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Module 3: Consequentialism

Lesson 1: Consequentialism in Perspective

Consequentialism and other Ethical Theories

Normative ethical theories are generally based on three morally relevant features of
actions—that actions (a) lead to certain consequences, (b) follow or violate certain
rules, and (c) are performed by agents with character traits.

1.) Consequentialism

The consequences of actions are the fundamental morally relevant consideration in

making moral judgments.

An action is morally good if it results in good or desirable consequences, while it is

morally bad if it results in bad or undesirable consequences.

2.) Deontology

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 The rules that actions follow are the fundamental morally relevant

consideration in making moral judgments.

An action is morally good if it is done in conformity with a good rule,

while it is bad if done in conformity with a bad rule.

3.) Virtue Ethics

The character of agents is the fundamental morally relevant consideration in making

moral judgments.

An action is morally good if it is done by a virtuous person (a person with good

character traits) while it is morally bad when done by a vicious person (a person
with bad character traits).

Inherent and Instrumental Good

“Good consequences” in consequentialism refer to consequences promoting an
inherent good.

Inherent Good: good in itself; desired for its own sake.

Instrumental Good: good in relation to another good; desired in so far as it serves as a

means to attain another good.

Example of an intrinsic good: Happiness (Aristotle)

Happiness is an intrinsic good for we desire it for its own sake. We desire other things to
attain happiness; but we desire happiness just to experience it. Other things we desire
to achieve happiness, such as good health, wealth, and healthy relationships, among
others, are instrumental goods.

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 Lesson 2: General Divisions of Consequentialism

Two Considerations about Consequences:

1.) Is pleasure (or happiness) the only inherent good (and pain the only
inherent bad)?:

YES —> Hedonism (or Hedonistic Consequentialism)

NO —> Non-hedonism (or Non-hedonistic Consequentialism)

2.) Are the consequences to (or directly affecting) the agent the primary
consideration?

YES —> Agent-relative (or Egoistic) Consequentialism

NO —> Agent-neutral (or Non-egoistic/Impartial) Consequentialism

First General Division: Hedonism vs. Non-hedonism

Hedonism: pleasure is the only inherent good.

1.) Pleasure is inherently good.

2.) Pleasure is the only inherent good.

Non-hedonism rejects hedonism in two ways:

1.) Exclusive Non-hedonism: pleasure is not inherently good. Something else is (which
may be power, preference-satisfaction, and others).
2.) Inclusive non-hedonism: pleasure is inherently good but there are others(such as
power, preference-satisfaction, truth, beauty, and knowledge).

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 Second General Division: Agent-relative vs. Agent-neutral
Consequentialism (Egoistic vs. Impartial Consequentialism)

Agent-relative consequentialism: the consequences to the agent are primary;

they outweigh the consequences to other people.

Agent-neutral consequentialism: the consequences that promote the greatest

overall benefits of all affected persons, regardless of their recipients, are primary;
personal good or happiness may sometimes be necessary to sacrifice to promote
the same.

Lesson 3: Complex Forms of Consequentialism

The two general divisions of consequentialism overlap and qualify each other.
Accordingly, they combine to form four complex types of consequentialism, which may
be termed as:

1.) Agent-relative Hedonism

an action is morally good if it promotes the agent’s own pleasure or happiness.

(a) Active Hedonism: the agent’s immediate though momentary pleasures are primary
(Aristippus);
(b) Passive Hedonism: the agent’s long-lasting though non-immediate pleasures are
primary (Epicurus).

2.) Agent-relative Non-hedonism

an action is morally good if it promotes the agent’s own intrinsic good, which does not
necessarily correspond to pleasure.

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 For some this intrinsic good refers to power (Nietzsche), desire-satisfaction (Hare and
Singer), and others.

3.) Agent-neutral Hedonism

an action is morally good if it maximizes the overall happiness (or pleasure) of all
affected persons .

4.) Agent-neutral non-hedonism

an action is morally good if it maximizes the overall welfare of all affected persons.
(”Welfare” generally refer to beneficial consequences which may or may not include
pleasure/happiness)

Agent-neutral/impartial consequentialism is best represented by the

ethical theory called utilitarianism, which also happens to be the
most influential form of consequentialism. The various forms of
utilitarianism, accordingly, serve as representatives of the different
forms of agent-neutral consequentialism.

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 Lesson 4: Utilitarianism and It’s Basic Forms

Utilitarianism
an action is morally good if it maximizes the overall welfare of all affected persons /
promotes ”the greatest good of the greatest number of people.”

3 Basic Features of Utilitarianism (Hare)

1.) Consequentialist. Utilitarianism regards the consequences of actions as the

primary consideration in the moral evaluation of actions.

2.) Welfarist. Utilitarianism seeks to promote the welfare (well being, happiness,
benefits, advantages, etc.) of persons.

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 3.) Aggregationist. Utilitarianism seeks to maximize the overall welfare of all persons
involved in an action.

*The overall welfare is the net sum total of benefits of all options: sum total of benefits
minus the sum total of costs.

Forms of Utilitarianism

Two Considerations

1.) Should the overall welfare to be maximized only involve pleasure (or happiness)?

Yes —> Hedonistic Utilitarianism

No —> Non-hedonistic Utilitarianism

2.) Should the utilitarian principle (maximizing overall welfare or promoting the greatest
good of the greatest number of people) be applied directly to actions or to the rules
governing these actions?

To the Actions —> Act Utilitarianism

To the Rules —> Rule Utilitarianism

A. Hedonistic Utilitarianism
The overall welfare to be maximized through our actions pertains only to pleasure or
happiness.

Question: Is there is a qualitative difference between physical and mental

pleasures? Are they the same in terms of value?

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 1.) Quantitative Hedonistic Utilitarianism: there is no qualitative difference between
physical and mental pleasures; there are only quantitative differences among pleasures
(Jeremy Bentham).

2.) Qualitative Hedonistic Utilitarianism: the value or quality of mental pleasures,

because they involve the exercise of the higher faculty of reason, is greater than that of
physical pleasures (John Stuart Mill).

The Hedonistic Calculus

The systematic method developed by Bentham for calculating the quantity of
pleasures (mental and physical). Factors to consider in the calculation:

1.) Intensity --(How engaging is the experience of pleasure): The more intense the
experience of pleasure, the greater the value of the pleasure.

2.) Duration --(How long the pleasure lasts): The longer the experience of pleasure, the
greater the value of the pleasure.

3.) Certainty --(The probability that the pleasure will occur): The greater the probability
that the desired pleasure will be experienced, the greater the value of the pleasure.4.
Propinquity (remoteness) –(How far off in the future will the pleasure be experienced)
The shorter the temporal distance between an act and the pleasure that it will produce,
the greater the value of the pleasure.

4.) Fecundity --(The chance a sensation will be followed by sensations of the same kind:
pleasures, if it be pleasure; pains, if it be pain): The higher the probability that an
experience of pleasure will be followed by further experiences of pleasure, the greater
the value of the pleasure.

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 5.) Purity --(The chance a sensation will not be followed by sensations of the opposite
kind: pains, if it be pleasure; pleasures, if it be pain): The higher the probability that the
experience of pleasure will not be followed by an experience of pain, the greater the
value of the pleasure.

6.) Extent --(The number of persons affected by the sensation): The higher the number
of persons to experience the pleasure, the greater the value of the pleasure.

B. Non-Hedonistic Utilitarianism
The over-all welfare to be maximized through our actions is either not pleasure(or
happiness) or not limited to such.

1.) Ideal (or Pluralistic) Utilitarianism

For G. E. Moore, there are, in addition to pleasure, other things that are worth
pursuing for their own sake and thus are good regardless of whether they result in
pleasure or not. They include knowledge, beauty, and good relationships, among
others.

2.) Preference Utilitarianism

For Richard Hare and Peter Singer, desire/preference-satisfaction is more

fundamental than the experience of pleasure, as we sometimes prefer to satisfy our
desires/preferences even if it would lead to the experience of pain.
Desire/preference satisfaction is thus the inherent good, not pleasure.

C. Art and Rule Utilitarianism

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 Question: Which is primary, the consequences of an act or the consequences of
following or violating the rule governing the act?

1. Act Utilitarianism

The consequences of an act is primary. An action is morally good if it maximizes

overall welfare of all persons involved, regardless of the rule it violates.

2. Rule Utilitarianism

The consequences of following or violating the rule governing the act is primary.An
action is morally good if it conforms to an optimific rule, regardless of the
consequences of the act.

A rule is optimific if general conformity to it will maximize overall welfare of all

persons involved.

Act utilitarianism is the standard form of utilitarianism. Rule

utilitarianism was developed to deal with some challenging cases
such as the morality of breaking contracts. Rule utilitarianism is
regarded by some as a compromise between utilitarianism and
deontology.

The hedonistic- non-hedonistic division overlaps with the act-rule

division which gives rise to complex forms of utilitarianism.

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