospective passengers were expected to
day. Passengers were also interviewed under similar circum-
buy tickets at selected ticket booths and wait for the arrival of a
stances. However, the interviews proved challenging especially
bus (Fig. 3). The Department of Urban Roads delineated the
due to distractions from excessive noise and heat in the buses.
outer lane of the ‘Kimbu–Adenta’ highway for buses only.
In order to compensate for this weakness, three student
However, compliance with the right-of-way provision was
researchers were employed to conduct a survey of the views
seldom enforced. The pilot BRT system enjoyed initial over-
of residents living in Adenta SSNIT (Social Security and
whelming success characterized by massive ridership. However,
National Insurance Trust) flats in Adenta town. The choice of
within barely two years of operation, it was replaced by a
residents in that particular housing complex for the interviews
‘regular’ service, which meant that the buses were permitted to
was informed by its unique location where all the out-bound
collect passengers en-route upon payment of fares, in common BRT trips ended. In addition, the place is inhabited mostly by
with trotro operators. In view of the above description of the public and civil servants, students, business people, and market
key operational characteristics of the mass transit in GAMA, the women who were the main target group of the pilot BRT
description BRT system’ may seem inappropriate or even system. The survey was designed to reveal information on the
misleading because a ‘proper’ BRT system operates an ‘inte- socio-economic and commuting characteristics of respondents,
grated system of facilities, services, amenities, operations, and their expectations of the service, and the reasons for its collapse.
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) improvements that are In total, 30 MMTL passengers were interviewed. Registered
designed to improve performance, attractiveness to passengers, socio-economic characteristics of the survey respondents
image, and identity’ (Levinson et al. 2002, 1). included gender, educational level attained, employment status,
Furthermore, several of the main components of a ‘proper’ and age. The study did not consider the income status of
BRT, as identified in Levinson et al. (2003), the Canadian respondents due to the assumption that given the highly-
Urban Transit Association (2004), and Deng & Nelson (2011), subsidized low fares charged by the BRT service affordability
such as dedicated bus lanes, enhanced shelters, and the would not have been a determinant of a resident’s decision as to
application of ITS technologies are not present in GAMA’s whether to patronize the service.
BRT. However, according to the IEA (2002), communities Among the respondents, 18 were female (60%) and 12 (40%)
should be able to customize the building of a rapid transit were male. In terms of educational attainment, 2 (7%) of the
system that meets their needs and funds. Thus, the extent of respondents claimed they had not received any formal educa-
dedicated infrastructure and the level of sophistication of tion, 3 (10%) had received basic-level education, 10 (33%) had
different systems may vary considerably. received upper secondary school education, and 15 (50%) had

ANNEXURE “E”
received some tertiary education. Thus, the sample population system in GAMA. Views shared by the managers of the MMTL
may be considered to have an educational bias. bus company related to poor fuel consumption patterns and an
Regarding employment status, 3 (10%) of the respondents unsustainable vehicle maintenance regime that due to traffic
claimed they were unemployed while 8 (27%) claimed they congestion characterized the entire BRT operations. The fre-
were still attending school. A total of 8 (27%) respondents quent wear and tear and technical failures of the BRT buses
claimed they were self-employed, while 11 (36%) stated that appeared to raise the total overhead costs of maintaining them to
they were government workers. In terms of age, the respondents the extent that the management found it increasingly difficult to
were asked to identify with pre-determined age groupings. In meet their outgoings:
total, 4 (13%) respondents were under 20 years of age, while 6
(20%) fell within the 21–30 years age group, 9 (30%) belonged When the buses are locked up in the corridor due to traffic
congestion, they waste a lot of time and burn fuel inefficiently. This
to the 31–40 years age group, and 8 (27%) were between 41
affects both the operational and total costs of the company. (MMTL
and 50 years of age. Only 3 respondents (10%) were above the official)
age of 50 years. In addition to the surveys, information on the
policy, planning, and management of the pilot BRT system was The Yaxing buses that were primarily used for the pilot BRTS
obtained through in-depth key informant interviews with a frequently developed technical faults, especially with the clutches due
public transport policymaker, a transport development expert, to the delays associated with traffic congestion. Of course, this also
exposes the weakness of the buses that were used for the project but it
and to two senior-level MMTL officials.
would not have occurred in the first place if there was no incidence of
The results of the surveys and in-depth interviews were traffic congestion in that corridor. At some point in time, it was
subjected to thematic narrative analysis and presented with the
realized that there was so much congestion that it became natural that
help of direct quotes. Thematic narratives have been used there was no pilot BRTS. (MMTL official)
extensively in psychology and in other disciplines as a method
for identifying, analysing, and reporting patterns (i.e. themes) I also found that the unpredictability of traffic conditions in the
within data. The method organizes and describes a data set in corridor made it almost impossible for the managers to
detail, and can also be used to interpret the data (Boyatzis 1998; effectively plan and adhere to trip schedules. Without the aid
Braun & Clarke 2006). of tracking devices such as GPS and traffic cameras to provide
real-time data, the managers faced an uphill struggle to maintain
regular schedules.
Quantitative data The results from the quantitative data confirm that the
observed mean travel times, irrespective of the time of day,
In order to complement the qualitative data, quantitative data
exceeded the allotted 45 minute per leg originally proposed by
were generated through a traditional stopwatch and traffic
the bus company (Table 1). This means that the total travel time
congestion registration technique. This used a geographic
for each time of the day was significantly different from the
information system (GIS) and Global Positioning Systems
allotted travel time of 45 minutes (morning t (39) = 8.49, p <
(GPS) to map prevailing traffic conditions by recording the
0.05; afternoon t (39) = 11.45, p < 0.05; evening t (39) = 6.90,
time it took an MMTL bus to travel between the start and end
p < 0.05). It could then be deduced that the buses spent more
nodes of each route segment on the Kimbu–Adenta highway.
than 45 minutes on average per trip.
These geographically referenced nodes marked the location of
Table 2 shows that at the significance level of 0.05, travel
bus stops used in the pilot BRT project.
time per period of the day (i.e. morning, afternoon, and
Travel time data were recorded during the ‘a.m. peak’
evening) and direction (i.e. from the central business district
(morning), ‘off-peak’ (midday), and ‘p.m. peak’ (late afternoon)
(CBD) in Kimbu to Adenta town and vice versa) were
on weekdays with different MMTL drivers in order to avoid the
statistically different, with mean travel times exceeding the
risk of being unduly influenced by a particular driver’s driving
allotted travel time of 45 minutes per trip. The only exception
style, as suggested by Taylor et al. (2000). With 6 trips made
was in the evening, when the transit buses travelled from
daily continuously for one month, a total number of 120 trips
Adenta town to the CBD (t (19) = 2.03, p = ns). Thus, it was
were made. The cumulative travel data were subjected to
possible to have a situation where a BRT bus, for example
statistical analysis to determine whether the mean of a single
‘Number 1’, crawled in a traffic jam and ended up picking all
variable differed from a specified constant using the bus
prospective passengers who should have boarded bus ‘Number
company’s 45 minutes per leg policy as the test value at a
2’ instead. While the first bus would have been overcrowded
confidence interval of 95%. For each of the test variables, the
with passengers, the second bus would have followed virtually
mean and standard deviation were calculated. In the next
section, the results of the analysis are discussed under various
themes to identify the factors that jointly hindered the imple- Table 1. Mean travel times in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area
mentation of Ghana’s first BRT sytem. according to the time of day
Mean travel
time Standard
Results Time of day (minutes) deviation df T P-value
Effects of traffic congestion Morning 72 20 39 8.49 0.00

Afternoon 65 11.19 39 11.45 0.00
The study revealed that peak-hour recurring traffic congestion Evening 69 21.89 39 6.9 0.00
stifled the initial progress and success achieved in the pilot BRT

ANNEXURE “E”
Table 2. Mean travel times according to the time of day and direction travelled by buses between the central business district (CBD) in Kimbu (Greater
Accra Metropolitan Area) and Adenta town (Greater Accra Region) (Source: field survey data)
Time of day Buses’ direction of travel N Mean travel time (minutes) Standard deviation T Sig. (2-tailed)
Morning CBD–Adenta 20 57 8.00 6.43 0.000
Adenta–CBD 20 87 16.15 11.69 0.000
Afternoon CBD–Adenta 20 66 11.90 7.83 0.000
Adenta–CBD 20 65 10.72 8.26 0.000
Evening CBD–Adenta 20 86 11.85 15.62 0.000
Adenta–CBD 20 51 14.02 2.03 0.057
empty or in extreme cases would have completed the trip with A friend of mine narrated her ordeal on one of those trips when she
an empty bus. was sandwiched between two male passengers. It was terrible. She
The following comments from a commuter are representative swore afterwards never to use that soloku [overcrowded] bus again!
(Student and commuter)
of passengers’ initial enthusiasm for an improved transit service
and the disappointment that followed due to congestion: When they introduced the special buses for those of us in Adenta, my
friends and I saw it as a blessing as we no longer had to be at the
I only used the Kufuor bus [MMTL buses] in the mornings and mercy of trotro drivers and their rude mates. After a while, we
afternoons when travelling to Accra [business district] as they moved realized that it was no longer interesting to use the buses. After a hard
a lot faster but in the evenings I preferred to use the trotro instead. ... day’s work in the sun, you will be so tired that you cannot afford to
The trotro can use the lungu-lungu ways [unapproved routes through travel back home while standing, sometimes among young men. Who
residential areas] and in no time you can get to your destination. knows what can happen to you? (Petty trader and commuter)
(Petty trader and commuter)
The findings from the above quotes concur with earlier studies
The unwillingness of passengers to patronize BRT services for that attributed the decline in ridership of Bogota’s Transmilineo
evening peak trips due to delays could be a major reason for the to passengers’ perception of insecurity, risk of theft, and
failure of the pilot project. This finding resonates with earlier overcrowding, among other factors (Gilbert 2008).
studies by Nuworsoo (2006) and Abane (2011), who found that
high levels of delays and inability to maintain any semblance of
a regular schedule accounted for the limited success of high
Resistance from existing public transport operators
occupancy buses (as used for the pilot BRT operations) in
GAMA. Alternatively, congestion might have proved advant- MMTL in general and the pilot BRT system in particular
ageous for the bus company over their competitors: emerged in GAMA at a time when private transport operators
had enjoyed decades of a virtual monopoly. A critical obstacle
During peak hours, many prospective passengers are stranded due to
that needed to be overcome by MMTL was how to break that
the fact that most of the trotro drivers use shortcuts [unapproved
monopoly effectively, especially in the light of several unortho-
routes through residential areas] instead of the main corridor. Owing
to their limited carrying capacity, the few commercial vehicles that dox tactics employed by the private transport operators to
opt to remain in the main corridor cannot accommodate extra sabotage its efforts. A representative of the management of the
passengers besides their maximum carrying capacity. As such, these bus company said:
passengers will clamour for any available space in the express buses
even if that will demand that they stand in the buses for the whole Some trotro drivers deliberately slow down or stop in the middle of
duration of the journey. By contrast, when there is no congestion moving traffic to fetch passengers or allow them to alight. When
these same passengers prefer to board the trotros because of their traffic jams exist, they usually drive on the shoulders of the road for a
small sizes and the ability of their drivers to involve in all sorts of while, then suddenly they forcefully and quickly join the mainstream
illegalities to beat traffic [queues]. (MMTL driver) traffic flow again, resulting in occasional crashes with our buses.
(MMTL official)
The acts of gross indiscipline exhibited by the majority of trotro

Passengers’ perception of comfort and safety on buses drivers have been the subject of earlier discussions (Oppong
2000; Addo 2005). However, most trotro drivers perceive the
The significance of the passengers’ perceptions of comfort, MMTL as belonging to the government (abandea in the local
safety, and convenience on buses cannot be overemphasized. parlance). Agyeman-Duah (1987, 614–615) states that govern-
The study revealed that their perceptions were a function of ment property ‘can be stolen, abused or destroyed with no direct
gender. While most males were simply ‘extra alert to not to fall consequences. The government is still considered to be a
victim to potential pickpockets’, females would have avoided foreign entity, and too many people feel no compunction or
riding on a bus if they had a choice: obligation to protect its property or services’.
I used to enjoy the express service to Legon [University of Ghana] Furthermore, the success of the MMTL is seen as a direct
campus. However, on many occasions, especially in the late after- threat to the revenue base of the private transport operators. I
noons, the bus becomes overcrowded to the extent that we are packed found that some trotro drivers and their assistants deliberately
up like sardines … you just have to be extra alert not to fall victim to launched what may be conveniently described as psychological
potential pickpockets. (Student and commuter) warfare against passengers who patronized the pilot BRT system:

ANNEXURE “E”
I used to enjoy the quality services introduced by the Kufuor bus. It I can vividly recount several instances when my colleague drivers and
even got better when they introduced the express service. However, it I have been at the receiving end of unprintable insults from aggrieved
was very frustrating to listen to comments like ‘misers’, ‘cheap side’ passengers who felt we needed to stop exactly at a location of their
and ‘One-One Thousand’ [the subsidized bus fare of 1000 Ghana choice … but I was only doing my job. (MMTL driver)
Cedis, equivalent to USD 0.05 per trip in 2005] from trotro drivers
anytime they saw you walk pass them to patronize the big buses. I am a trader who buys goods in bulk from Agbogloshie and
Kantamanto [markets] for retail. When I get to my destination, I
(Teacher and commuter)
expect the drivers to at least consider my heavy luggage and allow me
The unpleasant repercussions of being tagged as miserly or to stop close to my shop. If the driver decides to take me to the next
‘cheap side’ could be best understood when put into the stop, how does he expect me to carry my heavy load back to the
shop? (Petty trader and commuter)
Ghanaian context, in which ‘cheap’ items are perceived as
inferior and of low quality. Thus, the extent to which these Many of us who use the Kufuor bus are petty traders and market
statements might have contributed to the dwindling ridership women. However, you have to beg them [the conductors] to help you
and subsequent collapse of the pilot BRT system in GAMA is offload your luggage. Some of them were so rude, especially when
clear. your luggage is a bit heavy. (Trader and commuter)
Adequate user surveys had not been conducted prior to the pilot
BRT system. Such surveys could have assisted the MMTL to
Lack of facilities at bus stops serve the individual needs of users. The responses from the
aggrieved passengers highlighted the lack of understanding by
The study revealed that the lack of facilities to ensure the
commuters of a time-bound BRT service and how they could

convenience and comfort of prospective passengers also use it. Moreover, the unwillingness of BRT drivers and
contributed to making the BRT service an unattractive option. conductors to assist passengers, especially traders to offload
However, no arrangements were made by the bus company to their luggage, may have had the undesired effect of dissuading
provide shelters against the vagaries of the weather for them from patronizing the buses. This favoured trotro operators,
passengers at the main BRT terminal at Kimbu, nor were whose conductors were perceived as more helpful in offloading
any seats provided for prospective passengers to sit on while heavy luggage.
awaiting the arrival of buses. Thus, having to queue under the The findings reinforce the belief that Ghanaians have
baking sun for buses that had erratic arrival times must have generally become accustomed to the trotro culture, as found in
tempted most prospective passengers to opt for a trotro an earlier study by Abane (2011), who explains the continuous
instead: dominance of the GPRTU in the country partly by the proximity
of trotro terminals to the homes (and shops) of commuters. It
They asked us to buy tickets and wait for a little while. However, the
should be pointed out that the continuous dominance of the
buses could be delayed ... mostly in the late afternoons but sometimes
in the mornings as well. Unfortunately, there were no seats to sit on GPRTU and the trotro operations in GAMA is not a function of
while waiting. So if you got tired what did you do? You advised the quality of service delivery or the safety and comfort
yourself! (Civil servant and commuter) afforded to passengers. The informal public transport operators
simply serve as ‘gap fillers’ (Cervero 1998) following decades
Since the pilot BRT system was characterized by irregular of neglect by the state to provide formal public transport for
schedules, there was a need for some sort of shelter for clients urban dwellers. Thus, their dominance is explained primarily by
who chose to wait. This would have made the BRT service an the absence of better alternative transport modes. In recent
attractive transport option for commuters. years, the use of motorcycle taxis, locally referred to as okada,
has surfaced to help to fill in the gap between the demand and
supply of public transportation.
Overcoming the trotro hail-and-ride and rerouting
culture
The study showed that some passengers did not fully under-
Inadequate publicity for the BRT project
stand the BRT policy of stopping only at designated bus stops. The study revealed that the limited publicity and advertisement
The disparity between this service and the consumers’ expecta- in printed and electronic media to herald the official launch of
tion of a flexible door-to-door service experienced when using the pilot BRT project could have contributed to much of the
the trotro occasionally led to fierce arguments between the misunderstandings and frustrations of passengers. This factor
drivers and their passengers: could also have accounted for the operational difficulties faced
by the bus crews:
The drivers and their mates occasionally fight with passengers,
especially when the latter insist on alighting at locations that are A public launch was done to highlight the pilot BRTS to the people of
convenient for them. This bad attitude made some of us lose interest Accra [GAMA]. Besides this, no major advertisements were done in
in using the Kufuor bus. (Student and commuter) the printed and electronic media. It is therefore reasonable to expect
that most passengers were oblivious as to what that particular service
The following comments from a bus driver and two aggrieved was all about, their rights and responsibilities as passengers, as well
female passengers further highlight the conflicts that character- as other operational characteristics such as the arrival and departure
ized the strict adherence to the ‘station–terminal only’ policy times of the pilot BRTS buses and the approved bus terminals.
practised by the drivers of the pilot BRT system: (MMTL official)

ANNEXURE “E”
Given the BRT system’s unique operational features, the large tracts of lands referred to as ‘customary lands’, which are
importance of adequately informing the travelling public, who owned by local chiefs, families, or clans. Customary lands are
were generally used to the trotro operations, could have proven usually sold freehold to private individuals (Brobby 1991; Larbi
useful in ensuring the success of the BRT service: 1994; Odame 1996). Thus, in order to avoid any conflicts, city
authorities have had to pay huge amounts of compensation to
The average Ghanaian traveller may have become used to the so- private property owners whose properties are demolished to
called ‘trotro culture’ of boarding and disembarking at his or her
make way for road constructions or expansions. The huge
doorstep regardless of the inconvenience it causes other road users.
compensation costs usually discourage the state from accessing
Therefore, adequate publicity and education of the travelling public is
needed to change that attitude. Regarding the pilot BRTS, it appears credit facilities from the World Bank and other donors to start
the publicity was just not enough. (Transport planning expert) the construction of new roads or to expand existing ones.
Lack of an enabling environment Difficulties in day-to-day operations
A number of exogenous factors conspired against the successful While MMTL’s managers and drivers tried their best to
implementation of GAMA’s first BRT system. The first factor maintain a quality service to their patrons, it appears that
was the lack of any legislative instrument or bye-laws to ensure inevitable human errors might have undermined the pilot BRT
utmost protection for exclusive use of the busway by BRT project. Such errors included occasional delays in the managers
system buses. As noted in the following quote from a transport issuing tickets to the drivers, inadequate monitoring, arriving
official, the simple act of a quasi-private bus company putting a late for work, driver’s failure to comply with new BRT rules,
number of buses in a corridor and naming it the ‘BRT system’ and the poor driving attitude of some drivers:
may not necessarily have rendered it as such: The Adenta project [pilot BRT system] collapsed due to delays at the
[company’s] head office in the issuance of tickets for the smooth
My department was only tasked to mark some segments of the
conduct of business. Again, monitoring and supervision of the service
Kimbu–Adenta highway as ‘bus only’. However, without recourse to
were just not adequate. I must admit that a few of us [drivers and
any legislative instrument, it meant that the traffic police could not
conductors] occasionally reported late for work. (MMTL driver)
intervene to ensure strict compliance of the ROW [right of way]
directive by other motorists. Therefore, it was only a matter of time My problem with the whole arrangement was our inability to pick up
before the so-called ‘pilot BRTS’ collapsed. (Public transport official) passengers simply because they stood at the ‘wrong’ place. (MMTL
driver)
Besides the lack of legal status for the service, the assertion by the
public transport official highlights another important finding, Some of us opted to allow passengers to board [at the ‘wrong’ places]
which is the inadequate coordination among different actors in so that they could pay the conductors later when the buses reached
public transport delivery in the city. In order to ensure the success the designated ticket booths. However, management disapproved of
this due to allegations of theft of funds [by drivers]. (MMTL driver)
of a BRT, the cooperation among various actors, including
policymakers, city authorities, law enforcement agencies, tech- Some of our drivers did not drive fuel-efficiently enough and they
nocrats, researchers, and bus operators is required. Hence, the caused many avoidable accidents. Occasionally, some of them
failure to bring all of these actors on-board might have pilfered funds. We therefore set up the Inspection Unit within the
contributed to the demise of the pilot BRT system in GAMA. Internal Audit Department to randomly check the driving crews as
The second and third exogenous factors relate to limited well as to inspect the tickets of passengers to ensure their validity.
(MMTL official)
investments in transportation infrastructural development and
poor spatial planning in GAMA. The boom in car ownership in Furthermore, more recently the extent of corruption and embez-
GAMA since the 1980s, when Ghana adopted neoliberal zlement of funds involving workers and officials of the MMTL
policies (Yeboah 2000; 2003; Grant 2009), has not been in appears to have increased considerably (Daily Graphic 2013a;
tandem with investments in transport infrastructure. As a 2013b; Ghana Today 2013). While the arrest of culprits may
consequence, GAMA’s road network is woefully inadequate to suggest that perhaps the proactive measures put in place by
ensure enough driving space for its existing fleet. This has been MMTL are yielding dividends, it also suggests the extent to which
compounded by the lack of east and west corridors (Tamakloe the diversion of large amounts of monies into private pockets
1993; Addo 2002). Therefore, any policy that seeks to limit might have contributed to the demise of the BRT system and the
motorists’ access to portions of the existing road network generally abysmal performance of the MMTL in recent years.
marked as a right of way (ROW) exclusively for BRT system
buses would require more than just the presence of the traffic
police to ensure compliance, especially during peak hours. In Towards a successful bus rapid transit system: lessons
order not to inconvenience other motorists, the city authorities from the past
need to invest in the construction of extra lanes. However, due
to GAMA’s present poor spatial planning system occasioned The purpose of my study was to provide useful insights into
primarily by the lack of complete ownership of lands by the how to ensure a successful BRT system in poor cities that are
state, the construction or expansion of roads have been daunting planning to implement a BRT. In order to achieve this, I placed
tasks. While the state has compulsorily acquired portions of emphasis on factors that led to the demise of Ghana’s first BRT
land known as ‘state lands’ and also exercised management project, which was introduced by MMTL. The results showed
functions over other lands known as ‘vested lands’, there are that recurring traffic congestion, passengers’ perceptions of

ANNEXURE “E”
inadequate comfort and personal security, resistance from Toilets and limited retail facilities could be introduced within
existing public transport operators, lack of a legal status for the main bus terminals, depending on the availability of funds.
BRT, and limited advertising led to the collapse of the pilot PA (public address) systems and LED (light-emitting diode)
BRT project in GAMA. In the light of this finding, I displays providing travel information in both English and other
recommend that a number of changes are made, primarily languages spoken in Ghana would prove useful for informing and
targeted at BRT policymakers and city authorities in Ghana, educating travellers, and promoting the BRT system in Ghana.
although stakeholders in other jurisdictions could benefit from In addition to refresher courses on defensive driving, drivers of
them too. future BRT buses should have good customer-relations skills. A
I recommend that local city authorities need to be adequately deliberate policy should be in place to properly care for the safety
empowered to pass and enforce laws that will guarantee the and comfort of the vulnerable in society, including women,
exclusive use of ROW by licensed BRT operators. There is also children, the elderly, and those who are physically challenged. In
a need to provide the traffic police unit with adequate resources order to encourage patronage by the vulnerable in society and to
to enforce strict compliance with the ROW, especially during address properly their ‘transport poverty’, there is a need to
peak-hour trips. This should ensure that the BRT buses comply integrate and promote non-motorized transport (NMT). Dedic-
with trip schedules, as there will be no traffic congestion to ated pedestrian walkways and bicycle lanes should be provided
delay their movements. as an integral component of the BRT system. This would not only
promote ease of access for the majority of people who are already
Further, I recommend that existing transport operators in
used to walking, but in addition to the health benefits they would
Ghana, notably the GPRTU, need to be incorporated in the
derive, GAMA would benefit from reduced energy use, minim-
planning and implementation of the BRT system in a form of

ization of greenhouse gas emissions, and significant pollution
private-public partnership to ensure the smooth take-off of the
reduction, which would enhance the sustainability of the urban
project. To this end, the government could assist them in
environment. To this end, adequate measures should be put in
procuring soft banks loans to buy new high-occupancy buses
place to prevent recalcitrant traders from encroaching on pave-
for use in the new pilot BRT project. In addition, the public
ments meant for NMT, and adequate lighting and security should
sector should build and maintain infrastructure for use of the be provided for the users.
service. Beyond this, it is crucial to ensure that the actual day-
to-day operation of the BRT system is organized by the private
transport operators while the appropriate state agencies at the
district assembly level plan and supervise the project. Earlier Note
studies of the positive effects of involvement of existing 1 With the exception of the quotes from MMTL officials, the transport planning
operators support this assertion (Ardila-Gomez 2004; Gilbert expert, and the public transport official, I was responsible for translating all of
2008; Hildago & Graftieaux 2008; Dugger 2010). The involve- the quotes from interviewees.
ment of existing operators would not only ease needless

Acknowledgements. – I thank Associate Professor Sigal Kaplan, of the Department
tensions, but also foster a sense of ownership among drivers of Transport, Technical University of Denmark, for her initial comments on this
and would ultimately ensure optimum work output. I also article. Thanks are also due to the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive
recommend that operators of the service should be paid criticisms.
according to the distances they travel rather than passenger
volume. This would ensure adequate motivation for drivers,
Manuscript submitted 6 February 2014; accepted 16 June 2014
balanced distribution of bus routes, and compliance with
Editors: Ragnhild Lund, Catriona Turner, Michael Jones
planned trip schedules to avoid delays. Further, while the
operators earn an operating profit, the government may also
provide limited subsidies to maintain low fares for commuters.
In the case of GAMA, in order to avoid unhealthy competi- References
tion between the BRT system and the remaining trotro Abane, A.M. 2011. Travel behaviour in Ghana: Empirical observations from four
operators, it should be possible to create a multimodal system metropolitan areas. Journal of Transport Geography 19, 313–322.
of main and feeder lines in densely settled districts and in the Addo, S.T. 2002. Provision of urban transport services in Accra. http://www.
ssatp.org/en/publication/provision-urban-transport-services-accra (accessed
more dispersed areas of GAMA. While the main lines are November 2014).
served by the former, the latter could concentrate on collecting Addo, S.T. 2005. Urban transport in Ghana and Africa: Problems and solutions.
passengers on the feeder lines. This would provide a versatile Journal of the Ghana Geographical Association 24, 104–109.
form of public transportation with the added flexibility of Agyemang, E. 2009. Traffic Congestion: The Bane of a Bus Rapid Transit System
catering for various access needs and an unlimited range of in Accra, Ghana? Mphil thesis. Trondheim: Norwegian University of Science
and Technology.
locations throughout GAMA.
Agyemang, E. 2013. Traffic Congestion & Public Transport in Ghana: A
Finally, in order to attract and maintain high levels of Triangulated Analysis. [Saarbrücken]: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing.
ridership, sustained and massive advertisements in printed and Agyeman-Duah, B. 1987. Ghana, 1982–6: The politics of the P.N.D.C. Journal of
electronic media are required. Related to this, initial test rides Modern African Studies 25, 613–642.
could be offered freely to commuters as a feedback mechanism Ardila-Gomez, A. 2004. Transit Planning in Curitiba and Bogota: Roles in
Interaction, Risk and Change. Doctoral dissertation. Cambridge, MA: Depart-
to improve service quality. Later on, passengers could be ment of Urban Studies and Planning, MIT.
charged single fares to travel seamlessly throughout the entire Armstrong-Wright, A. 1989. Accra Urban Transport Options Study (AUTOS).
BRT system. Accra: Ministry of Transport and Communications.

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Boyatzis, R.E. 1998. Transforming Qualitative Information: Thematic Analysis Jefferson, C. 1996. Improving access by public transport. Landscape and Urban
and Code Development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Planning 35, 173–179.
Braun, V. & Clarke, V. 2006. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Kadri, M. 2010. People’s Way: Urban Mobility in Ahmedabad. The Design
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Brobby, K.W. 1991. Improving Land Delivery Systems for Shelter. Land Policy (accessed 5 May 2013).
Consultancy report. Accra: Government of Ghana, UNDP, and HABITAT. Larbi, W.O. 1994. Urban Land Policies and the Delivery of Developable Land in
Cervero, R. 1998. Paratransit: The gap fillers. Habitat Debate 4(2), 8–9. Ghana. PhD thesis. Reading: Department of Land Management and Develop-
Daily Graphic. 2013a. Five allegedly embezzle GhC 2.5 M at Metro Mass Transit. ment, University of Reading.
12 June 2013. Levinson, H.S., Zimmerman, S., Clinger, J. & Rutherford, S. 2002. Bus rapid
Daily Graphic. 2013b. Help eliminate corruption – metro mass workers told. 5 transit: An overview. Journal of Public Transport 5(2), 1–30.
July 2013. http://graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/8318.help-eliminate-cor Levinson, H., Zimmerman, S., Clinger, J., Gast, J., Rutherford, S. & Bruhn, E.
ruption.metro-mass-workers-told.html (accessed 28 April 2014). 2003. Bus Rapid Transit: Implementation Guidelines, Vol. 2. Transit
Deng, T. & Nelson, J. 2011. Recent developments in bus rapid transit: A review of Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Report 90. Washington, D.C.: Trans-
the literature. Transport Reviews 31, 69–96. portation Research Board of the National Academies.
Dugger, C.W. 2010. A bus system reopens rifts in South Africa. The New York Lindau, L.A., Hidalgo, D. & Facchini, D 2010. Bus rapid transit in Curitiba,
Times, 21 February 2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/22/world/africa/ Brazil: A look at the outcome after 35 years of bus-oriented development.
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Finn, B., Abeiku-Arthur, B. & Gyamera, S. 2009. New regulatory framework for Nuworsoo, C. 2006. New public transit system for Accra, Ghana. Focus: Journal
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ANNEXURE “F”
SkyTrain AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT FUND - GHANA URBAN
TRANSPORT PROJECT
AFRICAN DEVELOPEMNT FUND
PROJECT: ACCRA URBAN TRANSPORT PROJECT

Public Disclosure Authorized
PROJECT APPRAISAL REPORT

PROJECT: ACCRA URBAN TRANSPORT PROJECT (AUTP)
COUNTRY: GHANA
COUNTRY: GHANA
Public Disclosure Authorized
PROJECT APPRAISAL REPORT

(AUTP)
OITC/GHFO
September 2016

ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I – STRATEGIC THRUST & RATIONALE ............................................................................ 1

1.1. Project linkages with country strategy and objectives .................................................... 1
1.2. Rationale for Bank’s involvement .................................................................................. 2
1.3. Donors coordination ....................................................................................................... 2
II – PROJECT DESCRIPTION ................................................................................................. 3
2.1. Development Objectives and Project components ......................................................... 3
2.2. Technical solution retained and other alternatives explored .......................................... 4
2.3. Project type ..................................................................................................................... 4
2.4. Project cost and financing arrangements ........................................................................ 4
2.5. Project’s target area and population................................................................................ 6
2.6. Participatory Process for Project Design and Implementation…………………………6
2.7. Bank Group experience, lessons reflected in project design .......................................... 7
2.8. Key performance indicators ........................................................................................... 8
III – PROJECT FEASIBILITY ................................................................................................. 8
3.1. Economic and financial performance ............................................................................. 8
3.2. Environmental and Social impacts ................................................................................. 9
IV – IMPLEMENTATION...................................................................................................... 12
4.1. Implementation arrangements....................................................................................... 12
4.2. Monitoring .................................................................................................................... 13
4.3. Governance……………………………………………………………………………14
4.4. Sustainability ................................................................................................................ 15
4.5. Risk management .......................................................................................................... 15
4.6. Knowledge building ...................................................................................................... 16
V – LEGAL INSTRUMENTS AND AUTHORITY............................................................... 16
5.1. Legal instrument ........................................................................................................... 16
VI – RECOMMENDATION ................................................................................................... 17
Appendix I. Ghana’s comparative socio-economic indicators ...................................................I

Appendix II. Table of ADB’s portfolio in Ghana December 2015 .......................................... II
Appendix III. Key related projects financed by the Bank and other DPs in the Country ........ III
Appendix IV. Map of the Project Area ....................................................................................IV
Appendix V: Alternative Schemes Explored ............................................................................ V

ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
Currency Equivalents
As of August 2016
1 UA = 1.39884 USD
1 UA = 5.3893 GHS
1 USD = 3.85269 GHS
Fiscal Year
January 1 – December 31
Weights and Measures

1 metric tonne = 2204 pounds (lbs)
1 kilogramme (kg) = 2.200 lbs
1 metre (m) = 3.28 feet (ft)
1 millimetre (mm) = 0.03937 inch (“)
1 kilometre (km) = 0.62 mile
1 hectare (ha) = 2.471 acres
Acronyms and Abbreviations

AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic GRF Ghana Road Fund
ADB (AfDB) African Development Bank GWCL Ghana Water Company Limited
ADF African Development Fund HDM Highway Development Model
AFD Agence Francaise de Developpment ICB International Competitive Bidding
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
APA Advance Procurement Action KOICA Korea International Cooperation Agency
ARDP Arterial Road Development Programme MCC Millennium Challenge Corporation
BECE Basic Education Certificate Examamination MLGRD Ministry of Local Government and Rural
BRT Bus Rapid Transit MoF Ministry of Finance
BOQ Bill of Quantities MRH Ministry of Roads and Highways
CBD Central Business District (Accra) NCB National Competitive Bidding
DFR Department of Feeder Roads NMT Non-Motorised Traffic
DPs Development Partners NRSC National Road Safety Commission
DUR Department of Urban Roads PA Per Annum
E&S Environment and Social PAR Project Appraisal Report
ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States PBA Point Based Allocation
EIRR Economic Internal Rate of Return PIM Project Implementation Manual
EPA Environmental Protection Agency PCN Project Concept Note
ESAL Equivalent Standard Axle Load PCU Project Coordination Unit
ESIA Environmental and Social Impact Assessment RSDP Road Sector Development Programme
ESMP Environmental and Social Management Plan SECO State Secretariat for Economic Affairs (Switzerland)
EU The Commission of European Union TCP Department of Town and Country Planning
GAMA Greater Accra Metropolitan Area TSDP Transport Sector Development Programme
FYRR First Year Rate of Return TSG Transport Sector Group
GDP Gross Domestic Product UA Unit of Account
GEPA Ghana Environmental Protection Agency VOC Vehicle Operating Costs
GHA Ghana Highway Authority WB World Bank
GHS Ghana Cedi (new)
GOG Government of Ghana

ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
Loan Information
Client’s information
BORROWER: REPUBLIC OF GHANA
EXECUTING AGENCY: DEPARTMENT OF URBAN ROADS

MINISTRY OF ROADS & HIGHWAYS
Financing plan
Source Amount (UA) million Instrument
ADF-13 UA60.00 Loan
Government of Ghana (GoG) UA8.024 Counterpart contribution (12%)
TOTAL COST UA68.024
ADF’s key financing information
Loan currency Unit of Account (UA)

Interest type fixed
Interest rate 1%
50 bps of the undisbursed loan amount 120 days following
Commitment fee
signature of the Loan Agreement
service charge - 75bps on amount disbursed and
Other fees*
outstanding
Tenor 30 years
Grace period 5 years
NPV (base case) USD16.24 million
EIRR (base case) 28%
Timeframe - Main Milestones (expected)
Project Concept Note approval 25th May, 2015

Country Team 14th March 2016
Negotiations 20th September 2016
Project approval by ADF 28th September, 2016
Loan Agreement Signing October, 2016
Effectiveness October, 2016
Last Disbursement June, 2021
Completion July, 2020
Last repayment December, 2051
ii

ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
PROJECT SUMMARY
Project Overview
1. Ghana’s economy has successfully transitioned from Low Income to Lower Middle-
Income status. As part of the transition process, the country is facing new and more complex
development challenges; one of which is the challenge posed by rapid urbanization. In
2010, over half of Ghana’s population lived in urban areas. The urbanisation rate is
projected to increase to 72% by 2035 and Accra which has the smallest land size in the
Country’s regions, has the highest population density of 1,235.8 persons/km2. Ghana’s
challenges as a result of rapid urbanization include inadequate infrastructure and services,
uncontrolled urban sprawl, rise of slums and squatter settlements, poor sanitation, flooding as
registered in the June 2015 flood disaster with associated risks to health and productivity (e.g.
the recent cholera outbreak), and increased social, economic and environmental deterioration.
Inadequate inner city and intra-city connectivity have resulted in congestion, long travel times,
significant fuel use and hikes in land prices. The Government of Ghana and Development
Partners in the country are supporting various interventions in Ghana’s urban areas particularly
in the Greater Accra region to ensure integrated and sustainable spatial development,
coordination and planning.
2. This Project, the Accra Urban Transport Project (AUTP), is located in an industrial
zone in the north-eastern part of Accra and seeks to contribute towards integrated
transport and urban development solutions in Accra. The Project provides: i) a modern 3-
tier grade-separated interchange at Pokuase (the intersection point of the current Bank financed
Awoshie-Pokuase Road with other adjoining roads) - a node which is currently a critical
missing link; ii) a long term urban development strategic plan in partnership with Cities
Alliance and the local municipalities to provide a common platform to develop integrated and
collaborative decision making tools for city planning and management in support of the SDGs;
and iii) capacity building initiatives targeting the Executing Agency, schools and the local
community, geared towards improving effectiveness in project and business development using
Information Technology.
3. The total Project cost net of taxes and duties, is estimated at UA68.024 million,
financed by the Bank through an ADF-13 Loan of UA60.00million covering 88% of the project
cost and Government of Ghana contributing UA8.024million or 12% of the Project cost. The
overall implementation period is three and half years (2017 – 2020) including 2 years
construction period and 1 year maintenance period. Direct Project Beneficiaries include: i) the
factories and Agro industries within the project zone; ii) commuters and the populations of the
project corridor; iii) the transporters and travellers on the Accra-Kumasi road corridor, which
is the main transit route for food produced from the Brong Ahafo region (the bread basket of
the country) to Accra, and forms part of the Ghana – Burkina Faso road corridor.
Needs Assessment
4. The Ga West area (project location/zone) is rapidly developing as a consequence of
Greater Accra Metropolitan Area’s urban sprawl (more than 9% physical growth per year).
This expansion has made it difficult to meet the Project zone’s service demands in terms of
mobility and basic services as well as other key areas in urban development. The Ga West
area is an industrial zone with many factories and agro-industries located within it. These
factories require direct and quick transportation of goods to suppliers in the city, to the
airport and port for import/exports and to the hinterland. The Central Road Corridor is
the only developed road link connecting the Port of Tema to Ghana’s main landlocked
neighbour – Burkina Faso and Pokuase sits along this corridor as a critical missing link.
An average of almost 50,000 vehicles per day pass through the Pokuase area and queue lengths
iii

ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
of up to 2km are registered at peaks times. This results in revenue losses to the Country and
dampen efforts being made on industrialization and urban development. The Project therefore
aims to improve accessibility and reduce the significant delays in traffic registered in this
project area to promote efficient movement of goods and people to and from the city, boost
trade and industrialisation, provide income generation opportunities, promote affordable
transport services and generally improve the livelihoods of people in the project area.
Bank’s Added Value
5. Bank financing for the proposed Project will complement efforts of the Government of
Ghana and other Development Partners in addressing the increasing development challenges
faced by the urbanisation of Ghana’s Capital City (Accra) which on the one hand positions
itself as a major economic centre and logistics hub in the West African sub-region whilst on
the other, must respond to the demands of an increasing population size and strain on its
existing facilities. The African Development Bank plays a lead role in infrastructure
development in Ghana and in Accra in particular. It is currently financing the expansion of
the main international airport in Accra (a hub in the West Africa Sub-region) as well as the
15km dualised carriageway linking with this interchange project. The Bank has plans to support
expansion of the Abidjan-Lagos Corridor which links the five coastal economic capitals from
Nigeria to Cote d’Ivoire with the largest portion of this road corridor located in Ghana. The
Bank is currently the lead co-chair of the Development Partner’s Transport Sector Group. The
Group recently presented a “White Paper” highlighting the development challenges faced by
Ghana’s urban regions and working with Government to develop an Action Plan to address
these challenges. The Bank is also working with the Cities Alliance, the Ecological
Sequestration Trust, Futures Earth, local and central government as well as other stakeholders
to help foster greater collaboration and long term planning and proofing of the city. The Bank’s
lead role in these areas allows it to leverage and attract multiple stakeholders to foster dialogue
with GoG, attract multiple sources of funding of various interventions, whilst also pulling
together support and guidance for GoG to develop the appropriate policies and reforms to
realise its development agenda. Supporting this Project fits well with this position and aligns
with the Bank’s Ten Year Strategy (2013-2022) and support three of the five focus pillars
(Hi5s) of the Bank namely, infrastructure development, and industrialisation, and lastly pillar
1 of Ghana’s CSP support for infrastructure development.
Knowledge Management
6. The project design has drawn on lessons learnt from the Bank and other DPs’ extensive
experience in Ghana, especially in the road transport sector which is noted as one of the Bank’s
comparator advantage areas. Technical knowledge, especially with regards to cost estimations
and implementation, were applied in the design and appraisal of the proposed project. The
project includes knowledge enhancing activities on urban development management, road
safety and environment protection and use of ICT at the community level to boost local
businesses. The Bank’s leadership role in urban transport development in the Greater
Accra has stimulated interest and alliances with several Development Partners to explore
and develop solutions to urbanisation problems which would be piloted in Accra and
extended to other cities in the continent thereafter. One of such initiatives is through a
partnership with Cities Alliance with collaboration from Future Earth (FE) and The Ecological
Sequestration Trust (TEST) to offer good perspectives for urban development planning and
management, integrating the dimensions of adaptation and resilience to climate change. This
initiative will be funded through the Green climate Fund (GCF) with Accra as the model city
to test this programme.
iv

ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
ACCRA URBAN TRANSPORT PROJECT (AUTP)

RESULTS-BASED LOGICAL FRAMEWORK
Country and project name: GHANA – ACCRA URBAN TRANSPORT PROJECT
Purpose of the project : Enhance urban mobility in the Ga West Area
PERFORMANCE INDICATORS MEANS OF

RESULTS CHAIN RISKS/MITIGATION MEASURES
VERIFICATION
Indicator Baseline Target
Improved economic performance Real GDP Growth 3.9% 7% African Economic
IMPACT
Outlook database
(2015) (2020)
1.1 Enhanced urban mobility in 1.1 1.1 1.1 Data from Local Outcome Risks
the metropolitan area i. Transport costs (VOC average of i. $0.90/km; i. $0.57/km Agencies and i. Weakness in the implementation of the
i. Reduced transport costs all vehicles $/km); Authorities; guidelines of the Master Plan due to lack of
ii. A) 2 hours; B) 1) ii. A) 30 mins; B) 1) GoG records human and financial resources
ii. Reduced travel time and ii. A) Average journey time from
Awoshie 45.5m, 2) Awoshie 3m, 2) DUR Traffic ii. Sustainability of maintenance financing
congestion in the project area Awoshie to Kwabenya at peak times
of influence; Kwabenya 38.9m, Kwabenya 10m, 3) surveys;
(hrs); B) average queue lengths at iii. Road accidents once the condition of the road
3) Accra 1,151m, 4) Accra 0m, 4)
iii. Reduced road accidents peak times at four nodes i.e. from is improved
Nsawam 670.8m Nsawam 0m
within the project area of 1)Awoshie, 2) Kwabenya, 3) Accra EPA report Mitigating Measures
influence; and 4) Nsawam (meters)
iii. 84 total, fatal 15 iii. reduced by 40% i. Internalize the findings of the masterplan
1.2 Improved environmental iii. Traffic accidents and fatality M&E Reports
within the coordination of Development Partners
protection through reduced within the project area of influence
OUTCOMES
and embed the implementation of MP major

CO2 emissions (no./yr); projects in future urban projects.
1.3 Improved urban development 1.2 Reduced emission of CO2 1.2 N/A 1.2 Reduced by ii. The Project will include one year of
planning equivalent (Tons/yr) maintenance period and training of MRH staff in
1,215 tons/yr
1.4 Increased ICT training in 1.3 Agglomeration spatial coverage maintenance of Bridges. Continuous dialogue
1.3 0% 1.3 100% with Road Fund and GoG to implement increase
schools in the Project Area rate of the Master Plan Education
1.5 Increased revenue generation 1.4 Pass rate for ICT at BECE (% Performance in levies
for women’s groups in the 1.4 92% overall 1.4 95% overall Report, Ministry iii. A comprehensive traffic management plan
overall, % girls) in project schools
Project area (87.1% for girls) (94% for girls) of Education has been prepared in the interchange design and
ensures separation of Non-motorised traffic from
1.5 Average annual revenue 1.5 GHS2,128/ 1.5 10% increase Ghana Living vehicular traffic and includes a 4km of
generation by target women’s person Standards Survey walkways, underpass and bridge; several
groups / person. (2015) (2020) Report, Ghana initiatives on road safety including a SECO
Statistical Service funded Safe Walk to School program linked with
this project.
2.1 Main Transport infrastructure 2.1 2.1 2.1 Department of Output Risks
built and completed i. Three-tier interchange built i. 0% i. 100% Urban Roads i. Delays in project start up due to: long
ii. Length (km) of roads constructed; ii. 0 km ii. 10km local roads ratification process and effectiveness, long
iii. Length of paved pedestrian Ga West procurement process, delays in compensation
iii. 0 walkways iii. 4.9 km pedestrian Municipal
walkways; no. crossings and and relocation of utilities
walkway, 1 bridge Assembly
underpass built iv. 0 sensitised and 1 underpass built ii. Cost overruns due to price escalation from
iv. No. of road users sensitized significant design changes during
v. 0 PAPs iv. 1,000 people Ministry of
v. No. PAPs compensated and implementation, and local currency depreciation
sensitised Education-
resettled as per RAP vi. 0 m fence and 0 Education Sector
v. 100% PAPs Mitigation Strategy:
vi. Length of fence (m) around the ha restored at Gua Performance
Koo forest i. Delays in Project start will be mitigated by: (i)
Gua Koo forest and degraded Area vi. 800 m and 3 ha report effective resources mobilization; (ii) Advanced
OUTPUTS
of the Gua Koo forest restored (ha)

Procurement; (iii) start relocation of utilities
2.2 Community Support 2.2 2.2 2.2 before main works; (iv) use of national
initiatives completed i. No. of schools supported with i. 0 schools i. 14 schools, 5,000 Bank supervision procurement procedures and post review; (v)
ICT equipment and children trained ii. 0 jobs children (50% girls) mission reports Project Coordination Unit in place to kick start
ii. No of jobs during construction; ii. 600 jobs (30% Project quarterly all the necessary preconstruction activities
iii. 0 women
women) and completion alongside Loan processing of project; (vi)
iii. No of Women benefiting from
reports representation of major stakeholders in the PCU
2.3 Master Plan Studies support iii. 250 women
to coordinate the various aspects of the project.
completed 2.3 Greater Accra Master Plan(MP) 2.3 0 plan 2.3 100% GoG official ii. Cost overruns can be mitigated by ensuring
study adopted by the Cabinet; design is thorough, allocation of 97% of the
reports/Donor
project cost in foreign currency as contingency to
2.4 Institutional Support to DUR 2.4 2.4 2.4 Coordination
i. PIM & Accounting Manual i. 0% i. 100% documentation reduce impact of local currency depreciation on
and MRH completed
developed & adopted project costs as well as factoring contingencies
ii. 0 ii. 20 persons
for physical and price changes.
ii. No. of personnel trained (2015) (2019)
COMPONENTS INPUTS
UA million
1. Urban Transport Works
1 Urban Transport Works 53.83
2. Community Support 2. Community Support 0.32
KEY ACTIVITIES
3. Institutional Support 0.69

3. Institutional Support 4. Project Management 4.31
4. Project Management Base Cost 59.15
Project Cost (Plus Contingencies) 68.02
Financing Sources
Source UA million
ADF-13 (loan) PBA 60.00
GoG 8.02
Total 68.02
vi

ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
GHANA – ACCRA URBAN TRANSPORT PROJECT

Indicative Project Timeframe
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
ID Task Name Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 Project Approval
2 Loan Signature
3 Loan Effectiveness
Procurement (Advance
4
Contracting)
Relocation of Utilities /
5 Compensation and
Resettlement
Main Works Contract
6 (Interchange, Roads and
related infratsructure)
7 Defects Liability Period
8 Construction Supervision
Urban Development
9
Masterplan
10 Community Support (Gender)
11 Other Consultancy Services
vii

ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
REPORT AND RECOMMENDATION OF THE MANAGEMENT OF THE ADF BOARD

OF DIRECTORS ON A PROPOSED LOAN TO GHANA FOR THE ACCRA
URBAN TRANSPORT PROJECT
Management submits the following Report and Recommendation on a proposed ADF-13 loan
of UA60.00 million to the Republic of Ghana to finance the Accra Urban Transport Project.
I – STRATEGIC THRUST & RATIONALE

1.1 Project linkages with country strategy and objectives
1.1.1 Ghana’s economy has registered favorable growth rates that have translated into the
country attaining Middle Income status in 2011. This growth has been broad-based across
sectors, an indication of inclusive growth, driven largely by performance in the service sectors,
which accounted for 54.1% of GDP in 2015, followed by industry (including oil production)
at 26.9% and agriculture at 19%. The growth has enabled Ghana make significant progress on
reducing the incidence of poverty which stands at 24.2%1 of population living below the
national poverty line; although regional disparity remain. However, since 2013 the country has
suffered from a number of economic challenges and in April 2015, entered into a 3-year
program with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Despite these challenges, the Ghanaian
economy has continued to grow with the economy expected to recover by the end of 2016.
1.1.2 One of the challenges faced by Ghana is rapid urbanization currently at a growth rate
of 4%. More than 50% of its population is living in the urban areas and expected to reach 72%
by 2035. The Capital city Accra seeks to position itself as a major economic centre and logistics
hub but also needs to respond to demands of an increasing population size which has led to
uncontrolled urban sprawl, strain on existing infrastructure, inadequate services and increased
environmental deterioration.
1.1.3 Ghana is in the process of developing a 40-year, long-term development plan that
includes a national infrastructure plan and a spatial development framework to transform where
Ghanaians live and work. The plan is expected to enhance the Accra and Kumasi city regions
and other urban clusters through improvements in the transport network that integrate towns
and cities. According to the Ghana Transport Sector Medium Term Development Plan, Roads
are the principal means of transportation in Ghana and expected to play a critical role in socio-
economic development and integration of the urban areas.
1.1.4 The AUTP Project seeks to contribute towards an integrated response to urban
development in Accra to meet the Country’s vision of providing an efficient, cost-effective and
sustainable transportation system responsive to the needs of society, supporting growth and
poverty reduction and capable of establishing and maintaining Ghana as a transportation hub.
This objective is influenced by the National Transport Policy (2008), the Transport Sector
Medium-Term Development Plan (SMTDP) 2014-2017 and the Ghana Shared Growth and
Development Agenda 2 (GSGDA-2). The Project also fits within the Bank’s Ten Year Strategy
(2013-2022) and five focus pillars (Hi5s) namely infrastructure development, and
industrialisation, Pillar 1 of the Ghana CSP and the Bank’s Urban Development Strategy
(2011-2015).
1
(Ghana Living Standard Survey 2012/13)

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TRANSPORT PROJECT
1.2. Rationale for Bank’s involvement

1.2.1 With a high urban growth rate, the answer to urban transportation needs has become
one of the major challenges facing Ghana, particularly in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area
(GAMA) where the demographic explosion results in a spatial expansion that calls for urgent
action. The Bank and other Development Partners are currently funding various projects in the
GAMA to address these challenges.
1.2.2 The rationale for Bank financing of this project is driven by the above demands to
remove the main bottleneck at the Pokuase junction which also links with the 15km dualised
Awoshie-Pokuase carriageway being financed by the Bank and Agence France de
Développement (AFD). This project is nearing completion and its benefits are already being
realized as it provides an alternative access to the main Tema-Kumasi corridor at Pokuase.
However, absence of the intersection at Pokuase limits the full potential of the carriageway
being realised as the traffic is diverted through a link road to reach the main Central Corridor.
1.2.3 The Bank plays a lead role in infrastructure development in Ghana and in Greater Accra
in particular. It is currently financing various infrastructure projects in Accra including
expansion of the main international airport (a hub in the West Africa Sub-region) as well as the
Awoshie-Pokuase road linking with this interchange project also including “soft interventions”
on urban transport planning and community development in Accra. The Bank also plans to
support expansion of the Abidjan-Lagos Corridor which links the five coastal economic
capitals of the five countries with the largest portion of this road corridor located in Ghana. The
Bank’s lead role in these areas allows it to leverage and attract multiple stakeholders to foster
dialogue with GoG, attract multiple sources of funding, whilst also pulling together support
and guidance for GoG to develop the appropriate policies and reforms to realise its
development agenda.
1.3. Donors coordination
1.3.1 Ghana has a well-established Donor coordination mechanism at both national and
sector levels. There are several levels of the coordination mechanism: i) the Ghana Donor
Partner Coordination Group (GDPG) attended by three appointed donors and three heads of
Government Institutions; ii) Heads of Mission Group attended by the Heads of Cooperation,
Heads of Diplomatic Missions and Aid Agencies respectively, and iii) 17 Sector Working
Groups (SWG). The Ghana Field Office has led a number of the these groups and currently is
the lead co-chair for the Transport SWG after co-chairing the Multi-Donor Budget Support
(MDBS), Co-Leads for Sector working Groups in Education, Agriculture, and Energy in 2015.
In the Transport sector, donor coordination is quite advanced with several Development
Partners (DPs) supporting Ghana’s transport sector. These include the Bank, the World Bank,
AFD, JICA, China, Brazil, KOICA, EU and SECO. There is an active DPs Transport Sector
Group (TSG), which holds quarterly meetings to coordinate various DP interventions. The
Bank currently co-chairs the Transport Sector Group. Chairmanship is held on a rotational basis
over a two-year cycle. Issues related to transport sector policies, reforms and financing are
regularly discussed within this Group and are formally reviewed during the annual Transport
Sector Development Partners’ Conference. In 2015, the DPs prepared a joint White Paper
highlighting the development challenges faced by Ghana’s urban areas which prompted
Government to come up with an action plan to address these challenges. In addition to the TSG,
the AfDB has formed a partnership with Cities Alliance and other partners to offer solutions
for urban development planning and management which will be piloted in Accra and will
integrate adaptation and resilience to climate change with possible funding from the Green
Climate Fund. Through this coordination the Bank has discussed co-financing options with its
TSG donor partners. Although these discussion did materialise it further enhanced the
possibility of future collaborations among the DPs.

ANNEXURE “F”
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II – PROJECT DESCRIPTION
2.1. Development Objectives and Project components
2.1.1 The Development goal of the Accra Urban Development Project (AUTP) is to promote
sustainable economic growth, enhanced inclusive urban development and reduced poverty
whilst promoting trade and regional integration. The specific objective of the AUTP is to
promote efficient movement of goods and people to and from the city through Pokuase, boost
trade along the connecting routes, provide income generation opportunities, promote affordable
transport services and generally improve the livelihoods of the people in the project area.
Project Description:
2.1.2 The AUTP project components are detailed below:
A. Urban Transport Main Works (UA53.83 million)
This component covers the main civil works activities incorporating: i) infrastructure -
construction of a 3-tier signalised interchange at Pokuase junction area and connecting roads
to provide efficient and safe use of this facility with special focus on Public Transport and Non-
Motorised Traffic with provisions for the Mass Rapid Transit and rail expansion; ii) Relocation
of Utilities: carried out as a pre-construction activity to clear the right of way (ROW) prior to
construction of the interchange; iii) Environmental and Social mitigation measures which
includes amongst others, protection of the Guako sacred forest and compensation of project
affected persons (PAPs) to ensure smart and functional integration of this major infrastructure
in the Ga West urban environment with minimal negative impact.
B. Community Support (UA0.32 million)
Interventions under this component focus on maximizing the developmental impact of the
project and anchors upon community works implemented under the Bank financed Awoshie-
Pokuase Project. This intervention mainly focuses on mainstreaming gender through: i)
Provision of I.T. equipment to 14 schools constructed under the Awoshie-Pokuase Project and
ICT trainings particularly for girls in primary and junior high schools to overcome the gender
stereotypes of ICT skills in education; ii) Support to two local women’s groups in using ICT
and developing their micro-businesses in processing and packaging their products for export.
C. Institutional Support (UA0.69 million)
This component provides support to enhance the performance of the Executing Agency
through: i) Develop a Project Implementation Manual and Accounting Manual with respective
and relating trainings; ii) Project Management Technical Assistance to strengthen the PCU; iii)
Trainings for the PCU to improve project supervision; iv) Equipment and stationery for the
PCU; v) Bridge maintenance training for staff of MRH. The rationale for the institutional
support is centered on reinforcing the existing expertise in project delivery and maintenance of
bridges, since Accra is seeing the development of several interchanges.
D. Project Management Services (UA4.3 million)
This component comprises related services to ensure good management and monitoring of
project implementation. It comprises: i) Supervision services for the main civil works; ii)
Updating the Urban Development Master Plan for the Greater Accra region which provides a
common platform to develop individual masterplans for the various sectors such as sanitation,
land use and transport. This activity would ensure better coordination and greater synergy
between the different projects in the Greater Accra Region, while allowing more insight on
possible future projects; iii) Monitoring and Evaluation of project’s socioeconomic impact; iv)
Road Safety incorporating audits and campaigns to raise the population’s awareness of traffic
and road safety issues; also links with the SECO funded Safe Walk to School Program; v)
Documentary Video of AfDB Transport projects in Ghana; vi) Technical and Financial Audit.

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2.2. Technical solution retained and other alternatives explored

2.2.1 The project feasibility studies for the interchange explored seven intersection schemes2
and finally concluded on a Three Tier Signalised interchange. This was found to be the most
viable option as it has the advantage of having better Expected Level of Service (LOS) for
traffic operations and relatively lower impact on the Guako forest and on land intake. The
design has taken cognizance of urban infrastructure and facilities recently developed for the
urban bus transit system and has made provisions for these and future expansions as well as
the need for segregated pedestrian infrastructure and public transport facilities such as
designated bus stops with segregated entry and exit points to ensure the safe access for
pedestrians. The design of the project has also drawn on the lessons learnt from the Bank and
other DPs’ experience in the sector to arrive at the soft interventions proposed in this project.
2.2.2 The final detailed design including economic, environment and social analysis have
been completed and validated. The ESIA studies have been completed and the detailed final
design report including engineering report, technical specifications, BOQ, drawings, and
related reports including RAP and ESMP and Tender documents have been finalised and
submitted.
2.3. Project type
2.3.1 The project type is a stand-alone operation and is sequel to the Awoshie – Pokuase
Road and Community Development Project financed by the Bank. The ADF financing will
support urban planning and infrastructure development, community enhancement and capacity
building initiatives. The investments against which funds are to be disbursed are well defined
and specific. Therefore, the specific project loan has been chosen as the most appropriate
instrument for the intervention of the Bank in this operation.
2.4. Project cost and financing arrangements
2.4.1 The overall Project cost is estimated at USD94.783million equivalent to
UA68.02million of which the foreign exchange cost is UA57.31 or 84% of the total project
cost. Local Currency cost is UA10.70 or 16% of total cost of which 10% is Government
contribution. Retention of 84% of the total project cost or 94% of Bank’s contribution in foreign
exchange is a mitigation measure put in place to hedge against depreciation of the local
currency. This is to guard the project against significant cost overruns due to local currency
depreciation3; a lesson learnt from current Bank financed projects. The project includes 10%
physical contingency and 5% price contingency as mitigation to guard against cost overruns.
Table 2.1 - Project Cost Estimates by Component (UA million)
Foreign Local Total %
Component
Currency Cost Currency Cost Cost foreign
A. Urban Transport Works 44.53 9.29 53.83 83
B. Community Support 0.29 0.03 0.32 90
C. Institutional support 0.63 0.06 0.69 90
D. Project Management 3.88 0.43 4.31 90
Total Base Cost 49.33 9.81 59.15 83
Contingencies 7.99 0.89 8.87 90
Project Cost net of taxes 57.31 10.70 68.02 84
2
Alternative schemes explored are detailed in Appendix V
3
Ghana experienced significant depreciation in its currency of 40% in 2014 and 28% in 2015.

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Table 2.2 – Project Cost by Category of Expenditures Net of taxes (UA million)
Foreign Local Total %
Category
Currency Cost Currency Cost Cost foreign
Works 44.36 9.47 53.83 83
Services 4.27 0.47 4.74 90
Goods 0.53 0.05 0.58 91
Total Base Cost 49.16 9.99 59.15 83
Contingencies 7.98 0.89 8.87 90
Project Cost 57.14 10.88 68.02 84
Source of financing
2.4.2 The proposed project is expected to be financed by the Bank and GoG. The Bank
financing will come from ADF-13 Performance Based Allocation (PBA) amounting
UA60.00million representing 88% of the total project cost (net of taxes). The Bank will cover
all the foreign exchange costs and part of the local costs. GoG will finance local costs within
the main civil works as well as E&S compensation amounting to UA8.02 million. The
financing plans by source of finance for the Project and project costs to be financed under the
ADF loans are presented in Table 2.4 and Table 2.5 respectively. The expenditure schedule by
component is also presented in Table 2.6. Detailed costs and expenditure schedules are
provided in Annex B2. While waiting to confirm the ADF XIII allocation for this project, GoG
requested for co-financing with the OPEC Fund for International Development.
Table 2.4: Sources of financing net of taxes (UA million)

Foreign Local Total % of
Source
Currency Cost Currency Cost Total
ADF-13 (Loan) 57.32 2.68 60.00 88%
GoG (Counterpart) - 8.02 8.02 12%
Total 57.32 10.70 68.02 100%
Table 2.5: Summary of Project Cost to be financed under ADF loan (UA million)
Component Total ADFXIII GOG ADFXIII GOG
A. Urban Transport Works 53.83 47.01 6.82 88% 12%
B. Community Support 0.32 0.32 - 100% -
C. Institutional Support 0.69 0.69 - 100% -
D. Project Management 4.31 4.31 - 100% -
Base Cost 59.15 52.33 6.82 88% 12%
Contingencies 8.87 7.67 1.20 88% 12%
Project Cost net of taxes 68.02 60.00 8.02 88% 12%
Table 2.6: Expenditure Schedule by Component and by Category net of taxes (UA million)
Component 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Total
A. Urban Transport Works 2.88 11.59 16.48 20.80 2.08 53.83
B. Community Support 0.00 0.15 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.32
C. Institutional Support 0.00 0.48 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.69
D. Project Management 0.00 2.59 1.17 0.29 0.26 4.31
Base Cost 2.88 14.81 18.03 21.09 2.34 59.15
Works 2.88 11.59 16.48 20.80 2.08 53.83
Services - 2.80 1.38 0.29 0.26 4.73
Goods - 0.42 0.17 - - 0.59
Contingencies 1.77 3.55 3.55 8.87
Project Cost net of taxes 2.88 14.81 19.81 24.64 5.87 68.02
% of Total Cost 4% 22% 29% 36% 9% 100%

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2.5. Project’s target area and population

2.5.1 The AUTP project is a sequel to the 15km dualised Awoshie–Pokuase Road and
Community Development Project which is nearing completion and already in use; registering
significant benefits in terms of access and boost in economic activities. The AUTP provides an
important intra-urban mobility linking up communities and businesses in the Ga-West
Municipality; notably, Ofankor, Achimota, Awoshie, Pokuase, Amansaman and Kwabenya
with the capital city Accra. It will also connect the inter-urban road corridor from Accra to
Kumasi on the Accra-Ougadougou/ Regional Highway. The project will provide a short-cut
linkage between Tema Port and the International airport, and the industrial areas in this part of
Accra promoting exports of local produce. The combined population of the communities
directly impacted by the Project is 262,742 comprising 51% female and 49% male. These will
be mainly residents along the project corridor and transit passengers.
2.5.2 This Project seeks to create a transformative impact on the beneficiary communities,
local industries and businesses, and daily commuters through this area. Amongst other key
outcomes envisaged, the interchange will improve circulation and access to the project area,
boost trade and regional integration with a view to capitalizing on the economic potential of
the beneficiary communities - agriculture, agri-business coupled with support in ICT to
diversify market outlets for the processed agro-products. The environment is another
beneficiary as using a grade separated interchange will emissions will considerably reduce
emissions. The commuters, industries, businesses and population of the project area will
constitute the direct beneficiaries of the project and other beneficiaries will be traders and road
transport operators and travelers on the central corridor and people travelling to the hinterland.
2.6. Participatory process for project design and implementation
2.6.1 In line with the Bank’s practice of ensuring inclusiveness in project preparation, public
consultations were undertaken during the initial ESIA studies in 2013 and the update in 2015.
Additional public consultations were held during the project preparation and appraisal
missions. The main objectives of these consultation were to: (i) solicit public views, concerns
and potential benefits with respect to the proposed interchange; (ii) identify and prioritize key
activities under the community development and institutional support components of the
project; (iii) collect relevant information for the project design.
2.6.2 As part of the preparation of the ESIA, ESMP and RAP reports, the consultant held
consultations in 2014 and 2015 with: (i) all relevant stakeholders (government agencies,
municipal assembly officials, Kofi Annan ICT Centre, NGOs, CBOs, traditional authorities in
charge of the Gua Koo sacred groove, etc.); (ii) project affected persons (PAPs) whose
properties and assets will be directly affected. As part of the Bank’s preparation mission,
extensive consultations and follow-up meetings were conducted with the above mentioned
stakeholders and Development Partners. This provided information on municipal perspectives
and also elicited their inputs into the project design. A stakeholder meeting took place on 30th
March 2015 to present the proposed options for the interchange as well as the community
development and institutional support components.
2.6.3 As much as stakeholders appreciate the project, they also had concerns which are inter
alia listed below: (i) Disruption of livelihood during the works; (ii) Protection of Sunkwa
Stream and Guako Sacred grove; (iii) Safety of pedestrians and passengers; (iv) traffic
congestion during construction. The project has incorporated specific design features to address
all the above concerns raised by stakeholders. These include: (i) preparing a resettlement action
plan that addresses livelihood and relocation issues; (ii) fencing and restoration of the Guako
Forest; (iii) provisions for road safety features for Non-Motorised road users including
segregated walkways, overpass and underpass for pedestrians and the disabled; (iv) appropriate
provisions to control traffic congestion during construction will be required from the

ANNEXURE “F”
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contractor. DUR will ensure that this participatory process and public consultation is
maintained during implementation. The Bank in line with harmonisation agenda and noting the
need to draw on lessons learnt from Development Partners in the transport sector, held
discussions with KOICA, AFD, SECO, and the World Bank.
2.7. Bank Group experience, lessons reflected in project design
2.7.1 The Bank Group portfolio in Ghana is composed of 19 operations (10 national public
sector operations for UA 437.66 million, 2 multinational operations for UA 1.31 million and 7
private sector operations for UA 171.75 million), representing an overall commitment of UA
610.72 million. The transport sector is the second largest share of the portfolio (26%) after non-
sovereign operations (29%). Since 1981, the Bank has financed ten road projects, one railway
project, four road studies, and one multinational project in addition to supplementary loans all
totaling UA258 million. Currently, there are two ongoing transport projects in the portfolio,
expected to be completed in 2016; namely the Fufulso-Sawla and the Awoshie-Pokuase Road
and Community Development Projects respectively. These projects are neither problematic nor
potentially problematic; disbursement targets have been met and project supervisions and
monitoring are carried out regularly; potential problems are identified and addressed in a timely
manner. The projects financed by the Bank have made significant contribution towards
improving mobility, providing access to socio-economic opportunities for several millions of
people and facilitating regional integration. The Fufulso-Sawla project was inaugurated in
August 2015 and was hailed by the Government as a model project to be replicated across the
country as it provides an inclusive and integrated all-in-one solution that responds to the socio-
economic demands of the people.
2.7.2 The proposed AUTP project design has taken into account lessons learnt from previous
interventions in the Country. The Project Completion Reports (PCRs) for five projects
including the two closing projects have been completed. Lessons learnt were drawn from many
sources, including the Bank’s experiences particularly in the Awoshie-Pokuase Project and the
recently completed WB/AFD funded Urban Transport Project in Accra as well as
consultations with other DPs and GOG. The lessons learnt and mitigation measures adopted in
the project design are highlighted below:
i) Design changes and cost overruns: The AUTP studies made deliberate efforts to ensure
extensive consultations and inputs in the design from all stakeholders including the utility
providers, beneficiaries, executing agency and relating agencies. The studies have gone
through several validation processes to ensure that all grounds were covered in establishing the
project estimated cost. Furthermore, the design studies and validation process were carried out
during the same period as the Bank Project preparation and appraisal; the design has therefore
incorporated changes to reflect lessons learnt. Finalisation of the design at project appraisal
stage and the extensive consultations with stakeholders will minimise the need for major design
revisions or modifications with resultant cost implications during implementation.
ii) Delays due to relocation of utilities: Previously, relocations of utilities were included in the
main works BOQs as a lump sum item. These subsequently resulted in cost overruns. It has
been agreed that the detail costing of all utilities relocations be compiled as a separate tender
document and procured and implemented well in advance of the main works to ensure the
clearing of the Right Of Way (ROW) before the main works commence.
iii) Depreciation of Local Currency: Ghana’s currency the cedi has faced significant
depreciation of 40% and 20% in 2014 and 2015 respectively. To address this risk, the project
design incorporates hedging against the local currency exchange losses by locking the local
component Bank contribution in the loan in foreign currency. This is in addition to
contingencies already built in the main civil works costs, incorporating additional contingency
on the total project cost to cater for price escalations during contract implementation.

ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
2.8. Key performance indicators

2.8.1 Some baseline data have been collected as part of the project preparation by the design
consultant and the Bank mission and indicated in the project log-frame. These will be
monitored by an independent consultant and the supervision consultant at the beginning of
project implementation which will include: (i) transport costs and average journey times for
specific types of vehicles and trips along the four connecting roads; (ii) accident rates and
fatalities; (iii) jobs created and income generation and (iv) Gender deferential roles. The
indicators will be measured at project inception, completion, and three years post completion.
Where relevant, indicators will be disaggregated by gender. Indicators for monitoring and
evaluating project outcomes are included in the Project Logical Framework.
III – PROJECT FEASIBILITY

3.1. Economic and financial performance
3.1.1 The economic viability of the project has been determined by using the discounted cash
flow technique for both "with" and "without" project cases for an analysis period of 25 years.
Economic cost inputs including the investment made (cost of works, net of taxes and customs
duty) including physical and financial contingencies, compensation costs to be paid to people
whose properties would be affected and relocation of utilities) and the projected maintenance
cost of the facility over the analysis period were considered whilst economic benefits including
savings in Vehicle Operating cost (VOC) and reduction in delays were all discounted in
computing the required economic indicators. A discount rate of 12% and a conservative
residual value of 20% was used for the project. For the economic analysis, financial costs such
as construction and maintenance were converted into economic costs by applying a Standard
Conversion Factor (SCF) of 0.85. The conversion factor is used in order to exclude transfer
payments within the economy and correct for distortions between international and domestic
prices caused by applications of duties and taxes on traded items. The economic benefits are
calculated as the difference between the “with the project” and “without the project” scenarios.
The benefits include road user incremental benefits in terms of VOC savings, time savings for
passengers and cargo, and road maintenance savings because of the new facility. Time savings
would result from improved flow of traffic under the new facility and have been estimated for
both passengers and cargo as difference in travel time under the ‘with and without’ project
situations. External benefits such as delay savings have also been considered as a major benefit
of the project.
3.1.2 The base year Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) on the different approaches of the
Pokuase intersection range from 4,286 to 33,744 vehicles per day. Traffic forecasting took into
account: (i) population growth; (ii) growth in National & Regional economic; (iii) Average
Income per Capita; iv) growth in Agricultural sector; and iv) growth in Industrial/Mining
sectors. The annual growth rates of normal traffic are estimated at 9.9%, 9.7%, 11.1% and 4.8%
for the Nsawam Road, ACP/Pokuase Road, Awoshie/Pokuase Road and the Local roads around
the interchange respectively. Furthermore, generated/diverted traffic from other routes are also
taken into account.
3.1.3 The measures of project worth used are the Economic Internal Rate of Return, Net Present
Value and First Year Rate of Return. Table 3.1 below gives a summary of the economic
analysis, whose details are presented in Annex B7. An assessment of the investment cost of
constructing the interchange, intersecting and local roads constituting the Project gives an
EIRR of 39.8% (51.0%), NPV of US29.7million (US$85.73million) and FYRR of 37.8%
(50.8% ) for the entire project [values in parenthesis are the results achieved when delays due

ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
to congestion are taken into account in the analysis]. A 20% increase in the investment cost
and a 20% decrease in Traffic and 20% decrease in the Value of Time (the most unfavorable
situation) yielded EIRR of 26.9% (33.4%) for the entire project. It can therefore be concluded
that the development option chosen for the project is economically viable.
Table 3.1: Key Economic Performance Indicators
EIRR (base case) 39.8%
NPV (12% Discount) USD 29.73million
FYRR 37.8%
EIRR (20% increase in costs) 33.8%
EIRR (20% decrease in Traffic) 32.0%
EIRR (20% increase in costs & 20% decrease in benefits) 26.9%
3.2. Environmental and Social impacts

Environment
3.2.1 Due to the type and magnitude of the works to be undertaken, the potential
environmental (disturbance to the Guako Sacred Grove ) and social impacts (over 200 PAPs),
the AUTP has been classified as “Category 1” project according to the Bank’s Environmental
and Social Assessment Procedures (ESAP). A full Environmental and Social Impact
Assessment (ESIA) report, an Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP) and a full
Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) have been prepared for the project in 2015 in accordance with
applicable Bank and Ghanaian requirements. The reports have been validated by the Ghana
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and an environmental permit was issued on
November 9th 2015. The summaries of the ESIA and RAP have been posted on the Bank’s web
site on November 30th 2015 and distributed to the Board of Directors in line with applicable
procedures.
3.2.2 The major direct adverse environmental and social impacts and risks expected during
construction include: (i) Disturbance to Guako Sacred Grove; (ii) destruction of assets (see
section on involuntary resettlement); (iii) increased levels of air and noise pollution in the
surroundings of the project area; (iv) occupational health and safety risks for the workers and
surrounding communities and (v) increase in traffic congestion. The main adverse
environmental impacts and risks expected during operation phase include: (i) gaseous
emissions; (ii) risks of accidents. The main positive cumulative impact relates to the reduction
in Green House Gas emissions in combination with the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) project to be
implemented in the project area.
3.2.3 Mitigation measures for the above mentioned adverse impacts covering both
construction and operation phases include inter alia: (i) restoration and protection of the Guako
Sacred Grove; (ii) compensation and where applicable resettlement in line with the RAP; (iii)
ensuring compliance with Ghana EPA permissible levels; (iv) implementation of an employee
education program covering all aspects of occupational health and safety; (v) implementation
of a traffic diversion and management plan and (vi) implementation of sensitization campaigns
on road safety. The ESMP cost is estimated at GHS6.2 million. The E&S unit of DUR will
ensure that all bidding documents and subsequently all contracts include, where applicable, the
appropriate specifications and measures as prescribed by the ESMP and design criteria. The
Health, Safety and Environmental Officer of the supervising engineer will be responsible of
the surveillance while DUR and EPA will monitor the implementation of the ESMP.
Climate Change
3.2.4 In accordance with the Bank’s Climate Safeguard System, the project is classified as
category 2. From a vulnerability point of view, the project is exposed to flooding risks. The

ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
hydrologic and hydraulic investigations were carried out taking into account relevant
parameters (see technical annexes for details) and appropriate drainage structures have been
incorporated in the design to mitigate these risks.
3.2.5 On the mitigation side, due to lack of data in the ESIA, the approach used to quantify
equivalent CO2 emissions consisted in: (i) analysing traffic data (per type of vehicle) under the
project and without the project scenario; (ii) analysing time/delay saved under both scenario;
(iii) considering the average emission factor per type of vehicles (see technical annexes for
more details). On this basis, the project is expected to reduce CO2 emissions by an equivalent
of 1,000 tons to 1,430 tons per year as compared to the ‘without project’ scenario. However, it
is worth mentioning that this reduction will be insignificant 10 years after operation. This is
mainly due to traffic growth that will lead to smaller gains over time if no other action/project
targeting traffic management/urban mobility is implemented in the project area.
Gender
3.2.6 The project design was done in line with Ghana’s 2015 National Gender Policy and
Children’s Policy as well as the AfDB Gender Policy. The Gender Analysis conducted
underscored the need for full participation of women, youth and people with disabilities. In
order to address gender equality within the transport sector in Ghana, there is a need to focus
infrastructure investments on pedestrian journeys, women’s most significant mode of transport,
as well as on motorized public transport used by more men than women. As a result, by
investing in pedestrian infrastructure and public transport in the project zone an effort will be
made to address the transport infrastructure needs of women as well as men working in line
with the 2008 Ghana National Transport Policy. This will feature the provision of segregated
pedestrian walkways and public transport infrastructure within the overall interchange design
and provision across 10km of local roads of high-quality pedestrian infrastructure and
necessary crossings, thus enhancing the safe pedestrian movements within the project area
considerably.
3.2.7 Ghana’s economy thrives on Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) dominated by
women. The SMEs constitute part of the informal sector, which is characterised by inadequate
regulatory framework and higher risk. World Bank statistics from 2010 illustrate that 84% of
the Ghanaian active female population are considered to be engaged in vulnerable employment,
meaning unpaid family work or own account work. They constitute 57.6% of persons engaged
in economic activities in the Ga-West Municipality which is the project zone. The municipality
is mostly characterized by petty trading which involves sale of food stuffs, provisions, clothing
etc. The project has set aside funds to enhance the agro-processing of cassava from the small
scale farming activities by developing the current micro-businesses in processing and
packaging of products for export and by enhancing the use of ICT of two women’s groups
Manchie Women’s Association and Kpobiman Association who were selected by the local
authority. The Manchie Women’s Group will receive support in the form a workshop to house
the agri-business enterprise which has great export potentials. For the Kpobiman Women’s
Association support will be in the construction of platforms and water supply
3.2.8 An intervention with a view to mainstreaming gender, will cover the provision of ICT
equipment and associated power supply equipment to all the 14 schools already constructed
under the Awoshie-Pokuase Project funded by the Bank. A component, delivered by the
Government of Ghana’s Kofi Annan Centre for ICT Education, will focus on the provision of
ICT training with particular emphasis on girls and their teachers in primary to junior high
schools. This is deliberately designed to overcome perceptions that ICT skills within education
are not for girls. Furthermore, children in the 14 schools, particularly girls, will be linked with
the 2 local women’s groups, mentioned above, in order to pass on ICT skills across the
generations that can help the women’s groups use ICT to improve their income-generating
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ANNEXURE “F”
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activities around agro-processing. The I.T support for girls and support to local women’s group
who support the economic empowerment of women in the local area will contribute to ensure:
(i) a wider distribution of benefits and enhancement of project’s positive impacts on vulnerable
groups; (ii) improve the quality of lives of the local community particularly women and girls.
Social
3.2.9 The Ga West municipality has three major economic sectors consisting of Agriculture,
Industry and commerce. In the Agriculture sector, farming is the major economic activity for
about 55% of the economically active population. The main agricultural activities include
cassava production (supported by the governments Roots and Tubers Improvement
Programme), fishing and pineapple production. The main challenges to agriculture production
are inadequate market opportunities for farmers to sell their produce, continuous loss of
existing farmlands to sand miners, estate development and private housing projects. The AUTP
will enhance trade between the middle, northern belt and Greater Accra as there are a number
of agro industries located in the Project area employing thousands of Ghanaians eg. Blue Skies
industries which is the Ghana’s largest exporter of freshly cut pineapples and mangoes is
located in this municipality; the Pokuase junction is the only link providing access to the
Airport for export of these products to Europe and America.
3.2.10 The Project will impact positively on the local economy, in enhancing accessibility and
boost in commercial activities and generate youth employment opportunities. Although
construction activities will cause temporary delays in public and private transport, access to
services and facilities should be improved in the long-term through greater reliability and,
possibly increased availability of public transport. Public and private transport opportunities
should improve because of reduced journey times as result of increase in level of service,
reduced frequency of breakdown, and lower maintenance costs. The interchange has a potential
to enhance appreciation of land and property values along the road corridor and the immediate
neighbourhoods. Among the appreciation will include value addition to commercial and
economic investments and attraction for residential housing development. Boost in tourism is
also expected as the area is home to several natural, cultural and historical attractions such as
the Guakoo Sacred Grove, the Pokuase Samsam Cave and the Samsam Water Falls. A ready
access to these tourist’s sites will greatly increase the tourist revenue to the state.
Involuntary resettlement
3.2.11 Within the ROW of the Interchange, access and local roads, a total of 323 Project
Affected Persons (PAPs) were identified: (i) 144 on the Interchange site and; (ii) 179 on the
access and local roads. The assets likely to be affected include both permanent (sandcrete single
and multi-storeys) and temporary structures (sheds, containers, kiosks, etc.). Whereas some
structures have multiple uses, most of them are used as shops. A total of 52 PAPs are considered
vulnerable (mostly elderly and PAPs renting temporary structures). In addition to the above
PAPs, 41 taxi drivers and 40 water tanker drivers using the project site will be affected. It was
agreed with the two unions that the mitigation measure will not be individualized as for the
other PAPs but will be for the group of registered members at the cut-off date which is
December 12th 2014. Members of the two unions will relocate to agreed new sites. The cost of
developing the new sites have been included in the project.
3.2.12 The cost of the RAP is estimated to GHS4.5 million or UA1.435 and will be financed
by GoG as counterpart contribution in the project. The environmental and social unit of DUR
will be responsible of implementing the RAP in collaboration with concerned municipal
assemblies. A grievance mechanism has been set up as part of the project including for the
implementation of the RAP. In line with the Bank’s requirements, all compensation and where
applicable relocation shall be completed before works begin.
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ANNEXURE “F”
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IV – IMPLEMENTATION
4.1. Implementation arrangements
Executing Agency
4.1.1 The Department of Urban Roads (DUR) will be the Executing Agency for the Project
with the PCU comprising experienced and dedicated DUR staff with focal points from MoF,
MRH, the NRSC and TCP. The PCU will be supported by a Technical Assistant on Project and
Contracts Management and Financial Management to oversee the day to day management of
the project. The Terms of Reference for the PCU including CVs of the proposed members,
some of whom are already working on the Awoshie-Pokuase Project, will be submitted by
DUR to the Bank prior to Negotiations. A Project Steering Committee (PSC) chaired by the
Chief Director of MRH and constituting Heads of the main Agencies relating to the project
such as DUR, GHA, DFR and MoF will oversee the activities of the project and provide
strategic guidance and direction of the project. DUR and the PCU are well versed with the
Bank’s procedures and currently implement many donor financed projects including those
financed by the Bank, the World Bank and AFD. The masterplan study will be hosted by the
Department of Town and Country Planning (TCP) and supervised by the PCU.
Procurement
4.1.2 The procurement of ICB contracts and Consulting Services for the proposed project
would be carried out in accordance with the New Bank’s Procurement Policy Framework, dated
October 2015, and as amended from time to time, using the relevant Bank Standard Bidding
Documents, and the provisions stipulated in the Financing Agreement. For the proposed
project, in reference to Section B.5.1 of the Technical Annexes, procurement of NCB contracts,
to the extent possible would be carried out in accordance with the Ghana Public Procurement
Act, 2003 (Act 663), as amended Act 914 of 2016 using the national Standard Bidding
Documents, and the provisions stipulated in the Financing Agreement.
4.1.3 The assessment of DUR’s procurement structure, measures to ensure effective
implementation as well as the description of the project’s procurement arrangements are
detailed in Annex B5. The Government has requested for Advance Contracting for some key
contracts of the project and the details are contained in Annex B5 and as indicated in the
procurement plan.
4.1.4 The Department of Urban Roads which is the executing agency of the project will be
responsible for the procurement of goods, works, and services as detailed above. DUR will
establish a mainstreamed Project Coordination Unit (PCU) including a Procurement and
Contracts Manager, in addition the Project Coordinator and the Quantity Surveyor of the PCU
will be professional with expertise in procurement. The procurement system and capacity
review of DUR concludes that the executing agency has adequate personnel with the required
expertise to manage all the procurements of this project. The existing PCUs arrangements for
current projects for respective development partners specifically the AfDB and the World Bank
includes a procurement specialist with adequate experience in donor funded projects. DUR has
adequate and experienced engineers and quantity surveyors with considerable experience in
procurement. DUR’s existing procurement structure and capacity was reviewed and it was
found to be adequate for the implementation of the proposed project. The PCU and other
relevant personnel will also receive training on the New Bank’s Procurement Policy
Framework during Project Launch.
Financial Management
4.1.4 DUR will be responsible for the financial management of the project. It has experience
in managing Bank financed projects and is thus familiar with the Bank’s FM requirements for
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ANNEXURE “F”
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projects. Past and ongoing projects managed by DUR, including the ongoing Awoshie-Pokuase
Road Project are generally rated satisfactory during FM supervisions with submission of
acceptable audit reports. The DUR accounting and reporting is well defined and has a unit
dedicated solely to managing projects accounting; while overall responsibility remain with the
Chief Accountant. DUR is already connected to the Government Integrated Financial
Management Information System (GIFMIS) for accounting purposes, albeit not yet capable of
handling donor project accounting; therefore, project accounting would be conducted outside
GIFMIS using the Sun System accounting software. DUR has an effective system/process
which reviews regular internal audit report of ex-poste controls performed by the internal audit
unit of DUR. In addition, DUR has now commenced regular submission of Internal Financial
Reports, a practice most of the Bank finance portfolio is yet to adopt. Disbursement for the
ongoing projects has generally been based on direct payment, which is expected to continue.
4.1.5 The Bank’s latest Country Fiduciary Risk Assessment (FRA) of Ghana’s Public
Financial Management (PFM) systems was conducted in May 2015, and rated the overall
fiduciary risk as Substantial. Key areas of fiduciary risk identified include: Poor commitment
controls on the non-payroll expenditures; weak internal controls over personnel and payroll
records, failure to incorporate internally generated funds and donor funding in the approved
budget; multiplicity of bank accounts associated with poor reconciliation capacity; ineffective
cash planning in treasury management, capacity issues with Ghana Revenue Authority and
specialist audit areas, like Oil and Gas. However, in spite of these risks, current PFM reforms,
especially those related to the newly introduced GIFMIS, will serve to correct these
deficiencies in the short to medium term. DUR is also one of those entities that is already
hooked to the GIFMIS and is a long established roads management agency, with systems that
have been used in the implementation of several previous Bank and World Bank projects. With
that history of previous successful implementation in mind, the proposed project will utilize
existing DUR FM systems, although DUR is expected to develop a project implementation
manual including financial management procedures manual to guide project operations, and
fully operationalize the Sun System accounting software.
Disbursement Arrangements
4.1.6 Disbursements will be made in accordance with the procedures outlined in the Bank’s
Disbursement Handbook. Two disbursement methods will be available for this project: Direct
payments method – The project is expected to consist primarily of a few major construction
related contracts; and the Special Account (SA) method will be established to facilitate project
management operation costs and will follow the normal procedure of operating the SA.
Audit
4.1.7 Recruitment of project auditors has followed the norm with the Auditor General
providing the long list of six firms and also participating in the evaluation process; this
procedure will be adopted for the proposed project. The audited financial statements and
associated management letter shall be submitted to the Bank within six months of the end of
each financial year audited. In terms of reporting, quarterly interim unaudited financial reports
should be produced by DUR and submitted to the Bank no later than 30 days after the end of
the quarter reported on.
4.2. Monitoring
4.2.1 The overall procurement, project supervision and monitoring falls under the Director
of DUR. The authority is well organized with qualified and experienced professionals. The
PCU will be responsible for close follow up and timely responses and will attend tripartite
monthly progress meetings and conduct site visits to discuss and address issues related to
progress of works. The PCU will also be in charge of monitoring the Result Based Logical
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ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
Framework in consultation with appropriate institutions. The Proposed project includes

technical audits and the objective of these audits is to provide a factual report on the quality of
works and services carried out by the contractor and the supervising consultant, with regard to
the organisational, technical, contractual and financial aspects, of the road and ancillary works.
The technical auditor will therefore provide regular feedbacks to remedy errors that could have
occurred, or which can lead to improvements in implementation and results of the project.
Monitoring of E&S impacts will be undertaken by DUR, which is directly responsible for
implementing the ESMP and the RAP. In addition to the Bank’s implementation support and
review of the performance of the Project during supervision missions and during the mid-term
review, DUR will produce Quarterly Progress Reports. The Bank’s implementation monitoring
time frame is indicated in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 – Implementation Monitoring Timeframe
Monitoring process /
Timeframe Milestone
feedback loop
Q4 – 2016 Project Launching Supervision and Progress Report
Q1 – 2017 Relocation of Utilities Completed Supervision and Progress Report
Advance Procurement of Civil Works
Q1 – 2017 Procurement Plan/Progress Report
Completed
Q2 – 2018 50% of Civil Works completed mid-term review Midterm Review & Progress Report
Q2 – 2019 Substantial completion of civil works Supervision and Progress Report
Q2 – 2020 End of Defects Liability period Supervision and Progress Report
Q4 – 2019 Project Completion Project Completion Report
4.3 Governance
4.3.1 Ghana’s evolving dispensation of free political expression, civil liberties and press
freedom present the country as an excellent example of relatively successful good political
governance in West Africa. The country is highly rated in governance indicators registering
high CPIA scores. Notwithstanding, a number of governance challenges still remain to be
urgently addressed, including a growing perception of corruption; although the actual indices
of corruption contradict this perception and corruption is still relatively low in Ghana as
compared to many other African countries. The Government is implementing measures to
improve transparency and public/stakeholder participation in decision making and has started
taking actions to combat contract-related corruption practices, including the amendment of the
Public Procurement Act 2003 (Act 663), the ongoing revision of the 2007 Procurement
Regulations, and the preparation of a Contract Management Manual to address weaknesses in
the public procurement process.
4.3.2 With regards to governance at the sector level, main recommendations from
institutional studies and monitoring teams that were launched previously included: a) the
creation of the National Roads Authority (NRA) to manage and fund road assets through
decentralized agencies including the Road Fund (RF) which is yet to be adopted by the
Executive for implementation; and b) the adoption of a more transparent and structured
approach to budget approval, to enable the RF in satisfying its mandate. Whilst the
decentralization of DUR and DFR is ongoing, the fuel levy has been increased recently from
7.3 Pesewas per litre (p/ltr) to 40p/ltr to improve the revenue inflow to cover maintenance costs.
4.3.3 The AUTP Project will be carried out within the PFM systems detailed in section 4.1.8
which implies that it will adopt all the Governance and Anti-Corruption policies and guidelines
of the country. The Internal audit of DUR and that of the Ministry will complement the
oversight of the independent auditor for this project. The proposed technical audit service will
further help in providing assurance that funds will be used for intended purposes only with due
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ANNEXURE “F”
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regard to economy and efficiency. The specific governance risk mitigation measures of the
Project include: (i) an Audit by independent auditor to ensure that funds are used efficiently
and for the intended purposes; (ii) appointment of independent technical audit consultant; (iii)
Bank review and clearance of all project procurement activities; and (iv) effective construction
supervision arrangements through separation of Engineer and Employer roles.
4.4 Sustainability
4.4.1 Sustainability of this project depends to a large extent on its level of maintenance. Under
the present implementation of the road sub-sector's investment program, routine and periodic
maintenance are financed by the Road Fund (RF) as well as GoG. The major source of the RF’s
revenues is the fuel levy (70.9%), which is complemented by road and bridge tolls (18.6%),
vehicle registration fees (6.3%), road user fees (3.7%), and international transit fees (0.5%).
The first charge of the RF is for routine and periodic maintenance and minor rehabilitation.
However, only about 50% of the maintenance needs is met. GoG is therefore exploring various
options including increasing the fuel levy and the other road use fees at appropriate periods to
increase the revenue.
4.4.2 With respect to the Project, maintenance of the completed interchange and approach road
sections will be the responsibility of the project contractor during the construction phase and
one year Defects Liability Period. DUR will be responsible for maintenance of the
ACP/Awoshie –Pokuase Road, the Interchange and the local roads, while GHA will be
responsible for the Nsawam Road through financing from the Road Fund. The MRH and its
three agencies have experience in management of maintenance of roads; however to strengthen
the capacity specifically on planning and management of maintenance contracts for bridges, a
component is included under this project to train the staff. The design of the main infrastructure
(interchange) and related facilities (urban roads, pedestrian crossings, community facilities,
supporting women's activities) has also taken into account the need to integrate the demands
of resilience to climate change and inclusive social development.
4.5. Risk management
4.5.1 The design of the Project assumes a number of risks which might affect the attainment of
the project objectives. These risks and mitigation measures proposed are discussed as follows:
i) Sustainability: the sustainability of the investment made in the Project will be adversely
affected if adequate maintenance financing is not sourced. To improve the financial
sustainability for road infrastructure, the government, apart from efforts to improve the revenue
inflow into the Road Fund is working closely with other stakeholders to source for capital and
private sector participation in the development, management and maintenance of its road
infrastructure. The Government of Ghana has also adopted the axle load policy to better address
proper and regulated use of vehicles to prolong the life span of the roads. Furthermore as part
of the project, staff of MRH and DUR will receive training to improve the maintenance
planning and management of bridges and roads. Regarding equipment purchased under the
project, these will be maintained under the construction contract during the implementation
period and thereafter they will be maintained by service providers contracted by DUR for
various categories of equipment as is currently the practice for all their equipment.
ii) Delays in Project Startup: start up delays occur mainly due to: i) long process of loan
signature and ratification by GoG; ii) delays in meeting loan conditions precedent for
disbursement; iii) long procurement process; iv) delays in compensations and resettlement of
PAPs; and v) delays in relocation of utilities. The project has put in mitigation measures to
address the start-up delays identified above as follows: i) the GoG internal approval process
for loan signature and entry into force will be initiated right after negotiations to minimize
duration of the ratification process; ii) deliberate efforts have been made by the Bank and GoG
15

ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
to minimize start up delays relating to meeting loan conditions, by resolving as much as

possible, issues that could potentially be included as conditions prior to the Negotiations; iii)
GoG has applied for Advanced Procurement Action to kick start the procurement process
which will speedup project start; iv) the GOG contribution in this project which covers costs
for compensation and resettlement are already included in the 2016 budget, therefore this
activity can be carried out immediately alongside the project processing; v) risk relating to
relocation of utilities is mitigated by removing the utilities from the main works contract and
introduced as a separate project component, carried out well in advance of the main works.
This activity will be monitored closely to ensure that it is carried out within the specified
timeframe and budget and the service providers who have been involved in the costing of these
activities will be implicated to take-up cost overruns.
iii) Price escalation: Another possible risk could be the price escalation during
implementation, mainly attributed to substantial design reviews and local currency
depreciation. This risk is mitigated by the fact that the cost estimates were prepared taking into
account Ghana’s construction market conditions with inclusion of adequate physical and price
contingencies in the project costs and cost estimates being in US dollars. The AUTP studies
made deliberate efforts to ensure extensive consultations and inputs in the design and review
and validation of each stage by dedicated Review teams. Finalisation of the design at project
appraisal stage and the extensive consultations with stakeholders will minimise the need for
major design revisions or modifications with resultant cost implications during
implementation. The project design has also hedged against the local currency exchange losses
by locking 94% of the Bank contribution in foreign currency and including 15% contingency
to cater for physical and price escalations during contract implementation.
4.6. Knowledge building
4.6.1 The project design has drawn on lessons learnt from the Bank and other DPs’ extensive
experience in Ghana, especially in the road transport sector. Technical knowledge, especially
with regards to cost estimations and implementation, were applied when designing and
appraising the proposed project. The project includes the following knowledge enhancement
activities: i) Awareness and trainings on road safety and use of the interchange facilities
including a comprehensive road safety program targeting groups such as school children,
teachers, drivers and the local community particularly the Non-motorised users; ii) ICT
trainings for children in targeted schools and two women’s groups to boost their knowledge in
ICT and to apply these to enhance economic growth in the communities; iii) a masterplan study
for urban development in Greater Accra which is welcomed by all the DPs and GoG as it
provides the platform for better coordination and greater synergy between the different projects
in the Greater Accra Region, while allowing more insight on possible future projects; iv)
institutional support to DUR and MRH in the form of Technical Assistance and trainings in
Project Management, Contracts Management, Financial Management and Road and Bridge
maintenance which will help build the in-house knowledgebase and capacity in these areas.
V – LEGAL INSTRUMENTS AND AUTHORITY

5.1. Legal instrument
5.1.1 The legal instrument for this operation will be an ADF loan. A Loan Agreement shall
be signed between the ADF and the Republic of Ghana.
Conditions Precedent to the Entry into Force of the Loan Agreement
5.1.2 The entry into force of the Loan agreement shall be subject to the fulfillment by the
Borrower of the provisions of Section 12.01 of the General Conditions Applicable to ADF
Loan Agreements and Guarantee Agreements s (Sovereign Entities).
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ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
Conditions Precedent to First Disbursement of the Loan

5.1.3 The obligation of the Fund to make the first disbursement of the Loan shall be
conditional upon the entry into force of the Loan Agreement and the fulfillment by the
Borrower, to the satisfaction of the Fund, of the following conditions:
i) The opening of a Special Account in a bank acceptable to the Fund into which part of the
proceeds of the loan shall be deposited;
ii) Submission of an updated Resettlement Action Plan together with a schedule (the Works
and Compensation Schedule) detailing inter alia: (A) the timeframe for the compensation
of the Project Affected Persons (PAPs) with respect to all such sections; and (B) proof of
availability of these funds in each case in form and substance satisfactory to the Fund.
Other Condition
i) The Borrower will provide evidence, in form and substance acceptable to the Fund, that
prior to commencement of construction on any section of the civil works, all PAPs with
respect to such section would have been compensated in accordance with the RAP; and
any updates to the RAP as well as the Works and Compensation Schedule.
ii) The maintain (a) the Project Coordination Unit (PCU) with terms of reference,
composition and a Project Manager acceptable to the Bank and (b) the Project Executive
Steering Committee with terms of reference and composition acceptable to the Bank;
VI – RECOMMENDATION
6.1 The AUTP project is a critical missing link sitting on the main central corridor (Tema-
-Kumasi-Tamale-Ouagadougou) and also links the industrialised area of Ga West with the Port,
Airport and Accra city centre. It is also located at the end of the Bank financed Awoshie-
Pokuase Project. Its implementation will greatly contribute to promote efficient movement of
goods and people to and from the city, boost trade and regional integration, provide income
generation opportunities, promote affordable transport services and generally improve the
livelihoods of people in the project area.
6.2 Management recommends that the Board of Directors approve the proposed ADF-13
loan of UA60.00million to the Republic of Ghana for the purposes of financing the Project
described in this report and subject to the conditions stipulated above.
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ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
Ghana
COMPARATIVE SOCIO-ECONOMIC INDICATORS
Appendix I. Ghana’s comparative socio-economic indicators
Develo- Develo-
Year Ghana Africa ping ped
Countries Countries
Basic Indicators
GNI Per Capita US $
Area ( '000 Km²) 2014 239 30,067 80,386 53,939
Total Population (millions) 2014 26.4 1,136.9 6.0 1.3 2500
Urban Population (% of Total) 2014 53.9 39.9 47.6 78.7 2000

Population Density (per Km²) 2014 110.8 37.8 73.3 24.3 1500
GNI per Capita (US $) 2013 1 770 2 310 4 168 39 812 1000
Labor Force Participation - Total (%) 2014 69.5 66.1 67.7 72.3
Labor Force Participation - Female (%) 2014 49.7 42.8 52.9 65.1 500
Gender -Related Dev elopment Index Value 2007-2013 0.884 0.801 0.506 0.792 0
Human Dev elop. Index (Rank among 187 countries) 2013 138 ... ... ...
2000
2005
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Popul. Liv ing Below $ 1.25 a Day (% of Population) 2008-2013 28.6 39.6 17.0 ...
Ghana Africa
Demographic Indicators
Population Grow th Rate - Total (%) 2014 2.1 2.5 1.3 0.4
Population Grow th Rate - Urban (%) 2014 3.3 3.4 2.5 0.7
Population Growth Rate (%)
Population < 15 y ears (%) 2014 38.3 40.8 28.2 17.0
Population >= 65 y ears (%) 2014 3.5 3.5 6.3 16.3 3.0
Dependency Ratio (%) 2014 72.1 62.4 54.3 50.4
2.5
Sex Ratio (per 100 female) 2014 98.6 100.4 107.7 105.4
Female Population 15-49 y ears (% of total population) 2014 25.7 24.0 26.0 23.0 2.0
Life Ex pectancy at Birth - Total (y ears) 2014 61.3 59.6 69.2 79.3 1.5
Life Ex pectancy at Birth - Female (y ears) 2014 62.3 60.7 71.2 82.3 1.0
Crude Birth Rate (per 1,000) 2014 30.4 34.4 20.9 11.4 0.5
Crude Death Rate (per 1,000) 2014 8.9 10.2 7.7 9.2
0.0
Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000) 2013 52.3 56.7 36.8 5.1
2000
2005
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Child Mortality Rate (per 1,000) 2013 78.4 84.0 50.2 6.1
Total Fertility Rate (per w oman) 2014 3.8 4.6 2.6 1.7 Ghana Africa
Maternal Mortality Rate (per 100,000) 2013 380.0 411.5 230.0 17.0
Women Using Contraception (%) 2014 21.7 34.9 62.0 ...
Health & Nutrition Indicators

Phy sicians (per 100,000 people) 2004-2012 9.6 46.9 118.1 308.0 Life Expectancy at Birth
Nurses (per 100,000 people)* 2004-2012 92.6 133.4 202.9 857.4 (years)
Births attended by Trained Health Personnel (%) 2009-2012 68.4 50.6 67.7 ... 80
Access to Safe Water (% of Population) 2012 87.2 67.2 87.2 99.2 70
60
Healthy life ex pectancy at birth (y ears) 2012 54.0 51.3 57 69 50
Access to Sanitation (% of Population) 2012 14.4 38.8 56.9 96.2 40
30
Percent. of Adults (aged 15-49) Liv ing w ith HIV/AIDS 2013 1.3 3.7 1.2 ... 20
Incidence of Tuberculosis (per 100,000) 2013 66.0 246.0 149.0 22.0 10
0
Child Immunization Against Tuberculosis (%) 2013 98.0 84.3 90.0 ...
2000
2005
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Child Immunization Against Measles (%) 2013 89.0 76.0 82.7 93.9
Underw eight Children (% of children under 5 y ears) 2005-2013 13.4 20.9 17.0 0.9 Ghana Africa
Daily Calorie Supply per Capita 2011 3 003 2 618 2 335 3 503
Public Ex penditure on Health (as % of GDP) 2013 3.3 2.7 3.1 7.3
Education Indicators
Gross Enrolment Ratio (%)
Primary School - Total 2011-2014 106.9 106.3 109.4 101.3
Primary School - Female 2011-2014 106.8 102.6 107.6 101.1 Infant Mortality Rate
( Per 1000 )
Secondary School - Total 2011-2014 67.1 54.3 69.0 100.2
Secondary School - Female 2011-2014 64.9 51.4 67.7 99.9 100
90
Primary School Female Teaching Staff (% of Total) 2012-2014 38.3 45.1 58.1 81.6 80
Adult literacy Rate - Total (%) 2006-2012 71.5 61.9 80.4 99.2 70
60
Adult literacy Rate - Male (%) 2006-2012 78.3 70.2 85.9 99.3 50
Adult literacy Rate - Female (%) 2006-2012 65.3 53.5 75.2 99.0 40
30
Percentage of GDP Spent on Education 2009-2012 8.1 5.3 4.3 5.5 20
10
0
Environmental Indicators
2000
2005
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Land Use (Arable Land as % of Total Land Area) 2012 20.7 8.8 11.8 9.2
Agricultural Land (as % of land area) 2012 0.7 43.4 43.4 28.9
Forest (As % of Land Area) 2012 20.7 22.1 28.3 34.9 Ghana Africa
Per Capita CO2 Emissions (metric tons) 2012 0.4 1.1 3.0 11.6
Sources : AfDB Statistics Department Databases; World Bank: World Development Indicators; last update : January 2016
UNAIDS; UNSD; WHO, UNICEF, UNDP; Country Reports.
Note : n.a. : Not Applicable ; … : Data Not Available.
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ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
Appendix II. Table of Bank’s Portfolio in Ghana

as at September 2016
%
Loan/grant Date of Date of Closing
Project name disbursed:
amount (UA) approval signature date
31/08/2016
AGRICULTURE
Northern Rural Growth Program 40 000 000 17.12.2007 04.03.2008 83.2 31.12.2016
Rural Enterprise Project III (L) 26 690 000 19.12.2012 15.11.2013 3.3 31.12.2018
Rural Enterprise Project III (G) 23 000 000 19.12.201. 15.11.2013 17.5 21.12.2018
Forest Investment Program/ELCRD 3 200 000 22.01.2014 26.07.2014 23.7 31.12.2019
Forest Investment Program/ELCRD 6 500 000 22.01.2014 26.07.2014 4.7 31.12.2019
Agriculture Sub-Total 99 390 000 40.1
SOCIAL
Development of Skills for Industry 45 000 000 22.04.2012 07.11.2012 39.9 30.06.2018
(L)
Development of Skills for Industry 25 000 000 20.9 30.06.2018
(G) Sub-Total
Social 70 000 000 07.11.2012 33.1
TRANSPORT
Awoshie-Pokuase Road & 53 590 000 14.10.2009 01.04.2010 81.3 30.12.2016
Community Dev.
Fufulso-Sawla Road 109 720 000 24.11.2010 02.12.2010 77.6 30.12.2016
Transport Sub-Total 163 310 000 78.8
POWER
Electricity Distribution System 28 600 000 26.02.2014 07.04.2015 0 31.03.2018
Reinforcement
Electricity Distribution System 19 860 000 26.02.2014 07.04.2015 0.88 31.03.2018
Reinforcement
Power Sub-Total 150 193 491 0.88
WATER/SANITATION
Accra Sewerage Improvement Project 46 000 000 26.04.2006 19.05.2006 91.1 01.07.2016
(Asip)
A Business Approach for Improved 910 329 26.04.2006 19.5.2006 81.6 31.12.2016
Sanitation
Sogakope-Lome PPP Trasfert D’eau 1 126 090.02 18.12.2013 22.2 30.03.2017
Water/Sanitation Sub-Total 48 519 323 89.3
MULTI-SECTOR
Ghana Institutional Support Project 46 000 000 10.09.2012 07.11.2012 42.5 30.04.2017
Statistical Capacity Building 178 571.00 30.06.2017
Multi-Sector Sub-Total 9 768 571.00 41.70
PRIVATE SECTOR
Kempinski Accra Hotel 11 617 400 27.09.2010 19.10.2010 100 29.06.2012
STANBIC Bank Ghana Limted 35 423 309 03.06.2015 Not yet 18.03.2024
Takoradi II ESP Power Project(TICO) 14 426 230 11.07.2012 12.25.2012 100 15.06.2014
UT Bank TF Loc 13 187 219 22.05.2013 29.07.2013 100 29.07.2014
Ghana MMSE/Invest in Africa 666 667 27.04.2014 26.11.2014 9.1 31.12.2018
Unibank TF LOC 10 714 286 04.10.2014 100 03.10.2017
Ghana Airports 85 714 285 30.09.2015 Not Yet 27.11.2018
Private Sector Sub-Total 171 493 954 29.2
Active Portfolio (Disbursing) 610 721 360 47.4

ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
Appendix III. Key related projects financed by the Bank and

other DPs in the Country
Project Title Donor Region USD million

Awoshie-Pokuase Raod and Community
AfDB Greater Accra 74.26
Development Project
Fufulso – Sawla Road Project AfDB Northern Region 149.52
Tema – Aflao Lot 2 Road Project AfDB Volta Region 33.81
Urban Transport Planning and Detailed
Design Studies for Accra North East Roads
AfDB Greater Accra 1.85
and Community Upgrading Infrastructure
and Pokuase Interchange
Detailed Design for the (a) Asituare
Junction to Volivo (28.3km) and Dufor
AfDB Volta Region 0.55
Adidome – Asikuma Junction (38.4km) &
9b) Asutuare – Aveyime Road (24km)
Consultancy Services for the Feasibility and
Detailed Design of the Busunu-Daboya AfDB Northern Region 0.6
Road (53km)
Awoshie – Pokuase Road and Community
AFD Greater Accra 32.66
Development Project
Urban Transport Project AFD Greater Accra 27.0
Urban Transport Project GEF Greater Accra 7.0
Urban Transport Project World Bank Greater Accra 45.0
West African Transport and Transit
World Bank Multinational 80.0
Facilitation Project
Abidjan – Lagos Trade Facilitation Project World Bank Multinational 120.0
Countrywide
Transport Sector Project World Bank 225.0
Programme
TOTAL 797.25

ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
Appendix IV. Map of the Project Area
IV

ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
Appendix V: Alternative Schemes Explored

DESIGN GOAL
The goal of the present assignment is to determine the most appropriate interchange configuration
considering the existing site conditions and future requirements along the corridor. Furthermore, it is
expected to enhance the safety and efficiency of the road network to respond to traffic, social and
environmental needs.
DESIGN OBJECTIVES
The objectives are to consider alternative schemes for ACP Junction, incorporate safety measures for
pedestrian crossings, evaluate technical viability of schemes, improve traffic operations, reduce road
accidents and minimise social, environmental and construction costs.
DESIGN CONSTRAINTS
The main design constraints include;
 An existing railway line located on the Awoshie approach which is about one hundred fifty
(150) metres west and eight (8) metres above the Nsawam Road.
 The Gua forest which houses a Sacred Grove, is located on the south Eastern quadrant of the
prosed interchange site.
 Site is located in a valley with commercial and residential properties encroaching the right of
way
 High Tension Lines (330kv, 161kv, 33kv, 11kv and 415/240v) crisscross the site.
EXISTING CONDITIONS
The current situation prompting the need for an intervention in the corridor includes; excessive
congestion and delays on the Nsawam road due to the high volume of traffic turning from and onto the
Nsawam road from the ACP junction and other local roads during peak hours. Furthermore, there is
no direct connection between the on-going Awoshie-Pokuase Road to the Nsawam Road and the
proposed Pokuase – Ritz Junction- Tema Motorway road as well as no direct left turns, uncontrolled
pedestrian crossing on the Nsawam road and indiscriminate pick up, drop off and parking by public
transport vehicles at Pokuase junction.
FUTURE REQUIREMENTS
In the future Ghana Highway Authority (GHA) intends to extend the service road from Ofankor
towards Nsawam. There is also the need to provide BRT services on the Nsawam Road.
SELECTION OF ALTERNATIVE INTERCHANGE OPTIONS

Various interchange schemes were evaluated in terms of the traffic volumes, expected level of service
(LOS), land take, geometric configuration and general arrangement to the existing features, accepted
traffic and geometric standards, economic analysis, cost, functionality and impact of traffic and
pedestrian mobility.
The interchange schemes studied under this phase of the assignment are:
No. Proposed Scheme Features

1 At-Grade Signalized Segregated left and right turning lanes, semi-actuated
signal control, with concurrent pedestrian phase
2 3-Tier Interchange with Rotary Rotary intersection at Tier 2 to facilitate left-turn
intersection movements from all approaches
3 3-Tier Interchange with Signalized Signalized intersection at Tier 2 to facilitate left-turn
intersection movements from all approaches
4 Partial Cloverleaf Loop ramps for left-turning traffic from Awoshie and
Kwabenya approaches. Left-turning traffic from Accra
V
ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
and Nsawam approaches to utilize existing U-turns on

Nsawam Road
5 Full Cloverleaf Loop ramps for left-turning traffic from all approaches
6 Directional (3 levels) Direct ramps for left-turning traffic from Awoshie and
Kwabenya approaches. Left-turning traffic from Accra
and Nsawam approaches to utilize existing U-turns on
Nsawam Road
7 Semi-Directional Direct ramps for left-turning traffic from Accra and
(3 levels) Nsawam approaches. Loop ramps for left-turning
traffic from Awoshie and Kwabenya approaches
 Advantages of the At Grade signalised scheme includes; low land take, allows all movements,
pedestrian friendly, lower cost, minimal property and environmental impact. At Grade signalised
scheme however has a very low capacity and high vehicular conflicts leading to low safety.
 The 3-Tier Rotary Interchange allows all movements, occupies less land with less traffic
interruptions, pedestrian friendly and relatively high in capacity, it has a much higher construction
cost and has lower capacity at the middle tier.
 For the Two-Tier Partial Cloverleaf Interchange, weaving is eliminated on the entrance ramps and
has higher capacity. It is also pedestrian-friendly but has a disadvantage of high property impact
with the loop ramps. It would also impact the Gua forest.
 The Full Cloverleaf Interchange scheme has lower cost of construction as compared to some of
the other similar options and is pedestrian friendly. However it will require higher land-take
compared to other schemes, high property impact, lower capacity, higher accident rates and will
impact the Gua forest.
 The Three-Tier Directional Interchange has a high capacity, less land take and property impact
with relatively low cost of construction compared to the semi-directional scheme. Disadvantages
include complicated provision for pedestrians and local traffic movement and no u- turns.
 Similarly, the Semi-Directional Interchange has higher capacity and less land take and property
impact with a disadvantage of complicated provision for pedestrians and local traffic movement
and no u- turn. Unlike the Three-Tier Directional Interchange, it has a higher cost of construction
due to the number and lengths of bridges to be constructed.
The Three Tier Signalised Option also referred to as the Single Point Urban Interchange (SPUI) was
found to be the most viable option from the economic analysis of the various interchange schemes. It
has the advantage of having better LOS for traffic operations especially on the middle tier and relatively
lower impact on Gua forest as well as land take. It also provides opportunities for meeting stated design
objectives. A fatal flaw mitigation analysis was conducted and deficiencies identified have been
addressed.

ANNEXURE “F”
TRANSPORT PROJECT
DESIGN OF SELECTED OPTION

A Single Point Urban Interchange (SPUI) has been designed in accordance with relevant design guides
and codes applicable to Ghana. These include GHA’s Road Design Guide, American Association of
State Highway and Transport Officials’ (AASHTO’s) Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets, MRH Standard Details, Road Signs and Markings for Urban and Trunk Roads. MUTCD 2009,
Ghana’s Pavement Design Manual, BS 5400, BS 8002, BS 8004, BD 37/01 and BD 28/87 etc. The
design has the following components:
 Tier 1- Nsawam Road
 Tier 2- Middle level where left turns will be undertaken.
 Tier 3- Awoshie – Pokuase- Nsawam.
 Ramps on all four legs for right and left turn manoeuvres.
 Pedestrian Underpass at ACP and pedestrian bridge (provision for wheelchair users) at Pokuase
Junctions respectively.
 Walkways/ Bicycle lanes integrated
 Service roads with an extra lane provided within the interchange area.
 Laybyes on all approaches

ANNEXURE “G”
SkyTrain ACCRA - SMARTER CITIES REPORT

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ANNEXURE “H”
SkyTrain TOWARDS AN EFFECTIVE TRANSITIONING OF PUBLIC
TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN GHANA
TOWARDS AN EFFECTIVE
TRANSITIONING OF PUBLIC
MICHAEL POKU-BOANSI, PhD
DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING, KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI - GHANA
NOVEMBER 22, 2016
PRESENTATION
OUTLINE
 Background
 Public Transport Reforms

in Ghana
 Characteristics of Ghana’s
BRT System
 Some Initial Challenges
 Current Research

ANNEXURE “H”
BACKGROUND
• Transport service
provision in Ghana has
been termed informal
(Cervero, 2000;
Cervero & Golub, 2007;
Takyi, 1990) and
provided by means
such as minibuses,
taxis, motorcycles and
vans.
• These informal
transport service
operators in most cases
operate outside the 3
officially sanctioned
BACKGROUND
Many see them to be nuisance requiring public intervention
and occasionally, eradication (World Bank, 2000; Gwilliam,
2002; Cervero, 2000; Cervero & Golub, 2007).
High rates of collision and accidents (see Cervero, 2000;

Cervero and Golub, 2007; Kurokawa & Iwata, 2014) and
organisations).
1,800 deaths and 14,500 injuries annually in Ghana (National

Road Safety Commission, 2013); constitute 2.54% of GDP or
about US$436 million (Obeng-Odoom, 2010).
Increased congestion in cities (Poku-Boansi & Adarkwa, 2011;4

Agyemang, 2009). For example, Taxis carry 12% of Person Trips
but utilize 22% of Road Space.

ANNEXURE “H”
BACKGROUND
 Low level of services - levels of comfort are low, and the
services are generally viewed as disorderly and unreliable
(Cervero & Golub, 2007; Takyi, 1990; Kwakye & Fourcare,
1998; Adarkwa & Poku-Boansi, 2011).
 Erratic scheduling and services (Cervero & Golub, 2007; Poku-

Boansi & Adarkwa, 2013).
 Inadequate and lack of capacity and evasion of taxes and

fees.
PUBLIC TRANSPORT REFORMS IN GHANA

GOAL: STRATEGIES:
80% of all trips in the urban Provide UPT infrastructure
area should be done through Provide a decentralized
public Mass Transit Systems. institutional and regulatory
framework
POLICY VISION: Empower the private sector
An affordable, safe and to invest in buses and
efficient urban transportation transport service provision
system that supports the Integrate urban
overall development and transportation within a
competitiveness of urban broader urban development
areas. framework
Reorganize individual
operators into business 6
entities to deliver UPT
services

ANNEXURE “H”
SCHEDULED
SERVICES USING
VISION OF PUBLIC BIG BUSES ON
TRANSPORT IN QUALITY BUS
CORRIDORS
GAMA BY 2020
Different roles
for big buses,
trotros and
taxis in the
network HIGH QUALITY TROTROs &
TAXIS ON FEEDERS
/ COLLECTORS
Application of “Hub & Spoke” Strategy

Hub – Developed along the existing major Trotro Terminals
Spoke - Existing minor stations and small sized terminals on the roadside or in residential areas
As is Trotro 7
Trotro 1 Trotro 1
Trotro 2 Trotro 2
Trotro 3 Trotro 3
Trotro 7
Trotro 4 Trotro 4
Trotro 5 Trotro 5
Trotro 6
Trotro 6
To be
Trotro 1 Trotro 12 Trotro 13
Trotro 2 Transfer Trotro 7
Trotro 3 Trotro 8
Station Trotro 9
Trotro 4 Trotro 10
Trotro 5
Arterial Bus between Hub Trotro 11
Hub Hub
Trotro 6 Spoke Trotro 14 Spoke
8

ANNEXURE “H”
THE UNIVERSAL NETWORK

Trotros will continue to provide the role of universal coverage
 Uplifted to higher quality, comfortable service and
improved safety
 Better conditions for both passengers and workers
Customer facilities and support services will be upgraded

 Terminals will be upgraded with better facilities for
passengers
 Properly demarcated bus stopping places along all routes
 Improved passenger information systems
THE UNIVERSAL NETWORK

All bus and trotro services will operate under permit
 New bus operating companies will be formed, including
from those within the trotro sector who are interested to
do so.
 Bus and trotro operators will be able to attract private
funds and loans to finance renewal of their vehicles.
 Most existing workers will be employees of the new system,
with stability of earnings and conditions.
 All workers will have a higher professional standard and
receive periodic training.
10

ANNEXURE “H”
ARTERIAL BUS NETWORK PLAN – => 12

LINES (293KM)
Adenta
LINE 3-1
Amasama Ashaiman
n Madina
Ofankor
Community
1
Sowutuo Achimota
m
37 Lorry
Circle
Sakaman
Kanashie
Kasoa LINE 1
11
ARTERIAL BUS OPERATION PLAN (481 BUSES)

Length Travel Time Service Number of
Line Route
(Roundtrip) (Roundtrip) Interval Vehicles
Line 1 Kasoa ~ Kaneshie ~ CBD 54.8km 170min 3~5min 69
Amasaman ~ Achimota ~
Line 2-1 42.4km 130min 3~5min 53
CBD
Line 2-2 Ofankor~ Achimota ~ CBD 29.2km 90min 3~5min 36
Line 2-3 Ofankor~ Sowutuom~ 46.2km 150min 6~10min 30
Adenta ~ Madina ~ Airport
Line 3-1 39.2km 120min 6~10min 24
CBD
Line 3-2 Madina ~ Airport ~ CBD 33.6km 110min 3~5min 45
Line 4-1 Tema ~ Motorway ~ 78.0km 100min 6~10min 21
Tema ~ Motorway ~ Airport
Line 4-2 66.2km 140min 3~5min 57
CBD
Ashaiman ~ Tema ~ Labadi
Line 4-3 62.9km 190min 6~10min 39
Circle
Line C-1 Ringroad-Circulation 19.8km 60min 3~5min 48
Line C-2 Achimota ~ 37 Lorry ~ 27.3km 85min 6~10min 35 12
Line C-3 Sakaman ~ Kaneshie ~ CBD 19.7km 60min 6~10min 24

ANNEXURE “H”
HUB TERMINALS & TRANSFER

FACILITIES
Adenta
Amasaman Ashaima
n
Madina
Ofankor
Communit
Achimota y1
Sowutuom
13 Hub
37 Terminals
11 Transfer
Circle Lorry
Facilities
Kasoa Sakaman
Kanashi
e
13
14

ANNEXURE “H”
THE BRT PLAN - Introduce BRT System (6 routes, 163.7km)

among 12 arterial bus lines
Route 2
Route Kasoa to UTC Route 3
1 Route 4
Route Nsawam road:

2 Amasaman CMB
Route Independence Avenue/
3 Liberation Road/Aburi
Road
Route Tema Community
4 1/Nungua-Teshie Beach
Road/Kwame Nkrumah
Circle
RouteRoute1
Mallam – Motorway
5
Route Achimota – Labadi
6 15
BRT ROUTE PLAN

No. Routes Serviced by Arterial Length
Bus Line (km)
Route 1 Kasoa to UTC Line 1, Line 2-3 27.7
Route 2 Nsawam road: Amasaman CMB Line 2-1, Line 2-2 24.9
Route 3 Independence Avenue/ Liberation Line 3-1, Line 3-2 25.0
Road/Aburi Road
Route 4 Tema Community 1/Nungua-Teshie Line 4-3, Line C-1, C- 43.8
Beach Road/Kwame Nkrumah Circle
Route 5 Mallam – Motorway Line 4-1, 4-2 33.7
Route 6 Achimota – Labadi Line C-2 13.2
Total 168.3
16

ANNEXURE “H”
MANAGEMENT OF THE
NETWORK
Regulation Construction /Maintenance Service Planning
MMDAS/GAPTE Department of Urban MMDAS/GAPTE

Operating permits etc Roads Network planning etc
Public Transport SCHEDULED

Operations BUS SERVICES
ON QUALITY
BUS
Depots and terminals CORRIDORS
Passenger Information
Common Facilities Common ticketing Separate Services
Data Management
TROTRO SERVICES
ON FEEDERS
17
GAPTE AND ITS MANDATE

 Passenger Transport Executive (PTE) established for Accra.
Three (3) strategic areas identified for GAPTE’s operations
 Enable the MMDAs to deliver quality transport for their
combined area
 Act on behalf of the MMDAs, using delegated authority
 Plan and oversee urban transport services for the combined
area (regulation of route and bus transit services and
transport network planning and development services).
 GAPTE is composed of Inter-MMDA Co-ordinating Body for

Public Transport in GAMA (Greater Accra Metropolitan Area).
18

ANNEXURE “H”
GAPTE AND ITS MANDATE

Bye-laws passed and 565 Trotro and Taxi entities
operational in 2010 in from various Unions registered
conformance with Local Govt in GAMA MMDAs
Act L.I. 1961
Comprising 20,935 drivers
Permit Type A issued for normal
Trotro/Taxi operator Entities
and renewable yearly 39,816 registered vehicles
Permit issued only to operator 23 Affected Operators on

entities not individuals Amasaman-Tudu (CMB) Corridor
Register of operators created 57 imparted routes

with the permitting system
75 imparted route operations
Only permitted operators in
register to benefit from the 19
opportunities created by the
reforms
PILOT BRT SYSTEM - AAYALOLO

 Current Operators transformed into operating Companies
delivering services on the Quality Bus Corridors (QBCs).
 Aayalolo Bus Services is run by three bus companies namely:

Amalgamated Bus Transit Services Limited for Achimota to
Tudu service (Charcoal Colour on the front windshield
with Bus No. written on it).
Accra GPRTU Rapid Bus Transit Company Limited for Ofankor
to Tudu service (Blue Colour on the front windshield
with Bus No. written on it).
Ghana Cooperative Bus Rapid Transit Association for
Amasaman to Tudu service (Green Colour on the front
windshield with Bus No. written on it)
20
 38 Buses are currently been used for the piloting

ANNEXURE “H”

 Amasaman to Tudu (GHANA COOPERATIVE BUS RAPID TRANSIT ASSOCIATION)
 Semi-fast service taking Expressway
 Serving end-to-end movements and the important interchanges at Achimota
and Circle
 16 Stops (Inbound and Outbound)
 Ofankor to Tudu (ACCRA GPRTU RAPID BUS TRANSIT COMPANY LIMITED)

Stopping service taking service lane
Serving intermediate demand between Ofankor and Achimota
17 Stops (Inbound) and 16 Stops (Outbound)
 Achimota to Tudu (AMALGAMATED BUS TRANSIT SERVICES LIMITED)

Serving as efficient ‘shuttle’ for the demand interchanging and originating
from Achimota towards Central Accra
12 Stops (Inbound) and 10 Stops (Outbound)
21
22

ANNEXURE “H”

 A zonal fare structure
which allows for
graduation of fares
paid according to
distance travelled is
applicable to the
Aayalolo system.
The fare zones used

are namely:
Zone 1 : Amasaman
to Ofankor
Zone 2: Ofankor to
Achimota
Zone 3: Achimota to 23
Circle

Movement within One (1) Zone: y = x
Movement between Two (2) Zones: y = x + 0.67x
Movement between Three (3) Zones: y = x + 1.17x
Movement between Four (4) Zones: y = x + 1.5x
The variable (x) will only be determined by the Ministry of
Transport (MOT) in consultation with transport operators. Currently
pegged at GHS 1.20…..(GHS 1 = £ 0.20)
Zone 1 = 1.20
Zone 2 = 1.20 + 0.67(1.20) = 2.00
Zone 3 = 1.20 + 1.17(1.20) = 2.60
Zone 3 = 1.20 + 1.50(1.20) = 3.00
24

ANNEXURE “H”

 Automatic Fare Collection  Passengers are advised to
System (Electronic Ticketing) ensure that they validate their
cards again before stepping off
 Purchased using the mobile the bus at the stop location.
payment
system…*447*10#.......Telecom
providers are partners……MTN,
TiGO & Airtel).  The buses allow for 40 seating
including the driver seat and
room for up to 46 standees for
 Point of Sales (POS)
Locations…7 along the crush capacity.
corridor….. Given to the agents
for GHS 4.75 per card….they
sell each for GHS 5.00…each  GPS system and 3G
card is preloaded with a fare communication on board the
value of GHS 2.90
buses. space for nursing
mothers with a kinder wagon25
 The bus is equipped with two or the physically challenged.
(2) validators (Entry and Exit
SOME INITIAL CHALLENGES
 Agitation on the part of some  Only 25% of business on

drivers of the trotro services. corridor affected
 Existing 77 affected operator

 It was also presumed that
drivers receive conflicting entities transformed into 3
instructions/information from Route Service Companies
their Operation Managers. (RSCs)
 Threat of loss of livelihoods

 Unreported incidents (eg.
Scratch on bus).  Dynamics surrounding
ownership (non-owner driver
 As per the duties given, buses vrs owner drivers)
did not leave the depot on 26
time.

ANNEXURE “H”
MY RESEARCH WORK AT ITS

To explore ways of transition the informal public transport
service provision in Ghana.
The research is examining the restructuring processes in

Ghana’s public transport service industry and their
implication on inclusiveness, secured livelihoods
(employment), sustainability of public transport services and
improved transport services.
The research will help fashioned a suitable approach in the

transition process in Ghana.
27
Examine how
URBAN TRANSPORT new reforms
REFORMS around large
systems emerge
and get retain in
Landscape society
Government
Policies Government
Policies
Niche
Employment
Employment
TRANSPORT SYSTEM
(INFORMAL) TRANSPORT SYSTEM
Safety issues Institutions (FORMAL BRT)
Efficiency and Improved Safety Institutions
reliability challenges Efficient and
Capacity challenges Regulations reliability system
Improved Capacity Regulations
Norms and
Culture Norms and
Culture
Existing System
Future Improved 28
System

ANNEXURE “H”
MY RESEARCH WORK AT ITS

 Research on transition management usually results in multi-level
perspective [MLP] (Geels, 2000, 2005, 2010; Rotmans et al. 2001).
 MLP distinguishes three analytical levels: niches (protected spaces

with flexible actor groups and rules); regimes (stable actor
networks with well-aligned rules within and between different
regimes; and landscape (external environment which cannot be
directly influence by the niche or regime actors).
 The dominant regime structure explain incremental change and

path dependence within the socio-technical system.
 The ongoing reforms within the urban transport sector in Ghana is

being examined within this framework.
29
THANK YOU
30

ANNEXURE “I”
SkyTrain HARNESSING LAND VALUES - REPORT 4 - PUBLIC
TRANSPORT LITERATURE REVIEW - 2015
Urban infrastructure in Sub-Saharan

Africa – harnessing land values,
housing and transport
Literature review on public transport

Report 4
28 May 2015
This material has been funded by UK aid from the UK government; however the views expressed do not
necessarily reflect the UK government’s official policies.

ANNEXURE “I”
Table of contents
Executive summary ..................................................................................... i
1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 1
2 Focus of the literature review ........................................................... 2

2.1 Contextual background............................................................... 2
2.2 Research questions .................................................................... 4
2.3 Research methodology ............................................................... 4
2.4 Quantity and quality of literature ................................................. 5
3 The role of public transport in city development .............................. 7

3.1 Modes of public transport ........................................................... 8
3.2 Role in city economies and equitable access ................................. 12
4 Public transport infrastructure in Sub-Saharan African cities ......... 14

4.1 Historical development .............................................................. 14
4.2 Supply and demand characteristics of contemporary public transport
systems .................................................................................. 16
4.3 Contemporary challenges .......................................................... 20
5 Public transport improvement and reform in Sub-Saharan African

cities ............................................................................................... 25
5.1 Alternative approaches to public transport improvement and reform
.............................................................................................. 26
5.2 An overview of contemporary public transport improvement and
reform initiatives in Sub-Saharan Africa ...................................... 31
6 Implications of alternative public transport improvement and reform

approaches ..................................................................................... 34
6.1 Financial implications ................................................................ 35
6.2 Institutional implications............................................................ 37
6.3 Passenger market implications ................................................... 40
7 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 42
References................................................................................................ 43

ANNEXURE “I”
DfID: Urban infrastructure in Sub-Saharan Africa – Harnessing land values, housing and
transport: Public transport literature review
Executive summary
This document reports the results of a literature review undertaken as part of a

larger project focused on harnessing land values as a way of funding urban
infrastructure in Sub-Saharan Africa. The field of the literature review was public
transport infrastructure in Sub-Saharan African cities.
The questions that guided the literature review included:
 What role do public transport systems play in facilitating the productivity of
city economies, and the provision of equitable access to city labour markets?
 What is the state of public transport systems in Sub-Saharan African cities,
and through what historical processes did the status quo emerge?
 What alternative approaches to improving/reforming existing public
transport systems have been implemented or considered, and where
implemented, what is the evidence of their impact?
 What are the implications of the different approaches to public transport
system improvement/reform for financing arrangements, and equity?
The principal responses to these questions, drawn from an interpretation of the
reviewed literature, are as follows:
 In large cities where dependence on non-motorised modes for all travel
needs is no longer feasible, public transport systems are essential to provide
equitable access to city labour markets and other opportunities, and to
enable the city economy to be efficient and productive.
 The state of paratransit-based public transport systems in Sub-Saharan
African cities are inadequate, and there is an evident case for system
improvement and reform. An essential component of any such reform will
need to be the introduction of road space priority to free public transport
vehicles from the congestion externalities arising from private transport on
high volume corridors, and to rationalise vehicle size to match available road
space and passenger demand profiles when such priority has been provided.
 Four approaches to improvement and reform have been proposed, in the
form of: the installation of new mass transit to replace existing services; a
slower stepped transition from paratransit to mass transit; existing service
upgrade; and the introduction of sophisticated contractual forms of service
regulation in the form of concessions or franchises. Elements of these
approaches can be observed in various contemporary Sub-Saharan African
public transport improvement programmes, but none has yet achieved
success at scale.
 There are no panaceas in the form of directly transferrable public transport
technologies or models, and to achieve any measure of success cities will
need to develop innovative and contextually appropriate strategies. Indeed,
the alternative approaches identified in the literature are not mutually
exclusive, and might be considered in different parts of city’s network and
form part of a broader improvement strategy. The urbanisation pressures
facing most Sub-Saharan African cities indicate that current resource
constraints are unlikely to be eased in the medium term. In considering
alternative courses of action, public authorities will therefore need to
carefully assess the commercial risks they assume. They will also have
important trade-offs to consider. Foremost amongst these is how to
concentrate available resources: in the face of limited resources, should

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expensive new high quality services be installed for a narrow segment of

the passenger market, or should lower service quality improvement be
pursued but to the benefit of a larger number?
It is concluded that the available literature, while showing encouraging growth in
recent years, has many gaps. Much attention is still required to explore the details
of contextually appropriate mechanisms for public transport improvement and
reform, and to record the many challenges and lessons that existing programmes
have encountered. The distributional equity and city productivity impacts of
different approaches to improvement and reform are also poorly demonstrated, as
are the institutional preconditions for success.
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1 Introduction
The African Centre for Cities (ACC) has been appointed by the United Kingdom’s
Department for International Development (DfID) to undertake a study on
harnessing land values as a way of funding urban infrastructure in Sub-Saharan
Africa (SSA), with supplementary studies on housing and public transport. The
study is divided into two phases: inception and implementation.
This literature review report, focussing on public transport infrastructure in Sub-
Saharan African cities, forms part of the Implementation Phase.
The report is divided into seven chapters.
Chapter 2 describes the focus of the literature review. It starts by discussing the
urbanisation pressures within which future attempts to improve city public
transport infrastructures will be embedded. It then identifies the research questions
that guided the literature review, describes the method that was adopted in the
search for relevant publications, and discusses the quantity and quality of the body
of literature that was found.
Chapter 3 presents a general, acontextual discussion, not focussed specifically on
studies of the particular context of Sub-Saharan Africa, on the role that public
transport infrastructure systems play in city development. It begins with a
definition of the various modes, and their characteristics, that make up public
transport systems. It then discusses the importance of public transport systems in
supporting the productivity of city economies, and in providing more equitable
access to city opportunities for diverse city populations.
Chapter 4 presents a contextually focussed discussion on the state of public
transport systems in Sub-Saharan African cities. It starts by describing the
historical forces that shaped contemporary public transport systems in this context.
Next it discusses the nature of contemporary public transport systems with respect
to the modes that are in operation, and their shares of the public transport
passenger market. It then discusses the adequacy if these public transport
systems, the grounds upon which their improvement or reform is warranted, and
some institutional challenges in implementing these improvements and reforms.
Chapter 5 explores alternatives through which inadequate public transport
systems could be improved and reformed. It begins by identifying the alternative
approaches that have been presented in the literature, and discusses these in
relation to the potential for their application in the Sub-Saharan African context. It
then presents case examples of implementation, or attempts thereat, of the
different approaches identified.
Chapter 6 tentatively explores, in matrix form, the implications the alternative
approaches identified in chapter 5 have for required financing arrangements, public
sector institutional capacity and city-wide passengers benefits in the short to
medium term. Whereas chapters 3, 4 and 5 seek to extract a coherent argument
from the body of literature reviewed, this chapter seeks these implications from
first principles.
Chapter 7 concludes by synthesising the main points of argument presented in the
report, and by making tentative observations on where new research and new
knowledge is required.

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2 Focus of the literature review
This chapter describes the focus of the literature review. It starts, in section 2.1,
by discussing the urbanisation pressures within which future attempts to improve
city public transport infrastructures will be embedded. Section 2.2 then identifies
the research questions that guided the literature review, section 2.3 describes the
method that was adopted in the search for relevant publications, and section 2.4
discusses the quantity and quality of the body of literature that was found.
2.1 Contextual background

The contextual background to the public transport literature reviewed in this report
is the broader urbanisation dynamic that is unfolding on the continent,
compounding an already high fertility rate. Forecast rates of global urbanisation
are highest in African countries, with only Asia exhibiting similar growth pressures
(see figure 2.1) (UNDESA 2012). This high rate of urbanisation is off a relatively
low base – figure 2.2 illustrates that a low proportion of Africa’s population lives in
urban settlements relative to other global regions. Thus even with comparatively
high urbanisation rates, Africa will continue to have a lower urban population than
other global regions. Figure 2.3 illustrates actual and forecast trends in African
urban population growth, suggesting that the one billion mark will be reached soon
after 2040 (UN-Habitat 2010).
2.5
African countries
Asian countries
European countries
Latin American and Carribean countries
2.0 North American countries
forecast annual urbanisation rate (2010-50) (percentage)
Oceanian countries
World population
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 25 50 75 100
urban population (2010) (percentage)
Source: UNDESA (2012)

Figure 2.1 Forecast urbanisation rates by global region: 2010-2050

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The pressures associated with urbanisation, in the form of growing demands on

urban infrastructure capacity, are therefore likely to be felt by African cities to
various degrees for many decades to come. In particular, the expansion of urban
public transport infrastructure systems will assume great importance, and the
planning and financing of these expansions will present a considerable challenge.
This literature review explores contemporary perspectives on how this public
transport system improvement might be pursued.
100
population living in urban areas (percentage)
75
50
Africa
25 Asia
Europe
Latin America and the Caribbean
Northern America
Oceania
0
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
2045
2050
Source: SSATP (2015:11), citing UNDESA (2012)

Figure 2.2 Urban population trends by global region: 1950-2050
Source: UN-Habitat 2010:1, citing UNDESA (2010)

Figure 2.3 African urban population trends: 1950-2050

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2.2 Research questions

The research questions that guided the literature review were derived from the
study’s terms of reference that was refined in the inception phase. These research
questions included the following:
 What role do public transport systems play in facilitating the productivity of
city economies, and the provision of equitable access to city labour markets?
(addressed in chapter 3)
 What is the state of public transport systems in Sub-Saharan African cities,
and through what historical processes did the status quo emerge?
 What alternative approaches to improving/reforming existing public
transport systems have been implemented or considered, and where
implemented, what is the evidence of their impact? (addressed in chapter 5)
system improvement/reform for (capital and operating) financing
arrangements (i.e. who pays for what, and where do commercial risks lie)?
system improvement/reform for equity (i.e. who benefits, and what are the
income and gender dimensions)? (addressed in chapter 6)
2.3 Research methodology

A search for scholarly publications in the field of public transport was conducted
between February and March 2015. The search focussed on English language
publications in the field of public transport in (both Anglophone and Francophone)
Sub-Saharan African countries. Emphasis was placed on finding peer-reviewed
publications (mainly journal papers, book chapters and conference papers), but
important non-academic publications (e.g. government policy documents, or
development agency reports) were also included in the search.
The following databases were searched:
 Science Direct (http://www.sciencedirect.com/)

 Google Scholar (http://scholar.google.co.za)
 CODATU (http://www.codatu.org)
 Southern African Transport Conference (http://repository.up.ac.za)
 Scopus (http://www.scopus.com)
A standard set of keywords was used to search each of the above databases for
relevant publications (see table 2.1). The keywords were grouped into three main
themes: public transport services; paratransit services; and cross-cutting themes.

ANNEXURE “I”
Table 2.1 Keywords used in literature search
Theme Keywords
Public transport  public transport
services:  transit
 intermodal transit (and intermodal public transport)
 bus
 rail
 train
 light rail (and LRT)
 bus rapid transit (and BRT)
Paratransit services:  paratransit
 intermediate public transport (and intermediate
transit)
 informal transit (and informal transport)
 shared taxi
 minibus taxi (South African colloquialism)
 kombi (and combi) taxi (South African colloquialism)
 matatu (Kenyan colloquialism)
 dala dala (Tanzanian colloquialism)
 tro tro (Ghanaian colloquialism)
 danfo (Nigerian colloquialism)
 molue (Nigerian colloquialism)
 gbaka (Ivorian colloquialism)
Cross-cutting themes:  sustainable transport
 transport security
 integrated transport and land use planning
 transport governance
 transport finance
The keywords were accompanied by a number of filters to narrow the search

results. Firstly, the database searches were restricted to publications published
between 2004 and 2015. Secondly, the words ‘Africa’ and ‘city/cities’ were added
as filters to refine the search results further.
The resulting collection of publications were recorded in a bibliometric database,
which included data fields relating to public transport theme, year of publication,
publication type and author information. During the process of reviewing the
literature, further important publications that were missed in the various database
searches were added to the bibliometric database and to the inventory, on an ad
hoc basis.
2.4 Quantity and quality of literature

A total of 257 publications were captured in the bibliometric database. Figure 2.4
presents the proportion of different public transport-related themes deal with in the
publications found in the literature search. The figure suggests that greatest
substantive attention over the past decade has been given to paratransit services
at 34%, followed by all public transport modes (i.e. publications that deal with
public transport systems on a non-mode specific basis) at 20% and bus rapid transit
(BRT) at 19%. Least substantive attention was found on the topics of accessibility
analysis, transport finance, transport governance and land use-public transport
integration (all at 0.4%).
Figure 2.5 explores where these publications were produced at a country level.
Publications are allocated to countries on the basis of the institutional affiliation of
the lead (or sole) author. The figure suggests that the greatest number of
publications have been produced in South Africa at 40%, followed by France (10%),
Kenya (9%), Nigeria (8%), the United States (5%), United Kingdom (5%) and
Ghana (5%). This distribution reflects both the relative research capacity and

ANNEXURE “I”
resources of Sub-Saharan research institutions, and the countries in which greatest

activity has occurred in public transport policy and implementation over this period
(see section 5.2).
land use-public transport integration, 0.4 transport governance, 0.4

universal access, 0.8
transport finance, 0.4
security, 0.8
scheduled bus services, 3.9 accessibility analysis, 0.4
formal-informal hybridity, 5.1

paratransit services, 33.9
rail services, 5.8
bus rapid transit services, 19.1
all public transport

modes, 29.2
Figure 2.4 Public transport publications, by theme (n=257, percentage)
Australia, 1.2
Côte d'Ivoire, 1.6 Germany, 1.2
The Netherlands, 1.6
Tanzania, 1.6
Belgium, 1.6
n.i., 1.6
Ireland, 1.9 South Africa, 39.7
Ghana, 2.7
United Kingdom, 5.1
United States, 5.4
Nigeria, 7.8
Kenya, 8.9 France, 10.1
Note: Data labels are limited to countries with ≥1.0% of publications

Figure 2.5 Public transport publications, by lead author institution country
(n=257, percentage)
A crude sense of the quality of the body of literature can obtained from the types
of publications, and whether they are typically subjected to peer review. Figure 2.6
presents the proportion of different publication media. Journal papers account for
the largest share, at 38%, followed by conference papers (37%): together
accounting for three-quarters of the scholarly publications found in the literature
search. The remainder of the publications were postgraduate theses or

ANNEXURE “I”
dissertations (11%), non-government policy reports or manuals (5%), book

chapters (4%), research reports (4%) and government policy documents (<1%).
Given that journal papers are peer-reviewed (with, of course, varying levels of
rigour), and at least some conferences undertake peer-review processes (e.g. the
annual Southern African Transport Conference), figure 2.7 suggests that the quality
of publications may be improving, as much of the recent increase in publication
was due to increases in journal and conference papers.
research report, 4.3 government policy document, 0.8
book chapter, 4.3
NGO policy document, 5.1

journal paper, 37.7
PG thesis/dissertation, 10.5
conference paper, 37.4
Figure 2.6 Public transport publications, by publication media (n=257,

percentage)
55 government policy document

50 research report
book chapter
45 NGO policy document
40 PG thesis/dissertation
conference paper
number of publications
35 journal paper
30
25
20
15
10
0
n.i. 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
year of publication
Figure 2.7 Public transport publications, by theme and publication media:

2004-present (n=257, count)
3 The role of public transport in city development
This chapter discusses the role that public transport systems and infrastructure
play in city development. It draws from a wider literature than that found in the
targeted literature search described in the previous chapter. Section 3.1 defines

ANNEXURE “I”
various modes of public transport and describes their characteristics. Section 3.2
discusses the importance of public transport systems in supporting the productivity
of city economies, and in providing more equitable access to city opportunities for
diverse city populations.
3.1 Modes of public transport

Private transport is primarily characterised by the fact that the trip maker owns the
vehicle and has full control over when and where trips are made. By contrast, public
transport services have a variety of ownership arrangements that exclude the
individual trip maker, and limit the user’s ability to control when trips are made, as
well as where these start and end. Users of both private and public transport
services can be sensitive to the cost of travel and to the presence of other
passengers, which could limit their freedom to travel.
Private transport and scheduled public transport are at the extremes of the
transport modal spectrum; in between there are a variety modes demonstrating
different elements of the private/public extremes. Vuchic (2007) provides an
overview of these different modes by usage (see table 3.1). The discussion
hereafter will focus on public transport and paratransit.
Scheduled (formal) public transport
Public transport typically operates according to fixed headway intervals or a fixed
timetable, have set fares and often run on a dedicated or semi-dedicated right-of-
way. A subdivision of such types of services by infrastructure is whether they are
fixed-track (rail) or road-based (broadly, the bus sector). Vehicle capacity ranges
widely across road- and rail-based modes, often with provision for both seated and
standing passengers in larger vehicles. These types of services, when provided by
private companies, often receive some form of financial support from public
authorities.
There are a variety of fixed-track services. These operate exclusively on dedicated
rights-of-way and run on a guided track on steel wheels or rubber tyres. Such
modes include light rail transit (LRT), metro-type services, which are typically grade
separated from other traffic and pedestrians, and suburban rail, which runs at
ground level. These services have high capacity coaches, and operate at relatively
high commercial speeds. This type of mass carrier is arguably essential to meet the
mobility and access requirements of large, dense modern cities. Rail services offer
the greatest capacity, but commonly come at a higher cost than road-based modes
(Hensher and Golob 2008).
In the road-based domain there are also a variety of modes. The highest capacity
mode is bus-rapid transit (BRT), and has some of the attributes of fixed-track
services such as dedicated (though not fixed-track) rights-of-way, stations, and
high-capacity vehicles. BRT services still contend with general traffic at
intersections, which is commonly dealt with through specialised signalling systems
and turning lanes. Conventional bus services – Vuchic’s (2007) ‘street transit’ – do
without many of the technological advances and dedicated infrastructure of rail
services and BRT, but nonetheless operate according to fixed routes and schedules.
One route schedule may apply in the peak period, and another may offer a reduced
service in off-peak hours (Meakin 2004).
Dauby (2009) provides a schematic of the ranges of carrying capacities that the
abovementioned modes provide (see figure 3.1). Vuchic (2007) provides a similar
estimation of peak passenger carrying capacities (termed ‘line capacity’), and plots
this against operating speed.

ANNEXURE “I”
DfID: Urban infrastructure in Sub-Saharan Africa – Harnessing land values, housing and transport: Public transport literature review
Table 3.1 Classification of urban passenger transport by type of usage
Source: Vuchic (2007:46)

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Source: Dauby (2009)

Notes: BRT=bus rapid transit; AGT=automated guideway transit
Figure 3.1 Public transport modes and passenger capacities
Source: Vuchic (2007:78)

Notes: RB=regular bus; SCR=streetcar; BRT=bus rapid transit; LRT=light rail
transit; RRT=rapid rail transit; RGR=regional rail
Figure 3.2 Public transport modes, passenger capacities and operating speeds
10

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Paratransit
The term paratransit refers to unscheduled public transport services that typically
utilise small buses, minibuses (vans) and smaller sedan vehicles. Paratransit in one
or more of these formats is common in developing world countries – see, for
instance, Cervero's (2000) international review of these and for-hire services. The
ubiquity of paratransit in Sub-Saharan Africa (as discussed in detail in chapter 4)
has led to it filling many, if not most, of the market niches that the modes in
figure 3.1 occupy with large fleets of small vehicles.
In its most basic form one vehicle would provide transport services to a small group
of users, for a fixed rate, and virtually exclusively. The origin and destination is
typically controlled by the user, or by a subset of users making a trip, but the time
of making a trip is determined by the availability of the vehicle. The scale of use
makes it possible to have a degree of freedom of movement, but at a lower cost
than owning a vehicle, whether shared or outright. This resembles private modes
due to the (partially) exclusive-use nature of vehicles.
The most common type of paratransit service is delivered by minibuses under a
variety of names in different cities. Such minibus services have been given a variety
of colloquial names, for example: dala dalas in Dar es Salaam; danfos in Lagos;
cars rapides in Dakar; gbakas in Abidjan; matatus in Nairobi and tro tros in Accra
(Behrens et al 2015). The services are characterised by being owned by individuals
who are either the driver themselves, or who employ drivers, especially when
owning and operating multiple vehicles. Vehicles are typically 9- to 18-seater
minibuses, but sedan cars and larger midi-bus vehicles are also found. In many
parts of particularly East and West Africa two-wheeled for-hire services (in the form
of motorcycle taxis known, for instance, as bodaboda in Kenya and Uganda, and
okadas in Nigeria) supplement or compete with four-wheeled paratransit.
Paratransit is subject to limited regulation, and dedicated rights-of-way for this
mode are uncommon. There is, however, some form of self-regulation within many
cities by way of operator or route associations (Sohail et al 2006). Individual
owners typically form associations to jointly control the number of vehicles
operating on particular routes, and to mediate loading arrangements at ranks.
Owners pay membership fee and levies for the operational management function.
Services are unscheduled, with vehicles departing from formal pick-up points
(ranks) when reaching a pre-determined occupancy, which is full during peak
periods (Meakin 2002, Cervero 2000). Alternative operations have vehicles
roaming the streets in an area to pick up passengers en route to more formal pick-
up points. When full these vehicles can either move directly to a destination, or
take passengers to a rank where they can transfer onto a different vehicle that
makes the trip to the desired destination. In this sense paratransit services
demonstrate internal organisation according to feeder and trunk demand. In
smaller cities, or rural towns, and during off-peak trips, passengers can sometimes
arrange to be picked up or dropped off at home, hence exercising some control of
the start and end point of a trip.
The flexibility of paratransit service has made it a very attractive mode for
passengers who very often do not have access to private transport, and have travel
distances that are too far to walk. While the service offering is ideal for shorter,
localised trips, it is often employed over much longer distances, with resultant long
travel times and inefficiencies of scale.
Paratransit services have proven notoriously difficult to regulate, and such attempts
are often driven by the need to resolve or minimise conflict. Instances of the
paratransit industry self-organising scheduled services are rare, and while
economies of scale can be achieved by larger vehicles on longer routes, this is also
not common.
11

ANNEXURE “I”
3.2 Role in city economies and equitable access

As noted in section 2.1, Sub-Saharan African countries are characterised by high
rates of urbanisation: from 1990 to 2010 the urban population in this region
increased from 28% to 37%, with mean annual rates of change in the same period
being in the region of 4% (UN-Habitat 2010, 2013a). The potential for urbanisation
is great, given that the majority of the region’s population lives in rural areas.
Urban conditions hold more promise than remaining within rural areas, especially
as agricultural conditions deteriorate due to, amongst other factors, climate change
and mechanisation.
Urbanisation often results in a high degree of informality with population growth
exceeding provision of formal infrastructure for basic services like water, sanitation
and electricity. In the absence of adequate and enforceable urban plans, such
informal settlements tend to be located on the periphery of cities, given the lower
value of land, which has consequences for the modes of transport available to their
inhabitants. It is therefore not surprising that urban services, and especially formal
public transport systems, also lag behind settlement formation by some margin.
Public transport’s role in equitable access
The variety of trips made by people on a daily basis are served to differing degrees
by the different service offerings that Vuchic (2007) identifies (see table 3.1). While
shorter trips are ideal for walking or cycling, longer distances (i.e. greater than
~8 kilometres) are better served by motorised forms of transport. Public transport
is typically more energy efficient than private cars if running at reasonable
occupancy rates, but offers less flexibility and typically longer travel times.
However, the choice of mode for a particular trip is very often made on financial
considerations alone - especially so in the Sub-Saharan African context (Olvera et
al 2013, Sietchiping et al 2012). At one end of the spectrum people often walk
significant distances simply because they cannot afford motorised forms of
transport, while at the other end, people who are not sensitive to cost use cars to
travel even very short distances. The congestion that the latter causes impacts on
the reliability of public transport.
The distinctions between scheduled public transport and paratransit as discussed
in section 3.1 are pertinent in view of such peripheral and informal urban growth,
and due to the cost sensitivity of large portions of potential users. Due to their
innate flexibility paratransit services are well-suited to respond to peripheral and
informal urbanisation patterns, whereas scheduled public transport services,
particularly at the higher end of the capacity spectrum, take time to plan and
implement. This does not mean to say that there is no purpose in expanding formal
public transport services, or in considering measures that would address problems
with paratransit operations.
Continued reliance on paratransit services in their present form means that the
shortcomings of these services are perpetuated. These shortcomings include fierce
on-the-road competition, asset sweating (i.e. extracting greater service from aging
or unroadworthy vehicle fleets in order to avoid vehicle replacement costs), and
the inefficiency of accommodating large passenger movements from peripheral
urban locations to more centrally-located economic opportunities. In relation to the
latter, the economies of scale offered by high-capacity scheduled modes could be
used to the benefit especially of economically vulnerable passengers. Measures to
improve paratransit services could also be of benefit to passengers, particularly
from a safety point of view. (Chapter 5 reflects on both formal public transport and
paratransit improvements, while chapter 6 discusses the implications for
passengers of pursing strategies that concentrate improvement efforts on either
new or existing services.)
12

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Irrespective of whether provided by mass transit or paratransit modes, public

transport services are essential in providing equitable access in cities that have
become too large for non-motorised travel. Without these services, offered at
affordable fares that maintain conditions of non-excludability and non-rivalry, those
without access to private transport (i.e. the poor, young, old and disabled) are
stranded and excluded from the range of employment, commercial, social and
education opportunities that a city offers.
A small literature has emerged in Sub-Saharan Africa on the particular vulnerability
and needs of these groups within transport systems generally. Some publications
focus on the needs of women (e.g. Salon and Gulyani 2010 in Nairobi, Seedat
et al 2006 in Johannesburg, and Porter et al 2013 in a variety of Sub-Saharan
African contexts). Other publications focus on the elderly (e.g. Odufuwa 2005 in
four Nigerian cities, and Ipingbemi 2010 in Ibadan). Further publications focus on
children (e.g. Chacha and Bwire 2013 in Dar es Salaam, and Ipingbemi and Aiworo
2013 in Benin City. Lucas (2011) explores the link between transport disadvantage
and social exclusion more generally, in the context of Tshwane.
Passenger satisfaction surveys that disaggregate results by user group (e.g.
Behrens and Schalekamp 2010 in Cape Town, Chinomona et al 2013 in Harrismith,
Olawole and Aloba 2014 in Osogbo, and Vilakazi and Govender 2014 and
Govender 2014 in Johannesburg) provide some insight into the problems these
groups experience with public transport services more specifically. These studies
illustrate a fairly consistent pattern of greater female passenger dissatisfaction
with, and concern for, service attributes relating to security features at stops and
in vehicles. The elderly are another group that report high levels of dissatisfaction
with the availability of services that meet their needs and accommodate their
limitations in physical mobility.
Economic roles of public transport
In the context of Sub-Saharan cities, public transport plays important economic
roles. Foremost, it is as enabler of access to economic opportunity. Public transport
(both scheduled services and paratransit) plays a crucial role in the urban economy
as it increases the size of labour catchment areas, when offered at adequate service
levels. While this is true for persons who would otherwise walk excessive distances,
it would similarly apply to those who incorrectly perceive the car to be superior in
all instances.
It should, however, be noted that economic productivity, while essential to
increasing employment opportunities, should not be the sole objective in providing
public transport. Access to education, health and institutional facilities, as well as
recreation and retail activities are essential for personal development and the
development of higher order skills. These in turn, would enable diversification of
the urban economy and the development of entrepreneurs and the possible
creation of new industries.
Public transport operations in themselves also provide economic opportunity, often
in communities where other forms of employment are scarce. The operators of
formal scheduled services provide operational and administrative jobs, typically
within the formal sector. In relation to paratransit, each vehicle provides work for
at least one driver, and in some instances also a conductor. This is only the direct
employment aspect. Vehicle maintenance and the various administrative and
operational functions of operator collectives add indirect employment. With urban
paratransit fleets often numbering in the thousands within a given city,
paratransit’s contribution to economic product is significant.
Literature presenting evidence of the impact of public transport investments on the
performance of economies was found to be surprisingly sparse. Most studies
consider the relationship between general transport infrastructure investment and
13

ANNEXURE “I”
economic performance (e.g. Sequeira 2013). One study in 2009, that explored the
impact of public transport infrastructure more specifically (Weisbrod and
Reno 2009), identified two categories of public transport infrastructure investment
effects. The first relates to the direct effects on creating immediate jobs and income
by supporting manufacturing, construction and service operation activities:
estimating that in the United States (US) an average of 36,000 jobs per annum are
supported per USD 1 billion of annual spending on public transport; and,
corresponding to the 36,000 jobs, approximately USD 3.6 billion of business output
(i.e. sales volume) is added. The second category is longer-term effects on
economic efficiency and productivity resulting from changes in travel times, costs
and levels of access. Investment in public transportation is argued to potentially
affect the economy by, amongst other things, providing: business operating cost
savings associated with worker wage and reliability effects of reduced congestion;
and business productivity gained from access to broader labour markets with more
diverse skills, enabled by reduced traffic congestion and expanded public transport
service areas.
4 Public transport infrastructure in Sub-Saharan

African cities
This chapter presents a contextually focussed discussion on the state of public

transport systems in Sub-Saharan African cities. Section 4.1 starts by describing
the historical forces that shaped contemporary public transport systems in this
context. Next section 4.2 discusses the nature of contemporary public transport
systems with respect to the modes that are in operation, and their shares of the
public transport passenger market. Section 4.3 then discusses the adequacy of
these public transport systems, the grounds upon which their improvement and
reform is warranted, and some institutional challenges in implementing these
improvements and reforms.
4.1 Historical development

This section reviews the limited literature describing the historical processes
through which contemporary Sub-Saharan African public transport systems
emerged. Only one study providing a sub-continental perspective on this history
was found in the literature search (Kumar and Barrett 2008), so consequently the
section draws from this and various other publications that trace the history of
individual case cities, and attempts to develop a sub-continental perspective from
these.
Across many Sub-Saharan African cities, during the first half of the twentieth
century colonial governments established monopolistic public transport operations.
While some of these services were rail-based, most were road-based. An example
of an early rail-based undertaking is The Cape Town and Green Point Tramway
Company established in Cape Town in 1861 (GABS 2013). Examples of road-based
undertakings are the Overseas Transport Company of London introduced to Nairobi
in 1934 (Klopp 2012), the Dar es Salaam Motor Transport Company established in
Dar es Salaam in 1949 (Kanyama et al 2004), and the Compagnie sénégalaise de
transports collectifs in Dakar in the late-1940s (Kumar and Diou 2010). The road-
based operations typically comprised fleets of conventional large buses operating
scheduled services on networks of fixed routes focussed on an urban centre, with
standardised fares, passenger information and vehicle branding.
In the second half of the twentieth century the continuation of these operations
became increasingly difficult. Faced with rapid growth in city populations and
concomitant traffic increases, and stagnant road capacity, commercial speeds
reduced and operating costs increased. In the context of limited fiscal resources,
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ANNEXURE “I”
government authorities were unable to provide sufficient capital and operating

funding support. In many cases private monopoly bus companies were nationalised
as part of the decolonisation processes in the 1960s (Finn 2008). In this immediate
post-colonial era, fares were regulated and many governments were reluctant to
increase them for political reasons. Initially, many state-owned bus companies
were able to operate without subsidy, but as operating deficits grew and subsidy
budgets stagnated, they had difficulty in maintaining and replacing vehicle fleets.
The result was steady decline in both the quantity and quality of service. Most of
the public bus companies eventually failed, with many of the bankruptcies occurring
in the 1990s when structural adjustment policies severely limited the availability of
public funds for subsidy (Kumar and Barrett 2008).
In most cities, the deterioration and collapse of scheduled bus services allowed the
establishment of large-scale paratransit operations, offering flexible services
typically in the form of small- to medium-sized buses with capacities ranging
between nine and 25 seats. Some Sub-Saharan African cities ultimately had no
formal large-bus or rail services, and their public transport systems came to rely
exclusively on paratransit services operated as informal businesses. With a few
exceptions, this change in service offering did not result from a deliberate policy
decision to deregulate public transport in the same way privatisation policies were
implemented in other parts of the world at that time, but rather represented a
localized response to growing unserved passenger demand and relatively
unrestricted market entry in a regulatory vacuum (McCaul 1990, Behrens et al
2015).
Service provision was typically weakly regulated, although in some cities, area or
route operating licences were introduced in attempts to limit market entry, and
vehicle roadworthiness varied according to the enforcement capability of
responsible public authorities. Services were, and continue to be, provided by
fragmented owners, with small vehicle fleets that were typically rented out to
drivers. Drivers normally keep cash fare revenue less a daily ‘target’ payment to
the vehicle owner and fuel expenses, or are paid a commission in the form of an
agreed portion of weekly fare revenue (Joubert 2013). These driver remuneration
practices resulted in a strong incentive to compete aggressively for, and carry, full
passenger loads, and to despatch vehicles on a ‘fill-and-go’ basis.
Public transport systems in contemporary Sub-Saharan African cities are therefore
heavily reliant upon paratransit services, and in most cities they hold the largest
modal share (see table 4.1).
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ANNEXURE “I”
Table 4.1 Paratransit share of road-based public transport passenger

markets in selected African cities
City (country) Paratransit Data Data source

market collection
share year
Kampala (Uganda) 100% c2008 Kumar and Barrett 2008
Kigali (Rwanda) 99% c2008 Kumar and Barrett 2008
Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) 98% c2013 Roux 2013
Dakar (Senegal) 97% c2008 Kumar and Barrett 2008
Douala (Cameroon) 95% c2010 UATP 2010
Conakry (Guinea) 93% c2008 Kumar and Barrett 2008
Bamako (Mali) 91% c2008 Kumar and Barrett 2008
Lagos (Nigeria) 89% c2008 Kumar and Barrett 2008
Nairobi (Kenya) 87% c2008 Kumar and Barrett 2008
Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) 86% 2000 Godard 2008
Accra (Ghana) 86% c2008 Kumar and Barrett 2008
Algiers (Algeria) 82% 2004 Godard 2008
Niamey (Niger) 81% 1997 Godard 2008
Windhoek (Namibia) 81% c2010 UATP 2010
Johannesburg (South Africa) 72% 2002 CoJ 2013a
Yaoundé (Cameroon) 65% 2010 Godard 2013
Abidjan (Ivory Coast) 61% 1998 Godard 2008
Cape Town (South Africa) 58% 2013 CoCT 2013a
Cairo (Egypt) 52% 1998 Godard 2008
Casablanca (Morocco) 38% 1998 Godard 2008
Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) 36% c2008 Kumar and Barrett 2008
Source: Behrens et al (2015)
Note: Most individual data sources do not specify whether the market share is measured
during the peak period or over the entire day, and whether trips for all purposes are
included, so comparisons may be inaccurate in some cases.
4.2 Supply and demand characteristics of contemporary public

transport systems
This section collates the available secondary quantitative data on the public
transport modes operating in contemporary Sub-Saharan African cities, and their
share of passenger markets. Recent data are difficult to obtain, and the sources
that are available often provide limited detail on the exact nature of mode use
measurements applied, which makes comparisons across sources less reliable.
Studies that have collected comparative sub-continental supply and demand
information at a country or city level include: Kumar and Barrett (2008), Trans-
Africa Consortium (2008, 2010), UATP (2010) and SSATP (2015). These, and a few
other individual sources, are drawn from in table 4.2(a and b), which presents the
public transport modes that are in operation in the subcontinent, and in table 4.3,
which presents the share these modes hold of city public transport passenger
markets.
Table 4.2 demonstrates that the most common modes of public transport that
provide intra-city services are minibus paratransit and conventional large bus
services. The number of cities and countries reported to have conventional bus
services in operation is a little surprising: it is, however, possible that in some
instances unscheduled bus paratransit (i.e. the large bus matatus in Nairobi and
molues in Lagos) have not been distinguished from conventional scheduled large
bus operations. Certainly intra-city train and BRT services are uncommon. The
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ANNEXURE “I”
cities in which these mass transit modes do operate, tend to be in wealthier

countries and usually primate in nature.
Table 4.3 indicates, as in the case of table 4.1 which focusses on just road-based
services, that paratransit holds the dominant share of the public transport
passenger market. In instances where this is not the case (e.g. Ouagadougou and
Abidjan), this is probably due to public transport services holding a relatively
smaller share of the total modal split, with for-hire modes (particularly motorcycle
taxis in West African cities, as noted by UN-Habitat 2013b) holding a larger share
than in the other cities.
Table 4.2 Intra-city public transport modes in operation, by (a) city and (b)
country
(a) Sub-Saharan African city Paratransit Transit

minibus
bus
rail
heavy
light rail
transit
bus rapid
BRT-lite
bus
Abidjan (SSATP (2015)) X X
Accra (Trans-Africa (2010)) X X
Addis Ababa (SSATP (2015)) X X
Bamako (Kumar and Barrett (2008)) X X
Cape Town (CoCT 2013) X X X X
Conakry (Kumar and Barrett (2008)) X X
Dakar (Trans-Africa (2010)) X X
Dar es Salaam (Trans-Africa (2010)) X X
Douala (Trans-Africa (2010)) X X
Gauteng city region (SSATP (2015)) X X X X
Harare (Kenworthy and Laube (2001)) X X
Kampala (Kumar and Barrett (2008)) X
Kigali (Kumar and Barrett (2008)) X X
Kinshasa (Kumar and Barrett (2008)) X X X
Lagos (Kumar and Barrett (2008)) X X X X
Nairobi (SSATP (2015)) X X X X
Ouagadougou (SSATP (2015)) X X
Windhoek (Trans-Africa (2010)) X X
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ANNEXURE “I”
(b) Sub-Saharan African Paratransit Transit

country
minibus
bus
heavy rail
light rail
transit
bus rapid
BRT-lite
bus
Angola (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Benin (TransAfrica (2008)) X
Botswana (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Burkina Faso (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Burundi (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Cameroon (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Cape Verde (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Cen. African R. (TransAfrica (2008)) X
Chad (TransAfrica (2008))
Comoros (TransAfrica (2008)) X
Congo (TransAfrica (2008)) X
Cote D’Ivoire (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
D. R. of Congo (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Djibouti (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Equ. Guinea (TransAfrica (2008)) X
Eritrea (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Ethiopia (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Gabon (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Gambia (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Ghana (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Guinea Bissau (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Guinea (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Kenya (TransAfrica (2008)) X X X X
Lesotho (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Liberia (TransAfrica (2008)) X
Madagascar (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Malawi (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Mali (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Mauritius (TransAfrica (2008)) X
Mozambique (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Namibia (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Niger (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Nigeria (TransAfrica (2008)) X X X X
Rwanda (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Senegal (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Seychelles (TransAfrica (2008)) X
Sierra Leone (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Somalia (TransAfrica (2008)) X
South Africa (TransAfrica (2008)) X X X X
Swaziland (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Tanzania (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Togo (TransAfrica (2008)) X
Uganda (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Zambia (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
Zimbabwe (TransAfrica (2008)) X X
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DfID: Urban infrastructure in Sub-Saharan Africa – Harnessing land values, housing and transport: Public transport literature review
Table 4.3 Intra-city public transport mode passenger market share, by city
Sub-Saharan African city Paratransit Transit

minibus bus heavy rail light rail bus rapid BRT-lite bus
transit
Abidjan (SSATP (2015)) 47.1% 52.9%
Accra (Trans-Africa (2010)) 99.0% 1.0%
Addis Ababa (SSATP (2015)) 60.0% 40.0%
Bamako (Kumar and Barrett (2008)) 90.9% 9.1%
Cape Town (CoCT 2013) 52.8% 23.2% 0.7% 19.9%
Conakry (Kumar and Barrett (2008)) 93.3% 6.7%
Dakar (Trans-Africa (2010)) 82.6% 17.4%
Dar es Salaam (Trans-Africa (2010)) 98.3% 1.7%
Douala (Trans-Africa (2010)) 97.7% 2.3%
Gauteng city region (SSATP (2015)) 86.0% 8.9% 0.3% 4.7%
Harare (Kenworthy and Laube (2001)) 71.8% 28.2%
Kampala (Kumar and Barrett (2008)) 100.0%
Kigali (Kumar and Barrett (2008)) 98.7% 1.3%
Kinshasa (Kumar and Barrett (2008))
Lagos (Kumar and Barrett (2008)) 94.9% 5.1%
Nairobi (SSATP (2015)) 79.9% 1.1% 19.0%
Ouagadougou (SSATP (2015)) 20.0% 80.0%
Windhoek (Trans-Africa (2010)) 74.3% 25.7%
Notes:
1. The category of minibus paratransit includes both large bus and sedan paratransit vehicles. The data sources do not distinguish between these
paratransit vehicle sizes consistently.
2. For the data sources that do not specify the trip purposes to which the mode shares apply, it is assumed that the mode share relates to trips undertaken
for all purposes across the entire weekday.
3. In some cities the share of public transport modes of the entire modal split (i.e. including private/for-hire motorised and non-motorised transport
modes) is low, as there is a large share of for-hire (e.g. motorcycle taxi) and non-motorised (e.g. walking and cycling) modes. This applies particularly
to the West African cities of Ouagadougou, Bamako, Conakry and Douala.
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4.3 Contemporary challenges

This section discusses literature dealing with the adequacy of contemporary Sub-
Saharan African public transport services, and the grounds upon which reform, or
at least significant improvement, of these services has been argued to be
necessary. Publications that deal with contemporary challenges, and the case for
reform, at a sub-continental scale include: Gauthier and Weinstock (2010), SSATP
(2015), Behrens and Salazar Ferro (2015) and McCormick et al (2015). Of these,
the policy paper recently prepared by Transitec for the African Transport Policy
Program (SSATP 2015) and the Swiss State Secretariat for Economic Affairs (SECO)
has the widest geographical scope, and is therefore drawn upon most heavily.
The mounting urbanisation discussed in section 2.1 will place immense strain on
city infrastructure networks, of which public transport systems are a core
component. Unlike in the developed world, where rapid urban growth was typically
fuelled by the momentum of industrialisation, in Sub-Saharan Africa, urbanisation
may not necessarily be supported by matched increases in economic productivity
and wealth (SSATP 2015). The resources required to support urban and human
development, and to implement and manage affordable urban infrastructure
services, may therefore be heavily constrained in many cities.
As discussed in chapter 3, as cities grow in extent and population, the ability of
non-motorised modes to satisfy the travel demands of households decreases and
the need for motorised forms of transport increases. The lower the mean levels of
household income, the more affordable these motorised transport services need to
be. Collapsed formal public transport undertakings (as discussed in section 4.1)
have resulted in informal for-hire (e.g. motorcycle taxis) and public transport (e.g.
minibus paratransit) service providers stepping in to satisfy this demand. The
adequacy of these services, however, has been widely criticised in the literature.
With respect to public transport services more specifically, a common result of weak
public sector regulation and driver revenue targets (i.e. the above-mentioned
business models in which vehicle owners either claim a fixed daily revenue target
and drivers keep the variable balance as income, or drivers keep an agreed portion
of fare revenue as commission), is destructive competition and poor quality of
service (Adeniji 1987, Gauthier and Weinstock 2010, McCormick et al 2015).
Behrens et al (2015) argue that the problems commonly associated with paratransit
operations in the Sub-Saharan African context can be linked to both ease of market
entry, which in some instances may be entirely self-regulated through route
associations or cooperatives (Sohail et al 2006, Orero and McCormick 2013), and
the capacity of public authorities to formulate and enforce coherent regulatory
regimes. Un- or under-restricted market entry has led to overtrading on more
lucrative routes. In the absence of effective law enforcement, this has led to
attempts to violently remove competitors (Dugard 2001, Khosa 1992), aggressive
driver behaviour (Mutongi 2006, Wa Mungai and Samper 2006), unsafe operations
in the form of excessive speeding, signal jumping, illegal stopping and
unroadworthy vehicles (Khayesi 1999, Kanyama et al 2004, McCormick et al 2015)
and unfair labour relations (Khayesi 1999, Rizzo 2002, McCormick et al 2015).
When vehicle assets have not been maintained and their replacement not planned
for, the result has been tenuous business viability. Poor viability has in turn resulted
in overloading on more lucrative routes, and the withdrawal of services from less
lucrative routes or during less lucrative times of the day. The resulting services
often fail to meet the needs of the residents of Sub-Saharan African cities.
Paratransit operations have also caused significant externalities: old and poorly
maintained vehicles tend to be heavy emitters of air pollutants (Kanyama et
al 2004); and boarding and aligning practices that spill into traffic lanes reduce
already limited road capacities considerably.
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There is a broad consensus in the literature that there is an evident case for
improving the quality, reliability and coverage of public transport systems in Sub-
Saharan African cities. Part of this improvement effort should seek the introduction
of larger vehicles with prioritised use of road space on higher volume corridors
(Gauthier and Weinstock 2010, Bruun and Behrens 2014), thus enabling superior
operating efficiencies and commercial speeds, and lower congestion and
environmental externalities.
Recent studies indicate, however, that the capacity of public authorities in the
subcontinent to implement large scale improvements to city public transport
systems is constrained in terms of both human and financial resources (Christie et
al 2013, SSATP 2015). In some contexts the absence of this institutional capacity
to undertake contextually appropriate mode alternatives analysis and plan public
transport improvement projects that match prevailing urban and political contexts
and fiscal resources has led to significant errors in the estimation of capital costs,
operating subsidy requirements and implementation timeframes (Behrens and
Salazar Ferro 2015). It is unsurprising, as noted by Barrett et al (2015), that in
West Africa those cities that have managed to implement public transport system
improvements in recent years all included some form of institutional reform in the
improvement process (i.e. the establishment of AGETU [Agence de Gestion du
Transport Urbain] in Abidjan, UPTUs [Urban Passenger Transport Units] and the
proposed GAPTE [Greater Accra Passenger Transport Executive] in Accra, CETUD
[Conseil Exécutif des Transports Urbains de Dakar] in Dakar, and LAMATA [Lagos
Metropolitan Area Transport Authority] in Lagos).
The African Transport Policy Program study by Transitec (SSATP 2015) attempted
to measure this capacity in 20 selected case cities through the development a
‘governance index’ (see figure 4.1). Fifteen of the 20 case cities were located in
Sub-Saharan Africa. The ‘governance index’ was developed to measure a city’s
institutional ability to improve the performance of its transport system. An
associated ‘performance index’ was developed to measure this performance. The
indices were calculated using secondary data collected from resident experts in
each case city, through a questionnaire developed for this purpose. This
questionnaire included a mixture of qualitative and quantitative questions.
Figure 4.1 reveals unsurprising correlations between better performance and
stronger institutional capacity, and better performance and lower urbanisation
pressures. A further finding reported in the study was a lack of reliable and
comparable quantitative data on city transport performance. Unsurprisingly the
study found a correlation between stronger institutional capacity, and greater data
availability and reliability.
21

ANNEXURE “I”
100
below average performance
above above average performance
below average governance above average governance
National urban growth rate

6,0%
75 4,0%
2,0%
Performance index
CAT
RAB
50 GAU
ABI TUN CAS DAK
CAI ADA
MAP
LAG
NAI DES
OUA ACC KAM
KIN SFA
25
BOU KUM
below average performance below average performance

below average governance above average governance
0
0 25 50 75 100
Governance index
Source: SSATP (2015:22)
Notes: ABI=Abidjan (Ivory Coast); ACC=Accra (Ghana); ADA=Addis Ababa (Ethiopia);
BOU=Bouaké (Ivory Coast); CAI=Cairo (Egypt); CAT=Cape Town (South Africa);
CAS=Casablanca (Morocco); DAK=Dakar (Senegal); DES=Dar es Salaam
(Tanzania); GAU=Gauteng city region (South Africa); KAM=Kampala (Uganda);
KIN=Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of the Congo); KUM=Kumasi (Ghana);
LAG=Lagos (Nigeria); MAP=Maputo (Mozambique); NAI=Nairobi (Kenya);
OUA=Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso); RAB=Rabat‐Salé (Morocco); SFA=Sfax
(Tunisia); TUN=Tunis (Tunisia)
Figure 4.1 Urban transport governance and performance indices, including
forecast national urban growth rates 2010-15
An important component of institutional capacity to implement change is clearly

the ability to raise sufficient capital and operating cost funding through taxes and
levies, or though loans from financial institutions. The appropriation of ‘best
practice’ public transport technologies that have not been fitted adequately to
specific local institutional frameworks and passenger demand profiles, and as a
result have not accurately anticipated and secured the capital and operating cost
funding required by these systems, will likely prove unaffordable without a major
diversion of public resources from other sectors of fiscal spending (Wilkinson et al
2011, Behrens and Salazar Ferro 2015).
Some South African cities offer examples of where ‘best practice’ technology
transfers are encountering fiscal barriers. In these cities, the initial anticipation of
subsidy-free or less subsidy dependent BRT systems (DoT 2007, Viva 2007) has
proven incorrect (CoJ 2013b, Seftel and Petersen 2014, TCT 2015), and indeed the
operating subsidies needed might even end up being higher than current levels.
Preliminary high-level estimates and early phase experiences suggest that
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ANNEXURE “I”
significant subsidies will be needed for BRT operations, in addition to the costly
compensation of exiting paratransit business owners (Von der Heyden et al 2014).
Even if the improved schedule stability and efficiencies associated with dedicated
bus lanes, pre-boarding fare control and reduced bus stop dwell times reduced the
per passenger subsidies associated with the relatively inefficient conventional bus
services being replaced, any large scale switching of passengers from unsubsidised
paratransit services to subsidised BRT services will, by definition, increase total
operating subsidy requirements considerably (Bruun and Behrens 2014). It has
been estimated that, for the six largest metropolitan cities, total transit operating
subsidies will almost double in real terms over 10 years if policy objectives are fully
realized (PDG 2011).
A case can of course be made for the treatment of public transport systems as
public goods, and for their subsidisation by the state in order to maintain non-
excludability and non-rivalry. If a higher performance system is being aimed at
private car users (i.e. ‘choice’ passengers) then a subsidy might also be justified
by benefits (in the form of decreased congestion and air quality externalities) to
the city from a reduction in car use (Ubbels et al 2001). However the national and
municipal treasuries are under increasing fiscal pressure, and are unlikely to
support dramatic increases in public transport subsidy levels (Bruun and Behrens
2014). Municipal government treasuries are likely to be particularly concerned with
the financial risks that accompany gross cost contracting1 arrangements associated
with BRT systems (Behrens and Salazar Ferro 2015).
Limitations in institutional capacity and fiscal resources require that public
investments into public transport infrastructure improvements are both innovative,
and subjected to thorough analysis and evaluation to ensure that they are
appropriate to context. Before reviewing, in some detail, the alternative approaches
to reforming or improving public transport systems that have been offered in the
literature in the following chapter, it is perhaps useful to discuss first how mode
technologies are currently being promoted and diffused in the Sub-Saharan
context.
Over the past decade, BRT systems have received greatest policy attention
(Behrens 2014). Following the widely acclaimed successes in public transport
improvement in Latin American cities, BRT systems have been viewed by many city
governments throughout the world as a viable alternative to light rail and metro
systems (Hensher and Golob 2008).2 The basis for this view is a supposition that
the capital and operating costs of BRT systems are substantially lower than rail
systems, and that the passenger capacities they can achieve are broadly similar.
While pre-dated by some Northern American and European urban busways
(Chicago [1939] and Runcorn [1971]), the complete package of BRT innovations
are widely attributed to Curitiba (Deng and Nelson 2011, Mejía-Dugand et al 2013).
The features of full specification BRT were introduced in this city gradually:
following the initial investment in dedicated busways in 1974, innovations in pre-
1
Gross cost contracting involves the procurement of specified services at a price
determined through tendering or negotiation, by a public authority, from an operator.
The operator passes all on-vehicle revenues to the procuring authority (sometimes a
third party collects fare revenue), and does not take on any revenue risk. The operator
is responsible for meeting agreed targets regarding the cost of providing the contracted
service, but has little incentive to attract additional passengers because (service
kilometre) income is not determined by farebox revenue.
2 Notwithstanding the emphasis placed on BRT systems in contemporary policy discourse,
a number of rail systems have also been constructed (or are being contructed): most
notably the standard gauge Gautrain serving parts of the Gauteng city region; and a
light rail system in Addis Ababa. Rail investments are also planned in Lagos and Dar es
Salaam, and the South African government has initiated a comprehensive modernisation
of its rolling stock.
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ANNEXURE “I”
boarding fare control and a single fare for passengers transferring between trunk
and feeder services were introduced in the 1980s. For many years Curitiba’s Rede
Integrada de Transporte was regarded as the international BRT exemplar
(Rabinovitch 1996; Smith and Raemaekers 1998). In the past decade, however,
attention has shifted to Bogotá’s TransMilenio system implemented in 2000, largely
on the basis of the extraordinary peak passenger loads achieved (Wright 2001).
The international diffusion of BRT technology has been fuelled by the dissemination
of planning and design manuals. International development agencies – particularly
the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP) and the Gesellschaft
für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ, formerly GTZ) – have disseminated
technical guidance, most notably the ITDP’s Bus rapid transit planning guide
(Wright and Hook 2007) and the GTZ’s Sourcebook Module 3b: Bus rapid transit
(Wright 2003). To promote high quality BRT systems, ITDP and GIZ have more
recently published annual iterations of The BRT Standard which defines what
constitutes ‘best practice’ in BRT system design, and proposes a scoring method
that celebrates high-quality systems (ITDP 2014). City BRT systems are awarded
‘gold’, ‘silver’ or ‘bronze’ status on the basis of the scores they achieve. A further
means of dissemination has been what Wood (2014a) refers to as ‘policy tourism’
in which politicians, officials and industry stakeholders undertook study tours to
exemplar Latin American cities. Wood (2014a) reports that between 2002 and
2014, seven study tours were undertaken by six South African municipalities to
Latin American cities (Bogota, Curitiba, Guayaquil, Pereira, Quito and São Paulo).
In Sub-Saharan Africa, the first ‘BRT-lite’ services were launched in Lagos in 2008
(Dairo and Brader 2009), followed by BRT starter services in Johannesburg in 2009
(McCaul and Ntuli 2011, Allen 2013, Seftel and Rikhotso 2013) and in Cape Town
in 2011 (McLachlan 2010, Schalekamp and Behrens 2013, Grey and Behrens 2013)
(see figure 4.3). Construction of the first BRT corridor in Dar es Salaam began in
2012, and was scheduled for completion in 2014 (Ahferom 2009, Ka’Bange et al
2014, Rizzo 2014). Other cities, particularly in South Africa, are well advanced in
their planning phases (e.g. Pienaar et al 2007, Moodley et al 2011, Voukas and
Palmer 2012, Agyemang 2015, Weinstock and Hook 2015). With notable exceptions
in West Africa, some of these proposals, at least initially, were explicitly or implicitly
directed at the large-scale replacement of paratransit services through the phased
incorporation of incumbent operators into formal bus operating companies, or
through compensation deals (Behrens and Salazar Ferro 2015).
Figure 4.3 presents a timeline of BRT (or proto-BRT) corridor service launches by
city gross domestic product per capita. While it cannot be claimed that these data
are comprehensive, the figure does demonstrate that over the past decade BRT
technology has diffused fairly rapidly. Behrens 2014 reports that of the 168 BRT
corridors for which launch year data are available, 115 (68%) were launched in the
last decade. The data highlight the late adoption of BRT in above mentioned cities,
as well as the pioneering contribution of Latin American cities (particularly Lima
[1972], Curitiba [1974], Belo Horizonte [1975], Goiania [1976], Porto Alegre
[1980], Recife [1982] and São Paulo [1980]). Bus transportation arguably
represents one of the few policy sectors in which innovation and technological
development has flowed stronger from the ‘global south’ to the ‘global north’, than
other way round.
24

ANNEXURE “I”
2015 CTN
launch year of BRT corridor services
2010 JHB
2005 LGS
2000
1995
1990
1985
CTN = Cape Town (MyCiTi Phase 1a)
1980 JHB = Johannesburg (Rea Vaya Phase 1a)
1975 LGS = Lagos (BRT lite)
1970
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000
gross domestic product/capita/annum (USD)
Source: Behrens and Salazar Ferro 2015, citing www.brtdata.org (accessed 15-
Nov-2012).
Figure 4.3 Diffusion of bus rapid transit corridor systems, by city gross
domestic product per capita (n=99)
The policy tendency in Sub-Saharan Africa described earlier in this section to seek
easily transferable existing solutions to public transport problems developed
elsewhere, which replace existing paratransit operations, is argued here to be
problematic. Notwithstanding the problems with existing services discussed earlier,
the paratransit sector often presents benefits seldom associated with formal, fixed
systems (McCormick et al 2015). Paratransit business owners are quick to respond
to new demands for service, and as a result penetrate many and diverse passenger
markets within the city (Cervero and Golub 2007). In the context of the
aforementioned unprecedented forecast urbanisation on the subcontinent over the
coming decades (UNDESA 2012), and the pressures this will place on already
stretched government capacities and fiscal resources, an ability to respond rapidly
to new patterns of demand is likely to be an important asset (Behrens et al 2015).
This demand-responsiveness, service innovation and coverage is of course
achieved free of direct operator subsidisation. Paratransit can also offer an
important source of income and poverty alleviation to a segment of the population
that often finds itself superfluous to the formal economy (McCormick et al 2015).
The following chapter elaborates these themes, and describes in some detail the
approaches that have been posited in the literature as a means of reforming public
transport systems in Sub-Saharan African cities.
5 Public transport improvement and reform in Sub-

Saharan African cities
This chapter explores alternatives through which public transport services could be,
and have been, improved. Approaches that could be taken to reforming existing
services are discussed in relation to the potential for their application in the context
of contemporary Sub-Saharan cities and the characteristics of their existing public
transport systems. Notable amongst these characteristics are the reliance on
fragmented road-based public transport, and within the road-based sphere the
proliferation of paratransit-type services. Against this background four alternative
reform approaches are presented in section 5.1. These approaches draw on the
international theoretical literature as well as on the limited literature on the
implementation in practice of these approaches in Sub-Saharan Africa (the
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ANNEXURE “I”
categorisation of approaches draws from Schalekamp et al 2010, 2015). Each of

the approaches requires a different degree of infrastructural change and
investment, and the discussion is ordered from the approach requiring the most
change to that necessitating little or no change. In section 5.2 case examples are
provided of implementation, or attempts thereat, of different approaches to reform
public transport systems in the region.
5.1 Alternative approaches to public transport improvement

and reform
The first approach to public transport that is presented in this section is the
introduction of a new mode of mass transit into which existing operations are
assimilated. This is followed by a discussion of a stepped transition of existing public
transport operations to a consolidated system. The third potential approach to
public transport reform is modal improvement of existing operations with
supporting minor regulatory changes. The last approach discussed in this section
is that of the introduction of alternative competition regulation regimes to mediate
existing operations.
Introduction of a new mass transit mode incorporating existing services
The introduction of a large-scale new mode of public transport presents
opportunities to incorporate and/or displace existing public transport operators in
order to improve services. A new mode of mass transit can be either rail-based or
road-based. However, in the Sub-Saharan African context it is particularly the road-
based aspect of this approach that is of interest. This is reflected in the very small
body of literature on rail-based improvements in the region, primarily limited to
South Africa and to the upgrading of existing surface commuter rail services (see
Heyns et al 2013, Onderwater 2012) and service aspects of the Gautrain rapid rail
system in the Gauteng Province (see Van der Merwe et al 2012, Van der Westhuizen
2007) of this country.3 Neither of these processes incorporated the reform of road-
based services. In contrast to rail-based reform, interest in BRT as a new mode of
mass transit to reform existing public transport has seen far wider attention in the
region, as discussed above in section 4.3.
BRT introduction allied to the large-scale assimilation of existing public transport
services was popularised as a reform approach in Latin America. Curitiba’s Rede
Integrada de Transporte (RIT) as it stood in the 1970s is commonly seen as the
first BRT system (ITDP and GIZ 2012). Bogota’s TransMilenio system built on the
Curitiba RIT concept, but with operational and technical refinements and an overt
aim of paratransit assimilation. Bogota’s ‘second wave’ BRT implementation
approach has since found its way across the globe, including to a number of Sub-
Saharan cities (individual cases are discussed below in section 5.2). The BRT-based
reform approach aims to install a citywide network of high-quality bus services.
These services would replace and incorporate existing public transport services. On
high passenger demand lines dedicated road space and preferential treatment at
intersections are commonly introduced to increase bus travel speed. In low demand
areas feeder services are less distinguishable from standard bus services, except
for potentially unified vehicle and infrastructure branding matching that of trunk
services. Other features of BRT installation commonly include central operational
monitoring and management, and integrated cashless fare collection systems.
The BRT-led approach has in practice tended to conform to a particular pattern.
The complete network plan is typically split into various project phases and
corridors; this allows the complexity and cost of implementing new services, and
negotiations around existing operator assimilation, to be spread geographically and
3
The current rail service planning in Addis Ababa, Dar es Salaam and Lagos mentioned
in an earlier footnote, appear to have received little attention in the literature.
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ANNEXURE “I”
over time. The first phase is a critical component of this approach as its
demonstrates to operators situated in other parts of the city that those operators
who were incorporated into the first project phase draw financial and employment
benefits from participating in the BRT system. It also demonstrates to funding
authorities that investment in further phases would be warranted. A key argument
advanced in favour of the BRT large-scale infrastructure-led reform approach is
that demonstrable service quality improvement is needed in the first phase to
persuade political decision-makers to support funding for subsequent project
phases (Wright 2004).
Stepped transition to a reformed system
An approach to public transport reform that is less reliant on the ‘big bang’
approach of BRT is that of a stepped transition to an improved or high-quality road-
based system that uses existing public transport operations as basis. Browning
(2001, 2006) articulated this approach, which was attempted in the Nelson Mandela
Bay Metropole in South Africa in the late 2000s. In contrast to the phased
construction of BRT infrastructure, it follows an engagement process with a more
flexible outcome that does not rely on the implementation of BRT concurrent to the
restructuring of existing services. A potential outcome of this approach can
nonetheless be a complete BRT system. However, instead of following an
engagement trajectory with a fixed outcome (i.e. assimilation into BRT operations
led by infrastructure construction), a stepped transition provides existing operators
with a way out of the engagement process at multiple points. Browning argues that
if existing operators – particularly paratransit operators – do not have such an
escape option that they would find it difficult to commit to large-scale change and
would be likely to return to their previous operating practices.
This approach to public transport reform comprises sequential steps that would
span over many years. It is most suited to reforming paratransit or similarly
fragmented road-based operations. The first step of this approach is that public
authorities support paratransit operator groupings to form commercial entities (e.g.
cooperatives or companies) and to institute professional management to operate
existing vehicles. Such operational costs would be covered through an interim
vehicle management contract. Paratransit owners would thus relinquish only the
management of their vehicles and drivers to the management company. In so doing
this step would achieve a more orderly form of operations. This would involve
negotiations to allocate routes, vehicles and drivers fairly to reflect differences
between more and less lucrative routes and times of day. At this stage vehicles still
remain the property of the original owners. Since the vehicle ownership structure
is untouched, if the collective management scheme should collapse then owners
could revert to their prior paratransit operations. However, should collective
management be successful, the next step would be to introduce cashless fare
collection to separates fare box cash from vehicle operations. Browning suggests
that fare-box revenue be handled by a separate company, which would then be
disbursed by this company to each operator. It is also an option for the vehicle
management company to collect fares. Irrespective of the fare collection
mechanism that is employed, the transition must be handled transparently as it
requires operators to remain convinced that the revenue that they generate is not
being taken away from them.
This approach allows for more flexibility than comprehensive BRT installation. It
could nevertheless result in the same outcome, in the form of a full specification
BRT system (Hitge and Van Dijk 2012). Such an outcome would only be realised
over a much longer timeframe, as the initial aim is to address problems with
existing operational and ownership structures. However, similar to the BRT-based
approach, a stepped transition cannot guarantee that reform outcomes will be
achieved. The assumptions that existing operators would necessarily be willing
participants in the reform process, and that there is sufficient public institutional
27

ANNEXURE “I”
capacity to complete all the steps of the upgrade process, may not reflect the actual
context in Sub-Saharan African cities. Nevertheless, dividing the transition into a
sequence of more contained outcomes, and thus increasing the potential for
existing operators’ participation, could reduce the risk of extensive investments in
infrastructural or institutional reforms going to waste. It still remains critical that a
positive relationship between public authorities and existing operators is
established. Public authorities must also be able to commit in the long term to
driving reform. In a stepped approach to reform there is also the possibility that
there could be a smaller scale of participation in collective management than would
be required to achieve the necessary economies of scale to justify the cost of
change. This would in turn reduce the extent of improved services that are offered
to passengers.
Upgrading of existing public transport services and allied regulation
A third approach to reform focuses on upgrading existing operators and
strengthening regulators systems. The rise and dominance of small-scale, atomised
operations rendered by paratransit and small bus businesses suggests that they
are more efficient and attractive to passengers than is generally accepted, and that
their flaws are over-emphasised. These types of services are also minimally reliant
on direct public funding. Lomme (2008) in his analysis of the paratransit sector in
South Africa suggests that these types of services should be supported and
upgraded, rather than replaced by new public transport modes. In view of the
advantages that these existing services offer, market entry should preferably be
deregulated to allow free competition between multiple operators. Such
deregulated competition should be mediated by market forces, which when viewed
historically have led, amongst others, to lower fares, reduced overall public
expenditure, improved services, greater innovation, and a greater demand-
responsiveness.
Their failings are, however, clearly acknowledged. Cervero (2000) discusses many
of them: aggressive competition for passengers on the road, dangerous driving
behaviour, inefficient road space utilisation particularly on longer distance routes,
a predominant focus on lucrative routes, and poor vehicle maintenance. Cervero
argues that such traits do not mean that authorities should regulate paratransit out
of existence. Authorities should rather promote safety and fair competition, and
leave matters of supply, service, and price to the market. Operator associations
often fill the market entry regulation void, and thus serve a de facto regulatory
function. Despite the pressure that this takes off regulatory authorities, there is
still a role for the public sector to play. Such roles include setting and enforcing
requirements relating to operations, safety, vehicles and labour. Compliance with
these requirements should be the only legal limitation to market entry, the
enforcement of which falls within the public sector ambit. Public authorities can also
play an infrastructure provision role, though it would be at a smaller scale than
with the BRT or stepped transition approaches. The upgrading and maintenance of
existing vehicle ranking facilities and high-demand passenger boarding points form
part of these considerations, as do dedicated road-space and preferential
intersection treatments. Table 5.1 provides a summary of the range of possible
initiatives that might be considered.
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ANNEXURE “I”
Table 5.1 Categorization of measures for improving paratransit services
Business Operating
Vehicle fleet Operations
development environment
 business  rank/terminus  vehicle renewal  driver training

consolidation provision incentives  salaried drivers
(including including  cooperative  consolidated
cooperatives wayfinding loans including driver
and route signage vehicle purchase recruitment and
associations)  road space and repairs management
 business skills prioritisation, (including pax.
training (including MBT compliance,
 business lanes, queue driver
diversification jumpers, signal demeanour,
(including fuel, priority) uniforms
tyres, insurance,  embayments  consolidated
financial (including vehicle
services, signage) management
maintenance, and tracking
advertising) using ICT
 bulk purchasing  speed governors
discounts  pax info (via
phones,
stationary signs,
vehicle signage)
 cashless
ticketing
Source: Bruun and Behrens (2014)
In line with arguments in favour of market entry deregulation and limiting public
intervention to improving service quality and safety, the aim with upgrading
existing operations is to encourage service diversity. This would almost inevitably
also boost competition with the limited fixed-route scheduled public transport
systems in the Sub-Saharan African cities. Cervero (2000) argues that urban
passenger transport markets benefit most from an array of service and price
options, rather than from economies of scale. The inherent flexibility and profit
motivations of competing and diverse atomised services make them more market-
responsive than large-scale rail- and road-based businesses, and also more likely
than public authorities to develop new services in response to changes in demand
patterns. Such services responses include increased suburb-to-suburb movements,
off-peak travel, or peripheral informal settlement growth. Where atomised services
compete directly with scheduled bus or train services, Cervero suggests that the
policy objective should be simply to ensure that they do so fairly.
Instituting greater competition regulation through contractual
agreement
The last approach to public transport reform entails public authorities instituting
competition regulation on an area-based level. Where there are existing or planned
mass transit services, this approach may also lend itself to the provision of feeder
services to such trunk services; it is not uncommon for paratransit to play this
feeder role. Mechanisms to achieve such competition regulation include the
introduction of franchises and concessions. Barter (2008), Gwilliam (2002),
Halcrow Fox (2000) and Meakin (2004) discuss the characteristics of such
contractual mechanisms in relation to regulating public transport operations,
though introducing such mechanisms could be accompanied by the smaller
infrastructural investments as discussed in the existing service upgrading approach
above.
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ANNEXURE “I”
The literature agrees that there are two types of franchises. The first is the
provision of services on specific routes, and the second is franchises covering an
area-based package of routes (Meakin 2004). The type would depend on the size
of the geographical area; however, Barter (2008) warns that franchising is a
cumbersome mechanism to regulate individual routes and might stifle network
development. In the case of route packages individual route development would
largely be left to operators to maximise both operational needs and the efficiency
of passenger service. The role of the public authority would be to institute and
monitor over-arching service requirements. There need not necessarily be a
transfer of funds between the public authorities and operators. Operators could
feasibly take the risk of both service development and fare collection (Halcrow Fox
2000). The role of the authority is largely detached. Public authority involvement
would be limited to specifying the desired fare levels and service requirements, and
subsequently to monitor the degree to which franchisee’s performance matches
these requirements. A key issue in a route package system that is built gradually
over time, is how to avoid larger operators hugging the most profitable routes and
unwanted overlaps between routes.
Gwilliam (2002) and Halcrow Fox (2000) draw specific distinctions between
franchises and concessions. Under a concession the operator is given the exclusive
right to provide a service or package of services within a particular area, while
different franchises may cover the same area. In a concession arrangement there
is thus no competition between different operators on the road. Rather, the
opportunity for competition arises only when operators bid for available
concessions. Under a concession agreement the operator takes complete financial
responsibility for providing the concessioned services. The public authority would
define the limitations of such services, which generally relate only to the basic
standard of service. Such standards may include vehicle safety and livery
standards, as well as emission controls. In a franchise situation the authority would
specify the service that is to be provided to a greater level of detail than in a
concession, but with the consequence that the authority must then be prepared to
cover the cost of such services. A concession arrangement removes the need for
public authority intervention in technical, organisational and financial matters. At
the same time this would limit the potential for the authority to intervene in the
service that is provided. In the context of reform, the aim with introducing either
of these contractual mechanisms would be to establish greater control over
services. The type of mechanism would depend on the scale control and
involvement that the authority would want: the more influence an authority wants
in terms of fares and the level of service that is to be provided, the less appropriate
a concession becomes and the more effective a franchising arrangement becomes.
A key reason why franchises and concessions should be considerations in public
transport reform is because they can match the existing territorial nature and
internal structures of existing paratransit operations. Paratransit operations in
practice resemble concession arrangements. Public authorities take little or no
direct responsibility for financial risk or specifying operations, and paratransit
operators are left to serve passenger demand and extend services as urban areas
expand. Associations to which individual operators belong serve a mediating and
coordinating role amongst their individual businesses and routes. In some cases
associations also provide a degree of service quality monitoring. Collective
organisations thus already perform roles at the operational, planning and
regulatory levels, for example dispatching vehicles, maintaining ranking facilities,
resolving conflicts, and developing routes (Cervero 2000, Golub 2005, Sohail et al
2006). Associations and operators furthermore have a detailed understanding of
the operational requirements and passenger demand in the areas in which they are
active. These roles might not be officially recognised, but could nonetheless fit
within what might be required of a franchise- or concession-holder. With some
degree of recognition and support from the public sector, and where there are little
30

ANNEXURE “I”
overlapping interests between operator organisations, introducing a contractual

agreement could formalise this role. This could also work with typically limited
public authority capacities to develop the public transport market.
5.2 An overview of contemporary public transport

improvement and reform initiatives in Sub-Saharan Africa
A number of cities in the Sub-Saharan African region have set out to improve and
reform their public transport systems using one or multiple approaches discussed
in section 5.1. Broadly speaking, two main goals are pursued in public transport
reform, both of which affect existing service operations. The first goal typically is
to introduce a new public transport service that incorporates, competes with or
displaces paratransit, while the second is to improve existing services either
comprehensively or through addressing selective aspects of their operations.
These two goals are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Some reform programmes
have set out to coordinate efforts to achieve both, while in other instances
concurrent but separate projects aim to achieve both goals in the same city or
country. The success of these efforts depends on a number of elements. These
elements include: the capacity of the implementing authority or authorities to
coordinate and manage reform; operators’ preparedness to absorb or accept
change; the level of complexity of the reform programme or programmes; and the
available level of funding. Sub-Saharan Africa provides a number of examples
illustrating a diversity of reform approaches and outcomes.
The initial phases of the reform projects in Cape Town, Johannesburg and Dar es
Salaam conform with the approach focussed on the introduction of a new mass
transit mode and the incorporation of existing services into this system. Lagos
follows this approach as well, although there are elements of a stepped approach
to reform insofar as full specification BRT services were not implemented and
existing paratransit operators were not excluded from operating within the corridor
and its feeder catchments. Port Elizabeth adopted a more incremental approach
consistent with the stepped transition to a reformed system. Accra follows this
stepped approach as well, but includes elements of the approach focussed on the
upgrading of existing services. The project described in Dakar conforms largely with
the approach focussed on the upgrading of existing services (as does the South
African fleet renewal scheme discussed), but includes an element of the approach
focused on instituting more sophisticated competition regulation through franchises
as well.
Cape Town
The Cape Town municipality set out to develop a high-specification BRT system in
2007. This system aimed to eventually cover the entire city and fill gaps in the
urban rail network, and drew heavily on the Bogota BRT approach (Wood 2014a,
2014b). The project formed part of a national government programme that aimed
to improve public transport services in a number of urban areas around the country.
The Cape Town BRT system, known as MyCiTi, was planned in a phased manner.
The first trunk and feeder services commenced operations in 2011, while the full
first phase of the project is projected for completion in 2015. Grey and Behrens
(2013) offer a strategic analysis of the extent of the first project phase’s impacts
on surrounding land use. Existing bus and paratransit operators were given the
opportunity to become the operators of MyCiTi. The transition process has,
however, proved to be fraught with difficulties, including disgruntlement, violent
opposition, and legal challenges from operators (McLachlan 2010, Schalekamp and
Behrens 2013). Construction progress outpaced operator incorporation, and the
first phase’s capital and operating costs have overshot estimations by some margin.
In the upcoming phase it appears that the system’s specification level will be toned
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ANNEXURE “I”
down, though the paratransit sector’s political structure is far more complex in this
phase, which penetrates the predominantly low-income sector of the city.
Johannesburg
Johannesburg, part of the Gauteng province conurbation, embarked on a high-
specification BRT scheme, named Rea Vaya. It shares the approach of the Cape
Town’s MyCiTi system, and sits within the same national framework. The project
was also conceived in a phased manner to incorporate the municipal bus company
and paratransit operations. A distinction is that the initial round of paratransit
negotiations was concluded more rapidly than in Cape Town. Negotiations took
place only with two entities, in the form of regional paratransit associations, and
the affected bus company was a municipal entity, which further simplified
engagement (see McCaul and Ntuli 2011, Venter 2013). A Colombian BRT operator
assisted in establishing and running the new operating company, name Piotrans. It
is of note that there was significance resistance from residents in the first phase,
where a key trunk route ran through a wealthy suburb. This forced a change in
routing to a less convenient corridor. Rahim (2014) describes broader
socioeconomic impacts of the project. There was, nonetheless, strong leadership
from the city councillor for transport during the first years of the project. She
consistently stood firm during negotiations with paratransit operators; this stance
was an important factor in maintaining the momentum of the project. With her
resignation in 2013 some of the project’s momentum has been lost.
Dar es Salaam
The city council of Dar es Salaam commenced in 2003 with developing a BRT
system, known as Dar es Salaam Rapid Transit (DART), to improve the level of
mobility of the city’s residents. Funding for the first phase of the project was
provided by the World Bank and the ITDP supported project planning. Besides the
mobility aim, the project was also planned to gradually replace paratransit
operations (Ahferom 2009). Paratransit operators were encouraged to form
consortiums to bid for service provision, though these consortiums had to include
an international partner. DART implementation has been slow – construction on the
first phase only commenced in 2010 after a World Bank loan was approved in 2008
to fund construction. Limited government funding and institutional capacity have
been prominent factors in the slow progress of the project. In 2014 international
consultants were appointed with the mandate to advise the DART agency on the
procurement of bus operation, fare collection and fund management services
(DART 2014). This has spurred progress with the project. Separately to DART,
measures were put in place to develop paratransit codes of conduct and operational
standards, to enforce labour rules and contracts, and to bar 18-seater minibuses
from operating in the city centre to ease congestion. These measures have not led
to a marked improvement in the services provided by paratransit operators.
Lagos
Lagos, the largest city in Sub-Saharan Africa, launched an enhanced bus system in
2008 under the auspices of the then newly established Lagos Metropolitan Area
Transport Authority (LAMATA) (see Dairo and Brader 2009). Unlike the previous
examples, the BRT-lite service omitted level boarding, continuous exclusive rights-
of-way, and enclosed stations, amongst other features commonly found in full-
scale BRT systems. This led to a rapid implementation period of the pilot service.
Institutional reorganization formed a large part of the programme, though in terms
of modal reorganisation there was no overt replacement of existing public transport
services. Instead, BRT-lite added to the modal choice on the corridor in which it
was introduced – such competition with existing services was seen to be beneficial
and added to passenger choice (Adebayo 2009 and Kolawole 2010 investigated
passenger attitudes in relation to the BRT-lite). Nonetheless, the ownership model
allowed for the incorporation of the main paratransit union as well as the state-
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ANNEXURE “I”
owned bus entity. Due to the design of the system there have been operational
problems, notably right-of-way conflicts and slow operating speeds, though it still
offers travel time savings. The basic level of specifications significantly reduced
implementation costs, although there is a concomitant lower standard of service to
passengers.
Port Elizabeth
South Africa’s Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality, which incorporates
the city of Port Elizabeth, initially followed a different approach to Cape Town and
Johannesburg in reforming its public transport system. Instead of commencing with
a phased BRT programme, the municipality agreed with paratransit operators in
the city on a stepped paratransit formalisation programme that covered the entire
city. Though not formally documented, Browning was involved in this process and
thus it drew directly on his previous publications (see Browning 2001, 2006). The
outcome was envisaged to be an improved bus or BRT system, though only after
preparing paratransit operators to take up such operations. The first step in the
programme was to create five cooperatives that consolidated multiple existing
paratransit associations and covered the main geographic regions of the city, and
one overarching cooperative to coordinate their activities. Dedicated lanes were to
be created only where necessary and to be shared by paratransit and bus
operations, with the first being installed for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. The
collectives were established within a short timeframe (that ran from mid- to end-
2009), but since the project diverged significantly from the national Public
Transport Strategy approach and funding mechanisms (which favoured BRT) it
proved a challenge for the municipality and national government entities to come
to an agreement. Delayed progress, and politics – both public and internal to
paratransit interests – ultimately led to the stalling of engagement around the
membership and responsibilities of the collectives and, in turn, the collapse of the
overall reform process. Efforts to introduce a BRT-led reform programme surfaced
in 2012, though this approach has floundered due, amongst other factors, to poor
public sector management.
Accra
Paratransit operators in Accra were historically self-regulating by way of the route-
based unions to which they belonged. Between 2007 and 2012 the national
government, supported by the World Bank, planned a large-scale public transport
reform programme to promote both existing modes and BRT (Finn 2008). This
multi-faceted approach aimed to incorporate existing bus and paratransit
operations in a licensing framework, but also to introduce a new mode of mass
transit. Services were to be aligned with demand, and the use of larger buses
encouraged on main arterials. A BRT demonstration corridor was also planned,
which included support services by scheduled buses and paratransit vehicles. The
options given to paratransit operators were to improve their vehicles and continue
existing services, to develop feeder and local bus services, or to compete for core
bus services by formalising operations. The expectation was that paratransit will
eventually be displaced by the formal services, although the city is growing rapidly
enough to offer continued service opportunities. The project has achieved mixed
success (see Finn 2012, World Bank 2012, 2013). In 2011 registration and licencing
of existing bus and paratransit operations commenced. Construction of the pilot
corridor of the BRT service was initiated, but only two bridges were constructed by
December 2012. Cost overruns meant that funds were not sufficient for the
terminals, depots and feeder routes of the pilot BRT system to be constructed. An
interim planning and regulating entity was created, but the fully-fledged transport
authority was still not established by the end of 2012. To allow additional time for
the institutional changes to take place the project completion date was extended
December 2014, though Agyemang (2015) suggests that the future of the overall
reform project is still uncertain.
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ANNEXURE “I”
Dakar
In Dakar ubiquitous paratransit services regulated themselves at route-level before
the municipality launched a public transport reform process in 2005 (as
documented by Kumar and Diou 2010). As in the case of Accra and Dar es Salaam
the World Bank also assisted in this project. This reform programme was preceded
by some years by the formation of a transport regulatory body, CETUD (Dakar
Urban Transport Executive Council), in 1997. The aim of the reform programme
was to help paratransit operators to access new vehicles, and to consolidate their
ownership structures. Operators were assisted to form 13 collectives (‘economic
groupings’), and each collective was offered a formal route franchise. The
programme also established a vehicle-financing scheme to these groupings, under
which they would collectively be responsible for loan repayments and maintenance
on the leased vehicles. Efficiency gains through ownership restructuring, better
route allocation, and improvements in fare collection have had a greater impact on
service improvements rather than just fleet renewal on its own, though the fleet
renewal was an important catalyst to change. This case demonstrates a
combination of the existing operations upgrading and the new competition regime
introduction approaches. In addition to the reform programme, CETUD has in
recent years been investigating the financial viability of a BRT pilot scheme. Should
the economic groupings become the operators of such a BRT system, the various
individual improvements would collectively amount to a stepped transition
approach.
National paratransit vehicle renewal programme in South Africa
In addition to the BRT-led reform drive in South Africa there has also been a
national paratransit-specific renewal scheme, the Taxi Recapitalization Programme.
This programme has been in effect since 2006. Van Schalkwyk (2009) documented
the programme’s formulation and early years of implementation. The programme
introduced a system under which old minibuses could be surrendered for scrapping
on condition that the owner holds a valid operating license. In return for vehicle
surrender, a fixed capital amount (presently ±USD6 000) is paid to the owner. The
owner then has the option either to take the contribution in cash and leave the
sector, or to use the contribution towards purchasing a new minibus. The national
Department of Transport releases updates to its list of vehicles conforming to the
prescribed safety specifications from time to time, and the capital contribution is
adjusted annually to take account of inflation. The significant shortfall that
paratransit operators have to cover out of their own pockets is often problematic
given that the scrapping allowance equates only to a quarter to one-fifth of the cost
of a new vehicle. Nonetheless, as an example of upgrading of existing operations
this reform approach has been moderately successful: national figures indicate that
between 2006 and 2013 around 54 000 of the estimated national fleet of
paratransit minibuses of 135 000 have been replaced.
6 Implications of alternative public transport

improvement and reform approaches
The material presented in this chapter differs from that presented in chapters 3, 4
and 5 in that it does not draw from the available body of literature. Rather, it
tentatively explores the implications that different ways of pursuing public transport
improvement and reform may have. More specifically it explores, in matrix form,
the potential implications the alternative approaches identified in chapter 5 have
for required financing arrangements (section 6.1), public sector institutional
capacity (section 6.2), and city-wide passenger market benefits (section 6.3).
Of the four approaches to public transport system improvements discussed in
chapter 5 – given the urban infrastructure focus of the broader project that this
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ANNEXURE “I”
literature review serves – only the implications of those with an explicit and distinct
infrastructure development component are considered in this chapter. Thus the
approach focussed on reforming the competition regulation framework through
concessioning or franchising is not included. This approach may or may not involve
new infrastructure provision, and it is therefore difficult to conceptualise or
generalise the implications it has particularly for financing and passenger
experiences.
6.1 Financial implications

The financial implications for public authorities are discussed in terms of capital and
operating costs. Capital costs include infrastructure installation, fleet acquisition
and (where applicable) incumbent operator compensation. Operating costs include
running the public authority itself, subsiding operating expenditure (when costs
exceed fare box revenue), infrastructure maintenance, fleet maintenance (where
applicable), and passenger-side subsidies (if provided). Financial implications are
also discussed in terms of potential revenue generation through land development
in the vicinity of public transport stops, and through actual service operations.
Table 6.1 (a and b) posits whether the impact of the typical implementation of each
approach is likely to place high, medium or low (or zero) burden on the public
authority in the case of expenditure, or offer medium or low (or zero) potential in
case of revenue streams. The ratings in the matrix are discussed briefly for each
approach in turn.
Table 6.1 Implications of alternative approaches for public sector financing

arrangements
New mass Existing

Stepped
(a) expenditure transit service
transition
mode upgrade
 fixed
high high / med med / low
infrastructure
high
Capital  fleet high high / med
(later on)
 incumbent op.
high low/zero low/zero
compensation
 public authority high high med / low
 operating deficit high (context high (context

low/zero
subsidy specific) specific)(l.o.)
 infrastructure high
Operating high medium
maintenance (later on)
 fleet maintenance high
high low/zero
(where applicable) (later on)
passenger-side
 context context context
subsidy (if prov.) specific specific specific
Notes: high=high public sector cost burden; medium=medium public sector cost burden;
low/zero=minimal or no public sector cost burden
35

ANNEXURE “I”
New mass Existing

Stepped
(b) revenue generation transit service
transition
mode upgrade
 land value capture

high med / low low/zero
Land – levy or contrib.
development  land value capture
high med / low low/zero
– lease rental
 station retail high medium med / low

Operations
high
 advertising high low/zero
(later on)
Notes: high=high public sector revenue potential; medium=medium public sector revenue
potential; low/zero=minimal or no public sector revenue potential
‘Levy or contribution’ land value capture refers to mechanisms in which additional
land value derived from public transport system improvements is extracted from
adjacent property owners, in the form of betterment levies, developer exactions
and impact fees, or negotiated developer contributions.
‘Lease rental’ tax land value capture refers to instances in which land ownership of
adjacent developed properties is retained (solely or jointly) by the public authority,
and additional land value is extracted through rental income.
New mass transit mode

In addition to considerable capital investments in infrastructure and rolling stock,
complex new mass transit systems, especially when first introduced into a city, also
require capital expenditure on components like fare collection systems, control
centres and depots or marshalling yards. In many instances incumbent operators
need to be compensated for the withdrawal of their operating licenses and loss of
business, especially if the validity of such licenses is protected by legislation. New
mass transit systems are therefore capital intensive and consequently typically
publicly provided, and require strong political decisions for priority above other
sectors of service delivery. Implementation typically involves the purchase or
expropriation of land, or disruption to other property owners, which can be
politically sensitive. Large scale infrastructure investments are sometimes also
viewed as susceptible to corruption, with estimates that corruption can increase
the cost of such projects by between 5 and 20% (Chakwizira and Mashiri 2009).
The operating cost burden of mass transport projects is also generally high. A
sizeable public authority needs to be capacitated and resourced to plan and
regulate operations. Operating deficit and passenger-side subsidies are often also
required.
Financing arrangements for such projects are complex and require careful risk
assessment. The risk associated with the repayment of capital financing is
dependent upon the sustained quality of service operations over the financing life
of the assets, and associated fare revenue. For this reason the maintenance
regimes of the system need to be locked into the financing agreement in order to
ensure the operating income stream is sustained and protected, and capital
investors can rely on protection and growth of the initial investment. When private
operators are contracted to provide service on a gross cost contracting basis, this
transfers considerable financial risk to the public authority. Capacity to manage
such risk then also needs to be built into the public authority.
A benefit of new expensive mass transit projects, aside from the fact that they
provide for high passenger volumes, is the opportunity they provide to generate
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ANNEXURE “I”
revenue from sources other than fares. Large investments, especially rail, in the
right conditions can result in on-site revenue generation through retail and
advertising, and an increase in the value of adjacent land and properties.
Mohammad et al (2013) have shown that rail projects have a positive impact on
both land and property values, and that the added value is higher on land than on
property. Significant variations in value occur amongst different land use types
such as office, residential or retail uses. Cervero and Kang (2011) demonstrate that
BRT systems can result in land value increases similar to those of rail projects,
although their study revealed evidence of lower value growth in some contexts.
Various land value capture mechanisms have been developed, and in some cases
successfully employed in cities around the world (Suzuki et al 2015, Medda and
Modelewska 2010).
Stepped transition
A stepped transition programme would require a well-developed network plan that
would probably show one or more desired end-states, at least in relation to key
corridors. Initial stages may require moderate capital investment within a standard
range for roadway and stop infrastructure projects, while excluding expenses on
depots, control centres or vehicle fleets. Capital expenditure in this phase would
typically be aimed at improvement in the quality of existing facilities. In the later
phases, however, capital expenditure requirements would increase as the service
transitions into a mass transit system.
The operating cost burden would likely mirror that of a new mass transit project in
later phases, but be less in the initial phases. Initial operating improvements would
probably be financed through modest grants to operators or marginal subsidisation.
Given the complex planning and negotiation process, a capacitated and resourced
public authority would nonetheless be required from the outset.
While less impactful, a sustained programme of investment could give sufficient
confidence to land owners to develop their properties in conjunction with the public
transport improvements, and land value capture may be possible. Such revenue is
likely to only come on stream in later phases.
Existing service upgrade
This approach is unlikely to be capital intensive, but rather focuses on operational
improvements, coupled with regulatory change. Capital expenditure is likely to be
highest in the area of fleet renewal, but some expenditure on ranks or major stops,
embayments and road space prioritisation would also be required. Infrastructure
investment would be aimed at removing bottlenecks for public transport services.
However, unlike similar interventions in the stepped transition approach, these may
not be coordinated along specific corridors according to a network plan.
Upgrading of vehicle fleets could also be stimulated by operational expenditure,
such as subsidising the replacement of tyres, or developing vehicle service facilities.
Other items of recurrent expenditure could take the form of training and testing
vehicle crews, and developing the business management skills of vehicle owners.
This approach would not be aimed at a substantial mode shift or geographic
targeting, and therefore not geared for land value capture mechanisms to recoup
capital or operating costs. As this approach largely aims to subsidise elements of
passenger safety, it does not affect the cost structure of a typical paratransit
service, and hence would have little impact on operational revenue.
6.2 Institutional implications

The institutional implications for public authorities of the alternative approaches
are discussed in terms of responsibilities relating to infrastructure and operations.
Infrastructure responsibilities can relate to network planning, construction and
37

ANNEXURE “I”
maintenance. Responsibilities for operations can relate to the formulation of a

regulatory framework, operations planning (and provision if the public authority
also acts as the service operator), negotiating the transition from informal to
formalised businesses, engaging private operator’s services (through licensing,
concessioning, franchising or contracting), supporting operator development, fare
collection and revenue distribution, fleet maintenance (when vehicles are owned
by the public authority), enforcement, and passenger information systems.
Table 6.2 posits whether the different approaches would place high, medium or low
(or zero) responsibilities on the public authority, with associated institutional
capacity requirements. The ratings in the matrix are discussed briefly for each
approach in turn.
Table 6.2 Implications of alternative approaches for the capacity of public

sector institutions
New mass Existing

Stepped
transit service
transition
mode upgrade
 network planning high high low/zero
 construction prog.
Infrastructure high high medium
and contracting
 maintenance medium medium med / low
 regulatory
medium high high
framework
 operations high
high low/zero
planning (later on)
high (if
 service operations low/zero low/zero
applicable)
 transition
high high low/zero
negotiation
 pr. op. service high
high low/zero
engagement (later on)
Operations
 operator support low/zero medium high
 fare collection and high / med

high low/zero
distribution (later on)
high (if
 fleet maintenance low/zero low/zero
applicable)
 enforcement medium medium high
pax information

medium medium med / low
provision
Notes: high=high public sector institutional capacity required; medium=medium public
sector institutional capacity required; low/zero=minimal or no public sector
institutional capacity required

The institutional capacity required to develop a public transport network plan differs
from those of road network planning, and requires skills that are not likely to be
present in cities with mostly informal public transport systems. In addition, equally
38

ANNEXURE “I”
strong spatial, economic and social planning skills and competencies should be
acquired in order to achieve the full urban development benefits of transport
infrastructure investment. While it is typical to use experienced international
contractors during the construction phase, it is essential for the implementing
authority to attain and then retain appropriate human resource capacity during
construction and when maintaining the new infrastructure. It is also critical that
the supply of equipment, parts and technical expertise to maintain the system
become embedded within the operating entity, whether this be in the public or
private sector.
With respect to operations, the regulatory framework to operate a mass transit
system would probably be less complex than that of a system with a larger number
of operators, and thus less institutional capacity would be required than approaches
that maintain the status quo. High level operations planning capacity would,
however, be essential to adapt the operating regime and schedule changes with
changing demand. This is especially important when aiming to integrate the transit
system with supporting modes that play a feeder role. The public entity would
require a substantial new staff compliment should it operate the system itself. The
transition phase would require staff capable of managing complex negotiations with
incumbent operators. Staff would also be required to contract private operators,
and monitor and evaluate performance to ensure compliance. Staff would similarly
be required to oversee fare collection systems and fleet maintenance (particularly
if owned by the authority), and implement passenger information systems.
Stepped transition
The transition from prevailing paratransit service to scheduled and even mass
transit services along certain corridors of a city would require a well-developed and
robust network plan, together with a clear understanding of implications for spatial,
economic and social development. Prevailing institutional capacity to construct and
maintain infrastructure projects may be adequate during initial stages, where these
are mainly road upgrades to provide priority for existing paratransit operators, but
specialised capacity would be required when introducing mass transit elements into
the network during later phases.
Due to the more complex approach than introducing mass transit in one phase, it
would be important to have strong institutional capacity to defend or adapt
elements of the plan as changes occur. High level capacity to conceptualise the
unfolding of the incremental approach must also be retained by the public sector
in order to lead engagement with the paratransit industry, and to achieve the
desired outcomes during the negotiation process. The public sector’s operational
planning capacity would become increasingly important as elements of mass transit
services are introduced later on. Ideally it should develop operational management
skills in advance of the industry when preparing to introduce new components such
as integrated ticketing and advanced information and communications systems.
Goodin and Waldner (1979) emphasise the risk that decision makers may
prematurely halt a potentially successful incremental policy because they are not
aware that success will become apparent only after a certain level and duration of
effort.
The objectives of existing service upgrade programmes should be clearly
formulated and communicated to the body of operators, and this requires
considerable institutional capacity. Greatest capacity is likely to be required in
developing, administering and enforcing a regulatory framework across a large
number of fragmented operators. This framework would require an accurate and
well-maintained database of paratransit operators, which keeps details of vehicles
and benefits previously received. Institutional capacity would also be required to
develop contextually appropriate operator support and development initiatives
39

ANNEXURE “I”
(e.g. vehicle scrapping, service, business and driver training centres). In relation
to the South African Taxi Recapitalisation Programme, for instance, Van Schalkwyk
(2009) explains that the institutional arrangements for administering these kinds
of interventions must not be under-estimated, and require substantial institutional
and operational investment.
6.3 Passenger market implications

The alternative approaches, while varying in financial and institutional implications
for the implementing authority, also have a wide range of implications for existing
and potential users. The implications for the city-wide passenger market (focussing
on the short-to medium-term) are considered in relation to service coverage,
service duration (i.e. the number of hours of daily operation), service frequency
and reliability, journey speed, safety, comfort and fare affordability.
Table 6.3 posits whether the short- to medium-term benefits of each approach to
the city-wide passenger market would likely be high, medium or low (or zero). The
ratings in the matrix are discussed briefly for each approach in turn.
Table 6.3 Implications of alternative approaches for the city-wide passenger

market (short to medium term)
New mass Existing

Stepped
transit service
transition
mode upgrade
Service coverage (city-wide) med / low high / med high
Service duration (city-wide) med / low med / low low/zero
Service frequency and reliability

med / low med / low low/zero
(city-wide)
Journey speed (city-wide) med / low med / low low/zero
Safety (city-wide) med / low high / med high / med
Comfort (city-wide) med / low high / med high / med
Fare affordability (city-wide) med / low med / low low/zero
Notes: high=high short/medium-term service improvement benefits for city-wide

passenger market; medium=medium short/medium-term service improvement
benefits for city-wide passenger market; low/zero=minimal or no short/medium-
term service improvement benefits for city-wide passenger market

A variety of studies have analysed how users perceive the quality of service of a
public transport system. Indicators that commonly appear include personal safety,
reliability, affordability, journey speed, waiting time and transfer efficiency (Hassan
et al 2013, Cervero 2013, Meakin, 2004). Studies further indicate that the relative
importance of the factors vary for different communities, and can even vary over
time for the same community (StatsSA 2014). Figure 6.1 shows five quality aspects
that define users’ perceptions of a transport system, in this case for a Dutch
community (Van Hagen 2003). The introduction of a new mass transit technology
40

ANNEXURE “I”
provides the opportunity to influence all, or at least most, of these aspects in a

single project or reform programme.
Source: after Van Hagen (2003)
Figure 6.1 Quality aspects associated with public transport use
New technologies have been shown to have a considerable positive impact on the
public’s perception of public transport, especially in developing country cities where
the contrast to other services is pronounced. So, if implemented across an entire
city, new mass transit modes have the potential to introduce significant benefits in
terms of service coverage, duration, frequency, reliability, speed, safety and
comfort. In resource constrained cities, however, the prospects of city-wide
implementation in the short- to medium-term are often limited, and consequently
in such contexts these benefits are concentrated amongst only a portion of the city
population travelling along the corridors where the new services operate, with
associated inequities in the allocation of benefit across the entire city population.
It is for this reason that table 6.3, somewhat paradoxically, suggests that the
quality of service benefits of expensive new mass transit modes are medium to low
(i.e. only some of the passenger population benefit from the improved quality of
service). The increased cost of mass transit systems may also push fares beyond
the reach of poorer segments of the passenger market, unless there are the
resources to provide subsidies.
New mass transit modes are often planned primarily for the preferences of choice
passengers (for laudable travel demand management reasons), as, for instance,
argued by Siematycki (2006) in the case of Delhi’s metro railway service, and by
Van der Westhuizen (2008) in the case of the Gauteng city region’s Gautrain. But
this can lead to services that do not match the needs of the poorest sectors of the
passenger market (e.g. there may be restrictions imposed on passengers carrying
bulky parcels, often required by those engaged in informal business sector, which
prevent the service being of benefit to this group).
Stepped transition
As the stepped approach is not limited to a single corridor, but spread across a city,
it can, if successfully implemented, potentially benefit a wide range of communities
earlier, although the quality of service would not be as high as in the case of the
‘big bang’ approach. Chitauka and Vanderschuren (2014) have shown, for instance,
that technology and infrastructure improvements in the form of queue jumpers for
41

ANNEXURE “I”
public transport vehicles can contribute to significant time savings when cumulated
throughout the network. While perhaps less politically appealing than new major
projects, more communities from across a city would experience visible
improvements in service delivery within a shorter timeframe, which could lead to
positive pressure to accelerate the programme. However, when reaching the final
phases of the transition, operating costs may also push fares beyond the reach of
poorer passengers with the same need to provide subsidies as with the introduction
of a new mode of mass transit.
In the case of existing service upgrade, quality of service benefits would be less
than that of the other approaches, particularly in relation to its impact on the hours
of daily operation, service frequency and speed, but the benefits that do accrue
would be spread across the entire network. Thus is could be argued that
distributional equity is greater. This may have important gender dimensions, as
women engaged in low-wage employment (e.g. cleaners and domestic workers)
could have different origin-destination patterns to men. The coverage, safety and
comfort benefit in the short- to medium term and at a city-wide scale would
therefore be relatively high. Fare affordability would probably be largely unaffected.
7 Conclusion
It has been argued in this report that, in large cities where dependence on non-
motorised modes for all travel needs is no longer feasible, public transport systems
are essential to provide equitable access to city labour markets and other
opportunities, and to enable the city economy to be efficient and productive. The
state of paratransit-based public transport systems in Sub-Saharan African cities
has been argued to be inadequate, and a case was made for system improvement
and reform. An essential component of any such reform will be the introduction of
road space priority to free public transport vehicles from the congestion
externalities arising from private transport on high volume corridors, and to
rationalise vehicle size to match available road space and passenger demand
profiles when such priority has been provided.
Four proposed approaches to improvement and reform were identified in the
literature: the installation of new mass transit to replace existing services; a slower
stepped transition from paratransit to mass transit; existing service upgrade; and
the introduction of more sophisticated contractual forms of service regulation.
Elements of these approaches can be observed in various Sub-Saharan African
public transport improvement programmes, but none has yet achieved success at
scale.
There are no panaceas in the form of directly transferrable public transport
technologies or models, and to achieve any measure of success cities will need to
develop innovative and contextually appropriate strategies. Indeed, the alternative
approaches identified in the literature are not mutually exclusive, and might be
considered in different parts of city’s network and form part of a broader
improvement strategy. In considering alternative courses of action, public
authorities have important trade-offs to consider. Foremost amongst these is how
to concentrate available resources. Should new high quality services be installed
for a narrow segment of the passenger market, or should lower service quality
improvement be pursued but to the benefit of a larger number? The urbanisation
pressures facing most Sub-Saharan African cities indicate that current resource
constraints are unlikely to be eased in the medium term.
The available literature, while showing encouraging growth in recent years, has
many gaps. Much attention is still required to explore the details of contextually
appropriate mechanisms for public transport improvement and reform, and to
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ANNEXURE “I”
record the many challenges and lessons that existing programmes have
encountered. The distributional equity and city productivity impacts of public
transport are also poorly demonstrated, as are the institutional preconditions for
success.
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SkyTrain WHAT WORKS IN PRIVATE PROVISION OF BRT SER-
VICES - A CASE STUDY OF ACCRA & ADDIS-ABABA
What Works in Private Provision of Bus Transport

Services—Case Study of Accra and Addis Ababa
A. Kumar
The World Bank, Washington DC, USA
E.A.Kwakye
Ministry of Roads and Transport, Accra, Ghana
Z. Girma
City Government of Addis Ababa Transport Authority, Ethiopia
ABSTRACT: Accra and Addis Ababa are both capital cities of comparable size, growing
at above national average with a rapid decline in travel conditions. The transport
environment in both cities is characterized by heavy congestion during peak periods, low
vehicle utilization, weak implementation of traffic management measures, inadequate
facilities for pedestrian and non-motorized transport (NMT) movement, poor road safety
arrangements and high accident rates. sA majority share of motorized travel demand is
served by buses, which have continued to deteriorate over time. This paper suggests that
the bus industry can continue to play a crucial role in the urban transport sector and
contribute to both mobility within the cities and the resolution of the urban congestion
issue. It will only achieve these objectives, however, if it has the incentives and freedom
to respond to changing circumstances. This paper identifies key functions to be retained
by the Government and develops arrangements to strengthen provision of bus services by
the private sector.
RÉSUMÉ : Accra et Addis-Ababa sont toutes deux des capitales de taille comparable,
grandissant au-dessus de la moyenne nationale avec un déclin rapide des conditions de
transport. L'environnement des transports dans les deux villes est caractérisé par un
encombrement important lors des périodes d'affluence, une faible utilisation des
véhicules, une faible mise en oeuvre des mesures de gestion de la circulation, des
équipements inadéquats pour les déplacements des piétons et du transport non motorisé,
de faibles dispositions de sécurité routière et des taux d'accident élevés. La majeure partie
de la demande de transport motorisée est assurée par les bus, qui ont continué à se
détériorer au fil du temps. La communication suggère que l'industrie du bus puisse
continuer à jouer un rôle crucial dans le secteur du transport urbain et contribuer à la
mobilité dans les villes et à la résolution de la question des encombrements urbains. Il
réalisera seulement ces objectifs, cependant, s'il y a motivation et liberté dans le secteur
privé.
1. INTRODUCTION Improving access of the poor to affordable

transport, either directly by well

ANNEXURE “J”
maintained roads, inter-connected The urban bus transport environment in

network, reliable services and appropriate Accra and Addis Ababa shares common
transport fares, or indirectly by reduced characteristics and has undergone similar
costs for goods and services, is a major transformation over the past decade. Both
factor in economic development and are million-plus capital cities, with low
poverty alleviation in Sub-Saharan Africa per capita income (almost 50% of the
(SSA) countries. Focus on the urban population earns less than US$20 per
transport modes of poor people essentially month) with buses as the most common
means the provision of affordable forms form of motorized urban transport mode
of public transport, both formal and (accounting for over 75% of daily
informal. Almost 70% of the person trips motorized travel demand). Inadequate
in large urban areas depend on some form supply of bus services, poor accessibility
of buses as the dominant mode. Despite and low affordability have resulted in
the importance of urban public transport, heavy dependence on walk trips (over 50
it is often poorly financed, badly managed percent of the daily passenger travel
and neglected by Governments. The poor demand is met by walking). Other forms
public transport suppresses the economic of non-motorized transport (mainly
and social advantages for which the cities bicycle) are not very popular partly
developed in the first place. because of cultural and attitudinal reasons
and partly because of topography
Continuing rapid growth of the cities, low (particularly in the case of Addis Ababa).
per capita income, and low automobile Bulk of the urban bus passenger transport
ownership in most million plus cities in operations are provided by formal and
the SSA means that the population will informal private operators (almost 75% in
continue to rely heavily on public Addis and 95% in Accra). The key role of
transport to meet their daily mobility Government is on regulation, control and
needs. This dependence is expected to enforcement (including setting fares and
grow strongly for the foreseeable future bus standards), though Government has
and provision of efficient and effective also been involved in direct operations in
public transport operations are critical to varying degrees.
sustainable economic and social
development. While investment in new The urban transport sector remains
transport infrastructure is required to help confronted with major issues and
meet mobility needs it will not be challenges, including high cost, poor and
sufficient on its own, even in those rare inadequate quality of service, poor safety,
circumstances where it can be expanded to poor accessibility and affordability for
match the growth in travel demand. More most urban and poor residents and firms.
effective use of existing infrastructure and Critical problems associated with bus
equipment is both desirable and cost operations in Accra and Addis are:
effective for the foreseeable future.
- underutilization of publicly owned
2. URBAN TRANSPORT ENVI- terminal and garage facilities
RONMENT IN ADDIS ABABA - inefficient service to users due to
AND ACCRA terminal dispatch practices (only
sending buses out when full, for
example)

ANNEXURE “J”
- lack of management control to The demand for public transport services

enforce proper vehicle in Addis has been growing at a rapid rate
maintenance scheduling due to the expansion of the city and a
- conflict between financial corresponding rise in population. The car
sustainability and the broad ownership and use growth rate is low,
objective of reducing cost burden with a dominant role played by the public
on the poor transport system. Public transport in Addis
- inappropriate bus size (too many consists of conventional bus services
small vehicles) and incorrect provided by the publicly owned Anbessa
allocation of function between City Bus Enterprise, mini buses and
vehicle sizes (particularly the conventional taxis operated by the private
operation of taxis and mini buses sector, and buses exclusively for
on trunk routes more suitable for employees of large organization.
large buses)
- operations impeded by excessive The Anbessa Bus Enterprise, managed by
numbers of small vehicles offering a Board under the city administration, is a
public transport service parastatal under the city council, moves
- lack of investment in new buses around 10% of public transport
passengers. It operates a fleet of 450
These problems are closely inter-related. conventional buses with an average age of
Starting from a situation where the public 6 years and provides scheduled service
sector operator provided a substantial along 85 routes as well as non-stop
amount of service, the impact of fare services (express services). The fare
controls was to limit the revenue of the structure varies with distance—0.35 Birr
public operator to an extent that it was not (4 UScents) for up to 9 kms and gradually
able to maintain its vehicles on the road. increasing with distance up to 2.50 Birr
The underutilization of terminal assets (28 UScents) for a distance of
partly results from this. In response to
declining services and growing demand, Table 1: Bus Characteristics in Accra and Addis
Ababa
Government partly deregulated the sector
encouraging the private sector to Addis Accra
participate in provision of bus services. Ababa
The fare controlled private sector bus Population 2.7 m 1.7 m
operators entered the market to fill in the Growth Rate 2.7% 3%
deficit in public service but who they Land Area 530 sq. km
Per capita income US$7.0 US$10.0
found it profitable to operate at very high Share of Urban 30% 35%
load factors associated with low quality of pop
service. Investment in new large vehicles Vehicle Ownership 38 veh/000 p 99veh/000p
could not be sustained in this regime. The Mode Choice
residual deficit in services was filled by Taxi 50% 23%
taxis operating outside the fare control. Bus (public) 10% 11%
Mini bus (pvt) 27% 51%
This has contributed to proliferation of Pvt Cars 13% 15%
small vehicles.
2.1 Urban Transport Environment in NMT 56% NA

Addis Ababa Motorized 44%
Transport

ANNEXURE “J”
Av. Speed 10km/hr 10km/hr efficiently operated bus systems in other

No. of Buses cities, because of narrow road width, lack
- 100 seater 450 588
of connecting links, congestion and weak
- 11 seater 10,000 14,854
- taxi 1,500 2,477 management. While design capacity of
each bus is 100 passengers, load factors of
Av age of bus fleet over 100 percent (almost 150 passengers)
large public buses 6 yrs 4 years is not uncommon during peak periods.
pvt mini buses 13 yrs 12 years The load factors are below 50% during off
Fare structure
Anbessa buses 4 US cents NA peak hours and the average daily load
Pvt mini buses 6.5 US cents factor is estimated to be about 85%. The
Passengers carried planned headway of Anbessa ranges from
Km/bus/day 170 180 7 to 30 minutes depending on demand
Bus utilization along particular routes (Anbessa bus
ratio
enterprise runs at the same frequency
Public bus 85%
Private bus 90% 90% throughout the day under two shifts),
Headway though in practice, headways of 60
Public bus 30 minutes minutes are not uncommon; in contrast,
Pvt bus 10 minutes 10 minutes headway of minibuses ranges from 5 to 8
Av. waiting time minutes during peak period and about 10
Public bus 30-90 min
Pvt bus 15-20 min 20 min minutes during off-peak period. The
Trip length 60% trips NA average waiting time for services of
>5km Anbessa is 30 minutes but could reach 90
11% >15km or more minutes depending on the
particular route and time of day. Available
about 44 kms extending to the peripheral estimates indicate that more than 60
areas to the west and south. Additional 10 percent of trips exceed 5km, of which
Ethiopian cents are charged for express about 11 percent exceed 15 km. The
service. The Anbessa City Bus Enterprise minibuses have been playing a greater
provides subsidized scheduled services role, partly because they achieve higher
with fixed stopping points and established frequency due to their adaptability to
routes. The fleet size of Anbessa increased difficult operating conditions of
from 171 buses in 92/93 to 255 in 97/98 congestion as compared to the
and 355 in 98/99, and 450 in 2003. The conventional buses of Anbessa which
Enterprise serves a total of 85 routes (1 require larger road space.
bus for every 6200 people). Anbessa bus
service enjoyed monopoly prior to 1987, The mini buses and taxis generally operate
but declining bus services and growing on regular routes, but are relatively
passenger demand led to emergence of demand responsive in terms of frequency
informal bus operations. of service—frequency during peak period
about five to eight times greater than
The remaining 73 percent of public during off-peak period. There are about
transport passengers trips are provided by 30 major mini-bus stations in the city,
privately operated buses, with 1500 taxis which are the primary centers of O & D.
and 10,000 mini buses. The market segment for mini buses
includes office employees in government
On average, Anbessa buses operates and private sector institutions with an
170km/day, which is low compared to

ANNEXURE “J”
income level above 800 Birr per month - use of old commercial vehicles for
(US$90) and students and trips for social passenger transport results in
and shopping purposes by middle-income adverse environmental impact due
residents. Taxis are mainly operated by to frequent break downs, poor
individual private operators, who are engine maintenance
either organized as associations or are - the quality of bus transport system
independent of such associations. More is generally poor, because most
than 90% of privately operated mini buses vehicles are old and many
enter the market as second hand vehicles trucks/vans have been converted
and average age of minibuses is about 13 for passenger services, which are
years. The average utilization of the mini not well suited for urban passenger
buses is low during off-peak hours, with transport
an occupancy ration of about 60 percent. - regulatory and institutional
Minibus services are mainly rendered by environment supporting the
individual operators. transport system is weak. The
1972 Omnibus Services Decree
2.2 Urban Transport Environment in provides for the establishment of
Accra the Omnibus Licensing Authority
to decide routes and parking places
Unlike Addis, most of the privately and fares to be paid. However, the
operated buses in Accra are controlled by Decree has never been
unions, through routing, loading by turns implemented and no bus route
and permission to operate on specific licensing system operates in
routes. The few operators (less than 10%) Ghana. As a result, there are no
who do not belong to any transport union specified bus routes for public and
are called “floating drivers” by the private buses. The license gives
unionized members. Key characteristics the right to operators to operate the
of bus operations in Accra are: buses anywhere in the city
- Generally, private operates run
- 85% of the daily person trips are buses on high demand corridors
carried by buses and taxis and where road condition is in a
- 51% trotos (mini buses) good condition. Where demand is
- 23% taxis low or roads are in poor condition,
- 11% large buses services are of lower standard and
higher fares are charged. This is
- the market share of low capacity typically the case in poor outlying
buses, mainly second-hand areas
imported taxis and minibuses is - Public transport is informally
high leading to worsening of controlled by the Transport
traffic congestion: Unions, Ghana Private Road
- registered private Transport Undertaking (GPRTU)
vehicles: 14,854 under Ghana Road Transport
- commercial vehicles: Coordinating Council (GRTCC).
4,083 Since 1990, bus fares have been de
- taxis: 2,477 regulated by Government and the
- buses: 588 fares are now being fixed by the

ANNEXURE “J”
umbrella body of the transport 2.3 Key Transport Issues

unions, GRTCC.
- There is freedom of entry, Key transport issues that need to be
provided the vehicle meets the addressed in improving urban transport
Licensing Authority requirement environment in both Addis Ababa and
for operating commercial vehicle. Accra are:
The operating licenses are
provided by the Metropolitan, (a) Weak governance and
Municipal and District Assemblies implementation capacity. The
(MMDAs) after certification by environment is characterized by
DVLA (the licensing authority), multiple institutions with over-
which is renewed on an annual lapping responsibilities and unclear
basis mandates; a discouraging record of
- Difficulties in raising commercial public sector provision and
financing for purchase of buses maintenance of urban services and
result in most private buses infrastructure; and the relative lack
financed through individual of success of Government
resources. This has compromised interventions in the provision of
investment in modern, safe, high- public transport services. The
capacity buses. provision of public transport service
- The route structure of public by the private sector is not
transport generally provides good supported by an enabling regulatory
access to the city center from environment.
suburbs but there are poor links
from east to west, and cross town (b) Weak management and maintenance
radial trips requiring interchanges capacity. The problem of traffic
for people living in suburbs congestion on the primary road
- Mini buses and terminals are network is as much due to lack of
poorly utilized because of driver capacity as to inefficient use of road
insistence on fully loading prior to space, poor road maintenance,
departure, further compromising indiscriminate parking and street
reliability of services for trading; urban traffic congestion is
passengers en route increasing rapidly, and is already a
- The transport unions do not significant constraint to urban
provide any physical facilities to productivity. Congestion is therefore
their members as they are becoming an ever more serious
considered welfare unions. The problem, putting even more time
main support is provided in and travel burden on the urban poor
organizing social activities and in and further increasing the already
collective negotiations with unaffordable transport costs for
Government. The operators/ goods.
drivers pay a one-time fees to join
the Association in addition to (c) Dysfunctionality in road transport
membership fees and daily loading industry Within the past few years,
fees at the terminals. steps have been taken to open up the
transport sector to competitive

ANNEXURE “J”
forces by liberalizing the market. live in low-income suburbs far away

However, barriers to entry include from the city center and heavily
non-transport factors such as lack of depend upon the public transport
finance and insurance constraints. system. Vehicular air pollution is
The full benefits of liberalization increasing rapidly and has become a
have failed to reach the consumers. severe health issue; inadequate
facilities for pedestrians and NMT,
(d) Poor accessibility to transport poor standards and lack of traffic
infrastructure and services. The rules enforcement is resulting in an
majority of the urban and rural poor increase in number and severity of
have little access to transport, as road accidents.
measured by time spent in traveling
to places of daily necessities, delays (f) Inadequate impact on
in transporting goods to local poverty alleviation. While the effect
markets, etc. The demand of rapidly of transport on the poor permeates
growing urban areas for transport all sub-sectors, urban and rural
infrastructure and services by far transport, including and specifically
exceeds the financial and non-motorized transport, have the
managerial possibilities of the most direct and broadest impact on
governments and municipalities poverty alleviation. If well
involved managed, they can enable large
numbers of people to gain access, or
(e) Poor quality of service. Poor quality at least better and cheaper access to
of service is often characterized by transportation services, either as
low frequency, low punctuality, passengers or as commercial users.
losses and pilferage. Work-related However, widening access for the
travel of more than 1 hour per day is poor cannot, as the experience of
the norm, with great variations past decades has shown, be
upwards due to unreliability of the effectively achieved by a top-down
public transport. Poor infrastruc- approach. It requires the inclusion of
ture, poor condition of road a wider spectrum of society in the
vehicles, inadequate management of decision making process, thus
transport businesses, outdated ensuring a more effective
technology, and lack of competition involvement of the users and bene-
are the main causes for the ficiaries. More inclusiveness in
continuing poor quality of service. decision-making processes is
The growth of urban population expected to increase responsiveness
continues at a rate above the average to the needs of the poor and
national growth rate and this trend is disadvantaged groups of transport
expected to continue in the users. It can be achieved,
foreseeable future. Almost 30%- particularly in rural and urban
40% of the total population lives in transport, through decentralization
urban areas. Vehicle ownership and of authority, devolution of revenue-
use is growing even faster than the raising powers, and appropriate
population growth rate. Urban poor agreements on cross-subsidization
are most affected by the poor quality of services and infrastructure. This
of transport services as they often

ANNEXURE “J”
will help push decision-making Department for International Development

closer to community levels and lead (2000), ‘we have not any examples where
to better consideration of the needs a pure public monopoly offers a superior
of the poor. alternative to the best designed
competitive arrangement.”
3. THE DECLINE IN STATE
OWNED ENTERPRISES Direct public sector provision can ensure
that an affordable well ordered public
The decline in traditional fiscal basis for transport network is provided. However,
financing subsidized public transport, in absence of competition, financial
coupled with inability of the public support leaks into operational
transport systems to raise sufficient inefficiencies. Public sector provision
revenues through fare collection to where there are several technical and/or
maintain service quality, has resulted in financial constraints can result in
declining levels of operation in both the inadequate services. This is well
cities. As a result, during the early 1990s, illustrated in Accra and Addis Ababa,
the urban transport bus operations where a fare-freeze has led to a decline in
underwent a major transformation, with the number of public sector buses.
greater role of the private sector. In Government ownership, poor manage-
Accra, publicly owned bus operations ment, inadequate motivation and
virtually ceased in early 1990s following accountability, heavy overstaffing, and
mounting losses. The control over both low tariffs made these businesses loss-
trotos (minibuses) and shared taxis was making and heavily dependent on
mandated to Ghana Private Road financial support from their governments
Transport Union (GPRTU), whose for survival. Poor cost recovery (partly
members provide 80% to 90% of bus resulting from low tariffs) and general
services in Accra. In Addis, road subsidies, meant to improve affordability
transport industry was deregulated in 1992 for all sections of the population,
as part of the liberalization of the themselves contributed to reducing the
economy. viability of transport service operations
and inflicted heavy costs on transport
Public monopolies are often less efficient users and the macro-economy
than competitive regimes. This results
from a combination of political Even in the developed countries, where
interference, poorly incentivised public transport has long been
management, the power of organized predominantly provided by the public
labor and need for social and other sector agencies, past decade has seen a
obligations. Public monopolies however process of liberalization and emergence of
have the advantage of closer authority a range of competitive regimes in the
over services and fares. This can make transport sector. The general rationale for
integration and attention to social and this is that competition promotes
other wider community needs easier to improved efficiency and greater
achieve. However, in practice, this sensitivity to user needs.
requires a coherence of purpose and action
within the public sector, that is often
missing. According to a study by

ANNEXURE “J”
The key circumstances under which development of private sector and given
Government support to public transport that the state provided services can not
system can be justified are: satisfy the demand adequately, it is not a
suitable vehicle for public passenger
- Internalizing externalities in transport, particularly on the main
infrastructure markets—environ- corridors for long distance trips. Its small
mental benefits arising from dimension makes passenger access and
reduced congestion, reduced internal movement difficult and seating is
accidents and reduced pollution cramped. Its small capacity is
- Overcoming failures in markets for compensated by high frequency, which
adequate sources of bus financing though is preferable from passengers’
- Circumventing political constraints point of view, contributes to road
on prices—fare controlled regime congestion, especially with their frequent
may deter private investment in stops and stopping on demand. Their
good quality buses. adaptability to different operating
- Redistributing resources to the conditions and requirements of less road
poor space makes them suitable in a congested
environment. Use of smaller vehicles will
4. THE EMERGENCE OF THE provide service frequency advantage over
PRIVATE SECTOR their competitors but may increase their
numbers on the road, further worsening
Rapid growth in travel demand, fueled by congestion. The introduction of privately
expansion of city and the corresponding owned micro and mini bus fleets is on the
rise in population, and inability of the increase in most cities, which is expedient
state provided bus transport system to in view of financial and operational
satisfy the growing demand, often leads to constraints, but is not suitable along high
growth in privately provided bus transport density corridors. The small buses are
system. The gaps in public sector fragile and relatively unstable, reducing
provision have been filled by para-transit safety standards.
shared taxis/minibus services These are
generally mini buses or taxis, financed by 5. THE NEED TO INTRODUCE
own resources. Fares for these services CAREFULLY MANAGED COMPE-
are considerably higher than those for TITION
state operated large buses, excluding
poorer sections of the community. Impact Deregulation, as currently followed in
of fare control has been to constrain Addis and Accra has increased supply but
service adequacy and performance. has worsened road congestion, the urban
Typically, they are single-owner environment and user safety and security.
operators, operating minibuses of up to 12 Of particular mention are the private mini
seats. In Addis Ababa, their numbers bus operations in Accra, which operate on
have increased from 4,000 in 1992/93 to an opportunistic basis, without any
10,000 in 2002/03 (average annual growth schedule, route licensing or service
rate of 10%). standards. The license gives them
permission to operate anywhere, resulting
While the growth in minibuses is in their concentration along the main
expedient in the early stages of the corridors to the exclusion of outlying

ANNEXURE “J”
areas. This situation has particularly depending on affordability, time of day or

worsened the travel environment for poor demand.
who live in outlying areas, who depend
most on public transport. As recognized While different types of services (big
in the World Bank urban transport buses, mini buses, taxis) offer potential
strategy (2002), “the lesson is that it is not benefits if working together, commercial
privatization or deregulation per se that self-interest may obviate making the best
improves public transport, but rather the of these synergies. Inability to adequately
introduction of carefully managed plan for different bus types, has resulted in
competition, in which the role of the multiple interchanges in Addis Ababa. In
public sector as regulator complements Accra, vehicles are poorly utilized because
that of the private sector as service of the practice of fully loading the vehicle
provider.” prior to leaving the terminal. Absence of
a management discipline leads to various
In developing countries environment, kinds of sub-optimal behavior, contrary to
there is usually plenty of competition to consumers’ interests:
provide public transport services. Where
competition is very diverse and active, this - “collusion” to maximize patronage
can result in “near anarchy” on the streets. either on the road or at terminals
It may also lead to traffic congestion or - “blocking” to obstruct rival
adverse environmental impacts. Where operators’ services
operators group to bring some order, this - “racing” to beat rivals vehicles in
may well result in the un-competitive picking up passengers
practices such as the formation of cartels. - “turning back” to pick up
The formation of GPRTU is a case in passengers waiting to travel in the
point. Here the challenge is not that of opposite direction when lightly
creating competition but creating a loaded
regulatory framework that brings order
and purpose that acts in the consumers’ 6. THE DECISION TO REFORM
interests. The critical challenge is to
overcome entrenched interests in Faced with the difficult task of
preserving the status quo to allow maintaining adequate service standards
appropriate conditions for competition to without constraining the public purse, the
develop. Government recognizes the need to reform
state transport operations on the one hand
In absence of regulation, and left to their and to provide incentives to support
own devices, private operators will tend to development of a viable and well
gravitate to the busier routes and organized private sector on the other.
exacerbate congestion. This may leave The key objective of the Government in
some areas and times of day poorly the two countries is to establish an
served. Alternatively, fare levels can be efficient, affordable, complementary and
set “too high” or service standards poorly integrated transport system for the
maintained. The private sector often movement of people and goods. Within
circumvents the control fare regime by this overall framework, key objectives of
informally charging above the fixed fares, the urban transport strategy are to: (i)
improve accessibility to places of
10

ANNEXURE “J”
employment, education, social and other carried out on a project-by-project basis

purposes; (ii) enhance travel opportunities and the transportation system has evolved
at affordable prices for the poor, from the unsystematic accumulation of
handicapped, children and elderly; (iii) public projects and policies. This
enhance the quality of travel by ensuring approach has neglected the critical
comfort, safety and efficiency; (iv) interconnections between parts of the
minimize the cost of providing transport system and between the system and the
services and facilities through cost- basic processes of the city.
effective measures; (v) address issues
linked with land use, urban planning, Of particular interest is to create discipline
factors affecting location of jobs and in bus operations and address particular
housing, externalities (pollution, noise and needs of the poor and disadvantages
accidents), concerns of different sections of the population living in distant
stakeholders; and (vi) minimize the suburbs. The central purpose of
adverse environmental impact of introducing a system of franchising of
transport. The Governments aim to satisfy routes or services is to have a contractual
these objectives, through a combination of basis for the imposition of discipline into
measures, including: operation, including scheduled operation
and improvements on road behavior.
- address the needs of a diversified However, effectiveness of a competitively
modal choice set tendered route franchising system depends
- develop dedicated mass transit on the skill with which the contracts are
corridors designed and the competence with which
- improve environment for private contracts are awarded, monitored and
bus operators enforced.
- increase number of buses
- introduce competition in bus Introduction of an effective system of bus
services through privatization priorities on the main routes is critical to
- develop segregated bus lanes the development of public transport
- improve traffic management service. The immediate focus could be
system on:
- enhance capacity of urban
transport planning and - provision of safe access for
management passengers to the bus way
- provision for cross flows of
Each of these policies needs to be pursued general traffic at intersections
in the context of a well balanced urban - effective exclusion of non-bus
transport strategy. The concern with traffic
dealing with the immediate problems has
often led Governments to ignore the long Preconditions for competition to take
term impact of the proposed solutions. place:
Very few countries have come to grips
with defining policies that relate the value  Firstly, presence of an effective
and needs of the urban transport sector to legal framework which allows and
macro-economic considerations. In the protects property rights and fair
past, urban transport planning has been trade; clear transport objectives
11

ANNEXURE “J”
and administrative and institutional There exist a range of competitive/

capacity to promote direct and regulatory regimes in order to help
regulate competition to serve develop guidance as to the most effective
these. way competition can be deployed to
 Second, existence of a culture of improve public transport. The range of
competition and industrial capacity arrangements to regulate the public bus
 Third, existence of rules to transport industry include: Public
regulate the ways in which monopoly/ management contracting/ gross
competition operates. cost service contracting/ net cost service
contracting/ franchising/ concessions/
There is a need to restructure public quantity licensing/ quality licensing/ open
transport company with the objective to market. Each type of competitive regime
ensure that; (a) use of fixed assets (land, has its own advantages and disadvantages.
terminal facilities, maintenance facilities) Operation of public transport by private
is addressed in the context of a through re operators as a franchise can be used to: (a)
examination of the regulatory structure; regulate relationship between operators;
and (ii) public transport company is put on (b) regulate potential abuse of monopoly
an equal footing with the private sector powers; and (c) service of non-
competitors. commercial policy requirements (social
services). Experience in implementing bus
Low fares generally result in bringing franchising arrangements in cities in
forth a low quality and quantity of service Central Asia suggests that (Gwilliam, et
from private suppliers unless the fare box al, 2000):
revenue is supplemented by some explicit
subsidy payment. Various options to - genuine competition for franchises
overcome the adverse impact of fare will only be achieved by strong
control include: political commitment to a
comprehensive program of reform;
- Allow effective free entry into the - political and regulatory respon-
fare controlled service provision sibility should be separated from
but permit and encourage new operational responsibility;
entrants to provide a differential - encouragement should be provided
service at a higher price (example to develop an independent private
Addis express buses). sector, including associations of
small operators;
- Award a franchise to the bidder - assurance of equal access to the
willing to pay the highest premium competition for franchises by all
for the franchise or willing to forms of organization, particularly
accept the lowest subsidy through the elimination of any
privileges or obligations deriving
- In absence of public subsidy, a from state ownership; and
franchise could be awarded to the - need to set up effective planning
bidder offering the greatest amount and contract management
of capacity supply at the fixed fare. institutions.
REFERENCES
12

ANNEXURE “J”
Cities on the Move: A World Bank Urban

Transport Strategy Review. 2002. The World
Bank: Washington DC.
Department for International Development.

2000. Review of Urban Transport
Competition, Final Report. London.
Gwilliam, K.M, Meakin, R.T. & Kumar, A.

2000. Designing Competition in Urban Bus
Passenger Transport: Lessons from
Uzbekistan. The World Bank. Discussion
Paper. Washington DC.
Kebede, A. 2001. Poverty in Addis Ababa. In

M. Ayalew (ed), Social Dimensions of
Poverty, Poverty Dialogue Form Consultation
Papers, Addis Ababa.
Scoping Study: Urban Mobility in Three

Cities. 2002. Sub-Saharan Africa Transport
Policy Program, Africa Region. The World
Bank.
Urban Transport Services in Sub-Saharan

Africa. 2003. Sub-Saharan Africa Transport
Policy Program, Africa Region. The World
Bank.
13

Public Transportation
ANNEXURE “K”
SkyTrain EIGHT OF THE CHEAPEST AFRICAN CITIES FOR
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION
Written by Julia Austin
Trotro in Ghana. Photo: Notoverly.wordpress.com
Accra, Ghana
In Accra, you can ride a tro-tro for less than 5 cedis — around $1.27. Tro-tro is a
catch-all name for privately owned vehicles in the city that you can hail just as you
would a taxi. Tro-tros range from minivans to pick-up trucks and can be found along
any major street. For longer trips that take you out of the city, splurge on an air-
conditioned bus. These can range from under $5 to $17 depending on how far you’re
traveling.
Source: Virtualtourist.com, Goafrica.about.com, Justlanded.com

ANNEXURE “L”
SkyTrain INTEGRATED TRANSPORT PLAN FOR GHANA -
REPORT ON TRANSPORT MODES
Ministry of Finance and Economic

Planning



Volume 6: Transport Model Calibration


June 2010
Financed by the 9th European Development Fund

Service Contract N° 9 ACP GH019

 

ANNEXURE “L”
Egis Bceom International


Executive Summary
This report presents the process of model calibration for the Integrated Transport Plan of
Ghana. Model calibration is the estimation of the type of model and its parameters that
replicate the reality.
The model is developed using CUBE software, of which a licence has been acquired by the
Ministry of Transportation. CUBE is a very flexible and complete suite of modules dedicated to
transport modelling.
For passengers, the model applied consists of a slightly modified version of the classic four-
step model. The fourstep model consists of:
 Trip generation determines the frequency of origins or destinations of trips in each zone
by trip purpose, as a function of land uses and household demographics, and other socio-
economic factors. This model applies Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) on per capita trips per
region, and then splits them to zones.
 Trip distribution matches origins with destinations, to develop a trip table; a matrix that
displays the number of trips going from each origin to each destination, using the Fratar
model.
 Passenger modal choice computes the proportion of trips between each origin and
destination that use a particular transportation mode, using a logit choice model.
 Network assignment allocates trips between an origin and destination by a particular

mode to a route. Wardrop's principle of user equilibrium is applied (equivalent to a Nash
equilibrium), wherein each traveller chooses the cheaper path, subject to every other driver
doing the same.
In addition to the classic model, an Induction Model is developed. This induction model takes
into account the fact that more infrastructure tends to generate more traffic, as it reduces the
cost of travelling.
For freight, two alternative modules are developed. A fixedstructure matrix model assumes
that the global freight transport increases proportionally to the GDP growth by an elasticity
factor. This model considers that the structure of the freight transport (in terms of zones
producing and attracting traffic) remains constant.
An alternative method consists of integrating an exogenous matrix which will be developed
through a series of workshops with different bodies. Freight modal split is based on a
qualitative assessment of the potential demand for rail.
The models aim to replicate the reality of Ghana. The calibration carried out provides a good
representation of Ghana’s transport system.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Contents
Chapter 1 Transport Demand Modelling.................................................7

1. Transport Models...............................................................................7
2. Structure of the model........................................................................9
3. Integrated Approach ........................................................................11
4. Model building and calibration..........................................................13
Chapter 2 Zoning System.......................................................................15
Chapter 3 Collecting Demand Data .......................................................23
Chapter 4 Supply Data............................................................................24

1. Physical Characteristics...................................................................24
2. Economic Characteristics ................................................................24
Chapter 5 Passenger Trip Generation...................................................25

1. Data for generation ..........................................................................26
2. Estimation method ...........................................................................27
3. Model and results ............................................................................28
Chapter 6 Passenger Trip Distribution .................................................33
Chapter 7 Induced Demand ...................................................................35
Chapter 8 Passenger Modal Split ..........................................................37

1. Value of time in Ghana ....................................................................38
2. Generalized costs ............................................................................38
3. Logit Model ......................................................................................39
Chapter 9 Freight Modelling...................................................................42

1. Fixed structure matrix ......................................................................42
2. Exogenous matrix ............................................................................43
3. Freight Modal Split...........................................................................44
Chapter 10 Network Assignment.............................................................45

1. Assignment for roads.......................................................................46
2. Assignment for rail and air ...............................................................47
Chapter 11 Transport Indicators..............................................................48
Chapter 12 Issues about recalibration ....................................................49

 
 

ANNEXURE “L”

Chapter 13 Improving the quality of data for transport modelling .......50

1. Data on demand ..............................................................................50
2. Data on supply.................................................................................50
3. Standard Economic variables ..........................................................50
4. Data availability and reliability ..........................................................51
Annexe 1 OD Surveys ............................................................................52
Annexe 2 Construction of the Database ..............................................71
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


List of Tables
Table 1 : Questions to be answered by each model step 10

Table 2 : Internal zones 17
Table 3 : External zones 22
Table 4 : Socio-economic data by region. 30
Table 5 : Coefficients for trip generation 31
Table 6 : Value of time estimation 38
Table 7 : Traffic Survey Locations and Study Periods 53
Table 8 : Summary of Category of Vehicles (GHA Vehicle Classes) 56
Table 9 : Summary of results of the Average Daily Traffic (ADT) Volumes 62
Table 10 : Composition of Traffic by Vehicle Group and Total ADT Volumes 64
Table 11 : Summary of results of the AADT Volumes 66
Table 12 : Summary of results of the Peak Hour Volumes and relation to the ADT 68
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


List of Figures
Figure 1: The planning process 8

Figure 2 : Cube window 11
Figure 3 : Illustrative notion of fit quality. 13
Figure 4 : Model building and calibration Diagram 14
Figure 5 : Zoning system for the ITP model 16
Figure 6 : Structure of the O-D matrix 23
Figure 7 : Result of the trip generation 25
Figure 8 : Result of the trip distribution 33
Figure 9 : Impact on demand of a change in supply. 35
Figure 10 : Output from the modal split model. 37
Figure 12 : Using pivot matrices to correct modal split 41
Figure 13 : Assignment process 45
Figure 14 : Trafic model versus counts 47
Figure 15 : Field Data Collection for the OD Survey 55
Figure 16 : Field Data Collection Form for the Traffic Volume Counts 58
Figure 17 : Relationship between sections, sub-sections and map segments 73
Figure 18 : Database diagram showing the relationship between the variables 81
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Acronyms and Abbreviations
AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic
GHA Ghana Highway Authority
GLSS Ghana Living Standards Surveys
IRI International Roughness Index
ITPG Integrated Transport Plan of Ghana
OD Origin-Destination (usually refers to an OD pair or an OD matrix)
OLS Ordinary Least Square
VOC Vehicle Operation Cost
VoT Value of Time
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Chapter 1 Transport Demand

Modelling
1. Transport Models
In order to plan transportation infrastructure, it is necessary to forecast how much they will be
used. In order to evaluate whether specific projects are worthwhile at all, it is necessary to
have a measure of the benefits they produce. All these requirements are in the province of
1
travel demand analysis .
Both the economic and the transport system are subject to constant changes. These changes
either occur autonomously, or they are planned. By autonomous developments we mean
societal changes outside of the transport sector sphere of influence. Examples include
technological developments, changes in incomes structures, changing attitudes towards work
and leisure time, etc. Developments can also result from deliberately planned intervention.
Examples here include the construction of new infrastructure, measures to stimulate
alternative means of transport, the pursuit of particular planning goals, etc.
1
Small and Voerhof (2007) The economics of urban transportation. Routledge.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


2
Figure 1: The planning process
The function of the traffic demand model is to calculate the equilibrium that results from a
given situation in the economic and the transport system. The calculated traffic flows can be
used to design traffic facilities and evaluate their effectiveness in solving transport-related
problems and producing benefits to the economy.
Transport models seek the following objectives:
 Relevance. The model must be able to calculate the impact of every single measure of
intervention that one wants to investigate. The objective of the ITP model is to assess the
impact on transport patterns of new infrastructure and improved service level on existing
infrastructure.
2
From Ortuzar and Willumsen (2001) Modelling Transport.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


 Accuracy. The results of the model and the observations must agree to a reasonable
extent. Note that it is unrealistic to expect great accuracy in traffic models, when compared
to models in the exact sciences. Traffic engineering is not an exact science, but a field of
knowledge that lies between the exact and the social sciences. The accuracy of our model
will be discussed later in this report.
 Theoretical foundation. The formulation of the model should, ideally, be based on a solid
theoretical foundation. Those models that depend on a simple extrapolation of observed
behaviour have only a limited field of application, both in place and time. ITP model tries to
extract the most of existing data using reliable methods.
 Simplicity. The simplicity of a model should be seen as its mark of quality. Generally,
simple models are also more robust, i.e. they are more resistant to input errors than
complex models. This is even truer when data is not very accurate of insufficient as in our
case.
 Practical applicability. One must be able to apply the model in the framework drawn up in
regard to available time, funds, and personnel. This relates particularly to the gathering of
input data required for the model. ITP model applies the latest available data.
2. Structure of the model
The history of transport demand modelling has been dominated by the modelling approach
which has come to be referred to as the four step (or four stage) model. The steps are: trip
generation, trip distribution, modal split and network assignment.
Trip generation determines the frequency of origins or destinations of trips in each zone by trip
purpose, as a function of land uses and household demographics, and other socio-economic
factors.
Trip distribution matches origins with destinations, to develop a trip table; a matrix that
displays the number of trips going from each origin to each destination.
Mode choice computes the proportion of trips between each origin and destination that use a
particular transportation mode. They are estimated by either aggregated of disaggregated
choice models.
Network assignment allocates trips between an origin and destination by a particular mode to
a route. Often (for road assignment) Wardrop's principle of user equilibrium is applied
(equivalent to a Nash equilibrium), wherein each traveller chooses the cheaper path, subject
to every other driver doing the same.
Table 1 shows the question that need to be answered with each step in the model.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Table 1 : Questions to be answered by each model step
Model step Answer the question
Trip Generation How many trip does the user in some location wants
to take in a day?
Trip Distribution Where is the user going with each trip among all
possible destinations?
Modal Split Which transport mode the user adopts for each trip?
What are the factors affecting that decision and to
what extend?
Network Assignment Which route between the origin and the destination
does the user choose?
3
The model is developed using the Cube software. Cube is a comprehensive set of modules
that support transportation planning, including transportation forecasting and system analysis.
Cube is a very flexible tool which allows virtually any type of treatment and any model
development, from the analysis of a single roundabout to a national-wide master plan.
Cube has been applied by Egis Bceom International in several countries, including the
transport master plan of Kumasi and Tamale, in Ghana.
The Figure 2 shows an example of model structure in Cube.
3
Developed by ESRI.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”

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Figure 2 : Cube window
3. Integrated Approach
The chart below represents the different inputs, processes and outputs for the integrated
planning process.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”

A Data Collection and Surveys

Freight
Supply Analysis of Public Transport
Road Counts of Road Custom Data Transportation Economic
Description OD Statistics Passengers
Inventory Vehicles OD surveys Analysis Users Study
by Mode by Mode Interviews
Interviews
Existing Maritime and

inland Ports and Links Base Year
Public Transport Cost Factors
Existing Airports and Supply (value of time, Socio-Economic Future Year
Air Links Characteristics
Passengers OD Characteristics vehicle Socio-Economic
Goods OD Data (Pop., Car
Existing Rail Network Data (links, operating costs, Ownership, Characteristic
and services frequency, etc…) Freight Forecasts
speed) production, etc.)
Existing Road Vehicles OD
B Traffic Forecasting
1. Model Building and Calibration
- Integrate supply data description (Road

and Rail networks, road inventory,
operation characteristics)
- Processing and integrate surveys
results (OD, Counts, Public Transport
survey, Freight Transportation Users
Interviews)
- Calibration of demand model
- Calibration of assignment model
Definition of
Calibrated
Model parameters Future Base
Present Public
(generation, Transport and Year Public
distribution, modal Road Vehicle Transport and
split and assignment) Network Infrastructure
2. Futur Base Year Reference Forecast
- Supply Forecast
- Demand Forecast
- Assignment
Future Year Future Year

Future Year
Reference Reference
Reference
Goods, Goods and
Transport Passengers and
Passengers and
Infrastructure
Vehicles Vehicles
and Operational
Demand Traffics
Supply
Matrices (assignment)
Analysis of Capacity
problems ->
Definition of demand
Scenarios and supply scenarios
Defined
3. Test of Scenarios
- Demand generation, distribution and

modal split
LEGEND
- Traffic assignments
- Final computations
Modelling Process
C Scenarios Analysis
Description of the process
Economic costs Project costs
Scenario X vs Reference
(Value of time, (incl. Construction,
operation indicators
Vehicles costs, Maintenance
(Traffic, Veh-km, Veh-Time, V/C)
etc.) Operation costs) External Process
Input and Output Data

Social effects Environmental effects
Multicriteria Evaluation
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


The integrated approach combines the data collection, the analysis of mobility and the
economic activity as the input for model calibration, transport forecasting and analysis of the
different scenarios. Under this approach the model can be viewed as the link between the
forecast of the economic activity which drives the demand for transport and the socio-
economic evaluation of the different alternatives (or scenarios) available.
4. Model building and calibration

Calibrating the model means that we determine the values for the parameters in order to
ensure maximum agreement between the values calculated through the model and the
original observations. The observations for a traffic model apply to a specific point in time that
we use as a point of reference. One usually says that the model is calibrated for a specific
baseline year. Other terms used for calibration are: the ‘estimation’ of a model and the ‘fitting’
of a model.
Figure 3 : Illustrative notion of fit quality.
An iterative process of parameters calibration was implemented until results of the model
tallied with the observation reflecting the present transport situation in Ghana.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


EVALUATION OF SUPPLY DESCRIPTION:

DEMAND:
Networks characteristics,
Socioeconomic data,
Costs
mobility, sectorial
analysis
CALIBRATION
RECONSTRUCTION OF
THE PRESENT
SITUATION
DIAGNOSIS
Figure 4 : Model building and calibration Diagram
At the end of the model building and calibration process, the model is used to construct the
present situation.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Chapter 2 Zoning System
A traffic demand model applies to a particular geographical study area. In principle, trips in
this area can begin and end at any address, and travellers can choose from all roads, streets
and other transport options. Because of the sheer volume of data, however, it is not practical
to gather and analyse data based on individual information. We construct a simplified model
of reality by dividing the area to be studied into a number of zones. We study the trips from
and to these zones. We assume that all trips begin and end at an imaginary point inside this
zone, which is called the centroïd of that zone.
Networks: the transport system consists of a number of networks that represent the available
transport modalities. The network is an abstraction of reality. The detailed level of
representation depends on the problem to be solved. We are concerned here with long
distance trips.
We distinguish the study area and a surrounding area of influence. Both areas are divided into
zones, called respectively the internal and the external zones. In the study area we investigate
the traffic flows from and to each zone. As for the area of influence we only examine traffic
flows that start or end inside the study area. When traffic moves between two external zones,
we only look at the traffic that crosses the study area.
Important parameters are the number of zones to be used and their size. Each zone has a
fictitious point, usually situated in the point of gravity of the area, from which all trips from and
to the zone are supposed to depart and arrive. This point, called the centroid is linked to the
network by connectors. Trips between two zones, the interzonal traffic, occur on the network.
Traffic that does not leave the zone, the intrazonal traffic, has its departure and arrival point in
the same centroid and is not analysed.
This means that zones must not be too large. If they are too large, a sizeable part of the traffic
does not appear on the network and will, therefore, fall outside the analysis. Nor can zones be
too small. Small zones require numerous input data. This increases the costs of studies,
hampers interpretation of the results and increases the chances of mistakes.
The main criteria used to divide the area of study – Ghana – into zones were:
 Each zone must be within one, and only one, region;

 Zones are compatible with 169 and 138 districts; this means that the districts created in the
169 system are in the same zone of the “parent” district.
 Zones should be as homogeneous as possible in terms of socio-economic characteristics.
 They must permit the analysis of the main corridors and facilities (train stations, ports) in
the network
 Each main cross-border link is associated to an external zone.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


The following zoning system was adopted in the study.
Figure 5 : Zoning system for the ITP model
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


The table below presents the zone corresponding to each district according to both 138 and
169 district division.
Table 2 : Internal zones
District
District 169 District 138 Region Zone
Code
1 Adansi North Adansi North Ashanti 33
2 Adansi South Adansi South Ashanti 34
3 Afigya Kwabre Afigya Sekyere Ashanti 29
4 Afigya Sekyere Afigya Sekyere Ashanti 29
5 Ahafo Ano North Ahafo Ano North Ashanti 28
6 Ahafo Ano south Ahafo Ano South Ashanti 28
7 Amansie Central Amansie Central Ashanti 34
8 Amansie East Amansie East Ashanti 33
9 Amansie West Amansie West Ashanti 27
10 Asante Akim North Asante Akim North Ashanti 31
11 Asante Akim South Asante Akim South Ashanti 32
12 Atwima Nwabiagya Atwima Nwabiagya Ashanti 26
13 Atwima Nponua Atwima Nponua Ashanti 27
14 Atwima Kwanwoma Bosomtwe Kwanwoma Ashanti 26
15 Bosome Freho Bosomtwe Kwanwoma Ashanti 26
16 Bosomtwe Kwanwoma Bosomtwe Kwanwoma Ashanti 26
17 Ejisu/Juabeng Ejisu/Juabeng Ashanti 26
18 Ejura-Sekyedumase Ejura-Sekyedumase Ashanti 30
19 Kwabre Kwabre Ashanti 26
20 New Juabeng Municipality New Juabeng Municipality Eastern 40
21 Obuasi Municipality Obuasi Municipality Ashanti 34
22 Offinso Offinso Ashanti 29
23 Sekyere East Sekyere East Ashanti 31
24 Sekyere West Sekyere West Ashanti 30
25 KMA KMA Ashanti 26
26 Sekyere Central Amansie East Ashanti 33
27 Sekyere Afram Plains Sekyere East Ashanti 31
28 Atebubu-Amantin Atebubu-Amantin Brong Ahafo 25
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


29 Asunafo North Asunafo North Brong Ahafo 19
30 Asunafo South Asunafo South Brong Ahafo 19
31 Asutifi Asutifi Brong Ahafo 19
32 Berekum Berekum Brong Ahafo 23
33 Dormaa Dormaa Brong Ahafo 23
34 Dormaa East Dormaa Brong Ahafo 23
35 Jaman North Jaman North Brong Ahafo 22
36 Jaman South Jaman South Brong Ahafo 22
37 Kintampo North Kintampo North Brong Ahafo 21
38 Kintampo South Kintampo South Brong Ahafo 21
39 Nkoranza Nkoranza Brong Ahafo 24
40 Nkoranza North Nkoranza Brong Ahafo 24
41 Pru Pru Brong Ahafo 25
42 Sene Sene Brong Ahafo 25
43 Sunyani Sunyani Brong Ahafo 20
44 Sunyani West Sunyani Brong Ahafo 20
45 Tain Tain Brong Ahafo 22
46 Tano South Tano South Brong Ahafo 20
47 Tano North Tano North Brong Ahafo 20
48 Techiman Techiman Brong Ahafo 24
49 Wenchi East Wenchi East Brong Ahafo 22
50 Abura/Asebu/Kwamankese Abura/Asebu/Kwamankese Central 55
51 Agona Agona Central 58
52 Agona East Agona Central 58
53 Ajumako/Enyan/Essian Ajumako/Enyan/Essian Central 58
54 Asikuma/Odoben/Brakwa Asikuma/Odoben/Brakwa Central 58
55 Assin North Assin North Central 57
56 Assin South Assin South Central 57
57 Awutu/Efutu/Senya Awutu/Efutu/Senya Central 56
58 Awutu Senya Awutu/Efutu/Senya Central 56
59 Cape Coast Cape Coast Central 54
60 Gomoa Gomoa Central 56
Komenda/Edina
61 Eguafo/Abirem Komenda/Edina Eguafo/Abirem Central 54
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”

62 Mfantsiman Mfantsiman Central 55
Twifo-Hemang/Lower
63 Denkyira Twifo-Hemang/Lower Denkyira Central 53
64 Upper Denkyira Upper Denkyira Central 52
65 Upper Denkyira West Upper Denkyira Central 52
66 Afram Plains Afram Plains Eastern 36
67 Akwapim North Akwapim North Eastern 44
68 Akwapim South Akwapim South Eastern 41
69 Akyemansa Asante Akim South Ashanti 32
70 Asuogyaman Asuogyaman Eastern 39
71 Atiwa Atiwa Eastern 35
72 Birim Central Birim South Eastern 42
73 Birim South Birim South Eastern 42
74 Birim North Birim North Eastern 36
75 East Akim East Akim Eastern 37
76 Fanteakwa Fanteakwa Eastern 38
77 Kwaebibirem Kwaebibirem Eastern 36
78 Kwahu East Kwahu South Eastern 38
79 Kwahu South Kwahu South Eastern 38
80 Kwahu West Kwahu West Eastern 35
81 Manya Krobo Manya Krobo Eastern 43
82 New Juabeng Municipality New Juabeng Municipality Eastern 40
83 Suhum/Kraboa/Coaltar Suhum/Kraboa/Coaltar Eastern 41
84 Upper Manya Krobo Manya Krobo Eastern 43
85 West Akim West Akim Eastern 42
86 Yilo Krobo Yilo Krobo Eastern 43
87 Accra Metropolitan Assembly Accra Metropolitan Assembly Greater Acc 61
88 Adenta Ga East Greater Acc 61
89 Ashaiman Tema Municipality Greater Acc 60
90 Dangme East Dangme East Greater Acc 59
91 Dangme West Dangme West Greater Acc 59
92 Ga West Ga West Greater Acc 61
93 Ga East Ga East Greater Acc 61
94 Ledzekuku-Krowor Accra Metropolitan Assembly Greater Acc 61
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


95 Tema Municipality Tema Municipality Greater Acc 60
96 Weija Ga West Greater Acc 61
97 Bole Bole Northern 6
98 Bunkprugu Yunyoo Bunkprugu Yunyoo Northern 10
99 Chereponi Saboba/Chereponi Northern 11
100 East Gonja East Gonja Northern 14
101 East Mamprusi East Mamprusi Northern 10
102 Central Gonja Central Gonja Northern 8
103 Gushiegu Gushiegu Northern 10
104 Karaga Karaga Northern 9
105 Kpandai East Gonja Northern 14
106 Nanumba South Nanumba South Northern 13
107 Nanumba North Nanumba North Northern 13
108 Saboba/Chereponi Saboba/Chereponi Northern 11
109 Savelugu Nanton Savelugu Nanton Northern 9
110 Sawla Tuna-Kalba Sawla Tuna-Kalba Northern 6
111 Tamale Municipality Tamale Municipality Northern 9
112 Tolon Kumbungu Tolon Kumbungu Northern 9
113 West Gonja West Gonja Northern 7
114 West Mamprusi West Mamprusi Northern 9
115 Yendi Yendi Northern 12
116 Zabzugu Tatale Zabzugu Tatale Northern 13
117 Bawku East Bawku East Upper East 2
118 Bawku West Bawku West Upper East 2
119 Bolgatanga Municipality Bolgatanga Municipality Upper East 1
120 Bongo Bongo Upper East 1
121 Builsa Builsa Upper East 1
122 Garu Tempane Garu Tempane Upper East 2
123 Kassena Nankana Kassena Nankana Upper East 1
124 Kassena Nankana West Kassena Nankana Upper East 1
125 Talensi Nabdam Talensi Nabdam Upper East 1
126 Jirapa Jirapa Lambussie Upper West 4
127 Lambussie Jirapa Lambussie Upper West 4
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


128 Lawra Lawra Upper West 4
129 Nadowli Nadowli Upper West 4
130 Sissala West Sissala West Upper West 5
131 Sissala East Sissala East Upper West 5
132 Wa East Wa East Upper West 3
133 Wa West Wa West Upper West 3
134 Wa Municipality Wa Municipality Upper West 3
135 Adaklu-Anyigbe Adaklu-Anyigbe Volta 16
136 Akatsi Akatsi Volta 15
137 Biakoye Jasikan Volta 17
138 Ho Ho Volta 16
139 Hohoe Hohoe Volta 17
140 Jasikan Jasikan Volta 17
141 Kadjebi Kadjebi Volta 18
142 Keta Keta Volta 15
143 North Dayi North Dayi Volta 17
144 Krachi East Krachi East Volta 18
145 Ketu Ketu Volta 15
146 Ketu North Ketu Volta 15
147 Krachi West Krachi West Volta 18
148 Nkwanta South Nkwanta South Volta 18
149 Nkwanta North Nkwanta South Volta 18
150 North Tongu North Tongu Volta 15
151 South Dayi South Dayi Volta 16
152 South Tongu South Tongu Volta 15
153 Ahanta West Ahanta West Western 47
154 Aowin/Suaman Aowin/Suaman Western 48
155 Bia Bia Western 45
156 Bibiani/Anhwiaso/Bekwai Bibiani/Anhwiaso/Bekwai Western 51
157 Ellembele Nzema East Western 49
158 Jomoro Jomoro Western 49
159 Juabeso Juabeso Western 45
160 Mpohor Wassa East Mpohor Wassa East Western 50
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”

161 Nzema East Nzema East Western 49
162 Prestea Huni Valley Wassa West Western 46
163 Sefwi Akontombra Sefwi Wiawso Western 45
164 Sefwi Wiawso Sefwi Wiawso Western 45
165 Shama Shama Ahanta East Western 47
166 Shama Ahanta East Shama Ahanta East Western 47
167 Wassa Amenfi East Wassa Amenfi East Western 46
168 Wassa Amenfi West Wassa Amenfi West Western 46
169 Wassa West Wassa West Western 46
In addition to these zones, 6 external zones were created, corresponding to the main borders
crossings in the country, they are:
Table 3 : External zones
Border Zone
Hamile Border 65
Paga Border 66
Kulungugu Border 67
Dormaa Ahenkro Border 64
Elubo Border 63
Aflao Border 62
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Chapter 3 Collecting Demand Data
In order to calibrate the model it is necessary to assess the current demand for transport.
Some Aggregated demand data can be found in the Transport Indicators Database produced
by the Ministry of Transportation.
However, more detailed data is necessary for model calibration. We need a good picture of
the long distance displacements in terms of origin, destination and the flow between each
origin and destination. This information is compiled in a so-called O-D matrix, which usually
has the following structure:
Destination
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 … J
1 T11 T12 T13 T14 T15 T16 T17 … T1j
2 T21 T22 T23 T24 T25 T26 T27 … T2j
3 T31 T32 T33 T34 T35 T36 T37 … T3j
4 T41 T42 T43 T44 T45 T46 T47 … T4j

Origin
5 T51 T52 T53 T54 T55 T56 T57 … T5j
6 T61 T62 T63 T64 T65 T66 T67 … T6j
7 T71 T72 T73 T74 T75 T76 T77 … T7j
… … … … … … … … …
I TI1 TI2 TI3 TI4 TI5 TI6 TI7 … TIJ
Figure 6 : Structure of the OD matrix
Where i (1≤i≤I) indexes the origins and j (1≤j≤J) indexes the destinations.
To collect this data a road Origin-Destination survey was carried out by the consultants.
Annex 1 presents details of the survey.
Regarding railways and aviation, since they represent very few ODs, we used the aggregated
data and added the traffic they represent to the respective cells in the OD matrix.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Chapter 4 Supply Data
Physical and economic characteristics of transport supply are necessary inputs for the
transport model.
1. Physical Characteristics
The road network GIS used by the consultant consists of an update of the GIS provided by
GHA. It includes up to date data on:
 Number of lanes
 Lane width
 IRI
 Free flow speed
 Capacity
 Slope
 Type of surface
2. Economic Characteristics
The most important economic data related to the network for the modelling process are prices
and costs. Transport prices are necessary for all modes; they drive the modal choice (where it
exists). Vehicle operation costs (VOC) are used to compute the route chosen between two
zones.
Generalized costs and generalized prices are the sum of monetary and time costs. Monetary
costs represent all financial costs, including tolls when they exist. Time cost is the product of
the time (travel time, waiting time or access time) to the value of this time, which represents
the marginal rate of substitution between time and money.
The estimation of VOC is described in Volume 5, Transport Cost Analysis. Transport prices
are presented in the section dedicated to the modal split.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Chapter 5 Passenger Trip Generation
Trip generation is the process of estimating the total number of trips produced and attracted
by each zone.
A production model describes the number of journeys that are generated in a zone as a
function of a number of personal characteristics and characteristic features of the
environment. The total number of journeys produced per zone is calculated, without reference
as yet, to the destinations of these trips. A zone can both generate trips and attract them.
An attraction model describes the total number of trips that a zone attracts independent of the
origin, as a function of characteristics such as employment rate and retail area. The
productions and attractions that have been calculated are also called trip-ends.
At the end of this process, an OD matrix with only the totals for each line and column is
produced.
Destination
1 2 3 4 5 6 … J ∑Origin
1 ∑T1j
2 ∑T2j
3 ∑T3j
4 ∑T4j
Origin
5 ∑T5j
6 ∑T6j
… … …
I ∑TIj
∑Dest ∑Ti1 ∑Ti2 ∑Ti3 ∑Ti4 ∑Ti5 ∑Ti6 ∑TiJ ∑∑TIJ
Figure 7 : Result of the trip generation
The main assumption behind the trip generation model is that the demand for transport is
derived. That is, transport is not an end in itself; people move to satisfy other needs, like work
4
and leisure; goods are moved to link production and consumption centres .
4
There are a few examples where the transport is in itself an end ; driving a car just for the pleasure of
driving is the most common. This kind of behaviour represents an insignificant part of the trips and is not
included in the analysis.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


If the demand for transport is related to the users’ activities, it can be explained by a function
of users’ socio-economic characteristics. The traditional approach to trip generation modelling
consists of estimating the total number of trips produced and attracted by each zone as a
function of the socio-economic characteristics of the zone.
Typical functions would be:
Ai = f ( POPi , EMPi , INC i , TUR i ,...)

and
Pi = g ( POPi , INCi ,...)
Where:
Ai is the total number of trips attracted by zone i
Pi is the total number of trips produced by zone i
f (•) and g (•) are functions, usually they are linear in parameters
POPi in the population in zone i
EMPi is the employment in zone i
INCi is the per capita income in zone i
TURi is the touristic attractivity of zone i
This traditional approach implies the existence of data on the zonal level (or in a more
disaggregated level that can be aggregated in zones). This is not the situation in Ghana,
where the statistical data available is on the regional level.
1. Data for generation
The data used for the calibration of the generation model comes mainly from the GLSS 5, the
Ghana Living Standards Survey, carried out in 2005/2006, whose results just become
5
available in late March 2009 .
A database including the most representative variables for trips production and attraction was
compiled for the generation model.
5
A CD including data and reports is available in the bookstore of the Ministry of Finance.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


2. Estimation method
The challenge here is to estimate zonal trips when only data for the regions are available,
and, as shown earlier, each region contains on average six zones.
Therefore, due to the lack of data for zones, an innovative approach has been taken,
consisting of estimating the per capita number of trip production and attraction by region,
based on the socio-economic data.
The number of trips per capita by zone in the calibration year (2008) is then estimated dividing
the total number of trips by the population of the zone. The population is the sum of the
estimate of the population of the districts in the zone. This estimate was provided by the GSS
(Table 5).
For each zone two factors are computed:
KPi is the ratio between the number of trips per capita produced by zone i and the number
of trips per capita produced by the region it belongs.
KAi is the ratio between the number of trips per capita attracted by zone i and the number
of trips per capita attracted by the region it belongs.
We suppose that these factors will remain constant over time.

The number of trips produced by zone i will then be estimated by:
Pi = KPi .RPR ,i∈R .POPi
Where:
Pi is the total number of trips produced by zone i
KPi is the “production factor” of zone i, as defined above
RPR ,i∈R is the per capita production of the region to which i belongs
POPi is the population of zone i
and similarly for the trip attraction.
The next step consists in estimating the per capita productions and attractions per region, as
functions of their socio-economic variables.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


3. Model and results
The model proposed is:
ln(TPC r ) = β 0 + ∑ β k ln(SEVk ) for trip production

k
Where:
ln(•) is the natural logarithm function
TPCr is the number of trips per capita in region r
βk are the coefficients to be estimated in the calibration (k=0 for the intercept)
SEVk are the socio-economic variables
The socio-economic variables must include any relevant available variable which is believed
to drive the generation of trips. Usual variables include variables describing the individuals
(income or expenditure for example) and variables describing the zones (industries and
tourism for example).
This model form is usually called log-log or double log model. Using variables in logarithms
instead of in levels – which is the traditional approach – has two main advantages: it reduced
heteroskedasticity (unequal variances), and the coefficients ( β k ) can be read directly as
elasticities.
Models are estimated using OLS (ordinary least squares). The resultant models for trip
generation are:
For trip production
ln(TPPC r ) = −36.76 + 2.2 ln( EXPENDTOT ) + 0.06 ln( NBCARS ) + 0.79 ln(TURISM ) − 3.92 ln( URBSHARE ) + 2.68 D Accra
(-4.04) (2.72) (0.12) (3.18) (-2.6)
(3.02)
2
R = 0.87
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


For trip attraction
ln(TAPC r ) = −36.69 + 2.12 ln(EXPENDTOT ) + 0.34 ln( NBCARS ) + 0.85 ln(TURISM ) − 4.51 ln( URBSHARE ) + 2.48 D Accra
(-3.18) (2.04) (0.52) (2.69) (-2.36)
(2.21)
2
R = 0.82
The values in brackets are the t-test for the coefficient above. We can see that the only
variable not statistically significant is the number of cars. However, as this variable can be
judged as an important determinant of mobility, we decide to keep it in the model.
The other variables have high t values, which mean that they are significant in the model. The
2
overall fit (represented by the R ) is very good, especially given the limitation of data.
D Accra is a dummy variable, valuing 1 for Greater Accra and 0 otherwise. The other variables
can be found in Table 4.This dummy is used to include the particular mobility pattern of Accra.
Among the variables available from the different sources, those not used in the model are
either not statistically significant or present collinearity problems with other variables in the
model. These variables include the price index, the welfare index and employment by region.
The income is also available; however, since the GSS affirms that the expenditure is a more
reliable variable for wealth than the income, the expenditure is used.
For the external zones, since they concern other countries, we do not estimate their traffic in
terms of socio-economic variables, but just apply an annual growth rate of 5%.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Table 4 : Socioeconomic data by region.
POP2008 URBSHARE TOURISM NBCARS EXPENDTOT
Western 2424139 36.3 1517536 15881 6482076
Central 1801520 37.5 3042523 8046 6763269
Greater
Accra 4057434 87.7 2087141 89005 1.05E+07
Volta 1822054 27.0 2385286 7527 4907515
Eastern 2267772 34.6 6373393 13625 6125471
Ashanti 4589377 51.3 5533511 38872 6817916
BrongAhafo 2164589 37.4 1707132 10740 5144491
Northern 2165606 26.6 582158.9 5277 3616290
Upper East 983575 15.7 254779.2 2238 2289306
Upper West 624861 17.5 863414.7 1589 1658085
Where:
variable source comments

POP2008 GSS (estimate)
GSS 2000
URBSHARE Share of urban population in %
census
weighted number of visits made outside usual environment
TOURISM GLSS 05/06
(computed as s5bq2*weight)
number of cars working - weighted sum of s12bq1a, s12bq1b and
NBCARS GLSS 05/06
s12bq1c when they value 1 (1= yes, working)
EXPENDTOT GLSS 05/06 weighted average per capita total expediture (ratio expendc/hhsize)
The population in 2008 by zone as well as KP and KA are presented in the table below.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Table 5 : Coefficients for trip generation
ZONE REGION Population2008 KA KP
1 Upper East 572458.8 2.0985 1.6634
2 Upper East 411116.2 0.8524 0.8640
3 Upper West 243849.6 1.2224 1.4196
4 Upper West 288004.5 0.6129 0.4626
5 Upper West 93007.0 0.5903 0.5106
6 Northern 151510.4 1.4794 1.3978
7 Northern 75702.4 0.1617 0.0225
8 Northern 90065.5 0.0997 0.0567
9 Northern 818881.1 0.8581 1.3324
10 Northern 289279.9 0.0095 0.0350
11 Northern 112258.1 0.0676 0.0014
12 Northern 154641.2 0.1341 0.0575
13 Northern 266428.9 0.2492 0.2267
14 Northern 206838.4 0.5149 0.4434
15 Volta 730977.5 1.8567 2.0612
16 Volta 307130.8 1.3295 1.3492
17 Volta 379338.0 0.8440 0.8725
18 Volta 404607.7 0.0532 0.0552
19 Brong Ahafo 306300.2 0.0792 0.0110
20 Brong Ahafo 364434.4 2.6310 3.2693
21 Brong Ahafo 170284.1 2.1618 2.4317
22 Brong Ahafo 374778.6 0.0546 0.0936
23 Brong Ahafo 291582.3 2.2878 2.3548
24 Brong Ahafo 365275.6 4.0900 3.2736
25 Brong Ahafo 291933.8 0.0015 0.0522
26 Ashanti 2224871.8 1.5136 1.1767
27 Ashanti 263719.0 0.0215 0.0262
28 Ashanti 251348.3 0.0031 0.0779
29 Ashanti 331201.1 0.0072 0.0096
30 Ashanti 283884.6 0.0337 0.0197
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”

31 Ashanti 353564.2 1.4357 0.7647
32 Ashanti 121688.0 1.8303 4.3138
33 Ashanti 301339.6 0.2415 0.6449
34 Ashanti 457760.5 3.2778 3.1949
35 Eastern 187803.6 0.7723 0.7214
36 Eastern 469883.9 0.1216 0.0303
37 Eastern 109737.9 0.6566 0.8365
38 Eastern 229403.6 0.1678 0.1333
39 Eastern 83131.3 2.6886 4.0310
40 Eastern 152965.1 1.6747 2.1230
41 Eastern 305627.6 1.1753 0.7805
42 Eastern 359951.7 0.2036 0.2611
43 Eastern 257401.7 0.2237 0.3637
44 Eastern 111865.4 3.8011 4.6689
45 Western 497554.5 0.0139 0.0245
46 Western 585850.6 0.2985 0.2551
47 Western 594111.5 1.7262 1.7117
48 Western 150308.5 0.1586 0.0415
49 Western 316917.6 0.7552 0.8614
50 Western 149188.9 1.0243 1.1061
51 Western 130207.3 0.0088 0.0646
52 Central 122637.0 0.6051 0.6679
53 Central 125100.2 0.0168 0.0347
54 Central 262613.8 2.6200 2.0389
55 Central 271462.9 0.5275 0.7140
56 Central 416038.3 1.5059 1.0503
57 Central 221010.1 2.2018 1.8641
58 Central 382657.6 0.3225 0.4975
59 Greater Acc 251685.5 0.0434 0.1957
60 Greater Acc 709729.3 0.5934 0.3919
61 Greater Acc 3096019.1 1.1709 1.2049
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Chapter 6 Passenger Trip Distribution
In the distribution model the trips originating in a certain zone i, that have been calculated in
the production model, are distributed over possible destinations j. The trips that have been
calculated in the attraction model with zone j as their destination, are distributed over the
possible points of origin i. The distribution process produces an origin-destination matrix in
which the rows of the table represent the origins and the columns represent the destinations
and the entries in the table represent the trips between a certain origin and destination.
Destination
1 2 3 4 5 6 … J ∑Origin
1 T11 T12 T13 T14 T15 T16 … T1j ∑T1j
2 T21 T22 T23 T24 T25 T26 … T2j ∑T2j
3 T31 T32 T33 T34 T35 T36 … T3j ∑T3j
4 T41 T42 T43 T44 T45 T46 … T4j ∑T4j

Origin
5 T51 T52 T53 T54 T55 T56 … T5j ∑T5j
6 T61 T62 T63 T64 T65 T66 … T6j ∑T6j
… … … … … … … … … …
I TI1 TI2 TI3 TI4 TI5 TI6 … ∑TIj
∑Dest ∑Ti1 ∑Ti2 ∑Ti3 ∑Ti4 ∑Ti5 ∑Ti6 … ∑TiJ ∑∑TIJ
Figure 8 : Result of the trip distribution
When an O-D matrix is available for the calibration year (from the OD survey), as is the case
here, the distribution problem consists in updating this matrix given the productions and
attractions issued from the generation model using future data.
This implies different growth rates for trips in and out of each zone and consequently having
two sets of growth factors for each zone, say fp and fa. The application of an average growth
factor, say f = 0.5(fp + fa) is only a poor compromise as none of the two targets of trip-end
constraints will be satisfied.
We therefore prefer to apply an iterative method involving the calculation of intermediate
coefficients which are then applied to cell entries in each row or column as appropriate. After
applying these corrections to say, each row, the totals for each column are calculated and
compared with target values. If the differences are significant, new correction coefficients are
calculated and applied as necessary. This method is usually called “fratar” or “double
constrained growth factors”.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


If the traffic for a cell (OD) is:
Tij = t ij f a f p A j Pi
Where:
Tij is the future traffic
t ij is the base-year traffic
f a and f p are the growth factors
A j and Pi are the balancing factors
We can incorporate the growth rates into new variables a j and p i , with a j = f a A j and
p i = f p Pj .
The factors a j and p i must be calculated so that the constraints (production and attraction)
are satisfied. This is achieved in an iterative process which in outline is as follows:
1. set all a j =1.0 and solve for p i ; in this context, solve for p i means find the
correction factors p i that satisfy the trip production constraints;
2. with the latest p i , solve for a j , e.g. satisfy the trip attraction constraints;
3. keeping the a j ’s fixed, solve for pi ;
4. repeat steps 2 and 3 until the changes are sufficiently small (the convergence is
achieved)
This method produces solutions within 1% of target values in a very small computer time.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Chapter 7 Induced Demand
Induced (also called generated) demand, is the increase of demand due to an increase or
6
improvement of the supply .
A journey on a road can be considered as having an associated cost or price (the generalised
cost) which includes the out-of-pocket cost (e.g. fuel costs and tolls) and the opportunity cost
of the time spent travelling, which is usually calculated as the product of travel time and the
value of travellers' time.
When road capacity is increased, initially there is more road space per vehicle travelling than
there was before, so congestion is reduced, and therefore the time spent travelling is reduced
- reducing the generalised cost of every journey (by affecting the opportunity cost of the time).
In fact, this is one of the key justifications for construction of new road capacity (the reduction
in journey times).
A change in the cost (or price) of travel results in a change in the quantity consumed. This can
be explained using the simple supply and demand theory, illustrated below. When supply
shifts from S1 to S2, the price (explained below) drops from P1 to P2, and quantity consumed
increases from Q1 to Q2.
Figure 9 : Impact on demand of a change in supply.

For roads or highways, the supply relates to capacity and the quantity consumed refers to
vehicle-kilometres travelled. The size of the increase in quantity consumed depends on the
elasticity of demand.
6 6
This section is based on the article ‘Induced Demand’ on Wikipedia and VTPI (2009) Induced Travel
and Generated Traffic. For more information about induced traffic, see the works of Professor Phil
Goodwin on this topic.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Although planners take into account future traffic growth when planning new roads (this often
being an apparently reasonable justification for new roads in itself - that traffic growth will
mean more road capacity is required), this traffic growth is calculated from increases in car
ownership and economic activity, and does not take into account traffic induced by the
presence of the new road (i.e. it is assumed that traffic will grow, regardless of whether a road
is built or not).
In the UK, the idea of induced traffic was used as a grounds for protests against government
policy of road construction in the 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s, until it became accepted as a
given by the government as a result of their own SACTRA (Standing Advisory Committee on
Trunk Road Assessment) study of 1994. However, despite the concept of induced traffic now
being accepted, it is not always taken notice of.
A classic example of induced demand was the construction of an orbital motorway around
London, the M25, in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In the short term (almost from opening),
the motorway became extremely busy and often congested (as planners underestimated the
level of demand, because some was induced, and thus the road did not have high enough
levels of capacity to accommodate it). In the long term (over a few years), new development
occurred around the new motorway and people adjusted their home and work locations to
depend upon it, further increasing demand.
In this study we apply elasticity of traffic between two zones with respect to the minimum
generalized cost between them(among the modal options available) which is equal to -0.2.
It means that a reduction in the generalized cost of 10% generates, per se, an increase of the
traffic of 2%. This is the induced demand.
For each OD pair, the traffic will be:
  GC SOD − GC BOD 
TSOD = TBOD 1 + e. 

  GC BOD 
Where:
TSOD is the traffic in the scenario situation
TBOD is the traffic in the base-case (without project) situation
e is the elasticity of traffic with respect to the generalized cost
GC SOD is the minimum generalized cost in the scenario situation
GC BOD is the minimum generalized cost in the base-case (without project) situation
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”

Chapter 8 Passenger Modal Split
The modal split model estimates the distribution of trips over the transport modes available. At
the end of this process, several OD matrices, one by mode, will be generated.
Figure 10 : Output from the modal split model.
The modal choice modelling is the field of transport economics which has probably known
most progress in the last few years. Advances in disaggregated choice theory and in
computers, now allow the application of increasingly complex and sophisticated models.
Three main factors prevent the application of such models in Ghana, first, the unavailability of
disaggregated data on choice behaviour, the unavailability of detailed data on transport supply
and, most importantly, the fact that there is no real modal choice, since almost all transport is
made by road and only a few ODs are served by either rail or air transport.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


The model used here is the aggregated logit model. It is called aggregated since it is
estimated based on average values instead of individual values.
The first step is the estimation of generalized costs for each model. For this, we need to apply
the value of time. Since no standard value is applied in Ghana, we start by the estimation of
the value of time.
1. Value of time in Ghana
In economics, the value of time represents the marginal rate of substitution between time and
money, or in other words, how much a person is willing to pay to save one hour of his time.
We approximate the value of time by the value of a working hour. This calculation is
summarized in the table below.
Table 6 : Value of time estimation
VARIABLE VALUE COMMENTS
GDP 1.68E+10 2008 current dollars; estimated, source IMF
employed 8.76E+06 extrapolated from 2000 census
GDP/employed 1.92E+03 dollars/employed person
hours/year 1830.4 4.4 days/week*8 hours/day*52 weeks/year
value time employed 1.05 dollars/hour
We will consider a value of time of 1$/hour for working trips. For non working trips, we will
consider 1/3 of this value, or 0.35 dollars/hour. Since, from the OD survey, 17.5% of trips are
for working purposes, the average value of time is 0.46 dollars/hour.
2. Generalized costs
Generalized costs are the sum of monetary and time costs. There may also be a constant to
approximate those elements of the cost that cannot be readily quantified, like quality or any
subjective valuation. These constants are usually called bonus or malus.
The travel time and the travel distance can be estimated from the network in the model.
Given the strategic objective of the model and the level of data available, we apply average
km costs for each mode.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Car
Since we consider that only the marginal costs affect the modal choice, the fuel costs are
representative of these marginal costs. An average of 0.6 $/litre and an average consumption
of 10km/litre, which means a price of 0.06 dollars/km.
Private cars and taxis are not modelled as different modes, since the use of taxis is related to
the unavailability of private cars. There is therefore no competition between them. The use of
fuel costs for taxis could be criticized. However, the idea behind this is that whatever
additional cost for taxi we could add, the cost for car ranges between the cost for public
transportation (bus and train) and the cost for air.
Therefore, using private car costs provides the same results in terms of modal split and there
is no need to introduce another variable in the model; such as the evolution of the taxis in the
country, which is hard to forecast.
Bus
Based on data from Intercity STC Coaches and Metromass, the average tariff per km is 0.02
dollars. The access time for bus is considered as 0.5 hour at each trip-end, i.e. 1 hours/trip.
Train
The average train fare is also 0.02 dollars/km, according to data from Ghana Railways
Company. The access time for train is considered as 1 hour at each trip-end, i.e. 2 hours/trip.
Air
Average air tariffs are 0.4 dollars/passenger km. Access time are estimated as 3 hours/trip.
3. Logit Model
The logit model estimated the modal share of one mode, given the generalized costs of all the
modes available. For example, the modal share for car will be:
e λGCcar
P (car ) =
e λGCcar + e λGCbus + e λGCtrain + e λGCair
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Where λ is a negative scale parameter, which measures the impact of variation of generalized
costs on the modal shares. The higher is λ in absolute values, the higher is the preference for
low cost modes. Figure 11 shows an example of the impact of λ.
P(car)
GC(bus) – GC(car)
Figure 11 : Example of Logit model

sensitivity
In addition, we can add a bonus/malus factor. These factors take into account any “non cost”
variables affecting the choices. The final cost represents the perceived or psychological cost
for the user.
Using the actual modal shares and the generalized costs, we can now estimate the values of
λ and the bonus/malus.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


We find λ = 0.02 and an additive malus for buses of 70 and 33 for rail and 25 for air. Finally,
pivot matrices are used to ensure that the actual situation is reproduced and to correct for the
modal shares in the future. The use of pivot matrices is illustrated below.
MM1R1: Modelised MM2R2: Modelised

OM1R1: Observed
Passenger Matrices Passenger Matrices
Matrices per Mode
per Mode Ref per Mode Scenario X
Compute
Pivot Matrices
(OM1R1 (MM1R1)
Compute
Passenger Matrices per Mode
PM: Pivot Matrix
Ref erence Scenario
(MM2R2 + PM)
Figure 12 : Using pivot matrices to correct modal split
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Chapter 9 Freight Modelling
Due to the complexity of the freight system and the little data available we decided not to
apply a sequential model for freight.
Freight transport models are based on complex relationships between producers and
consumers, national and global economy. Carrying out this kind of exercise in absence of
reliable data would produce a naïve model.
We propose, instead, to apply two different, alternative analysis.
1. Fixed structure matrix
In this analysis we consider that the structure of the OD matrix in terms of distribution of
freight between origins and destinations as well as the composition of the traffic in terms of
goods being transported remain the same. The only variable increasing over time with the
economic growth is the total volume transported.
7
The World Bank suggests that the lower bond elasticity of freight transport with respect to
GDP (in PPP) in developing countries should be higher than 1.25. We could use a slightly
higher value.
However, as the GDP forecasts have been done in market prices, and the elasticity to market
prices tend to be lower than to international (PPP) prices, an elasticity of 1.25 appears to be
reasonable for Ghana.
It means that for each year y the volume of freight transported is estimated as:
  GDPy − GDP2008 
FT y = FT2008 .1 + 1.25 
  GDP2008 
Where:
FTy is the total freight transport in Ton.km in year y
GDPy is national GDP (in constant prices) in year y
7
The World Bank (1992) What Determines Demand for Freight Transport. Policy Research Working
Papers. Available at http://go.worldbank.org/CJOK2UFS10
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Or equivalently:
[ [
FT y = FT2008 . 1 + 1.25. (1 + AAGGDP )
y − 2008
]]
−1
Where AAGGDP is the annual average GDP growth between 2008 and y, computed as a
geometric (and not arithmetic) mean.
This approach is presented as an option in the model but has not been applied in the ITP
project evaluations.
2. Exogenous matrix
The freight transport is highly dependent of the economic activity of the country. New
industrial developments, mining exploitations, investments, technological change, etc, can
8
dramatically change the structure of freight transport .
Under this perspective, the use of a fixed structure matrix can be an over simplistic approach.
In order to get the best possible picture about the planned and expected developments on the
different industries, the Ministry of Roads and Highways and the Ministry of Transport
organized workshops with the following bodies:
 Ministry of Finance
 Ministry of Trade and Industry
 Ministry of Energy
 Ministry of Food and Agriculture
 Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources
 Forestry Commission
 Minerals Commission
 Energy Commission
 Timber Export Development Board
 Cocoa Board
 Bulk Oil Storage and Transportation
The outputs of these workshops are presented in the reports:
8
For a review on transport models applied to freight transport see : Recent Developments in Transport
Modelling – Lessons from the Freight Sector. Ben-Akiva, Meersman and Van de Voorde. Emerald
Publications. 2008.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


 Socio-Economic Variables and Commodities Forecasts for Ghana 2008-2015-2025

 Commodities Generation and Transport in Ghana
Using this information an updated forecast freight matrix could be generated, which is then
applied as the most likely demand scenario for freight transport.
3. Freight Modal Split
Due to the lack of data on price structure and in particular to the lack of real modal
competition for freight transport in Ghana, the use of a mathematical model is not viable. In
addition, the real market for rail will heavily depend on the quality of service offered.
Instead we adopt a qualitative assessment of the potential freight market for rail for those
origin-destination pairs linked by rail in the infrastructure project scenarios.
We suppose that if the rail is available, all the cement, timber, bauxite, manganese, cocoa and
70% of general cargo are transported by rail. The rest, 30% of general cargo and all
agriculture products, are still transported by road. Of course, this market share concerns only
the long distance trips (interzonal).
This simplified approach gives only an idea of the potential traffic and can be used as a
strategic approach but a detailed analysis is required if a feasibility study is carried out.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Chapter 10 Network Assignment
Network assignment is the process of determining which route, among all available, will be
used by each user between his origin and destination.
Figure 13 : Assignment process
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


1. Assignment for roads
Assuming that the number of road users who want to move from a given origin to a given
destination is known and assuming that origin and destination are connected by a number of
routes: how will the road users distribute themselves over these routes?
If all of them were to take the shortest route (calculated over the unloaded network) then this
route could become congested. This would lead to an increase in travel impedance along that
route to the point where this route would no longer be the shortest one. Some road users
would choose an alternative route. Congestion could also develop on the alternative route,
etc. Eventually an equilibrium will be reached, as formulated for the first time in 1952 by
Wardrop. (Wardrop’s first principle):
Traffic distributes itself across the links of a network in such a way that an equilibrium occurs
in which no individual road user can lower his travel resistance by unilaterally (independently
of the other road users) choosing another route.
If all road users are fully aware of the travel impedances on all links (even if they do not use
these links themselves), and if they also judge these travel resistances in the same way,
Wardrop’s first principle implies the following:
In the equilibrium situation all routes used between a given origin and destination have the
same travel impedance, while routes not used have a higher level of travel impedance.
Wardrop’s first principle describes the traffic flows that occur when each individual user strives
to minimise his own travel impedance. It is a descriptive principle. The distribution of traffic
flows that occurs is called a deterministic user-equilibrium or a deterministic user optimal
equilibrium assignment.
An increase in the traffic volume on a link leads to an increase in travel time and thus to an
increase in the travel impedance on a link. The connection between traffic load and travel time
is represented by a timeloss function. One of the most widely-used functions is the BPR-
function (Bureau of Public Roads):
TC = T 0(1 + a(V / C ) b
In this formula:
TC is the travel time including congestion effects

T0 is the travel time at free flow speed
V is the volume in the link (in PCU equivalent)
C is the capacity of the link(in PCU equivalent)
a and b are empirically determined coefficients
Common values for the coefficients are a = 0.15 and b = 4. These values are used in this
study (Bureau of Public Roads).
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


The graphic below compares the traffic estimated in the model with the traffic counts in each
count station; the results show that except for one station, the model was able to replicate the
traffic counted with a high level of precision.
7000
6000
5000
Traffic Model
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Traffic Count
Figure 14 : Trafic model versus counts
2. Assignment for rail and air
The assignment for rail and air consists simply in finding the lowest cost path (which usually
coincides with the shortest path) for each OD. Given the very small rail and air networks in
Ghana, the assignment is straightforward, namely; identifying if there is any link available
between the origin and the destination and assigning the traffic for that OD on this link.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Chapter 11 Transport Indicators
A number of indicators can be drawn from the model. These indicators can provide a better
understanding of the current situation of the transport sector in Ghana.
The total number of interzonal trips observed was 524,600 trips/day, which means that, in
average, one out of 44 people are making a long distance trip every day.
These trips are divided into the different modes as follows:
 Car: 21%
 Bus: 78%
 Rail: 0.7%
 Air: 0.05%
The road sector (cars and buses) accounts for 99.2% of all passenger trips.
The total number of passenger kilometres is 94 million, which represents an average distance
of 179 km.
The freight transport represents 71,300 tons/day. The road transport accounts for 93% of
these movements. The traffic generated by freight transport represents 23.6 million ton.km;
the average distance for freight is 330 km.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Chapter 12 Issues about recalibration
A frequent question about model calibration is: When should the model be recalibrated?
There are two different issues about ensuring the validity of the model. The first one is the
recalibration and the second is keeping the model up to date. We should think about model
recalibration when:
 the economic reality has dramatically changed from the situation in the model; while most
changes, including macro-economic and population growth and other socio economic
characteristics can be easily included in the model, some structural changes can not; a
high increase in the service sector for example will affect the global economy and also the
mobility patterns.
 the infrastructure has dramatically changed; the development of some projects can
obviously be included in the model – this is actually the main purpose of the model.
However, when a significantly large number of infrastructure projects have been
completed, the mobility patterns can change as a function of these developments; for
example, the developments of new industries along these new roads.
 any external factor affecting the mobility patterns in a significant way. These factors can be
psychological (some countries invest in campaigns to improve perceptions about public
transport), technological (affecting costs and way of travel), etc.
 when more reliable information becomes available. This is the main issue in Ghana, since
data: is often not available; requires disaggregation; and not always reliable. We would in
particular seek to improve the quality of data on a district-by-district level.
However, a model can only be applied if it is up to date. Updating the model does not mean
recalibrating it, but ensuring that each new project is included in the base network and that
each new actual socio-economic data replaces a forecast data.
It is fundamental that the model must be frequently updated to remain valid. Otherwise the
model becomes obsolete in a very short time.
The process of updating should be continuous and a single version of the model must be
used (different versions of updates must be avoided). We recommend at least an annual
complete update. The recalibration must be driven by external factors affecting the validity of
the model. We can, however, expect that a new calibration will be needed in about 5 years.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Chapter 13 Improving the quality of

data for transport modelling
In the transport modelling process, we need to simulate the demand for transport and supply
and the interaction between them. All these simulations require a large amount of reliable
data. Some fundamental data include:
1. Data on demand
 A matrix of daily traffic by mode (car, taxi, tro-tro, bus, train, air) by origin and destination.
This matrix can be based on a large survey for the first time and then updated using small
samples (based for example on Bayesian procedures);
 Time series on traffic counts;
 Socio-economic characteristics on a district base for national models and more refined for
local (urban) models; this data includes population, employment by sector, income,
expenditure, etc.
 Agricultural, industrial and service production by district; type of goods/ commodities,
volumes, prices;
2. Data on supply
 A detailed description of the network in terms of physical characteristics: capacity, free-

flow speeds, speed-flow diagrams, IRI , slope, average travel times for train and aviation,
access and waiting times;
 Economic characteristics of the networks: vehicle operating costs for roads, cost of
production and market prices for each mode (by passenger.km and ton.km, differentiated
by purpose, type of commodity, seasonality…)
 Economic data on transport providers; cost and prices, capacity, infrastructure available
(warehouses), load per trucks (overloading)…
3. Standard Economic variables
Although not fundamental, the availability of standard values ensures homogeneity and
comparability for the various transport studies. They are composed mainly by:
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


 Recommended growth rates for economic variables: GDP, Population, Income ...
 Values of time, differentiated by purpose
 Growth for the different sectors of the economy
 Discount rates,
 Etc.
4. Data availability and reliability
Regarding socio-economic data, the availability and the reliability of data is very limited. Data,
including production and consumption, should be available by districts and updated on a
regular basis.
The transport indicators database compiles several statistics on the transport sector. These
are, in most of cases, highly aggregated, which make them unsuitable for modelling.
However, many ratios and averages can be drawn, which, in some cases is enough, or at
least is a solid base to compare the input variables, from different sources.
The database should be enlarged, be detailed and aim to serve as a common reference for all
the transport studies being (and to be) carried out in the country.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Annexe 1 OD Surveys
The main purposes of the traffic surveys are to:
 Estimate person-trips and cargo-trips between Zones (Traffic Analysis Zones) for Demand
Forecasting
 Calibrate the Traffic Model to be employed for the development of the demand forecast
and subsequent Transport Plans
Type of Traffic Surveys

Traffic surveys conducted to meet the objectives of the Project comprise:
 Origin-Destination and Vehicle occupancy surveys
 Manual Classified traffic volume counts
The surveys were limited to the National trunk roads. The Route Corridors, road sections,
locations and study periods are shown in Table 2.0.1.The choice of locations was based on
the following key considerations:
 Transport operators’ routes
 Major destination nodes
 Travel pattern
 Road network configuration
 GHA Highway Network Master Plan studies conducted in 2001.
The studies on a particular Route corridor were undertaken at the same time/period on all the
locations so as to facilitate the synchronization of results. Four teams were formed with each
th
team headed by an Engineer for the field data collection, which spanned from September 29
to October 25, 2008. The work programme for the studies is presented in the table below.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”

Table 7 : Traffic Survey Locations and Study Periods

       
 
  
   
 
 
       
 
  
  
    
     
   
 
    

 
   
      
        
     

 
      

   
      
    
     

   
     

   
 
       
   

   
  
     
    
     

   
       
      
        
   
       

  
    
   
  
   
 

    
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


OriginDestination and Vehicle Occupancy (OD) Surveys
OD Data Collection
The roadside-interview method was employed for the O-D surveys. The studies were
conducted for two days in each direction at each location, excluding Sundays. The surveys
were conducted for 10 hours each day at 15-minute intervals. The studies took place
simultaneously with the classified traffic volume counts. Due to the nature of the ITPG project,
only the types of vehicles that normally traverses significantly long distances were involved in
the surveys. These comprise the following:
1. Cars
2. Taxis
3. Vans, Pick-Ups
4. Mini/Small Buses
5. Medium Buses
6. Large Buses
7. All Trucks
Only bicycle and motor bike traffic were not considered in this regard. Sampling of vehicles
was done where necessary. The data that were recorded include the following for each
vehicle:
 Origin and Destination
 Number of persons carried
 Trip purpose at the origin and destination
 Number of persons permitted
 Commodity carried
For each type of vehicle, the number of passengers interviewed is as follows:

 Private cars, pick ups, vans: driver only;
 Taxis: 1 passenger;
 Minibuses/Small buses: 2 passengers;
 Medium/Large Buses: 4 passengers;
 Trucks: driver only
The following personnel conducted the field interviews for each direction at each location:
 Two enumerators, with the assistance of the Police
 An Engineer supervised the operations for each location.
Sample of the field data collection form used for the O-D surveys is shown below.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”



Station n° From (city name): To (city name):
Date: Day of Week: Time Start: Time Finish: Recorder:
All vehicles Passenger vehicles Freight vehicles
Destination
No. of No. of cars Transport Would you Maximum
Vehicle Origin City+Origin City+Destination Destination No. of Persons Trip Purpose Trip Purpose Maximum Gross Weight of commodity
Origin Zone Persons in the price (Gh. take train? price for Commodity Code Remark
Code OR Border+Country OR Zone carried + driver Origin Code Destination Code weight (tons) (tons)
Permitted household Cedis) (Y/N) train
Border+Country
VEHICLE TYPE CODE TRIP PURPOSE CODE COMMODITY CODE
1. Agric
Products, eg. 8. Feeding stuff
11. Medium 8 Other Cocoa, Coffee, for animals (not
3. Cars 1 home 15. Empty
Trucks (State) Tea, spices and including
manufactures unmilled cereals)
thereof
9. Miscellaneous
12. Heavy 2. Livestock, eg.
4. Taxis 2 usual working place edible products
Trucks Cattle
and preparations
10.Construction
5. Pick 3. Sugars, sugar
13. 3-Axle Materials, eg.
Ups/Vans/ 3 business place preparations and
Jeeps
S/Trailers Sand, Cement,
honey
etc.
6.
14. 4-Axle 4. Meat and meat 11. Petroleum
Mini/Small 4 school, education
Buses
S/Trailers preparations Products
5 personal business
7. Medium 15. 5-Axle 5. Dairy products
(administration, bank, 12. Timber, Logs
Buses (6 wheels)
Trucks and birds’ eggs
medical, etc)
6. Cereals and 13.Machinery and

8. Large 16. 6-Axle
Buses Trucks
6 visit family/social cereal Transport
preparations Equipment
10. Light 7. Vegetables and

7 recreation / tourism 14. Other (State)
Trucks fruits
Figure 15 : Field Data Collection for the OD Survey
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


OD Data Processing and Analysis
The O-D survey data was processed electronically using the Excel spreadsheet into a
database structured format as required by the Cube modeling software. The Access database
software was employed in the final processing of data, (ref. Section 4).
The detailed analysis of data and results thereof are provided under the results and
interpretation of the traffic modeling.
Manual Classified Traffic Volume Counts
Traffic Volume Data Collection
Manual classified traffic volume counts were undertaken for two days for a period of 24 hours
each day at 15-minute intervals. The studies were conducted simultaneously with the O-D
surveys so as to generate the daily adjustment factors to be applied to the O-D survey results.
The categories of traffic that were counted comprise the following GHA vehicle classes, which
are presented in Table 8. Two enumerators were engaged for each direction per shift at each
location. The 24-hour counts consisted of three shifts at each location.
Sample of the field data collection form used for the traffic volume counts is shown in
Table 8 : Summary of Category of Vehicles (GHA Vehicle Classes)
Item Vehicle Category Description
1 Bicycles
2 Motorbikes
3 Taxis This category includes all taxis
This category includes private, hired and saloon or

4 Cars
estate cars.
This category includes pick-ups, land- rovers, vans,

5 Vans, Pick-Ups
jeeps, etc.
Small buses include up to 19-seater buses, etc., with

6 Small buses
four (4) wheels
Medium buses include 33-seater buses, etc., with six

7 Medium Buses
(6) wheels
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


8 Large Buses Large buses include 54-seater buses and upwards.
Mammy Wagons are special trucks having wooden

9 Mammy Wagons
bodies for conveying both passengers and goods.
This category comprises 2-axle trucks with single rear

10 Light Trucks wheels or 2-axle trucks with twin rear wheels less than
10 tons.
This category comprises 2-axle trucks with twin rear

11 Medium Trucks
wheels of at least 10 tons.
Heavy trucks comprise 3-axle rigid trucks, including

12 Heavy Trucks
tankers.
3-Axle S/Trailers - Semi- These are semi-trailers with any configuration of 3

13
Trailers (Light) axles.
4-Axle S/Trailers - Semi- These are semi-trailers with any configuration of 4

14
Trailers (Heavy) axles.
5-Axle Trucks –Truck These are large trucks with any configuration of 5
15
Trailers axles.
These are extra-large trucks with any configuration of

16 6-Axle Trucks -Large Trucks
6 axles.
This category also includes tractors, bull-dozers,

17 Others graders, or other heavy agricultural or constructional
machinery.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


 Sheet of
Road Link: Road Section: Count Location: Direction:
Weather: Date: Day of Week: Enumerator:

15 MINUTES INTERVAL 15 MINUTES INTERVAL 15 MINUTES INTERVAL 15 MINUTES INTERVAL
VEHICLE TYPE From To From To From To From To
1. Bicycles
2. Motor Bikes
3. Cars
4. Taxis
5. Pick Ups/Vans/Jeeps
6. Mini/Small Buses
7. Medium Buses
(6 wheels)
8. Large Buses
9. Mammy Wagons
10. Light Trucks
11. Medium Trucks
12. Heavy Trucks
13. 3-Axle S/Trailers
14. 4-Axle S/Trailers
15. 5-Axle Trucks
16. 6-Axle Trucks
17. Others

Figure 16 : Field Data Collection Form for the Traffic Volume Counts
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


The traffic volume data was processed and analysed electronically using the Excel
spreadsheet application software.
The following have been computed for each location:
 Average Daily Traffic (ADT) volumes for each vehicle type /group and the total ADT
 Seasonal (Monthly) variation factors for the estimation of Annual Average Daily Traffic
(AADT)
 Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) volumes
 Peak hour volumes and relation of Peak hour traffic to ADT
Computation of Average Daily Traffic (ADT) Volumes
ADT volumes have been computed for each location by direction as well as the total volume.
The two-day 24-hour counts were averaged over the period to obtain the ADT volumes.
Summary of results of the ADT volumes are presented in Table 9 together with some
comments/interpretations. Table 10 shows the summary of composition for the traffic groups:
light, medium and heavy and the total ADT.
Computation of Seasonal (Monthly) Variation (AADT) Factors
Monthly variation factors were computed for each road section/location, using available
historic traffic data obtained from the GHA. The computation of these factors was
accomplished by dividing the computed historic Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) by the
Average Daily Traffic (ADT) for each month.
Thus,
MVF = AADT/ADTM
where,
MVF = Monthly Variation Factor,

AADT = Historic Annual Average Daily Traffic (2000 to 2006), where available
ADTM = Average Daily Traffic for the month in which traffic was counted, (October).
A factor of unity was assumed for sections with no available historic traffic data. For sections
with data for other months except October, average of the various MVFs was employed.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Computation of Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)
AADT was computed as:
AADT = MVF x ADT
Summary of results are presented in Table 11.
Computation of Peak Hour Traffic Volumes
Peak hour traffic volumes have been computed as well as the proportion of the ADT occurring
during the peak hour. The peak hour volumes were computed from the maximum of the hourly
volume totals. Summaries of results are presented in Table 12.
Observations on Average Daily Traffic (ADT) Volumes
The following can be observed from Table 9:
 Routes N1, N2, N4, N6 and N10 as expected recorded heavy average daily volumes in
excess of 4,000 vehicles per day for some sections as highlighted. The ADT volumes
range from 4,171 to 11,986 vehicles per day.
 Some road sections recorded low ADT volumes mainly due to the poor state of the roads.
These include:
• Fufulso-Damango-Sawla road, which recorded 33 vehicles per day, and

• Elubo-Sunyani road with only 14 vehicles per day
 The overall ADT volumes range from 14 to 11,986 vehicles per day.
Observations on the Composition of Traffic by Vehicle Group

 Routes N1, N2, N6, N9, N10, N11, N12 and N13 recorded significant percentages of
heavy group traffic of at least 12 percent of total ADT. The affected road sections are
highlighted. The heavy group traffic ranges from about 13 to 47 percent.
 The overall proportion of heavy group traffic ranges from 0 to 47 percent. The medium
group traffic ranges from 4 to 34 percent with the light group traffic ranging from 40 to 96
percent.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Observations on Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) Volumes
The results of the AADT volumes naturally follow as much as possible the same pattern as
that of the ADT volumes.
 The AADT/Monthly variation factors (MVF), range from 0.7 to 1.54.
Observations on the Peak Hour Traffic Volumes
 Routes N1, N4 and N6 recorded high peak hour volumes in excess of 400 vehicles per
hour for some sections as highlighted. The volumes range from 451 to 957 vehicles per
hour.
 The overall peak hour volumes range from 4 to 957 vehicles per hour.
 The overall proportion of ADT occurring during the peak hour ranges from 0.06 to 0.29,
(i.e. 6 to 29 percent of the ADT volumes occur during the Peak hour).
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Table 9 : Summary of results of the Average Daily Traffic (ADT) Volumes
              
                                    
         
   

               
      
   
                
    
     
     
                 
 

 
               
 
                 
 
               
  
                 

  
  
  
              
       
 
    

               
   
                  
     
                 
  
               
                  
                   
    
                  
     
  
                
    
    
             
      
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


            
                                    
          
 
                       
  
 
      
               
            

                
 
               
 
 
                  
 
    
 
                     
  
               
      

                 
    
  
   
            
      
      
        
                 
    
                 
                 
    

       
   
  
   
 
   
                  
  
   
    
               
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Table 10 : Composition of Traffic by Vehicle Group and Total ADT Volumes

  
        
  

     


     

  

        
 

     

      
      



        

       
 
      
 
      


       

      
        


       
 
      
 

       

 
    
 
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


    
                 
                                              
      
                       
      

             
        
    
     
                 
   
   
               
     
                  
      
      
   
                     
   
             
    

       
                 
   
     
             
                     
            
                       
  
               
   

        
 
      
  
       
     
                    
      
       
                  
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Table 11 : Summary of results of the AADT Volumes

   
               
                             
                
  
        
                    
  
            
                    
  
     
    
      
                        
  

                                  
                           
  
                     
         

  
                         
  
                      
  
  
                           
  
                          
        

                          
   
                        
                              
                             
       
                         
       
   
                           
       
        
                   
     
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”



    
     
    


         


  
       
  

          

       

 
       
  

        

        

         


       


        

 
         
        

       
 


        

 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Table 12 : Summary of results of the Peak Hour Volumes and relation to the ADT
            
           
                                  
          
       
         
             
  
                       
        

             
              
        
                         
                    
                                  


    
                    
                   
                                  
                     
                                    
                  
                            
                            
                                   

           
       
                     
                                
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


    
     
       
     
  
        

        

       
       
       

  
      
        
        
     
      


 

     
       

      
 

     
    
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Overall Observations on the Traffic Volumes
From the fore-going analysis, results and observations, it can be said that the following road
corridors and sections constitute the major heavily trafficked National routes:
 Route N1, from Aflao to Takoradi
 Route N2, from Tema to Nkwanta
 Route N4, from Accra to Koforidua
 Route N6, from Accra to Kumasi, and
 Route N10, from Daboasi Junction to Bolgatanga.
Problems Encountered and Recommended Measures for

Improving Future Surveys
This section highlights the major problems encountered during the traffic surveys and
measures proposed to improve future studies. The following constitute the major problems
faced during the surveys:
 Some drivers refused to stop and some of those who stopped were impatient to answer all
the items in the questionnaire
 Some passengers were also impatient and some even demanded to see the identity cards
of the enumerators before being interviewed.
 It was quite difficult to solicit for Police assistance at some locations due to the inadequate
personnel at the affected areas. Some of those available did not also give out their
maximum cooperation. It should be mentioned that the Police in the influence areas were
formally informed before the surveys.
 Police patrol teams disrupted the surveys in some areas because of the spate of armed
robberies in the affected areas.
 Inclement weather hampered the surveys at some locations.
The following are suggestions to improve future surveys:
 Advertisements should be made through both electronic and the print media as well as in
both English and major local dialects before the commencement of the surveys so as to
adequately inform the general public, especially the road users and the Police.
 In addition, the various transport associations should be informed so as to educate their

members to fully cooperate
 Surveys should be undertaken during the dry season, if possible, so as to minimize

disruptions by rain.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Annexe 2 Construction of the

Database
The construction of the database for the modeling involved processing and assigning unique
IDs in Microsoft Excel and the final importation of the data into Access.
The processing stage aided in the restructuring and correction of inconsistencies in the data
where necessary. This was to ensure that the final data used for the modeling would be as
reliable as possible for data analysis.
The importation of the data into access added a layer of reliability to the resultant data for the
modeling as the in-built mechanisms in Microsoft Access ® were employed to check the data
before importation.
Four main groups of data were processed and imported:
i. Existing road network

ii. Existing railway network
iii. Flight Links
iv. Origin-Destination (OD) survey data
This section outlines all the various stages in the construction of the database for the transport
modeling
Existing Road Network Data
The existing road network data, comprising the 2008 annual road condition survey from the
Ghana Highway Authority and a GIS map of the trunk road network, provided data to model
the existing infrastructure. It provided information such as road characteristics and road
condition.
The road characteristics include the following:
 Lane width
 Number of lanes
 Length
 Surface type
The road condition includes information on:
 The condition of the road

 The roughness index of the road (IRI value)
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


The GIS map provided data to aid in the replication of the network in the modeling software.
It must be mentioned that the main corridors of interest were the National routes, per GHA
standards. The national routes are the main road corridors numbering about 13 referenced as
N1 to N13.
Processing and Structuring the Road Network Data
Road Condition Survey Data
The processing of road condition survey data included the restructuring of the originally flat
database into a relational one as required by the modeling software.
Thus, the data was split into roads, links, sections and sub-sections. The diagram shows the
relationship between the various components of the road network data.
The roads list contained a unique list of all the roads in the network. The links list contained
the unique list of all links for each road. These are considered the segments between major
intersections or administrative boundaries.
The sections list contained all the sections for each link. These are usually homogenous
segments of road sharing the same characteristics.
The sub-sections, were created because road characteristics can changed along the section.
To ensure that the relational system was maintained, all road sections were considered to
have sub-sections. The road conditions were thus disaggregated to this level.
Road Characteristics
Some of the road characteristics were not originally available in the GHA database. These
had to be, therefore, generate in consultations with GHA.
The road characteristics include:
 Width/lane: the width of each lane

 Number of lanes/direction: the number of lanes per direction
 Capacity: the capacity of the roads
 Free flow speed: the maximum speed by vehicles plying the road under free flow
conditions
 Slope: the average slope of the road section
GIS Map
As mentioned above, the GIS map provided a means to replicate the road network in the
modeling software.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


The problem encountered with the GIS map was the fact that the segments in the road
condition survey database were not the same as the segments in the map. As a result, the
map segments had to be related to the road network at the road section level, where both the
map and the road database shared similar characteristics. This was done by the assignment
of section IDs to the map segments, based on the sections they belonged to. The means for
generating these IDs are discussed in the next section.
The diagram below shows this situation
Road Section
Road Sub-Sections
Map segments
Figure 17 : Relationship between sections, subsections and map segments
Generation of Unique IDs for Various Components
To ensure that the data for the various components of the road network data created could be
related to each other unique IDs (numeric) were created for the roads , links, sections and
sub-sections.
Roads: The unique IDs for roads were generated based on the road class and the road
number. This is based on the referencing used by the GHA for roads. The format is a letter
representing the road class and the road number. This combination is unique for each road.
The ID system was formatted as R###.

Where
R represents a numeric value for the road class – 1 for National (N); 2 for Inter-Regional (IR)
and 3 for Regional (R).
### - A three digit number representing the road’s number

For example route N1 would be formatted as 1001 and N12 would be 1012, etc.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Links: The unique IDs for links were generated in the format (R###)(LL).
Where
(R###) - is the road ID for the link.
LL – The link number (a unique number based on GHA referencing)

For example the fourth link of route N12 would have an ID of 101204, etc.
Sections: The IDs for road sections were generated based on the link IDs and a unique
number assigned to each road section in the road condition database. The format was
(R###LL)(SS)
Where
(R###LL) – is the link ID for the section
SS – The section number, reformatted as a two digit number

For example the first section of the link with ID 101204 would be 10120401, etc.
SubSections: The road sub-section IDs were formatted as (R###LLSS)(SB).
Where
(R###LLSS) – The section ID for a given sub-section
(SB) – The sub-section number
For example if a given section with ID (10120401) has no sub-sections, then the sub-section
ID generated for it would be 1012040101 and for the case where it has three sub-sections it
may have SB values of 01 (1012040101), 02 (1012040102) and 03 (1012040103)
respectively.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Primary and Foreign Keys

The unique IDs described above were assigned as the primary keys for their respective
tables. These are the main IDs used to identify each record.
Foreign keys were created to relate the tables in the database where applicable. These are
IDs in a table which helps setup a relationship with records in another table.
For the road links, a road ID key was created. The road IDs generated were then assigned to
their related links as the foreign keys.
Road sections had link ID foreign keys and the sub-sections had section ID foreign keys.
The road characteristics also had section IDs as foreign keys.
In the case of the GIS, an attribute was created to assign the section IDs as foreign keys. In
the final processing however, FIDs which are unique IDs assigned to each map feature where
assigned as foreign keys in the road characteristics table as well as for the road conditions
table.
Existing Railway Network

The existing railway network is made up of three main corridors:
 The Western Line (Takoradi-Kumasi),

 The Central line (Huni Valley-Kotoku)
 The Eastern Line (Kumasi-Kotoku).
The data processed here were all in a GIS map. Two main sets of data were processed: the
network and the railway stations.
Railway Network
The processing done here included the assignment of extra attributes to the railway network
and the merging and splitting of railway segments to account of the locations of the railway
stations within the network.
Some of the additional attributes include:
 FNode: the start point – this is the unique ID (FID) of the railway station at the start point
 TNode: the end point – this is also the FID of the railway station at the end point
 SegCondn: this is the condition of the segment (good, fair, poor)
 Status: the status of a given segment (active, inactive)
 SectName: the name of a given segment. This is normally the origin and destination of the
segment (e.g. Takoradi-Kojokrom)
 Length: the length of the segment in kilometres
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Railway Stations
The railway stations were created based on the list of stations provided. The processing done
involved locating the stations and assigning some attributes to them.
The attributes of importance included in this map feature were:
 TownName: The name of the town in which the station is located

 Stat_X: The geographical x-coordinate of the station
 Stat_Y: The geographical y-coordinate of the station
As mentioned in the previous sub-section, the FIDs generated in this feature were assigned to
the FNode and TNode attributes of the railway network to reflect the start and end points of
the segments respectively. They also showed the connectivity between the various segments
in the network.
Flight Links
This was mainly the generation of links to show the flight paths between:
 Accra to Kumasi,
 Accra to Sunyani
 Accra to Tamale
In addition, the location of all the airports and airstrips were setup.
All the above processing was done in the GIS map.
OD Survey Data
The OD survey was conducted by the consultant. It was conducted on the main National trunk
roads (N1-N13).
The following is a description of the processes employed in getting the data into the database.
OD Data
The OD data had thirty-one (31) stations. For each station, the survey was conducted in both
directions. The survey was conducted for two days for each station and the whole exercise
started from 30th September, 2008 to 30th October, 2008.
The data was collected for forty periods of 15 minutes.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Data Entry and Processing
For both zones and districts, unique IDs were assigned. The relationship between districts
and zones were also established, as were towns and districts. This aided in the assignment of
the right zones and districts to the towns mentioned by the respondents as their respective
origins and destinations.
The data entry was done in pre-formatted Microsoft Excel and for a given station, forty sheet
tabs bearing the period names were created. The data was entered into these sheet tabs.
In all, one hundred and twenty-four (124) workbooks were processed
The processing exercise required the following steps
Compilation of Lookups
The lookups in this case were the list of survey stations, survey station directions, the OD date
list and the period list.
The survey stations were 31 and each station was assigned a station ID. This aided in the
assignment of station direction IDs after creating the list of station directions. For each station,
there were two directions and each direction had a unique ID.
The OD date list was also compiled and each date had a unique ID assigned to it.
The period list was also compiled. Each period had a unique ID.
These lookups were created to aid in the assignment of IDs to the OD data and also in setting
up the relationship between the various data tables in the database.
Merging of Data
For each Excel workbook, the data from all the sheet tabs had to be copied to a single sheet
tab. Thus, a new sheet tab was created and the data copied to this sheet.
To keep track of which contained what data, blank rows were left between consecutive sets of
data. This is particularly important since unique IDs had to be assigned later.
Generation of OD Sheet List
This data was stored in the ODSheet database table. For each workbook a list of all the
sheets was generated. The most important feature of the sheet list is the unique ID generated
for every sheet.
The unique ID, a numeric value, was generated in the format (SD) (D) (SN).
SD is the station direction ID obtained from the station directions list.
D is the date ID from the OD Date list. This was formatted as a two digit number.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


SN is a serial number for each sheet formatted as a 2 digit number. Thus for the forty sheets,
sheet 1 would have an SN of 01 and so on.
For example, for a station direction ID of 28 and a Date ID of 9 and a sheet number of 1 then
sheet ID would be 280901.
The unique ID was used to setup a relationship with the other parts of the OD data. It ensured
that the data related to a specific station can easily be retrieved during the modeling process.
Other items in this list include:

 StatDirID – the station direction ID
 DateID – the date ID
 PeriodID – the period ID
Generation of Vehicles List
The next stage was the generation of a list containing all the vehicles stopped for the interview
in a given direction.
Unique IDs were generated for each given vehicle for a given sheet tab. The ID was in the
format (SID)(V).
SID is the sheet ID generated in the stage above
V is a serial number assigned to each vehicle found on a given sheet formatted as a two digit
number. Thus, if there are three vehicles on the sheet they will have V values of 01, 02, 03
respectively.
For instance, if the sheet ID is 280901 and the vehicle is the second one on the sheet, then
the vehicle record ID would be 28090102.
The process also involved the assignment of the sheet ID to every vehicle on a given sheet.
The vehicles list included the following additional information:
 Vehicle Type ID: An ID assigned to all the vehicle types. The vehicle types were based on
the official vehicle types used by the Ghana Highway Authority (GHA).
 Origin: an ID for the origin of the vehicle. This ID was obtained from the list of Districts in
Ghana
 Destination: an ID for the destination of the vehicle. This ID was also obtained from the list
of Districts in Ghana
 persNum: The number of passengers on board the vehicle
 seatNum: the number of passengers allowed on the vehicle
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Generation of Passenger List

This list contained the responses from the various passengers on board each vehicle.
As in the other cases, the most important feature in the processing was the assignment of a
unique ID to each passenger as well as the assignment of the vehicle ID for the vehicle on
which these passengers were found.
In most cases, the interviewers interviewed a maximum of three passengers per vehicle.
The unique ID generated for each passenger is in the format (VID)(P).
VID is the vehicle ID from the previous process
P is the passenger’s serial number.

For the situation where there are two passengers one would have a P of 1 and the following
would have a P of 2 and so on.
For instance, the passengers on vehicle with ID 28090102 would have IDs 280901021 and
280901022 respectively.
Other items in this list include:
 vehicleID: The ID for the vehicle on which this passenger was found
 purpOrigin: This is the trip purpose from the Origin, a numeric value obtained from the list
of trip purposes
 purpDest: This is the trip purpose from the Destination, a numeric value obtained from the
list of trip purposes
 carsHsld: The number of cars in the household
 transpPrice: The cost of transport
 takeTrain: Whether the passenger would take a train
 maxPriceTrain: The maximum price expected for train
Generation of Freight List

This list contained the details on freight carried by the vehicles.
The first stage was the assignment of the unique IDs to the freight records. The unique ID is
formatted as (VID)(F), where
VID is the vehicle ID generated for the vehicles list
F is a serial number for the freight record. On most occasions the vehicles carried only one
type of commodity and hence the serial numbers were mostly 1.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


The formatting for the freight record was similar to that of the passengers.
Other features in the list are:

 vehRecID: the vehicle record ID
 maxGrossWeight: the maximum gross weight of the vehicle
 comNum: the commodity type ID obtained from the list of commodities
 freightWeight: the weight of the freight
 remarks: for situations where further remarks on the freight was necessary
Building the Access Database
This was done based on a class diagram developed at the outset of the project. Some
modifications had to be done as a result of the available data and how best the consultant
considered the data could be structured.
As this was the final stage of data processing for the model, stringent measures were
employed to ensure that the data would be accurate and also reliable for the analysis.
With built-in checks and data indices, the uniqueness of the IDs generated was checked.
Relationships between tables also helped in the identification of orphaned data in child tables.
This ensured that relationships would behave as expected.
Tables were created either directly in Access or via the process of importation of data from
Excel.
Most of the tables were created via the importation process.
To ensure data integrity, the lookup tables:

Districts, Zones, CommodityType, TripPurpose, ODDate, Period, VehicleType were created
first. These were tested for uniqueness of their respective IDs (primary keys).
The road network data and other related data were then imported, with corrections as and
when necessary.
The last set of data imported was the OD Data. The process involved the importation of the
sheets, vehicle records, passenger records and freight records respectively.
The OD Data was then linked to the road network database via the section ID in the sections
tables.
A diagram below shows the relationship between the various tables in the database.
 
 

ANNEXURE “L”


Figure 18 : Database diagram showing the relationship between the variables
 
 

ANNEXURE “M”
SkyTrain PRESS ARTICLE: TRANSPORT MINISTER SLAMS NDC
GOVERNMENT (FEBRUARY 2018)
Transport Minister slams NDC gov’t for

‘wasting’ BRT money
February 9, 2018
Kwaku Ofori Asiamah, Sector Minister
The Ministry for Transport has slammed the Mahama government for what it calls the previous
administration’s shoddy implementation of the Bus Rapid Transit system in Accra.
According to the Minister for Transport, Kwaku Ofori Asiamah, about $100 million was secured as a
loan from the World Bank for the BRT project, but was not put to good use by the previous
administration.
Related Stories
Work on BRT dedicated lanes to start in November
Traffic jams, Overcrowding making Accra unattractive – Nana Addo
Aayalolo making losses after 8 months of operation
Speaking to Citi News after the President’s State of the Nation address, Mr. Asiamah said more
Aayalolo buses will soon be deployed after the construction of a terminal at the PWD yard in the
central business district of Accra.
President Nana Akufo-Addo, in his address, bemoaned the daily traffic jams and congestion in various
parts of the capital, which he said was making Accra unattractive.
Mr. Ofori Asiamah also described the situation as unpardonable, and said his Ministry was working to
correct the situation.

ANNEXURE “M”
SkyTrain PRESS ARTICLE: TRANSPORT MINISTER SLAMS NDC
GOVERNMENT (FEBRUARY 2018)
“The congestion in our city is something unacceptable which we need to work on. The World Bank
gave us a loan of about $100 million for the Aayalolo buses and their attendant infrastructure. The
infrastructure that they were supposed to put in place, they didn’t do it,” the Minister remarked.
He recalled that the current government had to go to “London to see HSBC, renew the loan and start
the construction of the bus terminal at PWD… we cannot operate Aayalolo buses when they come to
the city without having a bus terminal.”
“The dedicated bus lane that they were supposed to build from Adenta to the Central City, they have
not been able to build it. Ask them where is the money,” Mr. Ofori Asiamah lamented.
The Quality Bus system (QBS), which is making use of the Aayalolo buses, was initially envisioned as
part of a Bus Rapid Transport system, but the absence or lack of dedicated lanes meant it did not
match up to that standard.
Most major roads to Accra have gained notoriety for having the city’s worst traffic jams.
Some of these roads include the Madina to 37 road, Circle to Achimota road, Ofankor to Pokuase
road, and the Tema motorway – Tetteh Quarshie roundabout.
Efforts by previous governments to address the problem seem not to have yielded results as the
traffic situation has not improved.
Some analysts have suggested a total review of the country’s transportation system with a shift from
the construction of new roads to the implementation of policies that will encourage boarding of
commercial buses and an efficient railway system.
By: Delali Adogla-Bessa/citifmonline.com/Ghana

ANNEXURE “N”
SkyTrain PRESS ARTICLE: GOVERNMENT’S RENEWED COMMITMENT TO
ACCRA LIGHT RAIL PROJECT LURES INVESTORS
Govt's renewed commitment to Accra

light rail project lures investors
Source: Ghana | Myjoyonline.com | George Nyavor | george.nyavor@myjoyonline.com
Date: 17-07-2017 Time: 03:07:32:am
E-mail
Tweet
For close to a decade Ghana has been pitching the idea of a state-of-the-art
light rail infrastructure for Accra and other major cities to eager investors,
however, for one reason or the other, the project has failed to take off – but
that is about to change.
The newly created Ministry of Railway Development has been studying a

deluge of proposals on the most cost-effective approach to get the project
started and completed within the next couple of years.
In an exclusive interview with Myjoyonline.com recently, Minister of Railway

Development, Joe Ghartey, said the traffic situation in Accra and Kumasi
especially has heightened government's focus on the project.
The inner-city rail project, especially for Accra and Kumasi, is among the top
priority rail infrastructure projects of the ministry.
“Ghana today has more people in the urban areas than in the rural areas.
Accra’s population is more than five million and growing and Kumasi is about
three million and growing. And if you look at the number of people who come
to these cities every day, I am sure it will be about more than five million by far
and so the roads cannot handle the traffic,” he observed.

ANNEXURE “N”
Joe Ghartey
The Accra light rail project is a subsection of the Inner-city Railway Project,
which is expected to ease the traffic congestion in Accra and its peripheral
communities and improve the city's transit system.
The project, along with the Kumasi-Paga Railway Line, Eastern Railway Line,
and the Western Railway Line is dear to the current administration – so much
so that they have necessitated the creation of a dedicated Ministry.
Mr. Ghartey said although the other railway projects are attracting both local
and foreign investors, the Inner-city Railway Project seems to be getting most
of the investors' attention.
The reason for the increasing interest in the Inner-city railway infrastructure,
the Minister says, is because of the associated infrastructure that will
come with the project.
The Accra light rail project, for instance, will connect the Central Business
District of the capital city to peripheral but fast-growing towns like Kasoa,
Tema, Pokuase, and Adenta. The associated infrastructure include a hotel,
shopping malls, real estate among others.

ANNEXURE “N”
Some investors have made major headways, but the Minister will not disclose
their names just yet. He disclosed, however, that renowned Architect, Sir
David Adjaye and the Ghana Institute of Architects are deeply involved in the
Accra light rail project development.
"We have had discussions with him [David Adjaye]. We have also had
discussions with the Ghana Institute of Architects in terms our policy for local
content," the Minister said.
Cost of project
Figures for the possible Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) module has not been
settled on, however, some proposals sighted by Myjoyonline.com for the
Accra project put the total cost at $2.5 billion – and include costs for light rail
lines, eight light rail carriages, construction, compensations etc.
The project is expected to increase in asset from the initial $2.5 billion to a
little over $3.6 billion by the tenth year, registering a growth rate of over 45%,
with return on equity estimated to hit 100% and return on investment of
16.83% by the same period.
The Minister is currently in Spain to meet a group of companies and financial

institutions on Ghana’s railway development plans.
Mr. Ghartey believes when he arrives on Thursday, a major milestone would

have been chalked for the Accra light rail project to start.
“As far as our rail project is concerned, it seems to me that we may even
exceed our targets. The interest in rail and the response [from investors], it
seems to me that within four years, we shall exceed our own expectations,”
Mr. Ghartey is confident.
Government's commitment
But since 2010, the Accra light rail project has been in the pipeline, what is
likely to change this time? The Minister says it is the sheer commitment of the
Nana Akufo-Addo government to develop the rail sector that will be the game
changer.

ANNEXURE “N”
“The President believes that one of the tragedies of our post-colonial

development is the fact that we have ignored the railway, but rail is one the
most efficient and cost effective means of transport that you can have. So in
order to transform this nation, you have to have rail,” the Minister said.
Socioeconomic impact
Aside from reducing congestion and beautifying the cities, the Inner-city
Railway Project is expected to bring immense benefits to the country by way
of job creation. At least 2,000 jobs will be created in the target cities.
The project also has the capacity to facilitate the emergence of direct and
indirect economic activities, leading to improvement in income and standard of
living of residents of beneficiary cities.
For the country, the project will boost the productivity of the working
population in the cities as it will enable them to get to work with ease and
quickly.

INVESTMENT MATTERS
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SkyTrain CONSORTIUM

2. AN OVERVIEW OF SKYTRAIN™ TECHNOLOGY 05

3. AN OVERVIEW OF PROPOSED PHASESS & ROUTINGS – ACCRA SKYTRAIN™ SYSTEM 08

4. CONSOLIDATED SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE – PROPOSED ACCRA SKYTRAIN™ SYSTEM 14

5. ANALYTICAL AND FINANCIAL ASSESMENT 17

6. PROJECTED RIDERSHIP CURVES – PER ROUTE & CONSOLIDATED 20

ANNEXURE “A” Skytrain & Brt Routes 27

Ai Capital SkyTrain Feasibility Assessment | 2

The Accra SkyTrain™ System aims to provide a highly efficient, cost

is capable of providing the backbone of an integrated public transport

Ai Capital SkyTrain Feasibility Assessment | 3

ABBREVIATED FINANCIAL PERSPECTIVE:

Ai Capital SkyTrain Feasibility Assessment | 4

PHASES ROUTE DESCRIPTORS

Phase 2 #4 Blue Route

Phase 3 #5 Black Route

2 AN OVERVIEW OF SKYTRAIN™ TECHNOLOGY

SkyTrain™ is a fully automated, high-reliability, high-efficiency and

The advantages of SkyTrain™ flow directly from the system’s

1. TECHNOLOGY – PROPULSION SYSTEM:

Ai Capital SkyTrain Feasibility Assessment | 5

Full system redundancy is ensured by linking blower units in tandem

1.3 Typical SkyTrain™ Articulated Rail-Car

3. TECHNOLOGY – THE CONTROL SYSTEM

The fixed runway of SkyTrain™

For purposes of rapid construction and minimum disruption to

1.4 SkyTrain™ Control Room

4. TECHNOLOGY – GENERAL FEATURES

Ai Capital SkyTrain Feasibility Assessment | 6

by OWLS – an Austrian company, provides fully integrated audio,

An added benefit of the ‘Safe City Smart City’ solution – is the

7. ENVIRONMENTAL & ECONOMIC BENEFITS:

In the case of the envisaged Accra SkyTrain™ installation, it proposed to

There is minimal noise emission and no air pollution generated by the

SkyTrain™ generates economic growth and development, increasing the

The SkyTrain™ propulsion concept has the intrinsic safety feature of an

Ai Capital SkyTrain Feasibility Assessment | 7

for one- directional travel Terminal Station to Terminal Station.

Max. Ridership per 24-Hour Period - % of Regional Population 25,81%

Total Daily Riders on this Route 171 534

Route Distance - One-Way 24,30 km

Track Distance - Total Installed Track 48,60 km

Total No. Stations 12

Average Headway 2,03 km

Total Rail Cars Required (Rolling Stock) 84

[INTERCHANGE TO BLUE ROUTE]

Ai Capital SkyTrain Feasibility Assessment | 8

The following tabulation represents a summary of the ‘Green Route’:

STATION LOCATION HEADWAY ROUTE DESCRIPTION

STATION LOCATION HEADWAY ROUTE DESCRIPTION

Ai Capital SkyTrain Feasibility Assessment | 9

Total Daily Riders on this Route 171 600

Total Rail Cars Required (Rolling Stock) 84

[INTERCHANGE TO GREEN ROUTE]

The following tabulation represents a summary of the ‘Blue Route’:

Max. Ridership per 24-Hour Period - % of Regional Population 12,47%

Total Daily Riders on this Route 171 584

Route Distance - One-Way 60,70 km

Track Distance - Total Installed Track 121,40 km

Total No. Stations 27

Average Headway 2,25 km

Total Rail Cars Required (Rolling Stock) 84

The route topography on the preferred route shows an elevation range

Ai Capital SkyTrain Feasibility Assessment | 10