According to 1, the mining industry generates three types of solid waste: waste rocks, tailings,

and contaminated water treatment sludges. Waste rocks are the non-commercial portion of the
removed rock and are generally stored in waste rock dumps. Tailings are composed mainly of
gangue minerals, water, and sometimes chemical additives used during the ore processing phase.
Finally, contaminated water treatment sludges are also generated. (PAPER 1)

The study specifically focuses on the potential environmental impact of mine wastes and their
recycling in fired brick making. The leaching behavior of fired bricks containing different types of
coal wastes was evaluated, and the results showed that the release of constituents of potential
interest was highly reduced after thermal treatment and were immobilized within the glassy
matrix of the fired bricks. The study emphasizes the need for sustainable management of mine
wastes and explores the potential for recycling these wastes in fired brick making as a way to
mitigate their environmental impact. (PAPER 1)

The problem developed in this article is the generation of large amounts of mine wastes by the
mining industry worldwide and the potential negative environmental impact associated with
these activities. The study aims to explore the potential for sustainable management of mine
wastes by recycling them in fired brick making and evaluating the leaching behavior of fired
bricks containing different types of coal wastes. The study highlights the need for sustainable
waste management practices in the mining industry to minimize its environmental impact.
(PAPER 1)

These include the potential leachability of heavy metals from finished products, reduction of
adhesion or discoloration of materials, and the need to comply with strict European standards for
building materials. Additionally, there are financial and logistical challenges in preparing waste for
use in construction. However, the paper also highlights the potential benefits and positive aspects
of using waste in the building materials industry. (PAPER 2)

The paper does not provide specific details about problems related to waste management in Peru
and Chile. However, it does mention that Peru is rich in copper, zinc, and lead, and that Chile has
the largest copper deposits, with significant waste production associated with the extraction
process 2. The focus of the paper is more on the global perspective of waste management in the
mining industry rather than specific problems in Peru and Chile. (PAPER 2)

The paper provides a detailed analysis of copper extraction and waste management. Copper is
obtained from rocks through mining, and it is extracted over 87-90% from sulphide ores and up
to 9-12% from metal oxides. The raw material is extracted from the rock by means of flotation,
whereas the remnants are considered as useless waste. The paper also mentions that Chile has
the largest copper deposits, with significant waste production associated with the extraction
process. During mineral enrichment, on average 94% of the material is treated as waste, and
annually, Chile extracts about 60 times more copper than Poland, with as much as 99% being
waste 3 2. The paper also discusses the potential of using tailings as an additive to cement, which
can help reduce the amount of waste generated during copper extraction 2. (PAPER 2)

En el contexto de la provincia del Azuay, Ecuador, la actividad minera y extractiva constituye

una empresa significativa, involucrando a 4,728 habitantes, con más del 85% concentrado en
el cantón Camilo Ponce Enríquez. Este cantón destaca como receptor principal de
capacitaciones para pequeños mineros, habiendo instruido a 891 individuos hasta 2015. El
Campo Mineral Ponce Enríquez, ubicado en el Subdistrito Machala-Naranjal, se caracteriza
por depósitos de Cu-Au-Mo en diversas formas, siendo la producción anual estimada de
65,000 onzas de oro, predominantemente derivada de operaciones de pequeña escala. No
obstante, la actividad minera presenta retos ambientales, según estudios del INIGEMM,
indicando la presencia de metales y metaloides disueltos en sobrenadantes y relaves, con la
necesidad de tratamientos de neutralización. La presencia de plantas de beneficio en
parroquias como Camilo Ponce Enríquez y Shumiral añade una dimensión de transformación
local. En el panorama nacional, entre 2005 y 2014, la producción aurífera en Ecuador se
estimó entre 6 y 9 toneladas anuales, con Ponce Enríquez destacándose como contribuyente
significativo, evidenciando la relevancia tanto productiva como ambiental de la minería en la
región, con la provincia del Azuay representando el 31% de la producción total de oro en el
país.9 (PAPER 3) https://www.camiloponce.gob.ec/camiloponce2020/index.php/el-canton/
historia

Historically coal mining wastes have been viewed as heterogenous and hazard-prone geomaterials.
Given that failures of colliery tips and tailing dams are reported on a regular basis, reclamation of
coal mining wastes from storage facilities is increasingly being considered. There is a resistance to the
use of coal mining waste in construction industry despite scattered but growing reports of successful
applications. As the construction industry around the globe seeks to reduce its carbon emissions by
looking for supplements for cement, the voluminous amount of coal mining wastes currently stored
in spoil heaps and impoundment facilities present a potential source of raw materials (PAPER 4)

The Ponce Enríquez mining district is one of the areas in Ecuador where artisanal gold mining has
resulted in extensive contamination of the fluvial environment by mercury and potentially toxic
ore-related elements including arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, and zinc 1. Gold in high
temperature arsenopyrite-chalcopyrite hydrothermal veins is extracted from a series of adits,
ground in Chilean mills (trapiches) and concentrated gravimetrically. Gold is recuperated from
sluice box heavy mineral concentrates or tromol mills by amalgamation. Cyanidation plants have
recently been installed to treat gravity tailings. Large volumes of gravity tailings that contain very
high concentrations of As and Cu, in addition to being contaminated with Hg, are stored on the
steep slopes of the Bella Rica mining sector. The tailings dumps are prone to erosion by heavy
rainfall which washes the material into the Río Siete and Estero Guanache drainage systems 3. At
Ponce Enríquez, As in stream water ranges from 0.1 to 470 μg L−1, with an erratic distribution of
high concentrations (240–470 μg L−1) in the upper and middle sections of the Río Siete declining
to 77 μg L−1 immediately above the shrimp farms. Cu in stream water ranges from <2 to 7277 μg
L−1, declining rather erratically from 3–4000 μg L−1 in the headwaters of the Río Siete to 17 μg
L−1 immediately above the shrimp farms. There is an anomalous peak (7277 μg L−1) in the
downstream dispersion pattern approximately 9.5 km downstream of Bella Rica that may be
caused by a temporally high flux of contaminated water from mineral processing plants located
adjacent to the Río Siete. Iron (Fe) in stream water ranges from <0.004 to 6.0 mg L−1 with the
highest concentrations associated with very acid waters (pH 3.7) in the headwaters of the Estero
Guanache and a stream draining to the north of Bella Rica into the Río Tenguel (pH 3.9) 10.
Copper in bottom sediment declines gradually from 9134 mg kg−1 in the headwaters of the Río
Siete to 2912 mg kg−1 at a site immediately above the shrimp farms whereas in the
corresponding suspended particulate matter (SPM) samples, copper concentrations decrease
from 6437 mg kg−1 to 387 mg kg−1. The progressive increase of the Hg bottom sediment
(BS)/Hg metallic content (HMC) ratio downstream from Bella Rica reflects sedimentation of high
specific gravity metallic Hg, Au-Hg amalgam, and Hg contaminated mineral grains close to the
source of contamination. SPM Hg declines fairly rapidly downstream as the relatively heavy Hg
contaminated particles are preferentially deposited close to the source of contamination. In
contrast, Hg, As, Cu, and Fe in bottom sediment decline less rapidly reflecting the more extensive
dispersion of contaminants during periods of maximum river flow and also the adsorption, over
an extended period, of contaminants onto bottom sediment. Hence the bottom sediment/SPM
ratio also increases progressively downstream from Bella Rica 14. It is recommended that care
should be taken to ensure that contaminated sediment and water do not enter the banana
plantations and shrimp ponds downstream of the Ponce Enríquez mining district. Arsenic and Cu
in bottom sediment collected 2 km upstream of the shrimp farms exceed Sediment Quality
Criteria (Toxic Effects Threshold) for the Protection of Aquatic Life by factors of about 400 and 30,
respectively 20.

En la provincia del Azuay, un total de 4,728 habitantes se dedican a la

actividad minera y de extracción en canteras. La mayoría de estos
trabajadores, específicamente 4,038, se concentran en el cantón Camilo
Ponce Enríquez, representando más del 85% de la fuerza laboral minera en
la provincia. Este cantón se destaca como uno de los principales receptores
de capacitaciones dirigidas a pequeños mineros, con un notable registro de
891 mineros artesanales capacitados hasta el año 2015, quedando solo por
debajo de Zamora, donde se capacitó a 968 individuos.

El Campo Mineral Ponce Enríquez, situado en el Subdistrito Machala-

Naranjal dentro del Distrito Azuay, es reconocido por sus depósitos de Cu-
Au-Mo en pórfidos y en vetas, brechas y stockworks epi-mesotermales.
Estos depósitos están espacialmente relacionados con pórfidos y se
encuentran dentro de las rocas de caja volcánicas. La producción anual
estimada en Ponce Enríquez alcanza las 65,000 onzas de oro, provenientes
mayormente de pequeños mineros y mineros artesanales.

Sin embargo, la actividad minera no está exenta de desafíos ambientales.

Estudios realizados por el INIGEMM revelan preocupaciones en relación
con la presencia de metales y metaloides disueltos en sobrenadantes y
relaves, así como la necesidad de un tratamiento de neutralización para
evitar la acidez y lixiviación de metales. El cantón cuenta con plantas de
beneficio en dos parroquias, Camilo Ponce Enríquez y Shumiral, que
abarcan etapas de trituración, molienda, fundición y refinación de los
minerales extraídos.

La producción aurífera en Ecuador entre 2005 y 2014 se estimó entre 6 y 9

toneladas anuales, siendo Ponce Enríquez una de las regiones
contribuyentes. La provincia del Azuay representó el 31% de la producción
total de oro en el país durante ese período. Estos datos subrayan la
importancia de comprender tanto los aspectos productivos como los
desafíos ambientales asociados con la actividad minera en la región.
The paper "Fluvial Contamination Associated with Artisanal Gold Mining in the Ponce Enríquez,
Portovelo-Zaruma and Nambija Areas, Ecuador" by Appleton et al. (1999) presents the results of a
study on the impact of artisanal gold mining on the fluvial environment in three areas of Ecuador.
The study was conducted as part of a UK Department for International Development (DFID)
funded project aimed at mitigating the health and ecological hazards associated with artisanal
alluvial gold mining. Positive aspects of the paper include the comprehensive nature of the study,
which involved the collection and analysis of a large number of samples from different sources,
including water, suspended particulate matter, bottom sediment, and heavy mineral concentrates.
The study also highlights the need for additional geochemical and ecotoxicological studies to
establish the risks associated with inorganic As, Cu, and Hg contamination in aquatic systems.
Challenges identified in the paper include the difficulty of determining the toxicological risk
associated with the contamination, as well as the lack of data on the potential impact of the
contamination on commercial banana plantations and shrimp ponds downstream of the Ponce
Enríquez mining district. The paper also notes that the sediment quality criteria used in the study
do not take into account the bioavailability of potentially harmful elements, which can be
influenced by their chemical and mineral form. In conclusion, the study found that artisanal gold
mining has had a significant impact on the fluvial environment in the Ponce Enríquez, Portovelo-
Zaruma, and Nambija areas of Ecuador, resulting in the contamination of water, suspended
particulate matter, and bottom sediment with potentially harmful elements such as As, Cu, and
Hg. The study highlights the need for additional research to establish the risks associated with
this contamination and to develop strategies for mitigating its impact on human health and the
environment. (PAPER 1)

The article "Particulate and Dissolved Trace Element Concentrations in Three Southern Ecuador
Rivers Impacted by Artisanal Gold Mining" presents a comprehensive analysis of the
environmental impact of artisanal gold mining in southern Ecuador. The positive aspects and
challenges developed in this article are as follows: Positive Aspects: 1. Rich Mineral Resources:
The study highlights the rich mineral resources in southern Ecuador, which have attracted
artisanal gold mining activities for decades 2. 2. Economic Benefits: The mining activities have
provided economic benefits to the local communities, including employment opportunities and
income generation 2. 3. Environmental Awareness: The study raises awareness about the
environmental impact of artisanal gold mining in southern Ecuador, emphasizing the need for
sustainable mining practices and environmental regulations. Challenges: 1. Pollution and
Contamination: The study reveals extensive pollution in rivers draining the mining areas,
indicating the challenges associated with limited regulations and lack of enforcement, leading to
environmental contamination 2. 2. Negative Impact on Ecosystems: The findings suggest
potential negative impacts on ecosystems, including the loading of MeHg to the mangroves and
bays, which could adversely affect fisheries along the coastline 10. 3. Health Concerns: The study
points to potential health concerns related to mercury contamination, highlighting the need for
further research to measure mercury concentrations in biota and in people who consume
products from the affected areas 10. Conclusions: The study concludes that artisanal gold mining
in southern Ecuador has led to significant trace element contamination in the rivers, exceeding
environmental guidelines. The contamination is a result of limited regulations and lack of
enforcement, leading to environmental pollution and potential health risks. The study emphasizes
the need for sustainable mining practices and environmental regulations to mitigate the negative
impacts of mining activities on the environment and human health 14. Overall, the article provides
valuable insights into the environmental impact of artisanal gold mining in southern Ecuador,
highlighting the challenges associated with unregulated mining activities and the need for
sustainable and responsible mining practices. While the region has rich mineral resources and
provides economic benefits to the local communities, the negative impacts on the environment
and potential health risks cannot be ignored. (PAPER 2)

The paper "Assessment of Trace Elements in Agricultural Soils and Crops from a Gold Mining Area
in Ecuador: Human Health Risks through Local Crop Ingestion" provides a comprehensive
assessment of the impact of mining activity on agricultural areas in the Ponce Enriquez gold
mining field, Azuay Province, Ecuador. The study evaluates the quality of cultivation soil, the
presence of trace elements in locally grown foods, and the associated health risks to consumers.
Positive Aspects: 1. Economic Development: The region has significantly developed its agricultural
activity alongside mining, indicating economic opportunities and diversification 2. 2. Research
Initiative: The study represents a proactive approach to understanding the potential impact of
mining activity on agricultural lands and human health, filling a gap in previous research 3.
Challenges: 1. Trace Element Pollution: Mining activities are identified as a significant source of
trace element pollution, which can potentially contaminate agricultural soils and crops, posing
risks to human health 2. 2. Soil and Crop Contamination: The study reveals that concentrations of
arsenic, chromium, copper, and nickel in farmland soils exceed quality standards, indicating the
extent of contamination in the area 3. 3. Health Risks: The assessment indicates that the
consumption of locally grown crops may pose health risks to consumers due to the presence of
trace elements, highlighting potential public health concerns 11, 12, 2. Conclusions: The study
emphasizes the need for effective measures to reduce the risk of transferring toxic elements to
the food chain, including prohibiting the cultivation of plants that hyperaccumulate potentially
toxic elements and implementing agricultural soil protection and rehabilitation measures. The
findings underscore the importance of monitoring the impact of anthropogenic activities in the
area and adopting strategies to protect public health and the environment 11, 12. (PAPER 3)

(Positive Conclusions related to the impact of mining in Ponce Enriquez: 1. Economic

Development: The mining industry has contributed to economic development in the region,
providing job opportunities and diversification 2, 6. 2. Mineral Resources: The Ponce Enrı´quez
mining district is a significant source of gold and other minerals, contributing to the country's
mineral resource base 2. Negative Conclusions related to the impact of mining in Ponce Enriquez:
1. Environmental Impact: Mining activities have caused significant environmental impacts in the
region, including the storage of large volumes of tailings with high concentrations of toxic
elements, leading to high concentrations of heavy metal(loid)s in water streams and sediments 2.
2. Health Risks: The high concentrations of potentially toxic elements around mining areas cause
serious risks to ecosystems and human health, including mental retardation, anemia, and
neurophysiological effects, as well as elevated cancer risks 3. The prolonged exposure to these
substances may result in detriments to human health 3. 3. Soil and Water Contamination: The
heavy metal contents at Ponce Enrı´quez varied widely among the rivers, reaching differences of
up to two orders of magnitude, evidencing that heavy metal pollution is persistent and
represents a potential risk to the ecosystem and the population 6. The study also reveals that
concentrations of arsenic, chromium, copper, and nickel in farmland soils exceed quality
standards, indicating the extent of contamination in the area 6. 4. Ecological and Human Health
Risk: More than 68% of the sampling stations in Ponce Enriquez pose a severe As and Cd
ecological risk index (Ei r [ 320). Likewise, residents exposed to river sediments showed a non-
acceptable carcinogenic risk by incidental ingestion, being As the primary contributor to overall
cancer in both children and adults receptors. Moreover, non-carcinogenic risk through the
incidental ingestion of sediments was above the safe limit for children 1. (PAPER 4)

I apologize for the confusion in my previous response. The study did not specifically focus on
mining activities in Ponce Enriquez, but rather on heavy metal(loid) contamination in a mining
area in Santa Rosa, Ecuador. Here are the positive and negative conclusions related to the impact
of mining activities in the Santa Rosa area:
Positive Conclusions:
1. The heavy metal(loid) concentrations found in the study are consistent with those reported in
other gold mining districts in Ecuador, suggesting that mining activities contribute to the increase
in heavy metal(loid)s in the studied area 9.
2. The potential ecological risk index (PERI) values obtained in the Santa Rosa area were in the
range of those reported in other mining areas, indicating that the ecological risk in mining
environments differs depending on specific geogenic processes, waste management, and
environmental practices 11.
Negative Conclusions:
1. The maximum concentrations of As, Cd, Cu, and Pb in the surface waters reported in the study
were significantly higher than those found in previous studies, potentially indicating an increase
in mining activities in the area over the past decade 9.
2. The study identified considerable to very high ecological risk at several sampling sites,
suggesting a significant impact of mining activities on the ecological health of the area 11.
3. The findings suggest that the discharge of mine residues is an important source of heavy
metal(loid)s and possibly the cause of contamination of river sediments in the studied area,
indicating a negative impact of mining activities on the local environment 9. (PAPER 5)

Positive Conclusions:
1. Reuse Potential: The study demonstrates the potential for reusing mining wastes, specifically
tailings, as a substitute for sand in the production of concrete blocks, promoting a sustainable
approach to managing mining wastes .
2. Environmental Compliance: The leachates from the tailings of the Campanillas mine were found
to have low contents of potentially toxic elements (PTE) and comply with reference values for
inert waste, indicating their suitability for use as a sand substitute .
3. Circular Economy Promotion: Reusing tailings in construction materials can contribute to
reducing the extraction of raw materials for the construction industry, thereby promoting a
circular economy and sustainability in the mining industry .

Negative Conclusions:
1. Mechanical Resistance: While the study demonstrates the potential for using tailings in
concrete blocks, it also highlights that further research is needed to improve the mechanical
resistance of blocks manufactured with tailings as a substitute for sand .
2. Regulatory Compliance: Concrete blocks made with tailings did not fully comply with
regulations regarding compressive strength and absorption, indicating the need for further
improvements in their production process .

These conclusions reflect the potential benefits of reusing mining wastes, particularly tailings, in
the construction industry, while also acknowledging the need for continued research and
development to address certain limitations in terms of mechanical properties and regulatory
compliance. (PAPER 6)

Positive Conclusions: The study indicates that around 2% of mining environmental liabilities (MEL)
in Ponce Enriquez are located far away from the population and water bodies, resulting in a low
risk (RI < 3) for both people and the ecosystem 13. This suggests that a significant portion of the
mining environmental liabilities in Ponce Enriquez poses minimal risk to the local population and
the environment.
Negative Conclusions: The presence of mine entrances, landfills, and tailings deposits in Ponce
Enriquez is associated with the release of acid drainage containing high levels of heavy
metal(loid)s, which poses a significant risk to the health of the population and the environment 9.
Additionally, the areas with the presence of deposits of abandoned waste reported a medium
affectation risk in most of the analyzed sites, indicating a potential threat to the local ecosystem
and residents 9. T
hese conclusions are supported by the risk assessment results and the identification of specific
areas with varying levels of risk, providing a comprehensive understanding of the impact of
mining environmental liabilities in Ponce Enriquez 9, 13. (PAPER 7)

Positive Conclusion: - Approximately 2% of mining environmental liabilities in Ponce Enriquez are

located far away from the population and water bodies, resulting in a low risk for both people
and the ecosystem. 1
Negative Conclusion: - The presence of mine entrances, landfills, and tailings deposits in Ponce
Enriquez is associated with the release of acid drainage containing high levels of heavy
metal(loid)s, posing a significant risk to the health of the population and the environment. 1 -
Areas with the presence of deposits of abandoned waste reported a medium affectation risk in
most of the analyzed sites, indicating a potential threat to the local ecosystem and residents. 1 -
The study found that 100% of the water samples collected from the rivers and streams in Ponce
Enriquez exceeded the maximum permissible limits for heavy metals, indicating a high level of
contamination. 1
Overall, the study suggests that while there are some areas with low risk, the presence of mining
environmental liabilities in Ponce Enriquez poses a significant threat to the health of the
population and the environment due to the release of heavy metals and acid drainage. (PAPER 8)

1. Generación de empleo: La industria minera puede proporcionar oportunidades de empleo para

las personas en la región, contribuyendo así al desarrollo económico local.
2. Ingresos fiscales: La minería puede generar ingresos para el gobierno a través de impuestos y
regalías, lo que a su vez puede utilizarse para financiar proyectos de infraestructura y servicios
públicos.
3. Impulso a la economía local: La presencia de la minería puede estimular la economía local a
través de la demanda de bienes y servicios relacionados, como equipos de minería, transporte y
suministros.
Sin embargo, también hay conclusiones negativas asociadas con la minería, como:
1. Impacto ambiental: La minería a gran escala puede tener un impacto negativo en el entorno
natural, incluida la degradación del suelo, la deforestación, la contaminación del agua y la
destrucción de hábitats naturales.
2. Problemas de salud: La exposición a productos químicos tóxicos utilizados en la minería puede
tener efectos negativos para la salud de los trabajadores y las comunidades locales.
3. Conflictos sociales: La minería puede causar tensiones y conflictos en las comunidades locales,
ya sea por la competencia por recursos limitados o por la reubicación de comunidades enteras
debido a la expansión de la actividad minera. (PAPER 9)

Positive Conclusions: 1. Economic Contribution: Mining activities in the Ponce Enriquez district
contribute significantly to economic activities, with artisanal and small gold mining (ASGM) and
quarrying accounting for 42% of economic activities 1. This suggests that mining plays a crucial
role in providing economic opportunities and livelihoods for the local community.
Negative Conclusions: 1. Environmental Pollution: Gold extraction from ASGM generates
pollution, including potentially toxic metals such as mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As),
copper (Cu), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) 1. This indicates that mining activities have led to
environmental pollution, posing risks to the local ecosystem and human health. 2. Water Quality
Impact: Mining modifies the composition and quality of local rivers, leading to an increase in
dissolved solids, metalloids, and cations concentrations, rendering the water unsafe for human
use 2. This highlights the negative impact of mining on water quality, which is a vital resource for
both agricultural irrigation and human consumption. 3. Soil Contamination: The presence of
heavy metal pollution in the soil and crops is worrisome from a public health perspective, with
the potential for bioaccumulation and long-term toxicity 10. This indicates that mining activities
have resulted in soil contamination, posing risks to agricultural production and food safety.
These conclusions are supported by the research findings and highlight the complex interplay
between mining activities, environmental impact, and agricultural sustainability in the Ponce
Enriquez district. (PAPER 10)

Positive Conclusions: 1. Economic Contribution: Mining activities in the Ponce Enriquez district
contribute significantly to economic activities, with artisanal and small gold mining (ASGM) and
quarrying accounting for 42% of economic activities . This suggests that mining plays a crucial role in
providing economic opportunities and livelihoods for the local community.
Negative Conclusions: 1. Environmental Pollution: Gold extraction from ASGM generates pollution,
including potentially toxic metals such as mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), copper (Cu), lead
(Pb), and zinc (Zn) . This indicates that mining activities have led to environmental pollution, posing
risks to the local ecosystem and human health. 2. Water Quality Impact: Mining modifies the
composition and quality of local rivers, leading to an increase in dissolved solids, metalloids, and
cations concentrations, rendering the water unsafe for human use . This highlights the negative
impact of mining on water quality, which is a vital resource for both agricultural irrigation and human
consumption. 3. Soil Contamination: The presence of heavy metal pollution in the soil and crops is
worrisome from a public health perspective, with the potential for bioaccumulation and long-term
toxicity . This indicates that mining activities have resulted in soil contamination, posing risks to
agricultural production and food safety. (PAPER 11)
Positive conclusions: - The study provides valuable insights into the geochemical composition of the
river sediment and heavy metal concentrations in the Ponce Enríquez area. - The research highlights
the need for increased awareness of the long-term environmental consequences of extractive
processes in the area. - The study suggests that increasing the availability of cleaner techniques in
the area can be part of the solution to reduce environmental pollution. - The research provides a
basis for future studies and policy interventions to address heavy metal pollution in the Ponce
Enríquez area.
Negative conclusions: - The study found elevated heavy metal concentrations in all subsurface
sediments in the studied river ecosystems, indicating an elevated pollution level in all four rivers. -
The enrichment factors (EF) showed that all nine metals were enriched with the exception of Hg,
which was prohibited in anthropogenic sources within the mining industry. - Some of the values for
several heavy metals were above the maximum contaminant levels for Cu, Cr, Sb, As, and Ni. - The
Siete River exhibited the most longitudinal variability in metal concentrations. - The pollution load
index (PLI) consistently showed an elevated pollution level in all four rivers, indicating that illegal and
informal mining activities are difficult to control and can contribute to environmental pollution in
artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) areas. Supporting details: - The PLI, based on all nine
heavy metals, was consistently above 1.0 at all sampling points, which means an elevated pollution
level was present in all four rivers. - The values obtained for EF from the Villa and Guanache rivers
were very high at above 80%, suggesting extremely contaminated sampling points. This was
especially observed with the employment of the geo-accumulation index. - Some of the values for
several heavy metals were above the maximum contaminant levels for Cu, Cr, Sb, As, and Ni. - The
Siete River exhibited the most longitudinal variability in metal concentrations. - The four indexes
employed in this research in the Ponce Enríquez area showed high contamination along riverbanks in
all four rivers under study. - It is evident that illegal and informal mining activities can contribute to
environmental pollution in ASGM areas. (PAPER 12)

Positive conclusions related to the impact of mining in Ponce Enríquez:

1. Economic opportunities: Mining activities in Ponce Enríquez have provided employment
opportunities for a significant portion of the population. According to the study, 43% of the
active economic population in Ponce Enríquez works in the mining and quarry sectors 4.
2. Gold content in waste rock: The waste rock in Ponce Enríquez contains a significant quantity of
gold, making it an attractive source of income for women waste-rock collectors 6.
Negative conclusions related to the impact of mining in Ponce Enríquez:
1. Gender disparity: The gender distribution in Ponce Enríquez is unalike, with a higher number of
men than women in the rural areas, where mining activities predominantly occur 4.
2. Economic vulnerability of women waste-rock collectors: The study highlights the high
variability and uncertainty of earning a regular income through waste-rock collection, with only
41% of women able to save money. Additionally, 88% of women regard waste-rock collection as
their primary financial source, indicating a heavy reliance on this unstable source of income 4. The
uncertain future of waste-rock collection in Ponce Enríquez is a significant concern for women
waste-rock collectors. The study highlights that mine owners and concessionaires are increasingly
reprocessing waste or improving their rock selection, making it more difficult for women to
access the waste material 6. Furthermore, women and men mine waste-rock collectors are
subjected to unstable and, in some cases, unequal negotiating conditions with their
miner/concessionaire counterparts. When mine owners and concessionaires perceive that the
campsite is achieving a functional business with fair gold recovery, they start charging about US$
50/t for the ore. In this case, the gold collectors’ association must purchase the waste ore from
the concessionaire. As an alternative way to afford their access to the waste, the WWC association
must leave 50% of the rock material selected with the owner of the quarry. In other cases, the
mine owner takes half of the concentrate that the collectors have already processed. Lastly, when
the amount of gold increases in the waste rock, the mine owner or manager can unilaterally end
the work permit, leaving WWC legally and economically vulnerable and helpless, creating
frustration and disillusionment 6. These uncertain and unstable conditions make it difficult for
women waste-rock collectors to plan for the future and invest in alternative livelihoods. The study
suggests that economic diversification with alternative livelihoods in the long term would be an
effective solution to improving WWC life conditions 7.
3. Uncertain future of waste-rock collection: Women and their associated partners are becoming
aware that their activity will eventually cease due to changes in waste rock management by mine
owners and concessionaires, creating economic vulnerability and helplessness among the waste-
rock collectors 6. These conclusions are supported by the statistics and findings provided in the
study, offering a comprehensive understanding of the impact of mining in Ponce Enríquez on the
local population, particularly women waste-rock collectors. (PAPER 13)

Positive Conclusions: 1. The study provides relevant information from a geochemical perspective
on the spatial distribution of contamination, which is essential for understanding the extent of the
impact of mining activities in the Ponce Enríquez area 4. 2. The use of diverse statistical
techniques in the environmental evaluation has assisted in identifying potentially toxic trace
elements, such as As, Cu, Cr, and Hg, which are crucial for understanding the specific pollutants
and their sources in the area 9. Negative Conclusions: 1. The intensive mining and metallurgical
activity in the Ponce Enríquez area has led to a clearly anthropized geochemistry, indicating
significant pollution from mining and metallurgical activities 9. 2. Anomalous concentrations of
As, Cu, and Zn have been detected in drinking water, and pollution problems have been reported
in shrimp farms and banana plantations located downstream of certain mining areas in Ecuador,
indicating the widespread environmental impact of mining activities 5. 3. The study showed
extremely high concentrations of Hg in certain locations of the Villa river, exceeding the probable
effect levels for Hg up to 50 times, highlighting the severe impact of mining pollution in the area
1. Supporting Details: - The study revealed that the concentrations of Hg in certain locations of
the Villa river reached up to 50 mg/kg, exceeding the probable effect levels for Hg up to 50 times,
indicating the significant impact of mining pollution 1. - An average enrichment factor (EF) for As
elements reached values of 87, exceeding up to 80 times the sediment quality guidelines,
demonstrating the substantial contamination of As in the studied area 1. - Anomalous
concentrations of As, Cu, and Zn have been detected in drinking water, and pollution problems
have been reported in shrimp farms and banana plantations located downstream of certain
mining areas in Ecuador, indicating the widespread environmental impact of mining activities 5. -
The intensive mining and metallurgical activity in the Ponce Enríquez area has promoted a clearly
anthropized geochemistry, indicating significant pollution from mining and metallurgical
activities 9. (PAPER 14)

Positive Conclusions: 1. The study provides a baseline for future research in the area, highlighting
the importance of soil quality assessment in mining areas 1. 2. The results were compared with
other mining areas worldwide, indicating that the values of heavy metals in Ponce Enríquez were
considerably lower than those reported in the Andes Bolivianos, suggesting that the situation in
Ponce Enríquez may not be as severe as in other mining areas 6. Negative Conclusions: 1. The
study reports high contents of heavy metals and metalloids in the soil, with 60% of the soil
samples showing acidic conditions, possibly due to anthropogenic activity in the area 1. 2. The
presence of high levels of heavy metals and metalloids in the soil poses a potential risk to the
health of the population exposed to the contaminated sediments in the rivers of the area 2. 3. The
spatial distribution of heavy metals and metalloids in the soil samples showed values higher than
the Maximum Permissible Limits (LMP) set by Ecuadorian legislation, indicating a potential risk to
human health and the environment 6. Supporting Details: - The study found values between 3.31
and 8.21 for pH analysis, indicating acidic conditions in 60% of the soil samples, possibly as a
result of anthropogenic activity in the area 1. - Researchers have reported high contents of heavy
metals and metalloids in the waters and sediments of the area, as well as the potential risk to the
health of the population exposed to the contaminated sediments in the rivers of the area 2. - The
spatial distribution of heavy metals and metalloids in the soil samples showed values higher than
the Maximum Permissible Limits (LMP) set by Ecuadorian legislation, indicating a potential risk to
human health and the environment 6. These findings highlight the urgent need for measures to
mitigate the impact of mining activities on the soil and the health of the population in Ponce
Enríquez. (PAPER 15)

Positive conclusions: - The mining industry in Ponce Enríquez generates a significant amount of
employment, with small-scale mining providing 84,280 jobs in 2006 . - According to the System of
Mining Rights Administration (SADMIN), over 23,000 kg of gold have been extracted from 2000 to
2005 . - The Ecuadorian government is considering the creation of the National Mining Company,
which would group artisanal miners and promote the sustainable development of their micro-
enterprises . Negative conclusions: - The use of mercury in artisanal gold mining in Ponce Enríquez
poses a significant risk to the health of workers and nearby communities . - The mining industry in
Ecuador contributes only 0.25% to the GDP in 2007, down from 0.35% in previous years . - Small-
scale mining in Ponce Enríquez has been associated with environmental pollution and degradation .
Supporting details: - The study conducted in Ponce Enríquez found that the concentration of mercury
vapor in the air during the amalgamation process exceeded the international standards set by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the World Health Organization (WHO) . -
The use of mercury in artisanal gold mining has been linked to serious health problems, particularly
in children, in several studies . - The decline in the contribution of the mining industry to the GDP in
Ecuador is supported by data from various sources, including the Ministry of Energy and Mines
(MEM) and the National Institute of Statistics and Censuses (INEC) . - The negative environmental
impact of small-scale mining in Ponce Enríquez is discussed in a study by Cisneros (2008), which
highlights the contamination of water sources and soil with mercury and other pollutants .
(PAPER 16)

The investigation conducted by Appleton et al. (1999) in "Fluvial Contamination Associated with
Artisanal Gold Mining in the Ponce Enríquez, Portovelo-Zaruma and Nambija Areas, Ecuador"
extensively explores the impact of artisanal gold mining on the fluvial environment in Ecuador.
Funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID), the study provides a
comprehensive view of the positive and negative aspects. The meticulous collection and analysis
of diverse samples, including water, suspended particulate matter, bottom sediment, and heavy
mineral concentrates, underscore the depth of the study's approach (PAPER 1). Notably, the need
for additional geochemical and ecotoxicological studies is highlighted, aiming to establish risks
associated with inorganic As, Cu, and Hg contamination in aquatic systems. Challenges include
the complexity of determining toxicological risks, lack of data on downstream impacts on
commercial activities, and sediment quality criteria overlooking bioavailability. The study
concludes that artisanal gold mining significantly contaminates water, suspended particulate
matter, and bottom sediment, emphasizing the necessity for further research and strategies to
mitigate environmental and health impacts (PAPER 1).

The article "Particulate and Dissolved Trace Element Concentrations in Three Southern Ecuador
Rivers Impacted by Artisanal Gold Mining" delves into the environmental impact of artisanal gold
mining in southern Ecuador, providing a nuanced perspective. Positive aspects include the
region's rich mineral resources, economic benefits to local communities, and heightened
environmental awareness. The study underscores the significance of sustainable mining practices
and environmental regulations. However, challenges such as pollution, negative impacts on
ecosystems, and health concerns are highlighted. The study concludes that artisanal gold mining
leads to significant trace element contamination, exceeding environmental guidelines due to
limited regulations. It stresses the urgent need for sustainable and responsible mining practices
(PAPER 2). Despite rich mineral resources and economic benefits, the study underscores the
undeniable negative impacts on the environment and potential health risks, emphasizing the
necessity for regulation and responsible practices (PAPER 2).

In "Assessment of Trace Elements in Agricultural Soils and Crops from a Gold Mining Area in
Ecuador: Human Health Risks through Local Crop Ingestion," the assessment of mining activity in
the Ponce Enriquez gold mining field provides insights into its impact on agriculture. Positive
aspects include economic development and a proactive research initiative to understand the
potential impact on agriculture and human health. Challenges highlighted involve significant
trace element pollution from mining activities, surpassing quality standards in farmland soils, and
posing health risks to consumers. The study emphasizes the importance of effective measures to
reduce the risk of transferring toxic elements to the food chain, including prohibition of certain
plant cultivation and implementation of soil protection and rehabilitation measures (PAPER 3).
The findings underscore the significance of monitoring anthropogenic activities and adopting
strategies to protect public health and the environment (PAPER 3).

Conversely, the study in Santa Rosa, Ecuador, focuses on heavy metal(loid) contamination and its
implications. Positive conclusions include consistency in heavy metal concentrations with other
gold mining districts, suggesting a contribution from mining activities. Additionally, the potential
ecological risk index values align with those in other mining areas. However, negative conclusions
arise from significantly higher concentrations of As, Cd, Cu, and Pb in surface waters, indicating
an increase in mining activities. Considerable to very high ecological risks at sampling sites and
discharge of mine residues as a source of heavy metal(loid)s pose significant environmental
threats (PAPER 5).

In the context of waste management, the study on reusing mining wastes in concrete blocks
presents both positive and negative conclusions. Reuse potential and environmental compliance
are highlighted as positive aspects, demonstrating the potential for sustainability in managing
mining wastes. The leachates from Campanillas mine tailings comply with reference values for
inert waste, promoting a circular economy. However, challenges include the need for further
research to improve mechanical resistance of blocks and ensure regulatory compliance (PAPER 6).
The conclusions underscore potential benefits while acknowledging the necessity for ongoing
research and development to address limitations in mechanical properties and regulatory
compliance (PAPER 6).
In summary, these studies collectively provide a multifaceted understanding of the environmental
impact of artisanal gold mining, spanning fluvial contamination, agricultural consequences, and
waste management practices. The positive aspects, challenges, and nuanced conclusions
presented in each paper contribute to a comprehensive perspective on the complex interplay
between mining activities, environmental consequences, and potential mitigation strategies.

The mining activities in Ponce Enriquez present a multifaceted landscape of both positive and
negative implications. A study detailed in PAPER 7 reveals that about 2% of the mining
environmental liabilities (MEL) are strategically positioned away from heavily populated areas and
water bodies, leading to a low risk (RI < 3). This positioning seems to underscore a deliberate
attempt to minimize potential hazards in sensitive zones. However, these optimistic findings
starkly contrast with the concerning revelations detailed in PAPER 7. The presence of mine
entrances, landfills, tailings deposits, and abandoned waste areas leads to the release of acid
drainage with elevated heavy metal levels, posing significant health and environmental risks. This
discrepancy highlights the importance of carefully weighing the risk-benefit balance in mining
practices and emphasizing mitigation strategies where risk levels are higher.

Moving beyond the specific findings of PAPER 7, the positive outcomes associated with mining,
outlined in PAPER 8, echo similar sentiments observed in other papers. The economic
contributions of mining activities, accounting for 42% of economic activities in the district,
underscore the sector's critical role in bolstering economic opportunities and sustaining local
livelihoods. Yet, negative repercussions remain prevalent, as elucidated in PAPER 8. Heavy metal
contamination in water samples collected from rivers and streams surpasses permissible limits,
indicating alarming levels of contamination. This juxtaposition of positive economic impacts
against grave environmental concerns accentuates the need for stringent environmental
measures and sustainable mining practices to balance economic prosperity with ecological well-
being.

Expanding the breadth of findings, PAPER 9 outlines additional positive and negative dimensions
associated with mining. The economic potential of the mining industry in generating
employment, contributing to fiscal revenue, and stimulating local economies is juxtaposed
against the darker side of mining activities. Environmental degradation, health hazards due to
toxic chemicals, and social conflicts arising from resource competition or community
displacement underscore the multi-faceted impact of mining beyond economic realms.
Integrating these elements highlights the complexity and interconnectedness of mining's
consequences on economic, environmental, and social facets, stressing the necessity for
comprehensive, multi-dimensional approaches to address these challenges.

Moreover, PAPER 10 and PAPER 11 delve deeper into the negative aspects, particularly
emphasizing environmental repercussions. The extensive pollution generated by gold extraction
and the subsequent impact on soil, water quality, and agricultural sustainability accentuate the
intricate web of adverse effects stemming from mining activities. These findings reinforce the
urgent need for robust environmental policies, remediation strategies, and sustainable practices
to mitigate the detrimental impacts on the environment, human health, and local economies.

The assessment of heavy metal contamination in the river sediments of the Ponce Enríquez
area has been the focus of several studies (Paper 12, Paper 13, Paper 14, Paper 15, Paper 16).
These investigations underscore a concerning reality: mining activities in this region have
resulted in an alarming extent of pollution.

The findings unequivocally reveal elevated heavy metal concentrations across all subsurface
sediment samples taken from four rivers under scrutiny. These levels indicate a widespread
and intensified pollution, notably surpassing maximum contaminant levels for elements like
Cu, Cr, Sb, As, and Ni. The pollution load index consistently hovered above 1.0 at all
sampling points, signifying a persistent high contamination in these rivers (Paper 12).

Particularly concerning is the Siete River, exhibiting considerable variability in metal

concentrations. The persistence of elevated pollution levels alongside the challenges in
controlling illegal mining activities suggests a daunting task in mitigating environmental
degradation (Paper 12).

Despite the adverse impact on the environment, mining in Ponce Enríquez has provided
economic opportunities, employing 43% of the active population. However, gender disparity
is evident, with a notable majority of men engaged in mining activities. Women involved in
waste-rock collection face economic vulnerabilities, with an uncertain future due to changes
in waste rock management by mine owners. (Paper 13)

From a geochemical perspective, the research offers valuable insights into the spatial
distribution of contamination, highlighting the prevalence of toxic trace elements like As, Cu,
Cr, and Hg, derived mainly from mining and metallurgical activities. The impact is extensive,
affecting drinking water sources, shrimp farms, and banana plantations downstream,
necessitating urgent attention. (Paper 14)

Soil quality assessments further corroborate the severity of contamination, with acidic
conditions observed in 60% of samples due to anthropogenic activities. The presence of
heavy metals and metalloids exceeding permissible limits poses a significant health risk to
the exposed population. (Paper 15)

While mining contributes significantly to employment, its adverse effects on health and the
environment are striking. Mercury usage in artisanal gold mining poses health risks,
especially exceeding international safety standards during the amalgamation process. The
decline in the mining industry's GDP contribution, coupled with environmental degradation,
underscores the need for sustainable practices. (Paper 16)

The gravity of heavy metal contamination in Ponce Enríquez's rivers reflects an urgent need
for stringent policies and cleaner techniques to curb pollution. The multifaceted repercussions
on both the environment and the community, particularly vulnerable populations like women
waste-rock collectors, demand immediate and comprehensive interventions.

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