LAB 1 Index of refraction by apparent thickness

Method: vernier scale is linked to the vertical axis of a microscope and adjusted so that the movement of the microscope is
parallel to its axis. Interested in differences of positions between different focal points. For 2 different mediums, one glass and
liquid, comparing the thickness of the medium (distance from the top to the bottom of the medium) to its apparent thickness, as
seen through the medium (distance from the top of the medium to the image of its bottom). All these position differences will be
measured with the vernier scale, while focusing the microscope on the different points. Glass: the position of the bottom of the
medium determined by focusing on a scratch on the microscope's base and the top's position, by focusing on a scratch on the top
of the glass plate. Liquid: the position of the bottom of the medium determined by focusing on a scratch in the bottom of the
beaker containing the liquid and the top's position, by focusing on some chalk dust, floating on top of the liquid.
Theory: when a beam of light is incident upon a boundary between two media in which the velocity of light has different values,
some of the light is reflected back into the first medium and some is transmitted into the second medium. The reflected light
obeys the law of reflection, according to which the angle of incidence i between each incident ray and a normal to the surface is
equal to the angle of reflection I’ between the corresponding reflected ray and the normal; the incident ray, the reflected ray, and
the normal lie in the same plane. The transmitted light is refracted, it undergoes a change in the direction of propagation, by an
amount which depends upon the physical properties of the media on both side of the boundary. The angle of refraction r depends
both upon the angle of incidence i and upon the velocities of light in the two media, which can be replaced by the indices of
refraction of the media. Snell's law of refraction: n2/n1 = sin i / sin r. an object below the surface of a transparent substance, such
as glass or a liquid, appears to an observer above the surface to be nearer to the surface than it actually is. When a ray of light
passes from a medium of relatively high n into one of relatively low n (e.g., from glass to air), the ray is bent away from the
normal. n=d/d’. Procedure: Locate the scratch directly below the microscope. Using the vertical knob, focus the microscope
sharply on micro scratch. Read the vernier and record the reading x1. Place a glass specimen over the scratch and slowly elevate
the microscope until the scratch is in focus again. Record the vernier reading x2. The apparent elevation (e) is the difference
between x2 and x1. A second scratch on the top surface of the glass specimen. Elevating the microscope until the second scratch
is in sharp focus. Record the vernier reading x3. The actual thickness (d) of the specimen is given by the difference x3 - x1.The
apparent thickness (d') is determined by the difference between x3 and x2 .For liquid the bottom scratch to be used is the one
made in the bottom of a glass beaker that will hold the liquid and instead of a scratch identifying the top surface, will use some
chalk EXPECTED n of glass 1.52, water 1.33
LAB 2 Diffraction and Interference
Theory: Two light beams of same wavelength can interfere with each other. In extreme cases, they will undergo constructive
interference if they are in phase (phase difference of 0, 2 rad, 4 rad, etc.) and we will see a bright spot or they will undergo
destructive interference if they are out of phase (phase difference of rad, 3rad, etc.) and we will see a dark spot. Single-slit
diffraction: When diffraction of light occurs as it passes through a slit, the angle to the minima (dark spot) in the diffraction
pattern is given by asinθmin=mλ , "a" is the slit width, θ is the angle from the center of the pattern to a minimum.
Sinθ=tanθ=xm/L, iwhere xm is the distance from the center of central maximum to the mth minimum on either side of the central
maximum and L is the distance from the slit to the screen. mλ=a* xm/L. Double-slit Interference: When light from the two slits
interferes, it creates an interference pattern with alternating dark and light fringes. The diffraction pattern acts as an “envelope”
that controls the intensity of the regularly spaced interference maxi When interference of light occurs as it passes through two
slits, the angle from the central maximum (bright spot or fringe) to the side maxima in the interference pattern is given by
dsinθmax = nλ, d is distance between the center lines of the double slit (slit separation), θmax is the angle from the center of the
pattern to the nth maximum. nλ=d* xn/L. Light intensity(y axis) and position(x). Procedure: find x of the two first minima
for xm and maxima for xn. Calculate the best estimate for the distance between the first minima on each side and divide by two.
Uncertainty Calculation: Find the highest possible value for the distance considered a good measurement. Subtract this value
from the previous best estimate to determine the uncertainty. Expected a=0.00016m, expected 𝜆 6.50E-07, d 0.25 mm.
In a double slit interference pattern, the fringes are more closely spaced compared to the single slit diffraction pattern. Narrower
slits produce wider diffraction patterns. Diffraction pattern from a narrower slit spreads out over a larger area compared to that
from a wider slit. (which is what we expect from the theory) . With slit separation 0.25 and 0.55. for 0. 25 mm the central bright
band will be wide and intense, while other bands will be narrower and have decreased intensity compared to the central band. For
0.50 mm the central bright band will be narrower and intense; the adjacent bands will be wider than in the first case and have
decreased intensity compared to the central band.
LAB 3: Diffraction Grating Spectrometer (spectrometer with a diffraction grating to split light into its various colors
(spectrum). measure the wavelengths of different parts of its spectrum.
Method: A simple spectrometer is used to view an illuminated slit through a diffraction grating. It measures the angles of the
various parts of the diffracted beam with regard to a direct beam. The grating constant of the diffraction grating can be
determined from these angles, using light of a known wavelength. The spectrum of a second source is then studied with the same
diffraction grating and the wavelengths of its spectral lines can be determined. Diffraction According to the Huygens principles,
every point of an advancing wavefront is considered a new source which sends out wavelets. The envelope of these wavelets, at
any time, constitutes the advancing wavefront. If a wave front encounters and the obstacle, the wavelets near the edge of the
obstacle advance into the region behind the obstacles. This bending of the light into the shadow region is called diffraction. The
wavelets from the many points of a wave front produce and effect at any given advance position which depends upon the
amplitude and the phase of each on arriving at that position. When they are in phase they will reinforce each other. When they
arrive out of phase, that is when some produce crests at the same time others produce troughs of waves, they will counteract each
other. This is called interference. The interference of the several contributing wavelets produces the observed diffraction
phenomena. The grating consists essentially of a grid of fine parallel lines uniformly spaced on a polished reflecting of
transmitting surface.
A coarse grating (large d) produces many more orders than a grading of closer spacing. Each order produced by the coarse
grading is, however, narrower and separated from the next one by a smaller angle than is the case for a grading of close spacing.
When the incident light contains several different wavelengths (colors) of light it is a heterochromatic source.
Each of the wavelengths forms images at different angles than the others. For any given order the shorter (violet) wavelengths
are focused nearer the direct image than the longer (red) wavelengths. Emission spectra result from electrons in a medium being
excited and emitting photons of specific energies when returning to lower energy states. Excitation of mercury's electrons is
achieved by creating an electric discharge in a tube containing the gas. Mercury, 5461E-10 m wave, sodium 5890 and 5896e-
10,N 300lines expected. Procedure: 1) 1 order,2 order angle from left and right. 2) left and right: 4 colors 1 and 2 order -angles
Ex 7.30+7’ minute=7+37’= 7+37/60. For right 180-found angle.
LAB 4: Michelson interferometer
how a Michelson interferometer can directly measure wavelengths and the wavelength difference between two sodium D lines
by using the interferences properties of light waves. The Michelson interferometer operates by splitting a light beam into two
paths, reflected by mirrors M1 and M2, and recombined at a half-reflecting plate. This setup leads to interference patterns. A
calibrated motion of mirror M1 results in fringe changes, and by counting these fringes, the wavelength of light can be
calculated using the relationship nλ = 2kx, where λ is a wavelength, n is number of fringes, x is a position measurement that will
be made with a micrometer screw moving the mirror with a lever that reduces this motion by a factor k. This formula is applied
in the first and second parts of the lab to determine the values of k and the average wavelength. For the third part of the lab,
the formula Δ λ= λ2/2kx, where λ is the average wavelength calculated in the second part of the lab, k that is calculated in the
first part of lab. By evaluating k in the first part, we can find the average wavelength in the second part, which we expect to be
5893((5890 Å+5896 Å)/2). The expected value for the difference in wavelength is 6 (5896 Å-5890 Å).
Procedure: The interferometer should be mounted on a platform that is as free of vibration as possible and at a height that is
convenient for viewing. First part: mercury 5461 A ,n=100 , reading every ten from 0 to 190, find average of difference x100-0
and find k by nλ = 2kx. The uncertainty is calculated by using (xmax-xmin)/2. To find the k, nλ = 2kx is used. To determine its
uncertainty, we use the formula δk= (δxaverage/xaverage)*k.
Part 2 : average wavelength of the sodium D lines. same procedure in 1 part and to find the average wavelength, we use the
calculated k from 1 (nλ = 2kx) . To determine its uncertainty, we use the formula δλ= ((δxaverage/xaverage)+( δk/k))*λ.
Part 3: Determination of the difference in wavelength between the sodium D lines. the interferometer readings for the sharp
and blurry images of , average of each pair
λ 1 - λ2= λ2/n2= λ1 λ2/2d or Δ λ= λ2/2kx
(Δ λ= λ2/2kx). To determine its uncertainty, we use the formula δΔλ= ((δxaverage/xaverage)+( δk/k)+( 2*δλ/λ))* Δλ
LAB 5: Polarization
how much of this light is blocked by a polarizer while varying its angle.
Theory: a light beam is made up of many light particles(photons). These photons are essentially electromagnetic field oscillations. The
electric and magnetic fields of photons oscillate in perpendicular directions with respect to the photon's direction of propagation. By
definition, the direction in which the electric field of a photon is oscillating is its polarization axis so we say that the photon is polarized
along this axis. In figure 5.1, we see a photon propagating along the z axis. Before crossing the polarizer (to the left of the image), its
electric field (the drawn sine wave) is oscillating along an axis on the x-y plane, at an angle e from the y axis.
A polarizer is an optical filter that only allows light that has a polarization along a specific axis to pass through it (this is referred to as the
axis of the polarizer). When a polarized beam of light crosses through a polarizer, only the component of its polarization parallel the
polarizer's axis is allowed to cross. The light's intensity will be smaller after the polarizer since only part of the light was allowed to cross
it
The component (E) of the initial electric field (Eo) of a polarized light beam in the direction of an axis at an angle 0 from its own axis has
a magnitude of E=Eocos0. Light intensity is proportional to the square of the light's electric field, so it follows that the remaining light
intensity after a polarized beam of light crosses a polarizer respects Malus' law: I=Io cos2o where Io is the initial intensity of the light
beam and e is the angle between the initial light's polarization axis and the polarizer's axis. There are only few cases where a light beam
is polarized to start off with. Mainly, this is true for the light emitted by a laser, which is the case you will be studying in this experiment.
Most natural light sources emit unpolarized light: light that oscillates along all axes in the plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. If unpolarized light is incident upon a polarizer, only half of the light intensity will be transmitted through the polarizer (the
sum of all the components along the polarizer's axis is half of the light, the other half having a component perpendicular to this axis). In
this initially unpolarized case, the light transmitted through a polarizer would become polarized along the polarizer's axis and could
therefore serve as a polarized light beam.Equation for Io shows that the emitted light intensity should be 0 when the polarization axis of
the polarized light is either at a 90° or a 270° angle from the polarizer's axis. When both axes are aligned (0° or 180°), the emitted light
intensity will be at its maximum. Procedure: we rotate from 0 to 180 to measure intensity.
I=Io cos2o where I is y values, cos^2θ is x- values, Io is the slope(m). To find the excepted slope , we use the given formula I=Io
cos^2θ , where we can consider the angle as zero leading to I=Io , so the max intensity equals to the Io at 0 degrees