Current Drying Processes

Current Drying Processes
Edited by Israel Pala-Rosas

Published in London, United Kingdom

Supporting open minds since 2005
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78916
Contributors
Le Anh Duc, Keum Dong Hyuk, Chang Peng, Saeed Moghaddam, Artem Artyukhov, Jozef Bocko, Jan Krmela,
Nadiia Artyukhova, Ruslan Ostroha, Mykola Yukhymenko, Margarita Castillo Téllez, Beatriz Castillo
Téllez, José Andrés Alanís Navarro, Juan Carlos Ovando Sierra, Gerardo A. Mejia Pérez, Italo Pedro
Bello Moreira, Edgar Ruperto Macías Ganchozo, Xavier Enrique Anchundia Muentes, Celio Danilo Bravo
Moreira, Manuel Eduardo Anchundia Muentes, Hebert Edison Vera Delgado, Carlos Eduardo Anchundia
Betancourt, Trung Thanh Bui
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Meet the editor
Israel Pala-Rosas is a biochemical engineer at the Instituto

Tecnológico de Tehuacán (Tehuacán, México), with a Mas-
ter in chemical engineering from the Benemérita Universidad
Autónoma de Puebla (Puebla, México) and a PhD in sciences in
chemical engineering from the School of Chemical Engineering
and Extractive Industries of the Instituto Politécnico Nacio-
nal (México). His interest is the research and development of
catalytic and biotechnological processes for the transformation of biomass-derived
molecules to compounds of technological and industrial interest. With this aim,
Israel Pala-Rosas focuses his work on the synthesis, characterization, and testing of
catalysts, as well as the design and analysis of chemical and biochemical reactors.
Areas related to the catalytic processes, such as chemical thermodynamics, unit
operations and economics, are also under his scope.
Contents
Preface XIII
Section 1
Solar Drying 1
Chapter 1 3
Kinetics of Drying Medicinal Plants by Hybridization
of Solar Technologies
by Margarita Castillo Téllez, Beatriz Castillo Téllez,
José Andrés Alanís Navarro, Juan Carlos Ovando Sierra
and Gerardo A. Mejia Pérez
Chapter 2 19
Postharvest Treatment of Tropical Fruits Pineapple
(Ananas comosus), Mamey (Mammea americana), and Banana
(Musa paradisiaca) by Means of a Solar Dryer Designed
by Italo Pedro Bello Moreira, Edgar Ruperto Macías Ganchozo,
Xavier Enrique Anchundia Muentes, Celio Danilo Bravo Moreira,
Manuel Eduardo Anchundia Muentes, Hebert Edison Vera Delgado
and Carlos Eduardo Anchundia Betancourt
Section 2
Convective Drying 39
Chapter 3 41
Convective Drying in the Multistage Shelf Dryers:
Theoretical Bases and Practical Implementation
by Artem Artyukhov, Nadiia Artyukhova, Ruslan Ostroha,
Mykola Yukhymenko, Jozef Bocko and Jan Krmela
Chapter 4 63
Mathematical Modeling and Simulation of Rapeseed Drying
on Concurrent-Flow Dryer
by Le Anh Duc and Keum Dong Hyuk
Chapter 5 85
Determination on Fluidization Velocity Types of the Continuous
Refined Salt Fluidized Bed Drying
by Bui Trung Thanh and Le Anh Duc
Section 3
Novel Drying Technologies 109
Chapter 6 111
The Study of Fabric Drying Using Direct-Contact Ultrasonic Vibration
by Chang Peng and Saeed Moghaddam
II
XII
Preface
The transformation of a raw material in to a commodity or specialty product implies

a series of steps in which the feedstock is subjected to physical and chemical changes.
The stages in which only physical changes occur are known as unit operations, and
may involve heat, mass, or both transport processes, as well as the presence of
gaseous, liquid, or solid phases.
Drying operations have been widely employed in the industry to eliminate water
from the process materials. Additionally, it also refers to the elimination of organic
solvents and liquids from solids. It allows for the pretreatment of feedstocks with
different moisture content, such as wet solids, gels, suspensions, and solutions,
for their physical or chemical transformation. Drying processing also enables the
post-treatment of products for their final presentation and packaging. In some
industries, such as alimentary and pharmaceutical, drying is used as a preservation
method of products since the enzymatic and microbial activity that causes
undesirable chemical changes in organic matter is reduced with the decrease of
water content.
From a process approach, the development of drying equipment requires the

understanding and mathematical interpretation of the heat and mass transport
phenomena for their proper design, construction, and operation, as well as an
energy analysis that allows for the improvement of the process.
Under this scenario, Current Drying Processes presents recent advances in the
development of drying operations for organic and inorganic materials dealing with
the theoretical and experimental aspects of the most widely used technologies today,
namely solar, convective, fluidized, and ultrasonic drying. The chapters present
the elementary principles of each drying technology, such as energy transfer,
hydrodynamics, and drying kinetics, as well as the importance of simulation and
statistical methods for the analysis and improvement of the processes.
Israel Pala-Rosas
ESIQIE,
Instituto Politécnico Nacional,
México
Section 1
Solar Drying
1
Chapter 1
Kinetics of Drying Medicinal

Plants by Hybridization of Solar
Technologies
Margarita Castillo Téllez, Beatriz Castillo Téllez,
José Andrés Alanís Navarro, Juan Carlos Ovando Sierra
and Gerardo A. Mejia Pérez
Abstract
Historically, medicinal plants have always had an important place in medicine.

Medicinal plants processing represents a great challenge, due to their compounds
sensitive to the environmental conditions that surround and degrade them. Mostly
of these plants require to be dry to preserve its safety and medicinal properties;
therefore, for proper drying, it is necessary to use sustainable devices that protect
the desirable characteristics of plants from direct radiation. In this work, the kinet-
ics of dehydration of three medicinal plants are presented in an indirect solar dryer.
In addition, the experimental results were adjusted to nine mostly used models, to
estimate the drying conditions required to achieve a desired final moisture content.
Modified Page and Page were the models with better fit to experimental results.
Furthermore, a computational simulation of temperature evolution and distribution
inside the dryer is presented. These results agree with those obtained experimentally.
Keywords: medicinal plants, indirect solar drying, mathematical model,

colorimetric study, computational analysis
1. Introduction
The knowledge of medicinal plants extends to any part of the world where man
has traditionally needed them to cure his illnesses. Thus, a mixture of magic and
religion, combined with necessity and chance, trial and error, the passage of differ-
ent cultures has created a whole knowledge of plant remedies that has been the basis
of modern medicine [1]. However, many studies have been performed to test if they
are truly effective and, as a result of these studies, the therapeutic use of many
medicinal plants as substitutes for pharmaceutical medicines has been applied
successfully to cure or relieve diseases [2].
According to the WHO, herbal medicines include herbs, herbal material,
preparations, and herbal products, which contain as active ingredients parts of
plants or other plant materials, and their use is well established and widely
recognized as safe and effective [3].
It has been shown in studies and reviews that medicinal plants have various
properties that cure, for example, anticancer and antiviral activities [4],
3
antidiabetic properties [5], anti-dengue activities [6], infertility problems [7], con-
tusion and swelling, plants that improves learning and retrieval processes, and
facilitates memory retention, to treat Alzheimer disease, hepatitis, significant anes-
thetic activity, antiarrhythmic action and even anti-obesity [8–11].
In this work, three medicinal plants were selected, which for many years have been
considered important because of the amount of medicinal properties they possess and
because the literature has corroborated their effectiveness in various treatments.
One of the most used plants for medical purposes in the world is Annona
(Annona muricata L.) which is a comestible tropical fruit widely cultivated through
the world [12]. The roots of these species are used for their antiparasitic and
pesticidal properties. Intensive chemical investigations of the leaves and seeds of
this plant have resulted in the isolation of a great number of bioactive compounds
which were found to display interesting biological including antitumor, anticancer,
antiparasitic and pesticidal properties [13, 14]. Literature revealed that Annona fruit
extracts possess antioxidant properties and were able to inhibit enzymes relevant to
type-2 diabetes and hypertension [15].
On the other hand, also, Moringa oleifera, native to India, is fully utilized for its
high nutritive values. The leaves have many minerals and vitamins and are utilized
to treat malnutrition, to increase breast milk production in women, and as a pow-
erful antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial
agent. There is literature that provides relaxing inducing properties [16–19].
Finally, Cymbopogon. It is native to Asia and grows in tropical and subtropical
regions [19]. There are many medicinal uses of Cymbopogon because it has many
functional properties. The leaves and the essential oil are consumed to help with
dyspeptic disorders, colds, nervous conditions, and exhaustion. It was found that
they have a potential anticarcinogenic action [20] and antimicrobial, sedative,
spasmolytic, and carminative effects. It has also been shown to have antifungal,
anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, antimalarial, antinociceptive, antibacterial, and
cholesterol reduction effects [21–26].
The preparation of medicinal plants depending on its use, is very important to
reach the maximum potential action in the human body, but the most frequently
performed preparation is drying the leaves and using them in teas or distilling them
to produce essential oils.
Drying is fundamentally defined the elimination of the majority of plant moisture
content, permitting the prevention of enzymatic and microbial activity and therefore
preserving the product for extended shelf life. Moreover, the properties of medicinal
plants are determined by their moisture content. Mostly of its preparation needs the
elimination of water. Consequently, adequate dryers are very important, including
control of temperature, velocity, and humidity values, and in many cases, direct solar
radiation is forbidden to provide a rapid reduction in the moisture content without
affecting the quality of medicinal plants. Drying process aids the marketing of plants,
because drying allows to improve the distribution of the plants since it reduces both
the weight and the volume, reducing the transport and storage needs [27].
Therefore, in this work, an indirect solar dehydrator was designed, with which the
plant is protected from its high sensitivity to high temperatures and solar radiation.
2. Experimental study
2.1 Construction of the solar dryer
In this study, an indirect solar dryer type tunnel with solar technology
hybridization was constructed (Figure 1): This dryer is hermetically sealed and is
composed of three front sections. Each section contains two trays with a metallic
4
Kinetics of Drying Medicinal Plants by Hybridization of Solar Technologies
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89686
Figure 1.
Tunnel-type solar dryer: (a) main measurements and location of trays, (b) location of solar heater and solar air
collector, (c) the indirect solar dryer in operation. Source: Own elaboration.
mesh to support the hot air flow evenly. Each tray has a separation of 20 cm, as
shown in Figure 1a. The drying chamber is connected to a solar water heater by a
hopper, which drives preheated air inside, supported by a heat exchanger. Addi-
tionally, the dryer has a solar air collector installed at the top. This collector contains
a fan that extracts the ambient air through the interior and directs it, with an
increase in temperature, to the interior of the drying chamber (Figure 1b). The solar
dryer has a 1/2 hp. motor that extracts ambient air into the solar air collector and an
electric pump that recirculates the water in the solar heater, both systems work with
a 280 W solar panel. Figure 1c shows the indirect solar dryer in operation.
2.2 Measuring instruments
In order to ensure the reliability of the experimental results, different measuring

equipment were used at the different stages of the experimentation; Boeco mark
food moisture measurement scale, model BMA150, with an accuracy of 1 mg
(0.001%) was used to determine the initial and final humidity of the leaves. The
leaf sample of approximately 1.5 g was cut and placed in the analyzer. Water
activity in the leaves under study was measured by a mark team Rotronic
HygroPalm, with an accuracy of 0.01% mg. The mean of three measurements was
reported at a room temperature of 24.5 1°C. The temperature and humidity inside
the drying chambers were measured using a Brannan thermo-hygrometer with
temperature and relative humidity accuracy of 1°C and 3%, respectively. The
weight of the samples was measured using a Boeco weighing scale, model
BPS40plus, which have an accuracy of 0.001 g.
The weather parameters were monitored by the weather station located in the
Faculty of Engineering of the Autonomous University of Campeche, which
consists of a LI-COR Pyranometer, with which the global solar irradiance was
measured; the accuracy is Azimuth: < 1% on 360° to 45° of elevation. The
relative humidity, ambient temperature, and wind velocity and direction were
measured by NG Systems mark equipment, model RH-5X (accuracy 3%),
5
110S (accuracy �1.1°C), Series #200P (accuracy �3°), and P2546C-OPR (accuracy
�0.3 m/s), respectively.
2.3 Drying process and experimental setup
In this study, the kinetics of drying medicinal plants using an indirect solar dryer
were analyzed experimentally to determine optimal operating conditions, evaluat-
ing the possibility of the integration of solar technologies in solar food drying.
Samples of fresh leaves were cut from plantings on agricultural land, in the month
of March 2019, in the city of Campeche, Campeche, Mexico. The experimental
study was carried out from March 4 to April 26. The branches were cut, and the
leaves were separated and selected to obtain a homogeneous group, based on matu-
rity, color, freshness, and size. They were washed and weighed, and the width,
length, and thickness were measured.
To analyze the initial and final humidity in the plants, the leaf sample of
approximately 1.5 g was cut and placed in the analyzer. Water activity (aw) is a
parameter that determines the stability of the food with respect to the ambient
humidity. It was measured for both fresh and dried leaves before and after the
drying process using portable water activity meter.
The plants that were selected for experimentation were Moringa oleifera, Annona
muricata L., and Cymbopogon citratus. Moringa oleifera, is a plant that has generated
great interest in recent years because of its attributed medicinal properties [28],
contains more than 90 nutrients, different antioxidants, and all the 8 essential
amino acids [29]. The main medicinal property of Cymbopogon Citratus is to be
anti-inflammatory and antioxidant due to polyphenols, it contains, so it is used in
cases of cancer and to combat arthritis among other properties [30].
Fresh and dried leaves were placed on a flat surface, and the colorimeter was
placed on the leaves to measure color values. For each sample, the measurements
were replicated four times, obtaining in each measurement the values L * (lumi-
nance), a * (brownness), and b * (darkness) [31].
The total color change (ΔE) was the parameter considered for the overall color
difference evaluation, between a dried sample and the fresh leaf [32]:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ΔE ¼ ðLo � LÞ2 þ ðao � aÞ2 þ ðbo � bÞ2 (1)
2.4 Mathematical modeling
In order to observe the drying behavior of medicinal plants, the moisture ratio
against the drying time was plotted. The dry-based moisture ratio during the drying
process was calculated using the following equation [33]:
Mt
MRdb ¼ (2)
M0
where Mt and M0 are the moisture content in time t and the initial moisture
content (kg water/kg dry matter), respectively.
2.4.1 Adjusting experimental drying curves
The experimental moisture-versus-time ratio was adjusted by nonlinear regres-

sion to nine thin-layer drying models (Table 1) for each drying kinetic of the
6
Model name Model equation Reference
Newton MR ¼ expð�ktÞ [35]
Page MR ¼ expð�ktn Þ [36]

n
Modified page MR ¼ expð�ðktÞ Þ [37]
Henderson and Pabis MR ¼ a expð�ktÞ [38]
Logarithmic MR ¼ aexpð�ktÞ þ c [39]
Two-term MR ¼ aexpð�k0 tÞ þ b expð�k1 tÞ [40]
Two-term exponential MR ¼ aexpð�ktÞ þ ð1 � aÞ [41]
Wang and Singh MR ¼ 1 þ at þ bt2 [42]

α
Weibull MR ¼ exp⌊�ðt=bÞ ⌋ [43]
Source: Own elaboration.
Table 1.
Mathematical models used to predict the drying kinetics of medicinal plants.
medicinal plants. The criteria used to select the model that best fit the data experi-
mental were the coefficient of determination (R2) and the root of the mean square
error (RMSE), considering that values of R2 superior to 0.95 RMSE values below
0.06 indicate good fit [34]. In addition, a lower value of X2 is considered as
indicative of better fit. The adjustment was solved for the calculation of the
different parameters involved in the selected fit models using the DataFix software
version 9.1.
3. Results and discussion
Moisture tests were performed on fresh and dehydrated leaves; in all cases, the
average initial humidity was 73.8%, the maximum readings were 79.58%, and the
minimum readings were 68.2%. These readings agree with those reported in the
literature (Banchero, Carballo, & Telesca, 2007). The initial average aw was 0.976,
the minimum measured was 0.96, while the maximum was 0.98. The average final
aw in all cases was 0.44, the minimum measured reading was 0.33, and the maxi-
mum was 0.58. The final aw values indicate that there is no possibility of microbial
growth in the dehydrated product obtained [44].
3.1 Weather conditions
Figure 2 shows the change in the weather parameters during the test period with
three sunny days. As can be seen, a maximum solar global irradiance of 952 W/m2
was achieved, with the average maximum values ranging between 874 and
962 W/m2. The average ambient temperature varied of 30°C y 35.7°C. On the other
hand, the minimum RH (relative humidity) ranged between 44 and 46%; the
maximum average on the test days ranged between 60 and 81%.
Figure 3 shows the temperatures inside the drying chamber, solar radiation, and
the ambient temperature during the hours with the highest solar incidence on the
selected day as an example. The drying chamber consists of three sections with
similar temperatures. The highest temperature reaches 50.7°C.
7
Figure 2.
Average solar irradiance, ambient temperature, and relative humidity. Source: Own elaboration.
Figure 3.
Solar irradiance variation and temperature inside the drying chamber of the tunnel solar dryer. Source: Own
elaboration.
Figure 4.
Weight loss and moisture content depending on the drying time for Moringa oleifera leaves. Source: Own
elaboration.
8
Figure 5.
Drying rate as function of moisture content for a Moringa oleifera leaves. Source: Own elaboration.
Figure 6.
Weight loss and moisture content depending on the drying time for Annona muricata leaves. Source: Own elaboration.
3.2 Solar drying kinetics
3.2.1 Moringa oleifera leaves
The weight loss stabilized upon reaching this sample 3.9 g; the final drying time
was 360 min. It can be seen in Figure 4 that the moisture content started at 2.93 g
water/g dry matter, ending between 0.201 and 0.256. Figure 5 shows the moisture
content as a function of the drying rate; in this case no constant rate period was
observed. The highest drying rate was found with 0.012 g water/g dry matter
minute.
3.2.2 Annona muricata leaves
In the case of Annona muricata leaves, the total drying time was 500 min,
(Figure 6); the initial moisture content was 5.667 g water/g dry matter, reaching a
9
Figure 7.
Drying rate as function of moisture content for an Annona muricata leaves. Source: Own elaboration.
Figure 8.
Weight loss and moisture content depending on the drying time for Cymbopogon leaves. Source: Own
elaboration.
final moisture content between 0.843 g water/g dry matter and 1.204 g water/g dry
matter. Reaching a final drying rate between 0.643 g water/g matter dry minute and
1.024 g water/g matter dry minute, the final weight of the sample was 2.7 g (see
Figure 7).
3.2.3 Cymbopogon
As can be seen in Figure 8, the drying kinetics of the Cymbopogon sample

stabilized in 660 min. The initial moisture content was 5.66 g water/g
dry matter. The final moisture content was between 0.421 and 0.435.
Figure 9 shows that the highest drying rate was 0.026 g water/g dry matter min.
10
Figure 9.
Drying rate as function of moisture content for a Cymbopogon leaves. Source: Own elaboration.
Figure 10.
Relationship between final drying time and ΔE in dehydrated leaves. Source: Own elaboration.
3.3 Colorimetric analysis
Color is a primary characteristic perceived by the consumer of a product and

plays an important role in food. The color of food is often an indication of the
nutrients it contains. In addition, the color of a processed product is expected to be
as similar as possible to fresh ones [45].
Table 2 shows the values obtained from L*, a*, and b*, in the medicinal plants
studied in fresh and dry.
An insignificant variation in the parameters L*, a*, and b* obtained in the plants
studied before and after the drying process can be seen in Table 2. This can be
corroborated in Figure 10, in which ΔE is analyzed. The main reason for this color
preservation is the protection against solar irradiation of the solar tunnel dryer, so
11
dehydrated plants are kept more similar to fresh ones. For this reason, it is prefer-
able to dry in a closed and controlled environment, which is consistent with studies
of Helvaci et al. [46].
It is important to note that in all cases the values of L*, a*, and b* decreased; this
means that as the temperature increased (the three sections of the drying chamber
reached up to 50.7°C). There was a tendency toward gray colors, a decrease in red
colors (more brown), and an increase in yellow colors; these results agree with data
reported by Bhardwaj et al. [47].
3.4 Computational analysis
Computational simulation is performed by using of a free software called

Energy2D [48]. Simulation consists of temperature dependence upon time at dif-
Figure 11.
Thermal behavior simulation of the dehydrator. Source: Own elaboration.
L*, a*, b* values and drying Medicinal plants
Moringa oleifera Cymbopogon Annona muricata
Fresh leaves
L*, a*, b* values
L: 45.53
L: 50.28 L: 50.2
a: �8.41
a: �6.76 a: �7.87
b: 27.58
b: 35.75 b: 21.81
Dehydration with tunnel dryer

L*, a*, b* values
L: 40.4 L: 41.27 L: 37.02

a: �2.61 a: 1.85 a: �5.24
b: 25.75 b: 13.14 b: 16.81
Table 2.
Values obtained from L*, a*, b* ( fresh and dried) in the medicinal plants studied.
12
Figure 12.
Graph of thermal behavior simulation of the dehydrator. Source: Own elaboration.
Annona
Model Coefficients and fit parameter Value
Modified page k 0.0116
n 0.5685
2
R 0.9941
RMSE 0.0199
X2 0.0005
Cymbopogon
Modified page k 0.0369
n 0.7545
R2 0.9988
RMSE 0.0092
2
X 0.0001
Moringa
Page k 0.0067
n 1.5616
2
R 0.9987
RMSE 0.0119
2
X 0.0001
Table 3.
Results of regression analysis of the best adjusted models.
13
Figure 13.
Experimental versus mathematical model. Source: Own elaboration.
ferent zones. For the temperature evolution across time, thermal conduction and
convection simulation mode was selected. For accurate results, also the thermal and
optical properties of each material were chosen. The complete procedure of simu-
lation can be found in Ref. [49]. In Figure 11, the thermal behavior of the dehydra-
tor is shown and can be distinguished into three zones: left, middle, and right.
Maximum reached values of temperature sensors, at the left, middle, and right
zones were 45.2, 38.8, and 44.7°C, respectively, while its averages were about 41.4,
34.9, and 39.2°C, correspondingly. The temporal fluctuation of temperature is
depicted in Figure 12.
The temperatures reached in the dryer with the hybridization of solar technolo-
gies remained stable during most of the day, with a variation between 45 and 50°C
(Figures 3 and 12), which, as reported in the literature reviewed, are optimal to
prevent the loss of important properties in vegetables and medicinal plants [46, 50].
3.5 Mathematical modeling
3.5.1 Adjusting experimental drying curves
The drying kinetics obtained experimentally in the medicinal plants were

adjusted using the nine drying models mentioned in Table 1. Table 3 presents the
model that best fit for each drying condition. These models had the highest R2
values as shown in Table 2.
Estimates of the statistical parameter for all experimental conditions showed
that R2 values ranged from 0.991 to 0.9988, indicating a good fit [34]. Therefore,
these models adequately predict the selected plant drying kinetics. From the data,
Modified Page model was the most suitable for describing drying processes of
Annona and Cymbopogon drying conditions and Page for Moringa (see Figure 13).
4. Conclusion
Moringa oleifera, Cymbopogon, and Annona muricata have antioxidant, antican-

cer, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, and many more positive effects
14
in the human body. The drying kinetics of this plants were analyzed using a
constructed indirect solar dryer type tunnel. It was possible to obtain optimum
temperatures for drying (45–50°C), and drying times were significantly reduced by
keeping these temperatures constant for a longer time throughout the day.
The quality of the plants at the end of drying was confirmed when obtaining
average aw values of 4.4. The average final moisture content of the three medicinal
plants varied between 0.8 and 1.5 g water/g dry matter. The moisture ratio was
fitted to nine thin-layer drying mathematical models to select a suitable drying
curve. The Modified Page and Page models showed the best fit to the experimental
results. The time required to reach the equilibrium moisture content in all experi-
ments varied between 250 and 350 min. The superior efficiency of the dryer allows
a reduction of the important drying costs. This technology would allow agricultural
producers to reduce costs while contributing to the improvement of the
environment.
Author details
Margarita Castillo Téllez1*, Beatriz Castillo Téllez2, José Andrés Alanís Navarro3,
Juan Carlos Ovando Sierra1 and Gerardo A. Mejia Pérez2
1 Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, Campus V,

Unidad Habitacional Siglo XXIII por Avenida Ing. Humberto Lanz Cárdenas,
Campeche, Mexico
2 Centro Universitario del Norte, Universidad de Guadalajara, Colotlán, Jalisco,

México
3 Energy Department, Polythecnic University of Guerrero’s State, Puente

Campuzano, Guerrero, México
*Address all correspondence to: mcastill@uacam.mx
© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
15
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18
Chapter 2
Postharvest Treatment of Tropical

Fruits Pineapple (Ananas
comosus), Mamey (Mammea
americana), and Banana (Musa
paradisiaca) by Means of a Solar
Dryer Designed
Italo Pedro Bello Moreira, Edgar Ruperto Macías Ganchozo,
Xavier Enrique Anchundia Muentes,
Celio Danilo Bravo Moreira,
Manuel Eduardo Anchundia Muentes,
Hebert Edison Vera Delgado
Abstract
The objective of this research was to know the useful life of dehydrated tropical
fruits based on a solar dryer designed and developed under the conditions of
Calceta, Bolívar Canton of the Province of Manabí, Ecuador. The physical and
chemical characteristics exhibited during the radiation dehydration process were
satisfactory, in fresh pineapple from 86.36% low humidity to 21.07%, from 0.67%
protein to 2.45%, and from 2.05% fiber to 3.73%; in mamey from 79.30 to 21.07%,
from 0.41 to 2.55%, and from 2.50 to 4.94%; and in bananas with from 80.22 to
10.35%, from 1.27 to 2.14%, and from 0.88 to 2.42. Microbiological analyses deter-
mined the life span of the products estimated at 174, 106, and 109 days, respec-
tively, in pineapple, mamey, and banana. As for the attributes measured with the
1–5 scale of sensory evaluation, the mean treatments of their attributes such as
color, sweetness, appearance, and taste were demonstrated where bananas present
better color attributes with 4.38; 4.58, sweetness; 4.58, texture;4.68, appearance;
and 4.75, flavor. Where significant diffraction can be determined relative to the
calculated value p > 0.05 of <0.0001, the R2 statistic in pineapple indicates
48.0814% variability in decreasing moisture pineapple (DMP), and its correlation
coefficient is equal to 0.693408; the R2 statistic in mamey indicates 55.6423%
variability in decreasing moisture mamey (DMM), and its correlation coefficient is
equal to 0.745938; and finally the R2 statistic in banana indicates 56.339% variability
in decreasing moisture banana (DMB), and its correlation coefficient is equal to
0.750593, indicating a moderately strong relationship between variables in all cases.
19
Keywords: absorption, convective multiflash drying process (CMDF), fruit

dehydration, fruit postharvest, solar energy, water activity
1. Introduction
In the Bolivar Canton of the city of Calceta of the Province of Manabí, Ecuador,
the fruits pineapple (Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.), mamey (Mammea americana L.),
and banana (Musa paradisiaca L.) are exuberant but due to high sugar and acid
content have a limited shelf life and in many cases are wasted. Also, because these
characteristics are easily adapted to conservation technologies, one of them is fun-
damentally dehydrated since they retain much of their taste, color, consistency, and
appearance for long periods (see [1, 2]).
Sunlight from before and so far today serves to perform fruit drying as
postharvest handling or conservation activity that, when purchased with other
activities for the same purpose, such as chemical treatments, refrigeration, canned
pre-eminence with operation, and collection even with solar drying, results in a
decrease in energy expenditure spending and could therefore reach areas where
other energy conveniences would not or even do not exist (see [3]).
In fruits the water present is 80.00% of its weight, for its early microbial
decomposition is a definitive element. A conventional dehydrated fruit of its quality
in terms of its organoleptic characteristics is lower than that of the fresh fruits from
which it comes, affecting color, texture, and other peculiarities. With hot air,
dehydrated fruits acquire levels of water activity (aw) ranging from 0.6 to 0.8; these
levels retain their sensory properties, showing good firmness to microbial attacks
(see [4]).
Convective multiflash drying (CMFD) is a matter that is obtained after
being used to obtain crispy fruits, and it is an option to the freeze-drying process
(see [5]).
The industrial-scale study, a simple convective solar drying process of pineap-
ples such as a round or circular economy tactic for countries in progress is specified,
which is paramount to the tactic offered. It built a manual solar dryer that runs in
indirect heat mode; it was also changed to improve its gain. The three main ele-
ments were raised that affect the convective drying process, the drying time
(270 min, 480 min), the intensity of the solar radiation (650 W•m�21, 100 W•m�2),
and the thickness of the cut (6–8 mm, 12–14 mm) (see [6]).
According to these instances, the aim of the research was to design and develop
an empirical and practical distribution for solar dryer and drying tests to conserve
the fruits and extend the shelf life, as well as organoleptic and nutritional particu-
larities with samples of pineapple, mamey, and banana fruits in the city of Calceta,
Bolívar Canton of the Province of Manabí, Ecuador.
2. Climate data collection
The research work was carried out from February to April 2013, in the school
avenue of Calceta, Bolívar Canton, Province of Manabí, Ecuador, on the consecu-
tive lines: South latitude 000 34.220 , west latitude 80 or 100 09.20 , average altitude of
22 masl, with a relative humidity of 90.00%, a temperature of 32.8°C, and a wind
speed of 8 m.s�1, until the end of November; the respective humidity is 86.7%, the
temperature is 26°C, and the speed 1.8 m.s�1 (see [7]).
20
Postharvest Treatment of Tropical Fruits Pineapple (Ananas comosus), Mamey…
3. Design and construction of solar dryer
A dryer is used in heating the air by a 1 mm solar flat panel, insulated drying
chamber equipped with stove where air is released for exhaust purposes. Figure 1
describes the landscape of empirical or experimental distribution. The rustic surface
of the solar collector is 0.5 0.5 1 m with a height of 0.7 m. The solar air heater is
based on a folded suction plate with a dark bluish-look dyed uve (V) representation
wood, as regards the exclusion of corresponding spaces on the sides as well as on the
upper; the glass sheet was sealed with silicone-based material, diagonal to 15o,
towards a dorsal part of the receiver (collector); a perforation was worked to carry
out ventilation activities in the manner of air currents in other instances the side
part, a lami was located a lami na (FV) photovoltaic to be able to understand the
photoelectric effects that come from solar radiation, so with the receiver (collector)
to dehydrate the fruits were stained bone white in all its accesses, covered with
aluminum plate; the entrance had five ships distributed at a distance of 15 cm
between each of them. The container was made of an aluminum-based wire mesh
and glued to the frame inside the drying chamber. The collector outlet air enters the
drying chamber at the bottom, immediately flowing into the upward orientation
using the drying material. The camera was insulated from all sides except the top,
the camera was tested with a fireplace for exhaust air, and the height of the fireplace
was 0.25 m. These are the aspects that contemplate the construction of the solar
dehydrator for the fruits (see [7]) (Figures 2 and 3).
3.1 System dimensioning
3.1.1 Collector area calculation
Busy strip (1.8 1.0) m. 1.80 m2; Global radiation on average per day
1353 W•m2. Lots of temporary global units of solar radiation were calculated by
manipulating a solar energy meter (Tenmar TM 207) with an accuracy of
Figure 1.
Schematic view of experimental setup with solar flat plate collector.
21
Figure 2.
End-floor view.
Figure 3.
Pair heating spray for process.
10 W•m2. Temperature readings were recognized every hour from 8:00 am to

6:00 pm. RTD were established at the inlet and outlet of the collector (Tin, Tout),
outdoors to calculate the ambient temperature (Tamb) (see [8]).
3.1.2 Drying chamber
The volume of the drying chamber was established (oven example cabinet);
consecutively, the average density of the fruits to be dried was 200 Kg.m3, with a
mass of 4 kg; 4/200 to 0.02 m3, being ten times more, a value close to 0 was
obtained, 20 m3.
3.1.3 Sterilization procedure
The matter is formed with preparations such as tools and components which I
discuss the following:
22
The tools handled in the test consisted of sterilization at 180°C for 60 min
according to the Medical Research Council; the chopping of the fruits was done in a
sterilized part in advance rinsed with neutral soap; to quickly immerse the fruits in
water with C6H8O6 ascorbic acid to prevent oxidation and then fit into the dryer,
start the test by placing the dehydrator; feel this part of the dryer, facing north, so
that the collector takes the sun rays east to west. Three repetitions are executed for
each fruit which are delayed from 3 to 5 days for each repetition. At the end of each
day, the samples are wrapped in foil and sealed tightly and stored.
3.1.4 Statistical analysis of the values by treatments
Statistical analysis was contemplated with a complete or random design with

therapizations in each of the treatments; the units are practices or experimental
comprising of 4 kg of dried fruit. These results are tabulated making use of
Statgraphics software and InfoStat™ 5.1TM in terms of linear regression and vari-
ance (ANOVA). To identify significant differences in treatments, as well as statis-
tical significance for all comparisons, p < 0.05 was used. The Tukey multirange test
was used to compare mean values of treatments.
4. Results
4.1 Bromatological analysis of fruits evaluated
At the bromatology laboratories of the Agricultural Polytechnic School in

Manabí Manuel Félix López (ESPAM MFL) and CE.SE. C.CA Unibersidad Laica
Eloy Alfaro de Manabí (ULEAM), Manta, Ecuador, analysis of moisture, ash, pro-
teins and fiber is conducted, and 250 g was manipulated for each sample, published
in Table 1.
The percentage of humidity in pineapple decreased from 86.36 to 21.14%, in
mamey from 79.30 to 21.07%, and banana from 80.22 to 10.35%; ashes amount in
pineapple from 0.44 to 1.09%; in mamey from 0.25 to 2.66%, and in bananas from
1.12 to 2.80% indicating that in the latter, it is higher than the previous fruits.
For pineapple protein amounts from 0.67 to 2.45%; for mamey from 0.41 to
2.55%, and for banana from 1.27 to 2.14%; in this case the three fruits increased their
amounts, and finally the amount of fiber in pineapple is from 2.05 to 3.63%, in
Fruit state Parameters Method Unity Pineapple Mamey Banana
Fresh fruit Moisture INEN 864 % 86.36 79.30 80.22
Ash INEN 467 % 0.44 0.25 1.12
protein PEE/SECECCA/QC/15 % 0.67 0.41 1.27
Fiber PEE/SECECCA/QC/03 % 2.05 2.50 0.88
Dehydrated fruit Moisture INEN 864 % 21.14 21.07 10.35
Ash INEN 467 % 1.09 2.66 2.80
protein PEE/SECECCA/QC/15 % 2.45 2.55 2.14
Fiber PEE/SECECCA/QC/03 % 3.63 4.94 2.42
Table 1.
Bromatological analysis on fresh and dehydrated fruits.
23
mamey from 2.50 to 4.94%, and in banana from 0.88 to 2.42% of the same way
augments, respectively.
4.2 System efficiency in each of the fruits
Figure 4 and Table 2 show the moisture extracted against the emission of the
radiation; according to this we manage to determine that the molecular structure of
the banana facilitates the extraction more accelerated or rapidly with respect to
moisture, thus following the pineapple and mamey in which it can be proven that
the equipment is more efficient for banana fruit.
Figure 4.
Process flow chart of dried pineapple, mamey, and banana fruits.
24
Solar radiation (W • m2) Pineapple (% H) Mamey (% H) Banana (% H)
300 45.61883 46.54318 8.205
350 53.41883 50.89206 27.606
400 61.21883 55.24094 47.007
450 69.01883 59.58982 66.408
500 76.81883 63.9387 85.809
550 84.61883 68.28758 105.21
600 92.41883 72.63646 124.611
650 100.21883 76.98534 144.012
700 108.01883 81.33422 163.413
750 115.81883 85.6831 182.814
800 123.61883 90.03198 202.215
850 131.41883 94.38086 221.616
900 139.21883 98.72974 241.017
Table 2.
System efficiencies vs. dehydrated fruits.
Figure 5.
Differentiation of water vapor contents as absolute humidity according to solar radiation.
Figure 5 shows the moisture variation as a function of solar radiation in the

evaluated fruits, pineapple, mamey, and banana, respectively.
4.3 Microorganism tests to learn about fruit shelf life
In a given time of 15 and 30 days for the purpose of concerning the fruit drying
activities assessed, each repetition is presented with their respective microbiological
examinations with units of measurement in CFU.g1 which in turn were compared
with Ecuadorian Standardization Service (INEN) standards with their details in
maximum limits allowed; in other instances the microorganisms found in the sam-
ples requested from the microbiology laboratories of the Agricultural Polytechnic
School of Manabí Manuel Félix López (ESPAM MFL) are multiplied exponentially,
of mathematical type making use of exponents, i.e., the fickle x (unit of measure
(d)) suppressed day presents the lifetime data for which the following are assessed:
pineapple 174, mamey 106, and banana 109 (Figure 6).
25
Figure 6.
Shelf life for dehydrated fruits. (a) Pineapple; (b) mamey; (c) banana.
4.4 Sensory evaluation with scale 1–5
The attributes evaluated were texture, sweetness, aspect, color, and flavor; these
were calculated on the basis of the InfoStat software, allowing the most relevant
characteristics of the attributes to be in their respective order for dehydrated fruits
of pineapple, mamey, and banana, respectively (Figures 7 and 8, Tables 3–5).
26
Figure 7.
The valuation scale in dehydrated fruits.
Figure 8.
Evaluation of dehydrated fruit acrations depending on the scale score.
Variable N R2 R2Aj CV
Scale 300 0.76 0.75 12.87
Table 3.
Analysis of variance.
F.V. SC gl CM F p-value
Model 193.09 14 13.79 65.32 <0.0001
Factor A 168.56 2 84.28 399.17 <0.0001
Factor B 11.12 4 2.78 13.16 <0.0001
Factor A*Factor B 13.42 8 1.68 7.94 <0.0001
Error 60.17 285 0.21
Total 253.27 299
Table 4.
Variance analysis (SC type I).
27
error: 0.2111 gl: 285
Factor A Factor B Half n E.E.
Mamey Sweet 2.48 20 0.10 A
Mamey Appearance 2.51 20 0.10 A
Mamey Flavor 2.53 20 0.10 A
Pineapple Appearance 2.91 20 0.10 A B
Pineapple Sweet 3.03 20 0.10 B C
Mamey Color 3.21 20 0.10 B C D
Mamey Texture 3.35 20 0.10 B C D
Pineapple Color 3.40 20 0.10 B C D
Pineapple Flavor 3.48 20 0.10 C D
Pineapple Texture 3.70 20 0.10 D
Banana Color 4.38 20 0.10 E
Banana Sweet 4.58 20 0.10 E
Banana Texture 4.58 20 0.10 E
Banana Appearance 4.68 20 0.10 E
Banana Flavor 4.75 20 0.10 E

Means with a common letter are not significantly different (p > 0.05).
Table 5.
Test: Tukey Alpha = 0.05 DMS = 0.49402.
4.5 Relationship and recoil tests concerning the access temperature in dryer
with the receiver access sheet (collector), as well as the radiation with the
low amounts of water as absolute humidity in the fruits of pineapple,
mamey, and banana
Based on p-value in ANOVA calculated less than 0.01, therefore, there is a

significant relationship from the statistical level, between the drying T°C and the
plate T°C with 99% confidence level.
R2 indicates the percentage (%) variation of the response variable that explains
its relationship to one or more predictor variables; it can be said that the higher the
R2, the better the arrangement of the model to the obtained data.
So according to this premise, the model exposes 61.3763% variability in drying
T°C, and the correlation coefficient is equal to 0.78343; therefore, it indicates a
moderately strong relationship between the variables, and the standard error
evaluation shows in the calculation that the standard deviation of the residuals is
2.51359.
Regression exam/linear pattern Y ¼ a þ b ∗ x:
Dependent variable (VD): drying T°C
Independent variable (VI): plate T°C
The results expose the output, and it conforms to the linear model to refer to the
relationship between the drying T°C with the plate T°C.
The equation of the adjusted model below is
Drying T°C ¼ 20:0773 þ 0:275953 ∗ plate T°C (1)
28
4.5.1 Regression examination between drying temperature and receiver temperature

(collector)
Depending on p-value in ANOVA less than 0.01, therefore, there is a significant

statistical relationship between the drying T°C and the T°C of the collector with a
level of 99% confidence.
R 2 indicates that the model exposes 59.672% variability in drying T°C, and the
correlation coefficient is equal to 0.772477, therefore indicating a moderately strong
relationship between the variables (Figure 9).
Regression exam/linear pattern Y ¼ a þ b ∗ x
Dependent variable (VD): drying T°C
Independent variable (VI): collector T°C
The results expose the output, and it conforms to the linear model to refer to the
relationship between the drying TOC and the collector TOC.
Drying T°C ¼ 23:2088 þ 0:269216 ∗ Collector T°C (2)
4.5.2 Pineapple fruit and your regression exam
Depending on p-value in the ANOVA less than 0.01, there is a significant

statistical relationship between DMP and SRP with a 99% level of trust.
R2 indicates that the model exposes 48.0814% variability in DMP. The correla-
tion coefficient is equal to 0.693408; therefore, it indicates a moderately strong
relationship between the variables, and the standard error evaluation of the sample
in the calculation shows that the standard deviation of the residuals is 23.4888
(Figure 9a).
Linear pattern Y ¼ a þ b ∗ x
Dependent variable (VD): decreasing moisture pineapple (DMP)
Independent variable (VI): solar radiation pineapple (SRP)
The effects of linear model adjustment refer to the relationship between DMP
and SRP.
DMP ¼ �1:18117 þ 0:156 ∗ SRP (3)
Figure 9.
Drying inlet with plate temperature (a) and receiver temperature (collector) (b), where the adjusted model is
displayed.
29
4.5.3 Mamey fruit and your regression analysis exam
Depending on the p-value in ANOVA calculation which is less than 0.01, there is
a significant statistical relationship between DMM and SRM with a confidence level
of 99%. The R2 states according to model that there is 55.6423% variability in DMM,
the correlation coefficient is equal to 0.745938; therefore, it shows a moderately
dynamic relationship between the variables, and the standard error evaluation
shows that the standard deviation of the residuals is 12.3989 (Figure 9b), as well as
the average absolute error (AAE) of 10.7287.
Dependent variable (VD): decreasing moisture mamey (DMM)
Independent variable (VI): solar radiation mamey (SRM)
The effects of linear pattern adjustment to refer to the dependency between
DMM and SRM.
DMM ¼ 20:4499 þ 0:0869776 ∗ SRM (4)
4.5.4 Banana fruit and your regression analysis exam
Based on ANOVA’s p-value in calculation less than 0.01, there is a significant statis-
tical ratio of DMB to SRB with a confidence level of 99%, while R2 exposes according to
model that there is 56.339% variability in DMB; in other instances the correlation
coefficient the evaluation is equal to 0.750593; therefore, it teaches the coordinately
dynamic relationship between the variables and finally the standard evaluation error
presenting a value of 35.5063 (Figure 10c). The mean absolute error (AAE) is 24.6024.
Dependent variable (VD): decreasing moisture banana (DMB)
Independent variable (VI): solar radiation banana (SRB)
The effects of linear pattern adjustment refer to the dependency between DMB
and SRB.
DMB ¼ �108:201 þ 0:38802 ∗ SRB (5)
4.6 Examination of the process by psychometric spread
The leaf concerning psychometric dehydration consents to be able to observe

two autonomous methodologies, i.e., at one point, there is a sensitive air heated in
the receiver or collector, in which air entering the apparatus is heated at the cost of
emissions of solar radiation sponsoring moisture content firmly, and consecutively,
in other instances the air develops moisture by vaporizing water in the fruits of
pineapple, mamey, and banana as a result of cooling. As an example, in the first
process of dehydration of banana fruit, we assume subsequent identifications with
their means: air temperature, 26°C; first relative humidity, 72%; air temperature at
the dryer inlet as well as the leak in the receiver (collector), 49°C; air temperature in
dryer escape, 35.7°C; air channel diameter, 0.08 m; speed of air at the entrance,
16.6 m.s�1; and separate humidity of water, 172.43 g.
4.7 Through these ante-laid characterizations, the movement of the mass fluids
was established using the following equations
π ∗ d2
W¼ ∗V ∗p (6)
4
30
Figure 10.
Pattern provided towards low humidity in fruits dehydrated, (a) pineapple, (b) mamey, and (c) banana, with
respect to solar radiation.
31
where d is the diameter of the air channel and V is the speed of air as well as the
air density, resulting in the value of 0.083 kg.s�1. Consecutively after these values
and identifying the suppressed humidity of the fruits, the portion of water absorbed
in kg of air entering the dryer in the staged phase is established by using Eq. (7):
172:43 g water g
d¼ ¼ 0:095 (7)
1801 k dried air k
In Figure 11, you can observe the thermodynamic moments of sites 1, 2, and 3
provided to the air and habitat, in the receiver leak (collector) as well as in the dryer
leak; therefore, these identifications, as data taken from psychrometric chart soft-
ware, manifest the temperature of the dry lamp(DB); relative humidity (RH);
absolute humidity (AH); specific volume (Vol); enthalpy(Ent); steam pressure
(VP); dew point(DP); and wet bulb temperature (WBT).
The case in process 1–2 was framed concerning reflective heating in the solar
receiver (collector), while in other instances in the case corresponding to process
Figure 11.
Examination of the table in collector and solar dryer in the form of a psychometric chart.
32
2–3 in the inlet dryer, the humidification of the air and its convenient cooling were
carried out through the activities of evaporation of water included in the fruits of
pineapple, mamey, and banana.
5. Debate
In Table 1, we can disclose the percentage (%) of humidity above what was
known after the dehydration activities: for pineapple with 86.36%, the moisture
content is reduced by an average of X 2.14%, in mamey with 79.30%, by an average
of X 21.07%, and for banana with a total of 80.22%, by an average of X 10.35%. The
data are consistent with ante positioned knowledge executed by Almada (see [9]).
There are also other intellectual citations covered in the mastery of the convective
multiflash desiccation process (CMFD) (see [7–11]) are correlated in dried fruits,
the inquiry as a study subject, for banana fruit were heated at 60°C by hot air as well
as a vacuum pulsation was used, therefore consecutively in the drying of the fruit
by medium of the convective drying and dizzying banana vaporization mixture, by
CMFD, showed a moisture amount at 0.293 g.g1 (dry base) then in 3 h of process,
the pattern of heat diagnosed in banana samples existed through the direction
(conduction) and solar luminescence, so they were heated by approximately 60°C,
large increases in independent or free water (banana moisture content at 76.00%),
coinciding with the illustrations executed (see [10, 11]).
Subsequently in the convective multiflash drying process (CMFD) (about
135 min of process), the banana achieved a moisture amount in 0.29–0.01 g.g1;
finally in the processing, the quantities were 0.276–0.015. The fruits with average
amounts of moisture showed a water action ranging from 0.65, 0.85 to 0.90, while
the mass of the fruits, due to dehydration, was noted with reduced amount of water
and dominoes up to 60.21 g of solid in each repetition of 500 g of dough, mainly
because of the water and native mechanisms are transferred to the osmotic proce-
dure from extracellular areas, producing an ascent in the aroma of the fruit as well
as well as the texture (see [11, 12]).
This work resolved to disinfect at 180°C for 60 min according to internationally
determined rules such as the Medical Research Council; fruits such as banana
amounts in 80.22% moisture in fresh state. Together, the validity of the dehydrator
was select, assuming the similarity of the convective multiflash drying process
(CMFD) method (see [4]) and the solar dryer. In both cases containing the use of
solar radiation emission, these being at 300–900 W•m2 (see [13]) the proportion
of solar radiation previously and subsequently in the matter of dehydration within
the process activities, the banana fruit had a reduction of 80.22–10.35%, exposing
that subsequently it is being subjected to 180°C for 60 min a day with a total of 15–
30 days. Its index was 0.12% concerning 10.35%, pointing to 0.4 times minimum
amount in parallel in banana fruit.
The convective multiflash drying process (CMFD) is a method of efficient
dehydration due to two important reasons. Firstly because during flash evaporation,
it starts from moisture that encloses internally, so it is pull towards the surface of
the fruits, making optimal the convective drying during the movement for heating
purposes. Secondly we have to subsequently evaporate the flash, and the fruit is
stothered to the surface area of it, making optimal the convective drying during the
heating movement as well as later in the evaporation of the flash. The temperature
of the fruit drops by 15–20°C, so it transports a relevant difference in the tempera-
ture between the hot air and the cooled fruit. We could therefore say that because of
this, the fruit receives a better transfer of heat, see [7], a method similar to the
procedure or technique assessed in this investigation as the object of study.
33
Having had on balance, all this provides more accurate and complete assess-
ments of the duration as useful life of dehydrated fruits, in pineapple, mamey and
banana individually, of 15–30 days of dehydration process in repetitions, the
amount of the shelf life of banana fruit, by sample, see Figure 5, as linear regres-
sions with adjusted model of the low humidity of banana fruit in this regard with
radiation showed a duration of 109 days, the moisture content of pineapple was
reduced from the amount or average riginaria by 86.36% to a final amount of
21.07%; mamey fluctuated between 79.3 and 21.13% and bananas fluctuated
between 80.22 and 10.35%, proportionally. As well as, properties such as ash in
pineapple at 0.44% had an increase with an average of 1.09%; 0.25% had an
increase of 2.66%, and in banana fruit it fluctuated between 1.12 and 2.80%, expos-
ing, in banana farmed fruits, data with more expensive values (data not exposed).
The protein content, as well as fiber, was known a characteristic increase signif-
icantly in the previous and subsequent periods in dehydration, is understood as a
derivation of fresh pineapple fruit in 0.67% protein and fibers at 2.45% in its fresh
phase, together, in dehydrated period, had an increase of 2.45 and 3.63%. The
mamey fruit with 0.41% protein and fiber sin at 2.5% in its fresh period, in its
dehydrated period, had an increase of 2.55 and 4.94%, proportionally, finally, in
banana fruit with amounts of protein type by 1.27 and 0.88% in its fresh,
dehydrated time, had an increase of 2.18 and 2.41%, correspondingly.
6. Termination
This work as an object of study in the research assessed the incidences of a solar
dryer, which in turn was developed in the city of Calceta, in Bolívar Canton of the
Province of Manabí, Ecuador, with the approach of drying to such a point of being
able to talk about the phenomena concerning the dehydration of fruits such as
pineapple, mamey, and banana. Therefore, trials were carried out as experiments
finding, for example, that the organization of the molecular structure of the banana
provides the facility for moisture content by means of solar radiation activity.
Then, followed by the pineapple fruit and mamey, as a result, this loss is
compressing the moisture content of the valued fruits. The temperature of the
drying air is the most important and effective component of several elements of the
system during drying; air humidity, as well as air speed, is also a significant factor in
optimizing the drying rate. Therefore, in these concerns, it is understood that the
microbiological examination helps to establish the shelf life of dehydrated fruits,
and it is more important to mention that from 15 to 30 days, repetitions in measured
quantities CFU.g1 have given legitimate maximum values, which is understood as
a result of the proliferation of microorganisms in the fruits evaluated.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Unibersidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabi (ULEAM), Ecuador, for
being part of the university community as teachers and researchers, Secretariat of
Higher Education, Science, Technology and Innovation (Senescyt), and Faculty of
Agricultural Sciences of the Agroindustrial Engineering Career in turn that in some
way or another allows us to universalize knowledge and transmit it to students.
Dedication
This chapter of the book is dedicated to God, who gives me day-to-day forality
to make the daily activities, to my wife Emily Julissa Mendoza Cedeño and daughter
34
Hadassah Julissa Bello Mendoza for their spiritual support and words of encourage-
ment to make diary, and to my esteemed fraternal friend Edgar Ruperto Macías
Ganchozo whose idea and professional work could have made this chapter a reality
for his knowledge.
Appendices and nomenclature
Roman symbols
E solar radiation intensity (W • m2)

A surface area (m2)
n number of experiments
CFU colony-forming unit
t temperature
h specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)
RH relative humidity
AH absolute humidity
Vol specific volume
VP vapor pressure
DP dew point
WBT temperature of wet bulb
R2 percentage of variation of the variable
Eq. equation
AAE average absolute error
Greek symbols
τ time, min
Subscripts
amb ambient (at 25°C, 30 wt % relative humidity,
1.012 bar) (kJ/kg)
DM dry matter
CMFD convective multiflash drying process
W water
D the drying chamber of the drying process
DMP decreasing moisture pineapple
SRP solar radiation pineapple
DMB decreasing moisture banana
SRB solar radiation banana
DMM decreasing moisture mamey
SRM solar radiation mamey
35
Author details
Italo Pedro Bello Moreira*, Edgar Ruperto Macías Ganchozo,

Xavier Enrique Anchundia Muentes, Celio Danilo Bravo Moreira,
Manuel Eduardo Anchundia Muentes, Hebert Edison Vera Delgado
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Career of Agroindustrial, Agricultural
and Environmental Engineering of the Laica University “Eloy Alfaro” of Manabi,
Manta, Ecuador
*Address all correspondence to: italop.bello@uleam.edu.ec
36
References
[1] Hernández RJ, Flores MF, Acosta OR, convective solar drying process of
Barbosa PG. Secado solar de productos pineapples as part of circular economy
agrícolas. Caos Conciencia. 2014;8(1): strategy. Energies. 2019;12(15):2841.
25-34. Available from: http://dci.uqroo. DOI: 10.3390/en12152841
mx/RevistaCaos/2014_vol1/Secado_
Solar.pdf [8] INAMHI-Instituto Nacional de
Meteorología e Hidrología de Ecuador.
[2] Hernández RJ, Martínez VO, Geoinformación Hidrometeorológica
Quinto DP, Cuevas DJ, Acosta OR, de Manabí y Esmeraldas, Ecuador. Red
Aguilar JO. Secado de chile habanero de Estaciones Meteorológicas
con energía solar. Revista Convencionales. Geoinformación
Iberoamericana de Tecnología Hidrometeorológica de Manabí y
Postcosecha. 2010;10(2):120-127. Esmeraldas, [Internet]. 2016. Available
Available from: http://www.redalyc. from: http://www.serviciometeorologico.
org/articulo.oa?id=81315091008 gob.ec [Accessed: 11 September 2019]
[3] Reinoso B, Diseño ES. Construcción [9] UNESCO. Organización de la

de un secador experimental de hierbas Naciones Unidas para la Educación,
aromáticas con el empleo de energía la Ciencias y la Cultura Guia de Uso,
solar, Capacidad de 5 Kg [Thesis]. de Secadores Solares para frutas,
Sangolquí/ESPE, Ecuador: Universidad Legumbres, Hortalizas, Plantas
de Fuerzas Armadas; 2006 Medicinales y Carnes, Agencia Suiza
para el Desarrollo y la Cooperación
(Ministerio Suizo de Asuntos
[4] Zotarelli M, Almeida PB, Borges LJ.
Exteriores) [Internet]; Paraguay,
A convective multi-flash drying process
Asuncion; 2005. pp. 25-28. Available
for producing dehydrated crispy fruits.
from: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/
Journal of Food Engineering. 2011;
48223/pf0000156206
108(4):523-531. DOI: 10.1016/j.
jfoodeng.2011.09.014
[10] Sivipaucar C, Curo H,
Huancahuari E, Llantoy V,
[5] García AI, Justinovich S, Angel L, Valderrama A. Cálculo y Construcción
Heredia T. Secadero solar forzado para de un Secador Solar por Convección
productos agrícolas. Averma. 2015; Natural para el Secado de Plantas
19(2):21-28. Available from: http:// Medicinales no Tradicionales.
www.asades.org.ar/Averma/Secadero% Huarochirí, Peru: Cedit-Centro de
20solar%20forzado%20para%20 Desarrollo e Investigación en
productos%20agricolas Termofluidos; 2008. pp. 18-30.
Available from: http://sisbib.unmsm.
[6] Ochoa MCI. Red neuronal artificial edu.pe/BibVirtual/Publicaciones/
en respuesta a predicciones de rev_cedit/2008_V03/pdf/ a03v3.pdf
parámetros de transferencia de masa
(pérdida de humedad y ganancia de [11] Gamboa D, Ibáñez D, Meléndez M,
sólidos) durante la deshidratación Paredes E, Siche R. Secado de lúcuma
osmótica de frutas. Acta Agronomica. (Pouteria obovata) empleando la técnica
2016;65(4):318-325. DOI: 10.15446/ de Ventana RefractanteTM. Scientia
acag.v65n4.50382 Agropecuaria. 2014;5(2):103-108.
Available from: http://revistas.unitru.
[7] Azouma YO, Drigalski L, Jegla ZK, edu.pe/index.php/scientiaagrop/article/
Reppich M, Turek V, Weiß M. Indirect view/580/542
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[12] Ortiz GS, Sánchez LL, Valdés RMP,

Baena GD, Vallejo CFA. Efecto de la
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[13] CONELEC-Consejo Nacional de

Electricidad. In: Tacuri FI, CIE
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biblioteca.olade.org/opac-tmpl/
Documentos/cg00041.pdf
38
Section 2
Convective Drying
39
Chapter 3
Convective Drying in the

Multistage Shelf Dryers:
Theoretical Bases and Practical
Implementation
Artem Artyukhov, Nadiia Artyukhova, Ruslan Ostroha,
Mykola Yukhymenko, Jozef Bocko and Jan Krmela
Abstract
The main advantages regarding the convective drying of the granular materials
in the multistage dryers with sloping perforated shelves were represented. Pecu-
liarities of the shelf dryers’ hydrodynamics were shown in the research. Various
hydrodynamic weighing modes were experimentally justified, and the relevant
criteria equations were obtained. The results of investigations regarding the inter-
phase heat and mass transfer were given; criteria dependencies, which predict heat
and mass transfer coefficients in the shelf dryers, were proposed. A method to
assess the efficiency of the dehydration process at the separate stages of the device
and in the dryer, in general, was proposed. The algorithm to define the residence
time of the granular material on the perforated shelf with a description of the
author’s software product for optimization calculation was shown. The shelf dryers’
engineering calculation method was presented in this work. The original construc-
tions of devices with various ways to control the residence time of the granular
material that stays in their workspace were described. The testing results of the
shelf dryer to dry granular materials, such as coarse- and fine-crystalline potassium
chloride, sodium pyrosulfate, and iron and nickel powders, were demonstrated.
Keywords: convective drying, multistage shelf dryer, hydrodynamics, interphase

heat and mass transfer, efficiency of dehydration, engineering calculation,
industrial implementation
1. Introduction
Convective drying is one of the most effective methods for disperse material
dehydration in the chemical, pharmaceutical, mining, and other industrial branches
[1–6]. The direct contact of the drying agent with high-temperature potential and
dried material enables intensively to remove the surface and adsorption-bound
moisture [3]. That is why drying is the only method for industries to achieve the
required quality of the product.
Although during drying the energy consumption is the lowest, the convective
dryers are more often used to dry disperse materials thanks to other numerous
41
advantages [3, 4]. Provision of the active hydrodynamic regime in such dryers helps
intensify the process without reduction of the economic efficiency of their opera-
tion and has the following advantages [7–9]:
• Hydrodynamic stability of the process
• Increase of the relative motion velocity of the interacting phases
• The developed surface of the contacting phases
• Approximation of the hydrodynamic model of flows in the device to the ideal

displacement model
• Reduction of the energy intensity of the process and metal intensity of devices
One should distinguish devices with various configurations of the weighted layer
(fluidized bed, spouting, gravitational falling, vortex, etc.,) from the variety of the
convective dryer constructions (described, e.g., in [7, 10]). Thanks to the developed
surface of the phase contact, devices with hydrodynamic system are characterized
with high intensity of the heat and mass transfer processes, lower non-energy costs,
and have high specific productivity [7].
Figure 1.
Multistage shelf dryer: (1) case; (2) shelf.
42
Convective Drying in the Multistage Shelf Dryers: Theoretical Bases and Practical Implementation
Besides, under conditions of the cost increase to prepare and to transport the
drying agent, the possibility of its repeated use in the drying process is fundamen-
tally important. Therefore it is necessary maximum to use the thermal potential of
the drying agent during every contact with disperse material. It can be achieved
while using the multistage drying devices with vertical sectioning of the workspace
by the perforated shelf elements [7, 8, 11].
A solution to the permanent residence of the dispersed material in the “active”
zone can be found through implementation of the multistage shelf dryers with
vertical sectioning of the workspace (Figure 1).
In such devices, the conditions for the differentiated heat treatment of materials
can be created owing to the drying agent potential and peculiarities of each stage
(shelf) construction. So, moving the perforated shelf to the wall of the device, we
approach to the device with fluidized bed, and moving it away from the wall and
freeing its workspace, we approach to the device with the free intersection, such as
pneumatic transportation dryers. The shelves increase the residence time of the
dried material particles, either poured downward of the device or carried out
upward of it. The shelves increase the velocity and turbulence of the gas flow, create
a vortex motion in their location places, and increase the contact intensity between
phases. The free space between the ends of the shelves and the walls of the device
does not require special flows from the upper shelf to the lower one. Changing the
free area of the shelve perforation, their tilt angles, the distance from the end of the
shelves to the walls of the device, the number of shelves, and the distance between
them vertically, it is possible to influence the intensity of the contact phases and to
create different hydrodynamic regimes to weigh particles of the material both on
individual shelves and heightwise the device. Therefore, it is possible to carry out
the drying process of wet materials and its pneumatic classification in one device in
order to remove small dusty fractions from the mixture [7].
2. Theoretical basics
The necessity to determine these features is due to the fact that before
constructing an industrial sample of the gravitational shelf dryer it is necessary to
determine its optimal design. In this case, the optimization criterion is to ensure the
minimum required residence time of the dispersed phase in the working space of
the dryer, which will complete the drying process to a predetermined humidity
indicator. It is important to observe the condition, under which the “hydrody-
namic” residence time of the dispersed phase in the workspace of the device should
be no less than the “thermodynamic” time (this parameter is determined by the
kinetics of the moisture removal process from the dispersed phase). Therefore,
in order to keep the integrity of the dispersed particles, the “hydrodynamic” time
should not exceed the “thermodynamic” time by more than 5–10%. By adjusting
the hydrodynamic properties of the flow, an optimal construction of the gravita-
tional shelf dryer is achieved, which meets the requirements of the optimization
criterion.
Thus, the optimization calculation of the dryer consists of three blocks: hydro-
dynamic calculation (calculation of the residence time of a particle on a stage),
kinetic calculation (kinetic parameter of the moisture removal), and calculation of
drying efficiency.
Initial data (Figure 2):
• Rate of gas flow, Q (m3/s)
• Length of device, L (m)

43
Figure 2.
A fragment of the calculation scheme for the multistage drying: left figure—change of flows’ moisture: x,
moisture of the disperse material; b, moisture of the drying agent, and right figure—construction of dryer’s
workspace.
• Overall width of device, h (m)
• Length of shelf, Ls (m)
• Degree of perforation (free area), δ
• Perforation hole diameter, d (m)
• The tilt angle of shelf, γ (°)
• The radius of the granule, rgr (m)
• Granule density, ρgr (kg/m3)
• Gas density, ρg (kg/m3)
• Acceleration of gravity, g (m/s2)
• Resistance coefficient, ξ
• Volumetric content of a dispersed phase in a two-phase flow, ψ
• The coefficient that takes into account the tightness of the flow, m
• Number of stages in dryer, i
• Moisture of the material і-stage of the dryer x (kg of water/kg of material)
• Moisture of the drying agent in і-stage of the dryer b (kg of water/kg of

material)
44
2.1 Hydrodynamic calculation
Hole area on the shelf (horizontal position) (m2)
πd2
Sh ¼ : (1)
4
The perforated area on the shelf (horizontal position of the shelf) (m2)
X
Sh ¼ Ls � h � δ: (2)
Number of holes on the shelf

P
Sh
n¼ : (3)
Sh
Area of outloading clearance (m2)
S1 ¼ ðL � Ls cos γ Þ � h: (4)
Area of the gas passage holes in the shelf (inclined position of the shelf) (m2)
πd2
S2 ¼ � n � cos γ: (5)
4
The relative area of outloading clearance

S1
Sr1 ¼ : (6)
S1 þ S2
The relative area of the gas passage holes in the shelf
S2
Sr2 ¼ : (7)
S1 þ S2
Rate of the gas flow in outloading clearance (m3/s)
Q 1 ¼ Q � Sr1 : (8)
Rate of the gas flow in holes in the shelf (m3/s)
Q 2 ¼ Q � Sr2 : (9)
Gas velocity in holes in the shelf (m/s)
V work ¼ Q 2=S2 : (10)
Second critical velocity (m/s)

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ρdr � g � rgr
V cr ¼ 1:63 � : (11)
ξ � ρg
Velocity difference (m/s)
ΔV ¼ V cr � V work : (12)
45
Time of material residence on the shelf (free movement) (s)
Ls
τf ¼ : (13)
ΔV sin γ
The empirical function of the effect of compression on the residence time of the
particle in the working space of the device
f еτ ðψ Þ ¼ ð1 � ψ Þ�m : (14)
Time of material residence on the shelf (straitened movement) (s)
Ls � f еτ ðψ Þ
τs ¼ : (15)
ΔV sin γ
The program Multistage Fluidizer® [12] used Hypertext Markup Language

HTML, Cascading Style Sheet (CSS), and programing language JavaScript (includ-
ing the library jQuery). HTML is presented as a tagging of web-based app, CSS page
formatting. JavaScript is used to calculate and transfer data and to create animation
and data validation effect. In the validation block of JavaScript, data accuracy is
checked. In the block input info, the basic data field indices are accepted, and
they are written to the object of input_information. In the block, calculation
computations are carried out by Eqs. (1)–(15).
Index.html (Figure 3) is the main page of the web-based app. It is responsible
for reflection of the main menu, for the main calculation of gas flow, and for
jumping the other pages (an example of such page is presented in Figure 4), where
the main dependencies between key features to calculate gas flow and resistance
time of the material on the shelf are calculated and dependencies diagrams are
formed.
Figure 3.
The main page of the Multistage Fluidizer® software.
46
Figure 4.
Calculation page of various parameter impacts on the particle resistance time in the device.
Having inserted data, data validity is tested, that is, if all data is correct, after
keystroke CALCULATE data is processed given the above formulas, and we receive
the result in a form of a computation table (Figure 5).
After changes of indices lf and ls, it is possible to see how the animation appears
after the pressing the “Show calculation” button (the example of distance length
calculation, which particle takes on the shelf during the specified period of time, is
shown in Figure 6). In order to create animation, functions clicker_lf and clicker_ls
are implemented, respectively, for τf and τs animation.
In JavaScript, one uses libraries jQuery and table2excel, objects for data record-
ing, methods .val() .append() to read and to insert indices to fields, methods
Figure 5.
Results of calculation.
47
Figure 6.
Calculation of way length, which particle undergoes on the shelf during the specified period of time.
.removeClass() and .addClass() to delete and to add classes, and method .animate()
for work with animation to create an animation effect for any digital CSS feature of
the element.
2.2 Calculation of heat-mass transfer
In order to calculate the kinetic parameter of the moisture removal (the

moisture-yielding capacity coefficient), let us use the following algorithm.
It is proposed [8] to use the following equation for calculation of β:

ΔU m bfin þ bin
¼ β � F � bfin � � ρg , (16)
τ 2
where bin, bfin, and ΔUm are the initial and final humidity of the drying agent and
the amount of the removed moisture from the material; F is the surface of the mass
transfer, which depends on the dryer’s effective operation due to the disperse
material and the residence time of the material in the dryer.
In general, the criteria equation of the drying process can be written as follows:
Sh ¼ A1 � Scn � Re m , (17)
β�d
where А1 is the equation coefficient; Sh ¼ Dgre is the Sherwood criterion; dgre is
the equivalent diameter of the particle (granule), m; Sc ¼ Dν is the Schmidt criterion;
V �d
Re ¼ workν gre is the Reynolds criterion; D is the diffusion coefficient of the gas flow,
m2/s; ν is the kinematic viscosity coefficient of the gas flow, m2/s; and m and n are
the indicators of the equation stages, which are evaluated through the graphical
dependency Sh=Sc0:33 ¼ f ð Re Þ, obtained from the experimental data.
2.3 Calculation of the kinetics and drying efficiency
The drying process effectiveness on the i-stage of the dryer is presented by the
ratio of differences between the moisture contents of the disperse material before
and after the drying xi-1 – xi to the maximum possible (theoretical) difference
between the moisture contents on the stage xi�1 � bi and also in the form of the
function of the kinetic parameter of the moisture transfer Вi , the residence time of
48
the material on the stage τi , and the consumption ratio of the dispersed phase to the
drying agent G�1
i [8]:

Δx xi�1 � xi 1 � exp �βi τi 1 þ G�1
i
Ei ¼ ¼ ¼ : (18)
Δxmax xi�1 � bi 1 þ G�1
i
3. Visualization of results and discussion
3.1 Hydrodynamics
Some graphic dependencies are shown in Figure 7. The program receives two-
and three-dimensional dependency graphs.
In general dependency diagrams, features for free and constraint motion of
particles have one functional dependence. The particle resistance time has enough
narrow diapason at every stage (shelf) in free motion regime and is calculated by
second units. In the constraint motion regime of particles, the residence time is
greatly increased at every stage. The abundant ratio of particles in the two-phase
system has a definite impact on this index. That is why, while defining the optimum
performance of the device, it is necessary to define the workspace size of the
granulating or drying device to high accuracy.
The impact made by some constructive features of the shelf dryer during the
residence time of the dispersed material (Figure 7) is shown below.
The change of the shelf tilt angle to the horizon affects the redistribution of the
gravity components: enlargement of it leads to an increase of the gravity rolling
component and vice versa. It should be mentioned that the tilt angle of the shelf
may have a minimum value that complies with the natural slope angle of the
material. As the tilt angle of the shelf decreases, the residence time of the dispersed
material gradually increases. It leads to longer contact with the drying agent’s flow.
Changing the gap between the edge of the shelf and the dryer’s wall significantly
influences the change of the residence time of the dispersed material on the shelf. If
the gap increases, the contact time of the dispersed material with the drying agent
will be reduced due to the decrease in the length of the material movement distance
on the shelf. In this case, the operation of the rolling component of the dispersed
material velocity lasts for a shorter period and at the end of the shelf is replaced by
the full gravity. Thus, the material moves down, and only the ascending gas flow
force resists its fall.
The analysis of the calculations regarding the effect, made by the free cross-
sectional area of the shelf on the drying process efficiency, showed the following.
Reducing the free cross-sectional area of the shelf leads to an increase of the drying
agent’s ascending motion velocity in the holes. In this case, the action of the drying
agent’s ascending flow slows down the progressive motion of the dispersed material
on the shelf, compensating for the rolling component of its gravity. The pulse
component of the dispersed material displacement decreases, and the trajectory
changes to a pulse-forward one. The trajectory length of the dispersed material
motion increases, the time of its contact with the drying agent is extended.
As the diameter of the perforation holes decreases, the effect of the drying
agent’s ascending flow increases, in which the pulse component of the dispersed
material motion trajectory decreases, and the forward increases. Thus, the trajec-
tory length of the dispersed material motion increases, and the contact time with
the drying agent is extended. It should be noted that with the further reduction of
the perforation hole diameter, the action of the drying agent’s ascending flow begins
49
Figure 7.
Examples of calculation results.
significantly to outweigh the effect of the gravity rolling component. It leads to

the formation of the second transitional mode and the ablation mode in the shelf
dryer’s operation.
50
3.2 Heat-mass transfer
The calculated values of the mass transfer coefficient β from Eq. (16) depending
on the velocity of the drying agent’s motion are demonstrated in Figure 8.
Figure 8.
Dependence of the mass transfer coefficient on the drying agent’s motion velocity.
Figure 9.
Graphical dependency Sh=Sc0:33 ¼ f ð Re Þ to define the coefficient А1 and equation stage m.
Figure 10.
Influence of the drying agent recirculation method on the change of the moisture content in the disperse material.
51
Figure 11.
Influence of the drying agent recirculation method on the change of the moisture content in the drying agent.
Figure 12.
Influence of the drying agent recirculation method on the temperature change of the disperse material.
Figure 13.
An influence of the drying agent recirculation method on the temperature change of the drying agent.
52
The graphical dependency from Eq. (17) shows (Figure 9) that coefficient
А1 = 0.008, m = 0.47. The coefficient n is 0.33 for the situation when the drying
agent’s parameters were slightly changed during the experiment [8].
Taking into account the obtained values of the coefficient А1 and equation stage
m, the criterial value (18) will be as follows:
Sh ¼ 0:008 � Sc0:33 � Re 0:47 : (19)
3.3 Kinetics and drying efficiency
The organization of the drying agent’s motion may have a considerable influence
on the quality indicators of the dried material and the properties of the drying
Figure 14.
Constructions of shelves in the multistage gravitational shelf dryer [13–15]: (a) shelf with a different gap on the
height of dryer, (b) sectioned shelf with variable perforation of sections, and (с) partitioned sections shelf with
constant perforation and variable angle of inclination.
53
Figure 15.
Block scheme of the algorithm to calculate the multistage gravitational shelf dryer (symbol *** shows the blocks
which are described in this work).
agent. That has evolved several studies, the results of which are presented in
Figures 10–13. Their analysis enables us to select the method to organize the drying
agent’s motion, which consumes the least energy and ensures the necessary com-
plete removal of moisture from the disperse material.
The analysis of the figures shows that the features of the dispersed material and
the drying agent are changed according to one law; each of the technological
indicators in the drying agent differently influences the intensity of the increase or
decrease of parameters. The figures show that there is no function extremum on the
graphical dependencies, which is explained by the regularities of the convective
drying kinetics—the parameters’ change of the contacting flows in each of the
periods occurs monotonically with different intensity on separate sites depending
on the dehydration conditions.
Different constructions of the shelves (Figure 14) enable us to control the
residence time of the dispersed phase in the dryer’s workspace.
Block scheme of the algorithm to calculate the multistage gravitational shelf
dryer is represented in Figure 15.
4. Experimental research and practical implementation
During the optimization calculations, the necessity to obtain certain empiric

dependencies has been revealed. They would identify some quantities, especially
important for the shelf dryer’s design development.
The experimental investigations were carried out on a shelf dryer model, the
design parameters of which corresponded to the picture in Figure 1. Experiments to
54
study the properties of the two-phase flow hydrodynamics in a shelf device were
carried out at gas flow velocity of 1–5 m/s, specific capacity on the source material
6–10 kg/(m2 s).
At low gas flow velocities of 0.5–1 m/s, particles of the material move along the
surface of the sloping shelf at a velocity of 0.2–0.3 m/s in the form of a rapidly
“skipping” layer. The particles of the material are braked at the wall of the device in
the discharge space and are accumulated on the surface of the wall (Figure 16a)
after moving over the surface of the shelf. This accumulated layer is blown by a gas
jet, which is formed by a discharge gap between the lower end of the shelf and the
wall of the device. As the gas flow velocity increases to 2.5–4 m/s, the porosity of the
layer decreases to 0.75–0.8, and the concentration of particles in the layer increases
to 40–50 kg/m2 s.
Small particles, in which the inertia force during their discharge from the surface
of the sloping shelf is insufficient to overcome the kinetic energy of the gas jet, are
picked up by the jet and move along a curved path to the upper part of the device—
the separation zone. On the photo (Figure 16a), it is seen by the distinct tracks of
the trajectory. Large particles, overcoming the aerodynamic drag of the gas jet, fall
out of the layer through the discharge space down. The described hydrodynamic
regime is called “gravitationally falling layer.” This mode is implemented on the
shelves, installed with a width of the discharge gap (0.3–0.5) L and a free area of
5–10%. Therefore, the maximum efficiency of small fraction ablation by the gas
flow is achieved (Figure 17). The velocity of the complete ablation of the small
fraction without large particles in it—the second critical velocity—is as follows:
Re 2cr ¼ 0:1Ar0:7 , with Ar ≤ 62, 000, (20)

Re 2cr � ν
V cr ¼ (21)
dgre
d3gre �ðρgr �ρg Þ�g

where Ar is the Archimedes criterion, Ar ¼ ν2 �ρg .
Figure 16.
The photo of the hydrodynamic modes of the shelf dryer: (а) “gravitationally falling layer” regime and
(b) “weighted layer” regime.
55
Figure 17.
The influence of the design (constructive) parameters of the shelf on the extraction efficiency of the fraction less
than 1 mm. The free area of the shelf: 1–4, respectively, 0, 5, 15, and 30%. The tilt angle of the shelf is 30°.
Material is a polydisperse mixture of the granular superphosphate.
Reducing the width of the discharge space up to (0.15–0.2) L and increasing the
free area of the shelf up to 15%, owing to the growing kinetic energy of the gas jet,
the continuously circulating vortex layer of particles above the sloping shelf surface
is formed (Figure 16b). Therefore, the particles of the material are moving on the
surface of the sloping shelf in the form of the tightened (compressed) layer at the
velocity of 0.05–0.15 m/s, and in the area above, the discharge space—in the form
of weighted, intensively circulating layer. The porosity of this layer is 0.65–0.7
(coincides with fluidized systems’ porosity), and concentration of the particles in
the workspace of the device is 160–280 kg/m3. The described hydrodynamic regime
is called the “weighted layer.” The velocity at which the “weighted layer” mode is
implemented—the critical velocity when the weighting is started is calculated as
follows:

Rwl ¼ Rew � k � ðL1=LÞ, k ¼ 1:19 � lg 100 � f a þ 0:005, (22)
Re wl � ν
V wl ¼ , (23)
dgre
where Rew is the Reynolds criterion for particle staying in the gas flow,
V �d
Re w ¼ wν gre ; Vw is the velocity of the medium-size particle hovering; fa is the free
area of the shelf (%).
The effect of the gas flow velocity on the intensity of the interphase heat transfer
process is represented by the dependence of the Nusselt criterion on the Reynolds
56
Figure 18.
Influence of the gas flow velocity on the interphase heat transfer intensity: (1) “gravitationally falling layer”
mode, shelf parameters: L1/L = 0.5; fa = 5%; (2) “weighted layer” mode, shelf parameters: L1/L = 0.15;
fa = 15%.
criterion—Nu = f (Re) (Figure 18). These dependencies are described with the
following criteria equations:
“gravitationally falling layer mode”Nu ¼ 1:5 � Re 0:21 , (24)

“weighted layer”mode Nu ¼ 0:38 � Re 0:73 : (25)
Equations (24) and (25) are valid for 0 ≤ Re ≤ 500.

The above dependencies in the “weighted layer” mode show that the values of
the Nusselt criterion are significantly higher than values, which are peculiar for the
“gravitationally falling layer” mode. The sufficiently high intensity of heat and mass
transfer processes in the “weighted layer” mode is explained by the fact that in this
mode the gas jet entering the weighted layer through the discharge gap at suffi-
ciently high velocity has the greatest intensifying effect. Measures of the single-
phase flow velocity, carried out by a thermal anemometer in the intersection above
the shelf, showed that at gas jet velocities in the discharge space of 6–12 m/s, local
heat transfer coefficients at the site of material particles contact with the gas jet are
400–500 W/(m2 K). These values are peculiar for the intensive heat transfer con-
ditions in the core of the spouting layer and exceed the average heat transfer
coefficients for fluidized beds (100–400 W/(m2 K)) and the pneumatic transpor-
tation mode (100–200 W/(m2 K)).
The rapid evaporation of moisture in the zone above the discharge space leads to
some temperature drop of the hot gas before it contacts with the main layer of
particles, weighted above the shelf. Experimental studies show that the heating
temperature of particles in the zone of contact with the gas jet entering the dis-
charge gap is 1.5–2.0 times higher than that in a weighted layer on the surface of the
shelf. It uses a drying agent with higher inlet temperature (1.5–1.8 times higher than
melting temperature) than it is acceptable for dryers of the fluidized bed, without
fear of the thermal damage of particles.
The investigated construction of the shelf dryer was tested when drying the fine-
and coarse-crystalline potassium chloride, sodium pyrosulfite, iron, and nickel
powders (Table 1).
The shelf dryer, where experimental tests were carried out, is a vertical
rectangular-sectioned shaft, inside which the sloping perforated shelves are located
in cascade on opposite sides (Figure 1). Wet material is fed by the batcher to the
57
Material The velocity of the Humidity, % wt Moisture removal

drying agent, m/s intensity, kg/(m3 h)
Source Undershooting Ablation
material
Fine-coarse
potassium
chloride:
1.32 6.1 0.35 0.24 421
Coarse- 1.5 6.1 0.1 0.06 462

crystalline
1.45 8.0 1.2 0.2 1025
1.9 7.0 0.1 0.17 527
2.1 8.0 0.11 0.1 1173
2.3 7.0 0.14 0.1 528
Sodium 2.8 5.0 0.5 0.1 250

pyrosulfite
3.3 5.0 0.5 0.1 346
3.5 6.0 0.6 0.2 258
Iron powder 2.0 10.0 0.34 0.3 1826
Nickel powder 2.3 11.3 0.4 0.3 600
Table 1.
Results of the drying of the granular materials in the shelf dryer.
upper shelf, is weighed above it, and is divided into small and large fractions. The
upper shelf works in the hydrodynamic regime of the “gravitationally falling layer.”
In this mode, the dedusting process of materials, i.e., the removal of small particles
from the initial mixture by the minimum interface, is effectively carried out. The
minimum interface for shelf devices is 50–70 μm. The small particles are carried
away by the drying gas agent into the separation space and then captured by a
cyclone in which they are dried. Large particles fall down through the discharge
space to the lower shelf.
When drying the materials, which are prone to the formation of lumps and
strongly sticking to surfaces, the distance from the delivery point of the wet product
into the device to the upper shelf has to be at least 0.3–0.5 m. The material, passing
this distance, breaks up into small pieces and is partially dried. A hydrodynamic
regime of the “weighted layer” is created on the lower shelf, in which, due to the
intensive circulation and mixing of particles in the layer, the drying process is
effectively carried out. The longer residence time of the particles in this layer also
contributes to it.
The wet material, discharged from the upper shelf, enters the lower shelf from
the top of the weighted layer, is drawn into the circulation, and is dried quickly. The
share of the dried material falls through the discharge space into the hopper, in
which a large fraction of the dried product is collected.
Thanks to the shelf contact elements, shown by the data of Table 1, the drying
process takes place at the drying agent’s moderate velocities (maximum 3.5 m/s)
and at a large moisture intensity of the dryer’s workspace which is up to 1000–
1500 kg/(m3 h). Due to the intensive contact between phases in the shelve devices,
the drying process is carried out at high specific loads of up to 15–20 kg/(m2 s),
significantly exceeding the specific loads of 0.1–1.5 kg/(m2 s) for fluidized bed
devices. The specific consumption of the drying agent in the shelf dryers reaches
58
0.5–0.7 m3/kg, and the hydraulic resistance is 1300–1500 Pa, respectively, against
the values of 1.4–2.8 m3/kg and 1800–2200 Pa for fluidized bed devices. The
working path of the pneumatic pipe dryer, in which energy is expended to acceler-
ate and to lift the drying material, has a hydraulic resistance of 1600–2000 Pa.
An additional advantage of shelf dryers is the simultaneous dedusting of the
drying material. Fine-crystalline potassium chloride, containing 7–10% of the small
fraction with a particle size of less than 100 μm in the initial mixture, after
processing in a shelf device at a gas flow velocity of 1.4–1.5 m/s, had 1.2–5.5% of the
small fraction in the final product (undershooting) and 60–80% of the small frac-
tion in ablation. Coarse-crystalline potassium chloride, containing 4–10% of the
small fraction with a particle size of less than 100 μm in the initial mixture, had 2–
5% of the small fraction in the final product (undershooting) at a gas flow velocity
of 1.3–1.4 m/s and 58–65% of the small fraction in the ablation. The extraction
degree of the small fraction into the ablation was 70–90%. When the gas flow
velocity exceeds 1.5 m/s in the final product, the small fraction is practically absent,
and the content of the coarse fraction (more than 100 μm) in ablation is 3–5%.
The small fraction was completely extracted from the polydisperse mixture of
granulated superphosphate containing up to 20% of the small fraction with particle
sizes less than 1 mm, after processing in the shelf device at a gas flow velocity of
3.5–3.8 m/s, into the ablation. Therefore, the extraction degree of the small fraction
into ablation was 80–85%.
In order to prevent the coarse fraction ablation by the gas flow and increasing
the residence time of particles in the separation space for drying the ablative frac-
tions, the upper section with a constant intersection was replaced with a conical free
intersection [16] or with shelf contact elements [17].
Thus, the shelf dryers achieve the higher technological effect than typical con-
structions of the fluidized bed dryers and pneumatic pipe dryers, with less energy,
capital costs, and sizes.
5. Conclusions
The convective shelf dryer construction with active aerodynamic processing

modes is proposed. The developed engineering method for the shelf dryer calcula-
tion made it possible to define the constructive parameters of the device, ensuring
the minimum required drying time of the wet material in the device to a
predetermined humidity index. The demonstrated author’s program Multistage
Fluidizer® for computer implementation of the engineering calculation method
made it possible to optimize the constructive and operating parameters of the
drying process in the shelf device. It was shown that a shelf dryer should have, for
example, three shelf contacts with various widths of the discharge space and various
free areas of the shelves.
The author shows various hydrodynamic regimes to weigh particles of a material
by a gas flow, depending on the constructive parameters of shelf contacts.
The effectiveness of the shelf device to carry out the drying and dedusting
processes of granular and powder materials simultaneously was experimentally
proven.
Acknowledgements
This research work has been supported by the Slovak Grant Agency VEGA
Grant No. 1/0731/16 “Development of Modern Numerical and Experimental
59
Methods of Mechanical System Analysis,” by Cultural and Educational Grant

Agency of the Slovak Republic (KEGA) Project No. KEGA 002TnUAD-4/2019, and
by the Ministry of Science and Education of Ukraine under the project “Small-scale
energy-saving modules with the use of multifunctional devices with intensive
hydrodynamics for the production, modification and encapsulation of granules,”
Project No. 0119U100834.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Author details
Artem Artyukhov1*, Nadiia Artyukhova1, Ruslan Ostroha1, Mykola Yukhymenko1,

Jozef Bocko2 and Jan Krmela3,4
1 Sumy State University, Sumy, Ukraine
2 Technical University of Košice, Košice, Slovak Republic
3 Alexander Dubcek University of Trencin, Puchov, Slovak Republic
4 University of Pardubice, Pardubice, Czech Republic
*Address all correspondence to: a.artyukhov@pohnp.sumdu.edu.ua
60
References
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editors. Transport Phenomena and Drying Technologies. 2nd ed. USA: CRC
Drying of Solids and Particulate Press; 2009. 438p
Materials. Switzerland: Springer
International Publishing; 2014. 115p [11] Artyukhova NA. Multistage finish
drying of the N4HNO3 porous granules
[2] Kowalski SJ, editor. Drying of Porous as a factor for nanoporous structure
Materials. Netherlands: Springer; 2007. quality improvement. Journal of Nano-
231p and Electronic Physics. 2018;10(3):
03030-1-03030-5
[3] Sazhin BS, Sazhin VB. Scientific
Principles of Drying Technology. USA: [12] Artyukhov AE, Artyukhova NO,
Begell House Publishers Inc.; 2007. 509p Obodyak VK, Horishnyak AO.
Certificate of authorship No. 79141
[4] Kowalski SJ. Thermomechanics of
(Ukraine). Computer program
Drying Processes. Germany: Springer-
Multistage Fluidizer©
Verlag Berlin Heidelberg; 2003. 358p
[5] Delagado JMPQ , Barbosa de [13] Artyukhova NO, Yukhymenko MP,

Lima AG, editors. Drying and Energy Artyukhov AE, Shandyba AB. Patent
Technologies. Switzerland: Springer No. 74070, (Ukraine). Device for drying
International Publishing; 2016. 228p of disperse materials
[6] Mujumdar AS, editor. Handbook of [14] Artyukhova NO, Yukhymenko MP,
Industrial Drying. 4th ed. USA: CRC Artyukhov AE, Shandyba AB. Patent
Press Taylor & Francis Group; 2014. No. 81720, (Ukraine). Device for drying
1348p of disperse materials
[7] Law CL, Azharul K, editors. [15] Artyukhov AE, Artyukhova NO,
Intermittent and Nonstationary Drying Shandyba AB. Patent No. 92423,
Technologies: Principles and (Ukraine). Device for drying of disperse
Applications. 1st ed. USA: CRC Press materials
Taylor & Francis Group; 2017. 244p
[16] Yukhymenko M, Ostroha R,
[8] Artyukhova NA, Shandyba AB, Litvinenko A, Bocko J. Estimation of gas
Artyukhov AE. Energy efficiency flow dustiness in the main pipelines of
assessment of multi-stage convective booster compressor stations. IOP
drying of concentrates and mineral raw Conference Series: Materials Science
materials. Naukovyi Visnyk and Engineering. 2017;233:012026
Natsionalnoho Hirnychoho
Universytetu. 2014;1:92-98 [17] Lytvynenko A, Yukhymenko M,
Pavlenko I, Pitel J, Mizakova J,
[9] Artyukhov AE, Sklabinskyi VI. Lytvynenko O, et al. Ensuring the
Experimental and industrial reliability of pneumatic classification
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nitrate producing process in vortex rhomb-shaped apparatus. Applied
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Natsionalnoho Hirnychoho
Universytetu. 2013;6:42-48
61
Chapter 4
Mathematical Modeling and

Simulation of Rapeseed Drying on
Concurrent-Flow Dryer
Le Anh Duc and Keum Dong Hyuk
Abstract
Mathematical modeling for rapeseed drying on concurrent-flow dryer was built

based on energy and mass transfer balances. The fourth-order Runge–Kutta method
was used for solving four ordinary differential equations. A computer simulation
program for circulating concurrent-flow rapeseed dryer was developed using these
models. A pilot-scale concurrent-flow dryer was used to verify the fitness of simu-
lation program. Two drying experiments were conducted. The output parameters of
the simulation program were compared and analyzed with experiment data. The
RMSE of simulated moisture contents ranged from 0.334 to 0.506%w.b. with the
coefficient of determinations ranged from 0.994 to 0.997. The RMSE of simulated
rapeseed temperatures during drying process ranged from 1.15 to 1.77°C with the R2
ranging from 0.904 to 0.925. The experimental drying rates were 2.38 and 2.80% w.
b./h. In comparison with simulated values, the difference between simulated value
and measured value of drying rate were 5.04 and 5.08%; drying time were 7.14 and
0.47%; and germination ratio were 1.87 and 0.47%. The simulated fuel energy
consumption for drying were 4.62 and 8.57% lower than the experimental values.
The analytic results showed that the simulation results have good fitness with
experimental data.
Keywords: concurrent-flow dryer, mathematical modeling, simulation, drying

rate, grain temperature, moisture content
1. Introduction
There are many different grain dryer designs on the market. Basically, the
classical configurations of the moving bed dryers fall into four categories according
to the relative directions of seed and air flows: the mixed flow dryer, the cross flow
dryer, the concurrent-flow dryer, and the countercurrent flow dryer. The configu-
ration with parallel concurrent-flow displays some advantages, such as obtaining of
more homogeneous products as well as a better energy usage.
Concurrent-flow drying is a relatively new grain drying technology. In a
concurrent-flow dryer, both the grain and drying air are moving in the same
direction. This type of dryer has the advantage of using very high drying air
temperatures without affecting grain quality and does not suffer the variation in
grain moisture contents. Besides, energy efficiency of this type dryer is high.
63
The concurrent-flow drying principle was introduced the first time in 1955 by
Öholm. Thompson et al. [1] developed simulation models of concurrent-flow dryer
for corn drying. Now most of the drying simulation model was implemented based
on the model presented by Thompson et al. that was developed for simulating high
temperature corn drying. Felipe and Barrozo [2] studied the simultaneous heat and
mass transfer between air and soybean seeds in a concurrent moving bed dryer,
based on the application of a two-phase model to the drying process. Keum et al. [3]
studied on circulating concurrent flow for rice drying with the drying temperature
from 98 to 126°C, and air flow rate from 28.5 to 57.1 cmm/m2. The study results
showed that drying rate ranged from 1.09 to 2.2% d.b./h, and energy consumption
ranged from 6224 to 6992 kJ/kg-water.
From these advantages, the use of concurrent-flow drying principle for drying
of rapeseed has been recommended owing to:
• Energy saving: energy efficiency of this type dryer is about 30–40% better than
a cross flow type dryer without heat recovery.
• It is possible to use a high drying temperature (up to 130°C) without increasing

the grain temperature excessively because grain are exposed to drying air in a
short time, leads to high drying rate (1.5–2% w.b./h).
• The drying air flow is parallel to the grain flow leads to more homogeneous
moisture content and temperature distributions because all grains are exposed
to the same temperatures, therefore guaranteeing the quality of the dried grains.
Mathematical modeling and computer simulation can be used to predict the

moisture and temperature of the products during the drying process and the energy
consumption and drying capacity of the different drying system. Many different
models have been proposed to describe the drying process in the basic types of
convective grain dryer. However, no previous research was found in literature that
study on dynamic simulation of concurrent flow for rapeseed.
2. Concurrent-flow drying model
2.1 Selection of drying principle
The drying process of rapeseed in concurrent-flow dryer was described in

Figure 1.
The hot air and rapeseed are moving the same direction in the drying chamber.
At the end of cycle drying, hot air is exhausted to ambience by suction fan; rapeseed
is continued to be circulated on the drying chamber for the next cycle drying until it
reaches the desired final moisture content.
2.2 Mathematical model
The mathematical model used in the study consists of a set of four partial
differential equations in four independent variables: air humidity, air temperature,
grain temperature, and grain moisture content.
Based on the theory of energy and mass transfer, a concurrent-flow rapeseed
drying model was developed. By using this mathematical models, performance of
concurrent-flow rapeseed dryer can be predicted; the temperature and moisture
64
Mathematical Modeling and Simulation of Rapeseed Drying on Concurrent-Flow Dryer
Figure 1.
Block diagram of rapeseed concurrent-flow dryer.
Figure 2.
Concurrent-flow drying model.
content of rapeseed and the temperature and relative humidity of drying air were
predicted.
The thin layer drying models is used in simulation of deep-bed dryer, in which
the average changes in moisture content and temperature on a thin layer of grain
are calculated over a discrete time interval Δt. In the simulation, to solve mathe-
matical models of deep-bed drying process, the depth bed was divided into nth thin
layers with a thickness of Δx each, and dynamic heat and mass balances were set up
in each section, and then the model consisted in a set of partial differential equa-
tions (Figure 2). Drying is achieved by continuously passing hot air through the
static grain bed in one direction, from the top to the bottom section. From the first
thin layer at the top section, the air evaporates moisture from the grain and carries it
to the next thin layer. As the drying air absorbs moisture, its temperature is
decreased, and its ability to pick up more moisture (drying potential) decreases. A
deep bed consisting of a number of thin layers is, therefore, simulated by calculating
the air and moisture changes as the drying air passes from one thin layer of grain to
the next layer. Each layer dries to equilibrium conditions for short time intervals,
and the exhaust air from one layer is used as the input drying air to the next. The
drying procedure continues for a number of drying time intervals until the desired
final moisture content of the material is achieved.
65
Some of these assumptions are made to simplify the mathematical model. So, for
developing these mathematical models, the following assumptions were made:
• Operation is in the steady state.
• Grain shrinkage is negligible during the drying process.
• No temperature gradients exist within each grain particle.
• Particle-to-particle conduction is negligible.
• Initial moisture content of grain is uniform.
• Airflow and grain flow are plug-type and constant.
• The dryer walls are adiabatic and heat losses are negligible.
• The heat capacities of moist air and of grain are constant during the short time
periods.
• The solids flow rate is uniform.
Energy balances and mass balances are written on a differential volume (S�Δx)
located at an arbitrary location in the grain bed. There are four unknowns in this
problem:
T(x,t): the air temperature.
θ(x,t): the grain temperature.
H(x,t): the humidity ratio.
M(x,t): the grain moisture content.
Therefore, four equations for material and energy balances must be made in
order to calculate of T, θ, H, and M. Resulting from the balances are four Eq. (4):
1. For the enthalpy of the air (air enthalpy balance):
The change in sensible heat of air that results due to heat transfer by convection
in time. The air enthalpy balance over the differential volume:
energy out ¼ energy in – energy transferred by convection

dT �hc a
¼ ðT � θ Þ (1)
dx Ga ca þ Ga cv H
2. For the enthalpy of the grain (grain enthalpy balance):
The enthalpy from the air to the grains due to convection heat transfer over the
control volume is equal to the required heat to evaporate water inside the grains and
to heat water vapor extracted from the grains and the rate of accumulated heat
inside the grains. The grain enthalpy balance over the differential volume:
energy transferred ¼ change in internal grain energy – energy for evaporation

dθ hc a hfg þ cv ðT � θÞ dH
¼ ðT � θ Þ � Ga (2)
dx Gp cp þ Mcw Gp cp þ Mcw dx
66
3. For the humidity of the air (humidity balance):
The amount of water in and out the differential volume is equal to the rate of
change of moisture content in the grains.
moisture transferred ¼ moisture in–moisture out

dH Gp dM
¼� (3)
dx Ga dx
4. For the moisture content of the grain (thin layer drying equation):
dM
¼ an appropriate thin layer drying equation
dx
dM Mo � Me
¼ �PtQ�1 Q exp �PtQ (4)
dx vp
where:
a: specific surface area of grain (m2/m3).
ca: specific heat of dry air (kJ/kg�K).
cp: specific heat of dry grain (kJ/kg�K).
cv: specific heat of water vapor (kJ/kg�K).
cw: specific heat of water in grain (kJ/kg�K).
Ga: air flow rate (kg/h�m2).
Gp: grain flow rate (kg/h�m2).
hfg: vaporization latent heat of water within grain (kJ/kg).
H: enthalpy of dry air (kJ/kg).
hc: convection heat transfer coefficient (kJ/h�m2�oC).
vp: grain velocity (m/h).
Eqs. (1) and (2) represent the respective energy balances. Eqs. (3) and (4) result
from mass balances applied for both fluid and solid phases of a concurrent-flow
dryer.
The equation for the moisture content is obtained from the empirical thin layer
equation for rapeseed. The four differential equations from (1)–(4) constitute the
concurrent-flow drying model. A computer simulation program was developed
using these models.
To solve these differential equations, the initial and boundary condition of grain
and the drying air must be known and furnished to the simulation program as input
data [4]. In this category fall:
• The initial or inlet temperature and moisture content of grain
• The initial or inlet temperature and absolute humidity of the drying air
The initial conditions of the air humidity, grain moisture, and both air and grains
temperatures were assumed constant at the dryer inlet, resulting in the following
model boundary conditions (x = 0) for concurrent-flow dryer which are:
Tx¼0 ¼ Tin (5)

θx¼0 ¼ θo (6)
Hx¼0 ¼ Hin (7)
67
Mx¼0 ¼ Mo (8)
where:
Tin: inlet air temperature (°C).
θo: initial grain temperature (°C).
Hin: inlet humidity ratio of drying air (kg/kg).
Mo: initial moisture content of grain (dec., d.b.)
2.3 Related equations
The related equations used for simulation such as specific surface area, latent
heat, convection heat transfer coefficient, equilibrium moisture content, and thin
layer drying equation of rapeseed were taken from specific studies.
2.3.1 Specific surface area of rapeseed
Specific surface area of rapeseed was determined in Eq. (9) [5]:
6ð1 � εÞ
a¼ (9)
d
where:
ε: void fraction was calculated based on bulk density and true density of rape-
seed, ε = 0.389.
d: diameter of rapeseed was determined in our previous study, d = 2.21 � 10�3 m
[6]. Then, the specific surface area of rapeseed is a = 1659 m2/m3.
2.3.2 Latent heat
Gallaher [7] established the following equation Eq. (10) to determine the
dependence of the latent heat of vaporization of water from the product on its
moisture content:
hfg ¼ hfgo ∙½1 þ A∙ exp :ð–B∙MÞ� (10)
hfg: latent heat of vaporization of water in grain (kJ/kg-water).

hfgo: latent heat of vaporization of free water (kJ/kg-water).
hfgo ¼ ð2502:2–2:386∙TÞ
T: drying air temperature (°C).

M: rapeseed moisture content (decimal, d.b.)
A, B: coefficients.
The coefficients A and B were determined based on equilibrium moisture con-
tent of rapeseed (Modified Halsey equation) [8].
The values of the relative humidity can be replaced by equilibrium relative
humidity (ERH) obtained from the equilibrium moisture content versus ERH rela-
tionships described in above section. Then:
Pv ¼ Ps ∙ERH (11)
The relationship between vapor pressure and latent heats of two substances at
the same temperature is as follows [5]:
68
hfg
ln Pv ¼ ln Ps þ C (12)
hfgo
where C is a constant of integration.

The ratio of heat of vaporization of water in grain to the heat of vaporization
of saturated water on a logarithmic scale gives the ratio of latent heat hfg =hfgo at
each level of moisture content as the slope of the straight line obtained
from Eq. (12):
hfg
¼ 1 þ A � exp ð�B � MÞ (13)
hfgo
Using MATLAB simulation program, the coefficients were found.

A = 0.3734.
B = 14.2442.
This result is fairly similar to the result of Cenkowski et al. [9]: A = 0.5; B = 14.5.
Convection heat transfer coefficient [5]:

d � Ga
hc ¼ 0:277 � Ga � (14)
μa
where:
hc: convection heat transfer coefficient of grain bed (kJ/h�m2�K).
d: geometric mean diameter of rapeseed (m).
μ a: dynamic viscosity of air (kg/h�m).
μa ¼ 0:06175 þ 0:000165∙T (15)
T: drying temperature (K).

Equilibrium moisture content [8]:
Equilibrium moisture content of rapeseed was determined using Modified Hal-
sey equation:
M ¼ ½ exp ð�4:9758 � 0:0132 � T Þ�1=1:8755 ð� ln RHÞ�1=1:8755 (16)
Thin layer drying [10]:

Thin layer drying equation of rapeseed was determined using model of Page:

MR ¼ exp : �P � tQ (17)
where the drying constants were determined:

P = 0.02246 + 3.2428∙RH + 0.0006308∙T2 – 2.01481∙RH2 – 0.06077∙T∙RH.
Q = 0.60932 – 1.72018∙RH2 + 0.02529∙T∙RH.
2.4 Numerical solution
Eqs. (1)–(4) and the boundary conditions Eqs. (5)–(8) were solved using the
Runge–Kutta methods.
In numerical analysis, the Runge–Kutta methods are an important family of
iterative methods for the approximation of solutions of ordinary differential equa-
tions (ODEs). These techniques were developed around 1900 by the German
mathematicians Runge C. and Kutta M.W. One member of the family of
69
Runge–Kutta methods that is so commonly used is the fourth-order Runge–Kutta

method or also called as RK4, meaning that the error per step is on the order of h5,
while the total accumulated error has order h4 [11].
Let an initial value problem be specified as follows:
� �
y’ ¼ f y, t , yðt0 Þ ¼ y0 (18)
where f(t,y) is a function of y and t and the second equation is an initial

condition.
In order to calculate yn + 1 with a known value of yn, integrate Eq. (18) in the
interval tn ≥ t ≥ tn + 1 to yield.
tnþ1
ð
� �
ynþ1 ¼ yn þ f y, t dt (19)
tn
The RK4 method is derived by applying a numerical integration method to the

right side of Eq. (19). Then, the general form of the RK4 method for this problem is
given by the following equations:
1
ynþ1 ¼ yn þ ðk1 þ 2k2 þ 2k3 þ k4 Þ (20)
6
tnþ1 ¼ tn þ h (21)
for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
� �
k1 ¼ h:f yn , tn (22)
� �
k1 h
k2 ¼ h:f yn þ , tn þ (23)
2 2
� �
k2 h
k3 ¼ h:f yn þ , tn þ (24)
2 2
� �
k4 ¼ h:f yn þ k3 , tn þ h (25)
h: size of the interval

Thus, the next value (yn + 1) is determined by the present value (yn). The slope is
a weighted average of slopes:
k1 is the slope at the beginning of the interval.
k2 is the slope at the midpoint of the interval, using slope k1 to determine the
value of y at the point (tn + h/2) using Euler’s method.
k3 is again the slope at the midpoint, but now using the slope k2 to determine
the y-value.
k4 is the slope at the end of the interval, with its y-value determined using k3.
In averaging the four slopes, greater weight is given to the slopes at the
midpoint:
1
slope ¼ ðk1 þ 2k2 þ 2k3 þ k4 Þ (26)
6
To solve mathematical models of drying process, the depth bed model was
divided into 10 thin layers, and the dynamic heat and mass balances were set up in
each section and calculated over a discrete time interval Δt = 0.01 h.
70
3. Simulation program
3.1 Main program
The numerical solution for four ordinary differential equations was obtained by
using MATLAB code programs based on fourth-order Runge–Kutta methods.
MATLAB is an interactive program and technical computing environment with
numeric computation and data visualization. It provides integrated numerical anal-
ysis, matrix computation, signal processing, and graphics in an easy-to-use envi-
ronment where problems and solutions are easily expressed without complicated
programming. MATLAB-based software, entitled RCDSim-LAD (Rapeseed
Concurrent-flow Drying Simulation, version LAD), was built for drying simulation.
The concurrent-flow dryer simulation model was programmed with the
sequence:
• Input data
• Initialize arrays
• Evaluate constants
• Solve four ordinary differential equations
• Output when appropriate
The program of concurrent model terminates in one of two ways:
• When the moisture content within the dryer reaches a specified level
• When condensation or absorption is detected
However, condensation or absorption is not simulated in the concurrent model

since it does not occur in a properly designed dryer. Equations used by more than
one model (e.g., psychrometric equations) are programmed as separate subroutines
of function subprogram. A computer simulation program was built using these
models. This program was used in predicting the performance and temperature
profile within the grain bed.
Input data Output data
Initial grain condition: Drying time (h)

• Initial grain moisture content (dec, w.b.) Number of pass
• Initial grain temperature (°C) Final moisture content (% w.b.)
• Desired final moisture content (dec,w.b.) Drying rate (% w.b./h)
Dryer specification: Water removal rate (kg/m2)
• Capacity (kg) Fan static pressure (Pa)
• Drying air flow rate (cmm/m2) Fan power (kW/m2)
• Grain flow velocity (m/h) Fan energy (kJ/kg-water)
Drying and ambient air condition: Fuel energy (kJ/kg-water)
• Drying air temperature (°C) Total energy consumption (kJ/kg-water)
• Ambient air temperature (°C)
• Ambient air relative humidity (dec.)
Table 1.
Input and output data in the simulation program.
71
Table 1 listed input data and output data which was simulated by a simulation
program. The flow chart of the simulation program is shown in Figure 3. For the
convenience, the interface graphical user interface (GUI) was built in Figure 4.
3.2 Energy consumption
3.2.1 Fuel energy consumption
Ga � ðca þ cv � hÞ � ðT � T amb Þ � t
EnFuel ¼ (27)
0:85 � Mo � Mf � ρg � x
where:
EnFuel: fuel energy consumption (kJ/kg-water).
Ga: air flow rate (kg/h�m2).
ca: specific heat of dry air (kJ/kg�K).
cv: specific heat of water vapor (kJ/kg�K).
h: absolute humidity (kg-water/kg-dry air).
T: drying air temperature (°C).
Tamb: ambient air temperature (°C).
t: drying time (h).
Mo: initial moisture content (decimal, d.b.)
Mf: final moisture content (decimal, d.b.)
ρg: dry grain bulk density (kg/m3).
x: grain layer thickness (m).
3.2.2 Fan power
ΔP � g a � A
PFan ¼ (28)
60 � ef � 1000
where:
PFan: fan power (kW).
ΔP: pressure drop (Pa).
A: cross-section area of grain bed (m2).
ga: air flow rate (m3/min�m2).
ef: efficiency of the fan and motor (usually a value of about 0.5 is used).
3.2.3 Fan energy consumption
PFan � t � 3600
EnFan ¼ (29)
Mo � Mf � ρg � x
where:
EnFan: fan energy consumption (kJ/kg-water).
3.2.4 Total energy consumption
EnTot ¼ EnFuel þ EnFan (30)
where:
EnTot: total energy consumption (kJ/kg-water).
72
Figure 3.
Flow chart of the simulation program.
73
Figure 4.
Interface of the simulation program RCDSim-LAD.
3.3 Psychrometric properties
3.3.1 Saturated vapor pressure
a þ b � T k þ c � T 2k þ d � T 3k þ e � T 4k
Ps ¼ r (31)
f � T k � g � T 2k
where:
Ps: saturated vapor pressure (Pa).
Tk: absolute temperature (K).
r = 22105649.25; a = �27405.526; b = 97.5413; c = �0.146244;
d = 0.12558 � 10�3; e = �0.48502 � 10�7; f = 4.34903; g = 0.39381 � 10�2.
3.3.2 Absolute humidity
RH � Ps
h ¼ 0:6219 � (32)
Patm � RH � Ps
h: absolute humidity (kg-water/kg-dry air).

RH: relative humidity (dec).
Patm: atmospheric pressure, Patm = 101,325 (Pa).
3.3.3 Specific volume
0:6219 þ h
vs ¼ 287 � T k � (33)
0:6219 � Patm
vs.: specific volume (m3/kg).
74
Figure 5.
Simulated data with excel interface.
Using MATLAB 7.3.0., Simulated results were exported to Excel (Figure 5) by

clicking the button “Simulate and export data to Excel” on the interface of the
simulation program (Figure 4).
In excel interface, besides the output data in the simulation program were listed
in Table 1, the drying air temperature, rapeseed temperature, and moisture content
of rapeseed in the drying process versus drying time are also displayed and auto-
matically represented by graphs, in which the rapeseed temperature at the top
layer, middle layer, bottom layer, and the maximum rapeseed temperature in the
drying chamber versus drying time are also displayed.
4. Model validation
4.1 Pilot-scale concurrent-flow dryer
In order to verify a fitness of simulation program, a pilot-scale concurrent-flow

rapeseed dryer with capacity of 200 kg/batch was designed and manufactured.
The dimension of the dryer is shown in Figure 6, and the structural principle of
the dryer is shown in Figure 7. The pilot-scale rapeseed dryer includes a drying
tower with grain inlet section, plenum section, and drying section; burner;
drying fan; variable speed discharge augers; and bucket elevator for circulating
the grains.
The hot air is supplied by a kerosene jet burner; after going through the mixed
chamber, the drying air will enter the dryer through plenum section. Rapeseed and
drying air are moving the same direction until drying the air out by force of suction
75
Figure 6.
Technical drawing of pilot-scale concurrent-flow dryer.
centrifugal fan through five exhaust air ducts. Rapeseed flow rate is controlled by
two variable speed discharge augers. Rapeseed is out the dryer by discharge augers.
Then, the grains are circulated by bucket elevator from the top of the dryer and
flow down the vertical drying chamber.
The dimensions of the pilot-scale concurrent-flow dryer are shown in detail
in Figure 6.
4.2 Experimental design
During the experiment the drying air temperature and grain temperature are
continuously measured by temperature sensors (Thermocouple T-type, Omega,
USA). The total of 16 temperature sensors was arranged at necessary positions
inside and outside the dryer (Figure 7). Data from sensors were transferred to data
logger system. Two computers were used to record the temperature data from the
data logger (Datascan 7327, UK).
In the plenum section, drying air temperature input was measured by three
sensors No. 1–3. In exhaust air ducts, two sensors at upper ducts (No. 10–11) and
two sensors at lower ducts (No. 12–13) were arranged to measure exhaust air
temperature. In the drying chamber, six sensors (No. 4–9) were arranged at six
positions in the cross-section of the drying chamber to measure the temperature of
grains. In two discharge augers, two sensors (No. 14–15) were arranged above the
two discharge augers to measure discharge rapeseed temperature (rapeseed tem-
perature after drying). To measure ambient air temperature, one temperature sen-
sor (No. 16) was arranged outside the dryer (Table 2).
76
Figure 7.
Design layout for the temperature and relative humidity sensor locations in the pilot-scale concurrent-flow
dryer.
Temperature measurement Sensors
Drying air temperature Inlet 3 No. 1–3
Outlet 4 No. 10–13
Rapeseed temperature Drying chamber 6 No. 4–9
Discharge 2 No. 14–15
Ambient air temperature 1 No. 16
Relative humidity measurement
Ambient air relative humidity 1 No. 17
Exhaust air relative humidity 1 No. 18
Table 2.
Temperature sensors distribution and hygrometer used in the experiment.
Two hygrometers (MTH4100, Sanyo, UK, 10 – 99%, 2.5%) were installed to

record the ambient air relative humidity (No. 17) and exhaust air relative humidity
(No. 18) (Table 2).
77
In both experiments, grain flow velocity was set up at 5 m/h; this value is
equivalent to the mass of circulated rapeseed which is 1000 kg/h. The grain flow
velocity is controlled by two discharge rollers. The rotation of discharge rollers was
3.5 rpm. The rotation of discharge rollers was controlled by an inverter (S500,
Mitsubishi, Japan).
A centrifugal suction fan 1 HP with air flow rate 30 cmm/m2 [12] was used for
sucking the exhaust drying air. An anemometer (Velocicalc-Plus, TSI, USA) was
used to measure the drying air velocity.
The jet burner using kerosene (OL-3, Daewon, Korea) was used for heating
drying air. The burner can be raised to the temperature of drying air up to 140°C. A
temperature sensor (PT-100 Ω) was installed at the influx duct to control the
burner, and a temperature control equipment (HSD-V2, Hansung, Korea) was used.
An electric balance (A-200, Cass, Korea, accuracy 0.01 kg) was used to weigh the
mass of Kerosene loss by drying process.
The dimension of drying chamber (height length width) is 0.5 m 0.7 m
0.5 m. Height of tempering section is 0.5 m. In both experiments, rapeseed
samples using are Spring rapeseed, variety Sunmang F1-hybrid, were harvested in
June in Jeonnam-do, Yeonggwang-gun. The samples of 200 kg were cleaned and
stored in a refrigerator at a temperature of 4°C [13]. The initial moisture content
of samples in Test 1 is 23.0% and in Test 2 is 23.2% (Table 3).
4.3 Experimental results
In both experiments, there are a difference in drying air temperature in the

plenum chamber. The drying air temperature is highest at the position in front of
the plenum, and lowest at back of plenum. In Test 1, the average temperature of
drying air in the plenum section is 96.9, 84.2, and 83.9°C at the front, middle, and
back of the plenum, respectively. In Test 2, the average temperature of drying air in
plenum section is 128.1, 111.3, and 106.1°C at front, middle, and back of plenum,
respectively (Table 4). The average temperature of drying air in the plenum
chamber during drying process is 89.4 and 116.8°C for Test 1 and Test 2, respec-
tively (Figure 8).
The temperature of rapeseed during drying at discharge augers (Figure 9) and
the temperature of air at exhaust ducts (Figure 10) for both Test 1 and Test 2 are
fairly uniform. Detailed drying conditions in Test 1 and Test 2 shown in Table 5 and
results of rapeseed drying in a pilot-scale dryer were summarized in Table 6.
Rapeseed Test 1 Test 2
Initial weight (kg) 200 200

Initial moisture content (% w.b.) 23.0 23.2
Initial grain temperature (°C) 22.8 24.7
Table 3.
Initial rapeseed conditions.
Test no. Drying air temperature (°C)
Front Middle Back
Test 1 96.9 84.2 83.9
Test 2 128.1 111.3 106.1
Table 4.
Drying air temperature in the plenum chamber.
78
After the experiment was completed, dried rapeseed samples were sealed in
double-layer polythene bags for 24 h to reach ambient conditions [14]. The samples
were then tested for germination. The germination tests were conducted according
Figure 8.
Average variation of drying air temperature during drying process.
Figure 9.
Rapeseed temperature during drying process at discharge augers.
Figure 10.
Temperature of exhaust drying air in test 1 and test 2.
79
to protocols described for the standard germination test [15]. The average
germination percentages of Test 1 and Test 2 are 94.7 and 84.5%, respectively [16].
4.4 Model validation
The simulation program was validated by comparison results of numerical

model with experimental data of pilot-scale concurrent-flow dryer as described.
The input data of simulation program were entered in accordance with the data of
the actual experiment, such as initial rapeseed conditions, dryer specification, and
drying air and ambient air conditions. The fitness of simulated results with mea-
sured results was evaluated based on the coefficient of determination (R2) and the
root mean square error (RMSE).
The R2 of moisture content versus drying time in Test 1 and Test 2 were 0.994
and 0.997, respectively. The RMSE of moisture content in Test 1 and Test 2 were
0.334 and 0.506%w.b., respectively. The comparison of the measured and
Test Average drying air Air flow rate Ambient air temperature Ambient relative
No. temperature (°C) (cmm/m2) (°C) Ave. (min–max) humidity (%) Ave. (min–
max)
Test 1 89.4 30 25.4 (24.2–26.4) 71.6 (67.1–75.3)
Test 2 116.8 25 28.6 (26.7–31.4) 63.4 (60.8–68.0)
Table 5.
Drying conditions for drying tests.
Experimental results Test 1 Test 2
Initial moisture content (% w.b.) 23.0 23.2

Final moisture content (% w.b.) 13.8 11.4
Drying time (h) 3.90 4.22
Drying rate (% w.b./h) 2.38 2.80
Fuel consumption (kJ/kg-water) 4915 4831
Initial germination rate (%) 94.7 84.5
Table 6.
The results of rapeseed drying in pilot-scale dryer.
Figure 11.
Measured and simulated moisture content in test 1.
80
simulated moisture content during drying process for Test 1 is shown in Figure 11
and for Test 2 shown in Figure 12.
The analytical results showed the good fitness between simulated moisture con-
tent and measured moisture content for both Test 1 and Test 2. This result showed
the good agreement of the simulation program for predicting the moisture content
of rapeseed in concurrent-flow dryer.
The simulated temperature of rapeseed during drying process has a good correl-
ative with the experimental data. The R2 of rapeseed temperature are 0.904 and
0.925 in Test 1 and Test 2, respectively. The RMSE of rapeseed temperature are 1.15
and 1.77°C in Test 1 and Test 2, respectively. The comparison of the measured and
simulated temperature of rapeseed for Test 1 is shown in Figure 13 and for Test 2
shown in Figure 14. The analytical results showed that simulated values have a very
good fitness to measured values by experiment.
The discharge rapeseed temperature of the simulation program tends to be
higher than the measured values during drying process. However, the average
differences between measured and simulated values are small. It showed a good
fitness between the values of the model and the values of the experiments.
The drying time, drying rate, fuel energy consumption, and germination ratio of
rapeseed after drying were investigated. The comparison of the measured and
simulated results of both Test 1 and Test 2 was listed in Table 7.
Figure 12.
Measured and simulated moisture content in test 2.
Figure 13.
Measured and simulated temperature of rapeseed in test 1.
81
Figure 14.
Measured and simulated temperature of rapeseed in test 2.
Test 1 Measured Simulated Difference (%)
Final moisture content (% w.b.) 13.8 13.5 2.2
Drying rate (% w.b./h) 2.38 2.26 5.04
Fuel energy (kJ/kg-water) 4915 5153 4.62
Drying time (h) 3.9 4.2 7.14
Germination ratio (%) 94.7 96.5 1.87
Test 2 Measured Simulated Difference (%)
Final moisture content (% w.b.) 11.4 10.8 5.17
Drying rate (% w.b./h) 2.80 2.95 5.08
Fuel energy (kJ/kg-water) 4831 4417 8.57
Drying time (h) 4.22 4.2 0.47
Germination ratio (%) 84.5 92.5 8.64
Table 7.
Measured and simulated results of test 1 and test 2.
The difference between measured value and simulated value of final moisture
content were 2.2 and 5.17%; drying rate were 5.04 and 5.08%; drying time were 7.14
and 0.47%; and germination ratio were 1.87 and 0.47%. The simulated values of fuel
energy consumption for drying were 4.62 and 8.57% lower than the measured
values for Test 1 and Test 2, respectively. The differences are derived from the
sequential changes in drying air temperature, ambient temperature, and drying air
humidity of the simulation model and experiment conditions. In general, there is a
good fitness between measured values by experiment and simulated values from
the simulation program for all of the output parameters such as final moisture
content, drying time, drying rate, fuel energy, and germination ratio at the different
experiment conditions.
5. Conclusions
Mathematical modeling for rapeseed drying on concurrent-flow dryer was built

based on energy and mass transfer balances applied for both fluid and solid phases
82
of a concurrent-flow dryer. Energy balances and mass balances are written on a

differential volume located at an arbitrary location in the grain bed. The mathe-
matical model consists of a set of four partial differential equations in four inde-
pendent variables including air humidity, air temperature, grain temperature, and
grain moisture content.
A computer simulation program for circulating concurrent-flow rapeseed dryer
was developed using these models along with a detailed description of the program.
The simulation program can predict the drying time, drying rate, drying air
humidity and temperature, grain temperature and moisture content during drying
process, water removal rate, drying fan parameters, germination ratio, fuel energy,
and total energy consumption.
To evaluate a fitness of simulation program, a pilot-scale concurrent-flow dryer
with a capacity of 200 kg/batch was designed, manufactured, and tested. Two
drying experiments were conducted. The output parameters of the simulation pro-
gram were compared and analyzed with experiment data.
The RMSE of simulated moisture contents ranged from 0.334 to 0.506%w.b.
with the coefficient of determinations ranging from 0.994 to 0.997. The RMSE of
simulated rapeseed temperatures ranged from 1.15 to 1.77°C with the coefficient of
determinations ranging from 0.904 to 0.925. The experimental drying rates were
2.38 and 2.80% w.b./h. The difference between simulated value and measured value
of drying rate were 5.04 and 5.08%; drying time were 7.14 and 0.47%; and germi-
nation ratio were 1.87 and 0.47%. The simulated fuel energy consumption for
drying were 4.62 and 8.57% lower than the experimental values.
The analytic results showed that the simulation results have good fitness with
experimental data. So, the mathematical modeling and the simulation program were
proved their reliability and were shown to be a convenient tool for simulation of
rapeseed drying in circulating concurrent-flow dryer.
Author details
Le Anh Duc1* and Keum Dong Hyuk2
1 Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
2 SungKyunKwan University, Suwon, South Korea
*Address all correspondence to: leanhduc@hcmuaf.edu.vn
83
References
[1] Thompson TL, Peart RM, Foster GH. [10] Duc LA, Han JW, Keum DH. Thin
Mathematical simulation of corn layer drying characteristics of rapeseed
drying—a new model. Transactions of (Brassica napus L.). Journal of Stored
ASAE. 1968;24(3):582-586 Products Research. 2011;47(1):32-38
[2] Felipe CAS, Barrozo MAS. Drying of [11] Fausett LV. Applied Numerical
soybean seeds in a concurrent moving Analysis Using Matlab. Upper Saddle
bed: Heat and mass transfer and quality River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc.;
analysis. Drying Technology. 2003; 1999. p. 07458
21(3):439-456
[12] Hong SJ, Duc LA, Han JW, Kim H,
[3] Keum DH, Han JG, Kang SR, Kim YH, Keum DH. Physical properties
Kim OW, Kim H, Han JW, et al. of rapeseed (II). Journal of Biosystems
Development of rice circulating Engineering. 2008;33(3):173-178
concurrent-flow dryer (I) -
performance teset of pilot scale dryer. [13] Cassells JA, Caddick LP, Green JR,
Journal of Biosystems Engineering. Reuss R. Isotherms for Australian canola
2005;10(2):97-106 varieties. In: Proceedings of the
Australian Postharvest Technical
[4] Han JW, Keum DH, Kim W, Duc LA, Conference. 2003. pp. 59-63
Cho SH, Kim H. Circulating concurrent-
flow drying simulation of rapeseed. [14] ANSI/ASAE S448.1. Thin-layer
Journal of Biosystems Engineering. drying of agricultural crops. In: ASAE
2010;35(6):401-407 Standards 51st Edition. 2004.
pp. 598-600
[5] Keum DH. Simulation of Agricultural
Products and Foods Process [15] Association of Official Seed
Engineering. South Korea: Analysis. Rules for testing seeds. Journal
SungKyunkwan University Publisher; of Seed Technology. 1993;16:1-113
2005
[16] Duc LA, Han JW. The effects of
[6] Duc LA, Han JW, Hong SJ, Choi HS, drying conditions on the germination
Kim YH, Keum DH. Physical properties properties of rapeseed. Journal of
of rapeseed (I). Journal of Biosystems Biosystems Engineering. 2009;34(1):
Engineering. 2008;33(2):101-105 30-36
[7] Gallaher GL. A method of

determining the latent heat of
agricultural crops. Agricultural
Engineering. 1951;32(1):34-38
[8] Duc LA, Hyuk KD. Equilibrium

moisture content isotherm
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Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, Food
and Energy. 2016;4(1):10-14
[9] Cenkowski S, Muir WE, Jayas DS.

Simulation of canola and barley drying
in deep bed. Journal of Food Process
Engineering. 1989;12:171-190
84
Chapter 5
Determination on Fluidization
Velocity Types of the Continuous
Refined Salt Fluidized Bed Drying
Bui Trung Thanh and Le Anh Duc
Abstract
After the centrifugation stage, refined salt particles have rather high moisture
content; therefore, the moist salt particles in contact with each other will stick
together in a short time. In particular, the moist salt particles will stick together
faster and tighter and form a larger unit when they are exposed to drying hot air.
For this reason, the refined salt was dried by rotary drum dryers with vibrating balls
distributed along the drum or a vibrating fluidized bed dryers. These drying
methods make poor product sensory quality, low product recovery efficiency, while
also lead to an increase of heat and electricity energy consumption. In order to
increase the efficiency of refined salt drying technology by conventional continuous
fluidized bed dryers, the chapter focuses on the study of aerodynamic properties of
refined salt grains in the continuous fluidized particle layer. The content of the
chapter presents theoretical and empirical methods to determine fluidization veloc-
ity types in designing a continuous fluidized bed dryer.
Keywords: refined salt, solid particles, aerodynamic, minimum fluidization

velocity, homogeneous fluidization, bed fraction, fluidized bed dryer
1. Introduction
1.1 Preface
The phenomenon in which solid particles float in a gas stream and have a liquid-
like property is called a fluidized bed. This phenomenon of fluidization in gas or
liquid flow was discovered by Fritz Winkler in the 1920s [1]. This one was investi-
gated by Lewis et al. and had been raised to fluidized theory [2]. The first commercial
fluidized bed dryer was installed in USA in 1948 [3]. The fluidized bed technology is
used for drying of bulk materials, includes examples such as: vibrating fluidized
bed dryer, normal fluidized bed dryer without vibrating device and pulsed fluidized
bed dryer.
Mathematical modeling and computer simulation of grain drying are now widely
used and become an important tool for designing new dryers, for analyzing existing
drying systems and for identifying drying conditions [4]. Identifying the drying
conditions is necessary to establish the optimal protocol for ensuring seed quality [5].
To solve the simulation models, equations concerning aerodynamic properties such as
the gas stream velocity and particle velocity are the most important components. The
aerodynamic properties are affected by shape, density and size of particles [6].
85
Order Function of gases Function of solid materials Equipment in practice
1 Heat carrier Materials do not react to gases • Heaters supply to materials

• Heat exchangers with heat
recovery
2 Loading and Materials do not react to gases Pneumatic solid particle carrier
transportation of
particle materials
3 Heat carrier and Materials do not react to gases Aerodynamic dryers

material loading and
transportation
4 Chemical agents • Chemical reaction • The burner burns

• Activated material for • Gasification equipment
chemical reactions • Catalytic reconstitution
• As inert material which is • Oxidation equipment
used in fluidized bed • Processing of metallurgical
combustion of boiler surfaces and annealing furnace
5 Agitation Materials do not react to gases Mixer of different materials in the

tank
Table 1.
Relations and functions of gas interacting with solid particle in real production.
In recent years, the fluidized bed technology has been concerned in the application
in the sugar drying and refined salt drying in Vietnam. In the scope of this chapter, we
discuss the issues related to the hydrodynamics of refined salt particles in the gas
stream at ambient temperature and temperature equivalent to that of drying particle.
The focus of this chapter is to determine the velocity values of the gas through the
particle layer to form the minimum, homogeneous and critical fluidized layers.
In industrial manufacturing practice, we often encounter the contact, interac-
tion between solid-particle materials and gases. These interaction phenomena are
described in Table 1.
1.2 Applied materials in fluidized bed drying technology
According to Abrahamsen and Geldart [7], the two most important factors
affecting the fluidization characteristic of the particle layer are particle size and
particle density.
Geldart [8] visually observed the various conditions and classified fluidizable
particles into four groups: A, B, C and D. As a result, the classification was related to
the influence of the average particle size and particle density on the properties of
the fluidized layer, as depicted in Figure 1 and Table 2.
According to the content of this chapter, we focus on approaching, researching
and experimenting on the mechanism and principle of interaction between air and
the applied material in fluidized bed drying. The approach method is to arrange a
stream of heat-carrying air blowing from the bottom of the particle chamber
through a gas distributor (the holes arranged at an angle to the cross section of the
tank). Hot air stream is evenly distributed and touches the surface of particles in
tank (the particle layer was on the gas distributor). The continuous air stream
ensures that the contact of particle surfaces with the gas flow is consecutive. The
nature of the gas flowing through the particle layer may be laminar, turbulent, or
transition flow at the material contact surface. The inflow of hot air affects the
velocity of the interaction between the gas stream and the material.
86
Determination on Fluidization Velocity Types of the Continuous Refined Salt Fluidized Bed Drying
Figure 1.
Diagram of the Geldart classification of particles [9, 10].
1.3 Basic concept of fluidized particle layer and principle of fluidized particle
layer creation
When the material layer is fluidized, its state is converted from a fixed bed to a
dynamic state. The particle layer has liquid-like properties. The surface area of the
particles contacting with the fluid increases, and therefore the heat transfer ability
from fluid to particles rapidly rises.
In order for the fluidization phenomena to occur in the bulk material layer, the
air stream must have sufficient pressure and velocity. The air stream flows upward,
passes through the particle materials (follow the linear increment) through
uncountable air holes of the distributor, which are arranged at the bottom of the
particle material layer. When the velocity of air stream is small, pressure exerted on
particles is small, the particle layer maintains its original fixed bed (the state from 0
before point A, Figure 2). As the air velocity is increased further, the aerodynamic
traction appears, which has opposite effect of the gravitational force of the particles,
causing the expansion of particle layers in a volume, and the particles begin to move
apart from each other (at point A, Figure 1).
By further raising the velocity of air stream to the critical value, the friction
force between the particles and air is equal to the weight of particles. At this time,
the vertical component of the compression pressure is eliminated, the upward-
pulling force equals the downward gravity, causing the particle material to be
suspended in the air stream. When the gas velocity reaches the critical value, the
particle material layer will be converted to complete fluidization state, called the
fluidization particle layer and having the liquid-like properties (position from A to
B in Figure 2).
By further increasing the velocity of the gas, the bulk density of the particle
layers continues to decrease, its fluidization becomes more violent, until the parti-
cles no longer form a bed and are swept up and fallen down in the fluidization
motion (position from B to C, Figure 2). At this time, each particle material is
covered with gas flow, the intensity of the heat and material transfer occurs vio-
lently. When granular material is fully fluidized, the bed will conform to the volume
of the chamber, its surface remaining perpendicular to gravity; objects with a lower
87
Particle group C group A group B group D group

characteristics
Particle size 0–3 30 ≤ dp ≤ 100 100 ≤ dp ≤ 1000 ≥ 1000

(μm)
Density Smallest 1400 400–4500 Lower than other

(kg/m3) materials
The most • Particles are • Easy fluidization • Starting on bubble • The rough solid
obvious cohesive • Dense phase creation at the particles
characteristics and linked expands stably minimum fluidized
of group • Difficult before bubbling velocity value
fluidization starts
Typical • Flour • Milk flour • Construction sands • Pebbles in rice

granulars • Cement • FCC granular • Coffee beans,
wheat, lead shot
Properties of fluidization layer
Particle layer • Channeling • The large bed Medium Difficult to fluidize

expansion possibilities expansion evenly (low)
in the before bubbling
particles is started
layer easily • The minimum
fluidization
velocity is
smaller than
minimum
bubbling
Properties of • Do not • It does not form • The bubbles rise • Bubbles rise more
air bubbles form bubble faster than the slowly than the rest
bubble fluidization interstitial gas of the gas
• There is a • Bubbles are large percolating through
maximum and grow rapidly the emulsion
bubble size and coalescence, as
they rise through
the bed
Property of Very low High Solids’ recirculation Low

mixed solid rates are smaller
particles
Spaying None None Only occurs in the • It occurs

upper layer • Only occur in under
layers
Table 2.
The classification of fluidization properties of particle groups according to Geldart [9, 11].
density than the bed density will float on its surface, bobbing up and down, while
objects with a higher density sink to the bottom of the bed.
Fluidization has many applications in many technologies of manufacturing
practice, such as mixing different types of granular materials; fluidized bed drying;
cooling grain after drying; supporting interaction between chemicals in the
fluidized bed; granulation technology; film coating technology of medicine and
pharmacy; manufacturing technology through the combined use of organic and
inorganic fertilizers; and biomass fuel combustion technology in fluidized bed.
To clarify the dynamics of the fluidized beds for application in refined salt
drying in the fluidized bed, the theoretical and experimental issues determining the
velocity of gas through the particle layers to form different fluidized layers are
described as follows.
88
Figure 2.
Particle layer states with gas velocity changing [10].
2. Methodology
2.1 Determination of the minimum fluidization velocity from publications
2.1.1 Determination of Vmf using the Ergun equation
When the air stream having sufficient pressure and velocity passes through the
static spherical particle layers, they begin to expand (the particles become “flexi-
ble”). In this condition, it is called the minimum particulate fluidization state and is
described by the modified equation of Ergun (see position A in Figure 1) [12].
2
ΔP 150μ f 1 � εmf V mf 1:75 1 � εmf ρ f V mf 2
¼ þ (1)
Hmf εmf 3 d2p εmf 3 dp
For particles of arbitrary shapes, the pressure drop of air stream at the minimum
fluidization state is represented by Eq. (2). The spherical value of particle material
got in the Eq. (1) [10] is given by:
2
Δp 1 � εmf μ f V mf 1 � εmf ρ f V mf 2
¼ 150 þ 1:75 (2)
Hmf εmf 3 ðϕdm Þ2 εmf 3 ϕdm
For the particle layer to be converted from a fixed state to a fluidization state,
the pressure of air stream must be large enough to overcome the weight of the
particle layers and it is determined by Eq. (3) [10].
m
Δp ¼ ρp � ρ f g (3)
ρp A
In Eq. (3), it is considered that there was no interaction force between particles in
layer and no interaction between particles and the wall of the tank. So, that did not
cause the pressure increasing effect. Thus, the pressure drop of the air stream was
constant while increasing the gas velocity from the smallest fluidization velocity to
the value when the entrainment process of particles occurred (position C, Figure 2).
In Eqs. (1) and (2), it is also shown that the pressure drop of the gas stream that
is generated through the fluidized particle layer is depended on the particle size
(dp), the bed voidage (ε) and the gas temperature (t°C). According to Eq. (3), the
89
pressure drop of the gas stream through the particle layers is dependent upon the
material mass (m), the gas distributor grate area (A), particle density (ρp) and gas
density (ρf). Thus, we could calculate the minimum fluidization velocity value (Vmf),
which was based on Eqs. (1)–(3) for non-spherical particles by solving Eq. (4).

m:Hmf 1 � εmf μ f V mf ρ f V mf 2
ρp � ρ f g ¼ 150 2
þ 1:75 (4)
ρp :A εmf 3 ϕdp ε3mf ϕdp
The minimum fluidization velocity (Vmf) is the root of Eq. (4), which is based
on available parameters, such as the height of minimum fluidization bed (Hmf), the
mass of particles in the air distributor (m), the area for gas distribution or called
cross-sectional area of the bed (A), particle density (ρp), air density (ρf), mean
particle diameter (dp), spherical degree of particles (ϕ) and void fraction at
minimum fluidization particle layer (εmf).
Commonly, the sphere degree of particles (ϕ) must be determined in experi-
ments [10]. The spherical degree of refined salt particles was found out by Bui
[13–15]. Theoretically, in order to fluidize the particle layer, the actual weight of the
solid particles must be equal to the force exerted on the particle layers and that is
equal to the pressure drop across the bed (ΔP) multiplied by the cross-sectional area
of the chamber (A). A minimum fluidization layer which must have determined
layer thickness (Hmf), void fraction (εmf), then the expanded volume of the fluid-
ized particles (U) has the value of the Eq. (5):
U ¼ ð1 � εmf Þ:A:Hmf (5)
And the actual gravity of the particle mass has a value of:

W ¼ ð1 � εmf Þ ρp � ρf :A:Hmf: :g (6)
The balance of the real gravity components of the particle mass and the upward
force exerted on the particle mass of the gas flow was calculated according to

ΔP ¼ ð1 � εmf Þ ρp � ρf :H:g (7)
Substituting Eq. (8) into Eq. (1) or Eq. (2) yields Eq. (9).
2
1 � εmf μ f V mf 1 � εmf ρ f V mf 2
1 � εmf ρp � ρ f :Hmf :g ¼ 150 2 þ 1:75 (8)
εmf 3 ϕdp εmf 3 ϕdp

1 � εmf 1:75
150 2 3
Re mf þ 3 Re 2mf ¼ Ar (9)
ϕ εmf ϕ εmf
Giving physical parameters of particle and gas into the Eq. (8), velocity (Vmf)
was found out. In case of very small particles, the gas stream regime through the
particle layer was laminar flow and the minimum fluidization velocity should be
calculated by the Ergun equation [12]. In case of Remf < 1, we use Eq. (9) to
calculate the minimum fluidization velocity of gas.
2.1.2 Determination of Vmf by the correlation of Remf and Archimeter (Ar)
When gas passes through the particle bulk, which can have any shape, the
minimum fluidization Reynolds coefficient (Remf) is determined by Eq. (10).
90
ρmf :V mf :dp :ϕ
Re mf ¼ (10)
μf
Eq. (11) describes the correlation between Ar and Remf with void fraction at
minimum fluidization particle layer (Vmf)

1 � εmf 1:75
Ar ¼ 150 Re mf þ Re 2mf (11)
ϕ2 ε3mf ϕε3mf
Archimeter (Ar) is determined by Eq. (12) for particles of any shape.

3
ρ f ρp � ρ f g ϕdp
Ar ¼ (12)
μ2f
Set up Eq. (13):

3
ρ f ρp � ρ f g ϕdp 1 � εmf 1:75
¼ 150 Re mf þ Re 2mf (13)
μ2f ϕ2 ε3mf ϕ ε3mf
Substituting physical parameters into the Eq. (12), which includes the particle
density (ρp), the gas density at the temperature of minimum fluidization velocity
(ρf), the air dynamic viscosity (μf), spherical degree of particle (ϕ), void fraction at
the minimum fluidization velocity (εmf), mean particle diameter (dm) [13–15] and
getting Ar number value into the Eq. (13). Then, we solved the quadratic equation
to find out the root of equation Remf in Eq. (10), we got only the positive value.
Thus, we calculated the minimum fluidization velocity (Vmf) from Eq. (10).
2.1.3 Determination of Vmf by the Kozeny-Carman correlation
Kozeny-Carman gave the formula of calculation of the minimum fluidization

velocity for a very small particle size with the Remf < 10 in Eq. (14) described in
Yates [16].

g ρp � ρ f εmf 3 2 2
V mf ¼ ϕ dp (14)
150μ f 1 � εmf
For spherical particles or sphericity equivalent, the bed voidage of the minimum
fluidization εmf = 0.4 ÷ 0.45.
2.1.4 Determination of Vmf by correlation of Wen and Yu
In case of the unavailability of the sphericity of particles, we determine the

minimum fluidization velocity (Vmf) by using of the experimental correlation of
Wen and Yu [17]. An empirical formula of calculation of the void fraction at
minimum fluidization particle layers in Eq. (15) or Eq. (16) with the available
sphericity degree of particle (ϕ) or the calculation of the sphericity degree of
particle (ϕ) in case void fraction (εmf) at minimum fluidization particle layer is
available, which was also described by Wen and Yu equation (cited in Howard,
1989) [10].
91
1 � εmf 1
≈ 11 or ≈ 14 (15)
ϕ2 ε3mf ϕ ε3mf
We can use the calculation of the void fraction at minimum fluidization particle
layers from the other correlation, which is also converted from Wen and Yu.
1=3
0:071
εmf ¼ (16)
ϕ
It is based on the calculation of the void fraction (εmf) (at position A in Figure 2)
of Eq. (15) or Eq. (16) and substituting the obtained εmf value into the Ergun
Eq. (2), we have Eq. (17).
Ar ¼ 1650 Re pmf þ 24:5 Re 2pmf (17)
Using the calculated Ar number from Eq. (12) and substituting the Ar value into
Eq. (17), we obtain Eq. (18) to calculate the particle Reynolds number at the
minimum fluidization velocity (Remf).
�1650 � f1650 þ ð4 � 24:5 Ar Þg1=2

Re mf ¼ (18)
2 � 24:5
Taking the positive square root, we get Eq. (19):

1=2
Re mf ¼ 33:7 2 þ 0:0408 Ar � 33:7 (19)
It was applied to calculate for solid particles with size larger than 100 μm [10]. From
the Remf value that was found out in the Eq. (19), Vmf is calculated according to Eq. (10).
In case of solid particles with small size (C group of Geldart, 1973) in the specified
temperature conditions, the Vmf value is calculated in Eq. (20) by Wen and Yu.

V mf ¼ 7:90:10�3 dp1:82 ρp � ρ f 0:94μ�0:83
f (20)
2.1.5 Determination of Vmf by the correlation of Beayens and Geldart
For solid spherical particles with diameters ranging from 0.05 to 4 mm

(0.05 mm < dp < 4 mm) and particle density ranging from 850 to 8810 kg/m3
(850 kg/m3 < ρp < 8810 kg/m3), the method of calculation of Vmf was proposed by
Beayens and Geldart as shown in Eq. (21) [18].
Ar ¼ 1823 Re mf 1:07 þ 21:7 Re 2mf (21)
Then the Vmf can be calculated from Eq. (22) in case of available solid particle
and gas parameters.
0:934
9:125 � 10�4 ρp � ρ f g dp1:8
V mf ¼ (22)
μ0:87
f ρp
0:66
2.1.6 Determination of Vmf by correlation of Goroshko
The minimum fluidization velocity of spherical particles was determined by

correlation shown in Eq. (23) by Goroshko described in Howard [10, 19].
92
a Re 2mf þ b Re mf � Ar ¼ 0 (23)
where
� �
1:75 150 1 � εmf
a ¼ 3 and b ¼ (24)
ϕ εmf ϕ2 ε3mf
We get ϕ is 1.0 (ϕ = 1) then solving the Eq. (23) take the spherical degree value,
we have the Eq. (25).
� �1=2
�b þ b2 þ 4aAr
Re mf ¼ (25)
2a
� pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi �
Multiplying b þ b2 þ 4aAr by the numerator and denominator of Eq. (25),
we have the Eq. (26)
8 "� � #1=2 9�1
<b b 2 =
Re mf ¼ Ar þ þ aAr (26)
:2 2 ;
And its value was determined by Eq. (27) by Goroshko:
Ar
Re pmf ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (27)
bþ aAr
� �2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Eq. (27) is different from Eq. (26) by the added value b2 þ aAr ¼ b2 þ a:Ar.
There is a difference in Remf value between the Goroshko equation and Ergun
equation. The Repmf of Goroshko equation [Eq. (27)] is smaller than Remf of Ergun
[Eq. (26)]. This deviation interval depends on the value of Archimeter (Ar). Thus,
we have a correlation equation, which is described in Eq. (28).
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Re mf ð Ergun Þ b þ aAr
¼� h i1=2 � (28)
Re pmf ð Goroshko Þ 2
b=2 þ ðb=2Þ þ aAr
2.1.7 Determination of Vmf following Goroshko and Todes equation
The minimum fluidization velocity (Vmf) of sphericity particles was defined

from the Remf by Goroshko et al. in Eq. (29) [19].
Ar
Re pmf ¼ 1�ε qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (29)
1:75
150 εmfmf3 þ ε3
Ar
mf
In case of non-spherical particles with different sizes, the Repmf value was error
from 15–20% in case we use the Eq. (29) of calculation described in [20]. In the case
of rapid calculation, we considered the bed voidage of the minimum fluidization
state to be equal to the bed voidage at static particle layers (εo = εmf = 0.4), and the
Remf is calculated in Eq. (30) [21].
Ar
Re mf ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi (30)
1400 þ 5:22 Ar
93
2.1.8 Determination of Vmf following Leva

g:ρ f :εmf
From the formula of Carman-Kozan k ¼ μ f kc S described in (as cited in Leva,
[22]) yield the formula to define the minimum fluidization velocity [22, 23].
2
5 � 10�3 ϕdp ρp � ρp gεmf 3
V mf ¼ (31)
μmf 1 � εmf
The Leva formula is used in case of Reynolds to be smaller than 10 (Remf < 10).
In case of Reynolds to be larger than 10 (Remf > 10), there is an adjustment factor
added into this formula.
2.1.9 Determination of Vmf according to Kunii-Levenspiel
The formula of Kunii-Levenspiel was simplified from the Ergun formula and it
gave out two cases of calculation of the minimum fluidization velocity. In the first
case for solid particles of small size with Remf < 20, we have to use Eq. (32).

2
ϕdp ρp � ρ f gεmf 3
V mf ¼ (32)
150μ f 1 � εmf
We have to use Eq. (33) for the larger particle size with Reynolds number larger
than 1000 (Remf > 1000).

ϕdp ρp � ρ f g:εmf 3
V mf 2 ¼ (33)
1:75ρ f
2.1.10 Determination of Vmf based on the bed voidage problem
There is a correlation equation of particle mass balance at the minimum fluidi-

zation state (fluidization without bubbles), which was created by Kunii and
Levenspiel as shown in Eq. (34).

g:H0 ð1 � ε0 Þρp :A ¼ 1 � εmf ρp g:Hmf (34)
Thus, we can obtain a correlation as shown in Eq. (35).
Hmf ð1 � ε0 Þ
¼ (35)
H0 1 � εmf
According to Ginzburg, described in [18], the bed voidage of minimum fluidi-

zation and height of particle layer are calculated by Eq. (36) and Eq. (37).
εmf ¼ ε0 � 10% (36)

Hmf ¼ H0 � 10% (37)
McCabe et al. proposed εmf = 0.4 ÷ 0.45 for the spherical particle [24]. The bed
voidage of minimum fluidization particle layers was 0.5 (εmf = 0.5) for larger
particle size. The bed voidage is equal to 1.0 (εt = 1.0) when the particle layers are
attracted to the gas stream (see position C in Figure 2).
94
Figure 3.
Model for determination of the minimum fluidization velocity. 1. Centrifugal fan; 2. air heater; 3. thermometer
for surface particle temperature measurement; 4. pitot tube for measurement of dynamic pressure and total
pressure of air; 5. U-manometer; 6. chamber of fluidization; 7. air distributor; 8. drying air inlet.
2.2 Physical model of experiment
Experimental arrangement of determining the minimum fluidization velocity is

shown in Figure 3.
In order to gradually increase the bed surface velocity of hot air via the particle
layers, the air fan (1) is equipped with an inverter to change the rotation of the fan
motor.
2.3 Experimental equipment
The instruments in experiments include a moisture analyzer (Axis AGS100,

Germany), measurement error 0.01%; a digital electronic scale (Satorius MA45,
Germany), measurement error 0.001 g; an air velocity meter (Extech SDL350
Taiwan), measurement error 0.01 m/s and a digital thermometer (WIKA
CTH6300, Germany), measurement accuracy 0.001°C. This instrument has two
measuring rate modes including fast at 4/s and slow at 1/s; an inclined manometer
(T10, UK), measured range is 0–280 mmwg with error 0.1% and a pitot pipe
(PT6300, 304 Germany), measurement range is 0–400 mmwg with error 0.1%.
For measurement on the bulk density and density of refined salt particles, we used
instruments such as Graduated pipet, buret, graduated cylinder, all of them made in
Germany with error measurement 0.01 ml. The HCl acid is used for density
measurement of refined salt particles.
No. Equipment/parts Technical parameter
1 Drying air fan Flow: 0.63 m3/s; total pressure: 1244 Pa; motor power: 2.2 kW
2 Electrical heater Overall dimension (L W H): 600 630 275 mm;

heating power: 1.0 kW; number of heater bars: 6
3 Drying chamber Overall dimension (L W H): 1750 300 350 mm

Fabrication material: SUS304
4 Salt dust settling chamber Overall dimension (L W H): 1750 450 350 mm
Fabrication material: SUS304
Table 3.
The basic parameters of the continuous fluidized bed dryer for experiment by authors.
95
2.4 The materials of refined salt particles
The material of refined salt particles was supplied by a combined hydraulic

separating-washing-grinding machine in the saturated saltwater condition and
which was dried by a continuous centrifugal machines. Samples of refined salt were
randomly taken at different sizes at Vinh Hao salt company in Binh Thuan
Province, Bac Lieu salt company and Sea salt Research Center of Vietnam for
analysis (Table 3) [14].
3. Results and discussions
The above section presented nine methods to calculate minimum fluidization

velocity based on the physical parameters of particles and physical thermal param-
eters of gas stream. These parameters were obtained from experiments in combi-
nation with the correlation calculation or empirical formulas.
In order to have the basis of comparison and accuracy evaluation of each calcu-
lating method in comparison with the empirical method, the theoretical calculation
was carried out for refined salt particles with diameters of 1.5 mm, 1.2 mm, 0.9 mm,
0.6 mm and 0.3 mm. On the other hand, to achieve empirical result, samples of
dried refined salt particles (of which mean-diameter was determined) were taken
randomly from a combined hydraulic-separating-washing-crushing machine,
presenting various particle sizes of the raw material that was put in the dryer.
3.1 Results of theoretical and empirical calculations for determining Vmf of

refined salt particles
3.1.1 Some primary conditions for determining the Vmf by theoretical calculations
When calculating the pressure drop across a refined salt particle layer, we relied
on the empirical results of physical parameters of particles and air (summarized in
Table 4). Specific notes for each calculating method are as follows:
a. Calculation based on Ergun equations and correlations of pressure
Applying to calculate the minimum fluidization velocity (Vmf) for refined salt
particles with the fixed bed height (H0) is 30 mm, the bed voidage (ε0) is 0.5
using Eqs. (35) and (36) to find out the minimum fluidization state including
Hmf = 1.1 H0 = 33 mm; bed voidage εmf = 1.1 ε0 = 0.56. Using the spherical
degree value of refined salt particle is 0.71 (ϕ = 0.71) and other parameters
were taken from the Table 5 which described in Bui (2009). Then we use the
Ergun equations to calculate the minimum fluidization velocity. It is
recommended that Remf had no limit [13–15].
b. Calculation based on the correlation between (Remf), (Ar) and Kozeny-Carman
In these two calculation methods, the parameters in the calculations are taken
from the empirical results according to Table 5.
c. Determination of the (Vmf) value according to Wen and Yu
According to Wen and Yu methods, the bed voidage of the refined salt
particle layer at minimum fluidization state (εmf) was unknown, but we had
96
97
Determination of the minimum fluidization velocity according to theoretical and empirical methods
No dh Minimum fluidization velocity

(mm)
Ergun Re andAr Ko and Ca Wen and Yu Gedar Go Todes Leva Kunii and Levenspiel Empirical methods
1 1.65 1.327 0.939 3.149 0.5414 0.45 1.1223 1.122 2.362 3.149 0.8
2 1.35 1.094 0.736 2.108 0.4002 0.331 0.9022 0.902 1.581 2.108 0.6
3 1.05 0.826 0.518 1.275 0.2625 0.219 0.6653 0.665 0.956 1.275 0.58
7 0.953 0.731 0.445 1.05 0.2209 0.186 0.586 0.586 0.788 1.05 0.55
4 0.75 0.522 0.298 0.651 0.1416 0.123 0.4188 0.419 0.488 0.651 0.42
5 0.45 0.22 0.115 0.234 0.0524 0.05 0.1863 0.186 0.176 0.234 0.2
6 0.225 0.058 0.029 0.059 0.0132 0.014 0.0537 0.054 0.044 0.059 0.15
The bold values in Table 4 refers to the common average particle size for commercial refined salt in the Vietnamese market.
Table 4.
Theoretical calculation results of minimum fluidization velocity for refined salt particles from equations and empirical correlation formulas of published authors, which compare to the
experimental results of the physical model of author.
Technical parameter Symbol Unit Value Ref.
Refined salt particle diameter dp mm 1.65; 1.35; [13, 14]

1.05; 0.75; [15]
0.45; 0.225
Average diameter of particle dm mm 0.953
Static bed voidage ε0 0.51
Bed voidage in minimum fluidization velocity εmf 0.56

3
Particle density ρp kg/m 2138
3
Bulk density ρb kg/m 982
Spherical degree of particle ϕ 0.71
Gas density (at 160°C) ρf kg/m3 0.815
Dynamic viscosity (at 160°C) μf kg/m.s 2.45 105
Fixed refined salt particle bed height H0 m 30

Note: The particle diameter d = 0.953 is the average diameter of the salt particles.
Table 5.
Physical parameters of refined salt grains and physical air.
the value of spherical degree particle from experiments (see Table 5). We put
the value of spherical degree into Eq. (5) or Eq. (16) and found out the value
of bed voidage (εmf) from which the velocity value of gas passing through the
minimum fluidization particle layer (Vmf) was calculated.
d. Determination of Vmf according to Groshko-Todes
In this method, we also used the results of physical parameters of refined salt
particles and air supplied to the dryer from Table 5 to calculate Ar number.
The Remf is determined by using Eq. 2 and the obtained result was multiplied
by the error coefficient k = 1.2 and it was considered as the result of calcula-
tion of Remf for non-spherical salt particles (described by Lebedev, [21]).
In addition, in Todes method there was another calculation by using Eq.(29) based
on the available results of the minimum fluidization velocity (εmf = 0.4). We put
this value into Eq. (15) and we found out the spherical degree of salt particles
according to correlation given by Wen and Yu. Then we put this value into Eq. (12)
to determine Ar number. By replacing Eq. (29) with the value of Ar number, we
found out Remf, from which we could calculate Vmf value by using Eq. (10).
e. Determination of Vmf by the formula of Beayens-Geldart, Goroshko, Leva,

and Kunii-Levenspiel
The minimum fluidization bed velocity (Vmf) was determined by using

theoretical calculation of formulas of Beayens-Geldart, Goroshko, Leva, and
Kunii-Levenspiel with the available physical parameters of refined salt parti-
cles and gas given in Table 5 [18, 19, 22, 25, 26]. Table 4 shows the calculated
results from the formulas of authors published last time.
3.1.2 Primary conditions for determining Vmf by experimental method
A model in Figure 3 and the other of fluidized bed dryer in Figure 4 was
designed by authors to define the minimum fluidization velocity of refined salt
98
Figure 4.
The model of continuous fluidized bed dryer used in experiments. 1. Air fan; 2. heating chamber; 3. air
supplier; 4. air duct; 5. product outlet; 6. drying chamber; 7. dust separation chamber; 8. inlet feeder; 9. cyclone
dust collector.
particles in experiment. The dryer model was designed with its capacity of 48 kg/
hour, the height of salt particle layer at the static bed was 30 mm (H0 ≥ 30 mm). In
the experiments, the authors determined the minimum fluidization velocity (Vmf)
for refined salt particles with diameter 1.65, 1.35, 1.05, 0.9, 0.65, 0.4 and 0.3 mm.
The experimental results of determination of the minimum fluidization velocity of
the particle layers with the different particle sizes are shown in Table 4. Besides,
these experimental minimum fluidization velocity values were also compared with
results of theoretical models that were published by authors presented in the
methodology part above (Figure 5).
3.2 Discussions
• The obtained values of minimum fluidization velocity (Vmf) calculated by the

Ergun equation and the correlation between Remf number and Ar number for
Figure 5.
Comparison of the minimum fluidization air velocity between calculated values of published authors and
experimental values of the model [14].
99
all particle sizes agreed well with the experimental values. The value of Remf
number varies from 0.3 to 51.7. Particles with sizes dp = 0.225; 0.45 and 0.75
had the tendency for laminar flow.
• The obtained values of minimum fluidization velocity (vmf) determined by the

Kozeny-Carman and Kunii equations for particles with diameter greater than
1 mm (dp > 1 mm) were much larger than experimental values
(Vtmf > > Vemf). While, with particles having diameter smaller than 1 mm
(dp < 1 mm), the result of calculation was nearly equal to the experimental
values. Notably, the void fraction value of the minimum fluidization state from
0.4 to 0.5 (εmf = 0.4–0.5) the calculation result matches the experimental value.
• By using the correlation of Wen and Yu to calculate void fraction at (εmf)

knowing the spherical properties of particle, we obtained values that were much
smaller than the experimental value. The Remf number varied from 0.07 to 21.1.
• When using the correlation between Remf and Ar, the obtained values of
minimum fluidization velocity fit quite well to experimental results. Reynolds
values vary from 0.16 to 36.6.
• The minimum fluidization velocity that was calculated according the

correlation between Remf and Ar number of Beayens and Geldart (Eq. (19))
gave reasonable results.
• The obtained values by using the Goroshko and Todes formula in Eq. (28) were
nearly equal to the experimental values.
• The calculated value of Vmf according to Beayens and Geldart was the lowest in
comparison to other methods.
• The difference between the values of Remf calculated according to Goroshko

and Ergun was lower than 10–20% for particles that lie in the range of Remf
number from 0.28 to 43.7 (Remf = 0.28–43.7). The obtained values of velocity
value (Vmf) for particles with diameter smaller than 0.9 mm (dp < 0.9 mm)
were closer to the experimental value in comparison with particles with
diameter larger than 0.9 mm (dp > 0.9 mm).
• The minimum fluidization velocity that was calculated by Leva formula was
only suitable for particles with diameter smaller than 0.75 mm (dp < 0.75 mm)
and value of Remf number smaller than 10 (Remf < 10). The regime of air flow
through the particle layer is laminar flow.
• The calculation method of the minimum fluidization velocity according to the

Kunii and Levenspiel equations was suitable for particle with diameter
dp = (0.225; 0.45; 0.75 mm) and the results were appropriate under the
conditions Remf < 20, and the calculation result was close to the experimental
value.
3.3 Determination of air velocity through the particle layer at the optimum
fluidization regime (Vof)
The optimal fluidization velocity Vof was in the region from A to C (Figure 2). It
meets the conditions:
100
Vmf < Vhf < Vcf (38)
The air superficial velocity value from A to C (Figure 2) was determined by the
two standard equations as follows:
The air velocity through the solid particle layer at the optimum fluidization
regime (Vof) was calculated according to Fedorov standard (Fe) by Eq. (39) (as
cited in Lebedev [21]), with refined salt particles and drying air parameters taken
from Table 5 (tf = 160°C) [13, 15].
0 � � 11=3
4g ρp � ρ f ρ f
Fe ¼ ϕdp @ A
3μ2f
!1=3
4 � 9:8ð2138 � 0:815Þ0:815
�3
¼ 0:71 � 0:956 � 10 : � �2 ¼ 32 (39)
3: 2:45 � 10�5
According to Ginzburg (1973), Rehf2 was calculated by Eq. (40) [20, 27].
Re hf2 ¼ ð0:19÷0:285Þ Fe1:56 � > Re hf2 ¼ 0:237 � 321:56 ¼ 53 (40)
The homogeneous fluidization velocity (Vhf1) was calculated by Eq. (41).
μ f : Re hf 2:45 � 10�5 � 53
V hf 2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:6m=s (41)
ρ f :dp 0:815 � 0:956 � 10�3
Reynolds value at homogeneous fluidization velocity (Vhf1) was measured

according to Archimedes standard by Eq. (42) [20].
Re hf1 ¼ ð0:22÷0:33Þ � Ar0:52 (42)
where Ar was calculated by Eq. (12):

� � � �3
ρ f ρp � ρ f g ϕdp
Ar ¼
μ2f
Substituting parameters of air and refined salt particles into the Eq. (12),
� � �� 3
9:81 � 0:71 956 � 10�6 � 0:815 � ð 2138 � 0:815 Þ
Ar ¼ � �2 ¼ 8818:4
2:45 � 10�5
The Ar value is 8818.4

Therefore, Rehf1 = 0.275 � (8818.4)0.52 = 66.917 = 31.53.
The homogeneous fluidization velocity (Vhf1) was calculated by Eq. (43).
μ f : Re hf 2:45 � 10�5 � 31:53

V hf 1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:99 m=s (43)
ρ f ϕdp 0:815 � 0:956 � 10�3
Re-calculating the homogeneous fluidization velocity (Vhf1) by using the

experimental equation Eq. (44) [27].
101
From Table 4 for the specific case: Vmf = 0.55 m/s and particle diameter was
0.953 mm.
Vhf1 ¼ ð2÷3Þ � Vmf ¼ ð2÷3Þ � 0:56 ¼ ð1:12÷1:68Þ m=s (44)
Both Vhf1 and Vhf2 met the conditions of the Eq. (38). Selecting the optimum
velocity Vof:
Vof ¼ ðVhf1 þ Vhf2 Þ=2 ¼ ð0:99 þ 1:66Þ=2 ¼ 1:33 m=s
Re-calculating the standard Reynolds number at reasonable fluidization state

(Reof) under the condition of optimum fluidization velocity (Vof = 1.33 m/s)
μ f : Re of
V of ¼ (45)
ρ f :dp
or
� �
ϕdp ρ f V of 0:71 0:956 � 10�3 0:815 � 1:33
Re of ¼ ¼ ¼ 30
μf 2:45 � 10�5
The value of optimum Reynolds number (Reof) was 30 (Reof = 30).

The void fraction of the particle layer at the reasonable fluidization state
was determined by the Zabrodski formula (Eq. 46) (described in Lebedev, [21]).
!0:21 !0:21
18 Re ohf þ 0:36 Re 2ohf 18 � 30 þ 0:36ð30Þ2
εhf 1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:61 (46)
Ar 8818:4
Rehf2 could be recalculated according to the correlation between Rehf2 and Ar

Eq. (47).
Re hf 2 ¼ ð0:22÷0:33ÞAr0:52 ¼ 0:275 � ð8818:4Þ0:52 ¼ 31 (47)
Substituting value of Rehf2 into Eq. (46), we re-calculated the homogeneous

fluidization void fraction (εhf) by Eq. (48).
!0:21 !0:21
18 Re hf þ 0:36 Re 2hf 18 � 31 þ 0:36ð31Þ2
εhf 2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:62 (48)
Ar 8818:4
These two calculation methods generated almost identical results.
3.4 Calculation of the critical air velocity flowing through the fluidization
particle layer
In order to have a basis for determining the reasonable dimension of separating

chamber of fluidized bed dryer (the chamber was located above the fluidization
particle drying tank) and to limit removal of materials from the drying chamber, we
defined the theoretical critical velocity (also called the final velocity).
102
From the calculation result of Remf of the minimum fluidization state

(Remf = 10.032), this parameter of the air stream through the particle layer in the
transition flow was in range 1 < Remf < 500.
According to the equation of Haider and Levenspiel (described in
Wen-ChingYang) [28, 29], the critical velocity was calculated by Eq. (49).
2 � � 31=2
4 ρp � ρ f g � �1=2
4 5 4ð2138 � 0:815Þ9:81
V cf ¼ ϕdp ¼ 0:71 � 0:953 (49)
3ρ f CD 3 � 0:815 � CD
With resistance coefficient (CD) (described in Wen-ChingYang) [27, 28] given by
18 18
CD ¼ 3=5
¼ ¼ 4:5 (50)
Re ð10:032Þ3=5
So, the critical velocity at position C (Figure 2) in the specific case had the value:
2 � � 31=2
4 ρp � ρ f g
V cf ¼ 4 ϕdp 5
3ρ f CD
(51)
� �
4ð2138 � 0:815Þ � 9:81 � � 1=2
¼ 0:71 � 956 � 10�6 ¼ 2:3m=s
3 � 0:815 � 4:5
In fact, during the drying process, to ensure the drying productivity and quality,
the dryer operator must observe the fluidization particle layer and adjust the inlet
doors of drying air capacity at appropriate the air velocity value in the range from A
to C (Figure 2) and the correlation of velocity types Vmf < Vhf < Vcf.
We re-calculated the void fraction of particle layer with average particle diame-
ter dp = ϕdm = 0.953 mm at the theoretical critical velocity in fluidization particle
layer condition.
ϕdp :ρ f :V of
Re � calculating Re cf : Re cf ¼ (52)
μf
Substituting the above value into Eq. (52), we get:

� �
0:71 � 956 � 10�6 � 0:815 � 2:3
Re cf ¼ ¼ 0:53:
2:4 � 10�5
Using Eq. (46) to re-calculate the void fraction of particle layer at the complete
fluidization state:
!0:21 !0:21
18 Re cf þ 0:36 Re 2cf 18 � 53 þ 0:36 � ð53Þ2
εtf ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:73
Ar 8818:4
When the void fraction of particle layer was 1 (ε = 1), the fluidization particle
layer turned to the transport regime in the air stream (called pneumatic
transportation).
103
4. Conclusions
Most of the used correlations in the calculations and the formulas given by the
authors, as mentioned above, were derived from the experiments with temperature
close to the ambient temperature. So, when we use them in calculations in specific
cases, they should consider the accuracy. The extrapolation should be used in the
cases of the states at the temperature higher than the ambient temperature.
The mentioned theoretical calculations show the necessity for the determining
of the minimum fluidization velocity of the solid particle layer with high accuracy.
The sphericity of particle and void fraction of the particle layer were often not
known, therefore it is required to get their values from the range of experimental
variables. Empirically, the void fraction of the particles in the minimum fluidization
layer at the ambient temperature is not the same as that in the increasing gas
temperature.
The best method to determine the minimum fluidization velocity is to conduct
the experiments. Firstly, we directly measured the pressure drop across the particle
layer when the air velocity gradually decreased. Secondly, we built the graphs and
read the results of the minimum fluidization velocity value.
However, if we were forced to find out the fluidization velocity without carrying
out experiments to measure the pressure drop across the particle layer, the best way
would be to determine the void fraction at the minimum fluidization velocity. Then
we calculated the spherical property of the particle using the Ergun equations or
correlation between Ar and Remf in Eqs. (10)–(12) to count out the minimum air
velocity through the particle fluidization layer. This velocity value also had accuracy
close to the experimental one.
The average particle diameter considered spherical degree of the particles of
different sizes was 953 μm (dm = 953 μm). This diameter represented the size of the
particles in dry grinding technology with the hammer crusher. It is also in the
common size distribution range of the combined washing-grinding hydraulic-sepa-
ration technology in Vietnam’s market. Besides, the particle diameter of 953 μm
(dp = 953 μm) is also used in calculating the value of all types of velocity, charac-
terized for the medium particle size of the refined salt production technology in
Vietnam.
We calculated the values of three characteristic velocity types of fluidized bed
drying for particles with average size dm = dp = 953 μm, including the minimum
fluidization velocity Vmf = 0.55 m/s with void fraction εmf = 0.56; reasonable fluid-
ization velocity Vhf = 1.33 m/s corresponding to the void fraction of particle layer
εhf = 0.615; and the critical velocity of the air flow through the particle bulk
Vcf = 2.3 m/s with the void fraction value of fluidization particle layer εcf = 0.73.
In fact, during the drying process, to ensure the drying productivity and quality,
the dryer operator must observe the fluidization particle layer and adjust the inlet
doors of drying air capacity at appropriate air velocity value in the range from A to
C (Figure 2) to make sure the correlation of velocity types Vmf < Vhf < Vcf.
Nomenclature
A cross sectional area of the bed

m2 area for gas distribution
H height of the bed, m
Ar Archimedes number, dimensionless
H0 initial bed height, m
104
ε0 void fraction at static particle layer

Hmf minimum fluidization bed height, m
εmf void fraction at minimum fluidization particle layer
ΔP pressure drop across the bed, N/m2
εhf void fraction at homogeneous fluidization particle layer
Re Reynolds number
εtf terminal void fraction
Remf Reynolds number at the minimum fluidization velocity
Rehf Reynolds number at the homogeneous fluidization velocity
dp spherical particle diameter, m
ϕdm equivalent spherical mean diameters, m
Recf Reynolds number at the fluidization terminal velocity
ϕ sphericity degree, dimensionless
Reof Reynolds number at the optimum fluidization velocity
Fe Fedorov standard, dimensionless
V bed surface velocity or superficial velocity, m/s
g acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
Vmf minimum fluidization velocity, m/s
ρp solid particle density, kg/m3
Vtmf theoretical minimum fluidization velocity, m/s
ρb particle bulk density, kg/m3
Vemf experimental minimum fluidization velocity, m/s
ρf air density, kg/m3
Vhf homogeneous fluidization velocity, m/s
Kcc Kozeny-Carman coefficient
Vohf optimum homogeneous fluidization velocity, m/s
mp mass of particles, kg
Vcf terminal velocity or critical velocity, m/s
mb mass of particles bulk, kg
μ air dynamic viscosity, kg/ms
Ss specific surface area, cm1, cm2/g
U cubic volume of particle layer, m3
W weight of particle, mass, N
Author details
Bui Trung Thanh1* and Le Anh Duc2*
1 Industrial University of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
2 Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
*Address all correspondence to:

buitrungthanh@iuh.edu.vn and leanhduc@hcmuaf.edu.vn
105
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Section 3
Novel Drying
Technologies
109
Chapter 6
The Study of Fabric Drying

Using Direct-Contact Ultrasonic
Vibration
Chang Peng and Saeed Moghaddam
Abstract
Our existing cloth drying technology is an energy-intensive process, which

generally involves blowing hot air across tumbling wet fabrics to facilitate evapo-
ration and moisture removal. To address the relatively low energy efficiency of
existing cloth drying techniques, in this chapter, a totally new cloth drying technol-
ogy is introduced, which uses high frequency ultrasonic vibrations generated by
piezoelectric transducer instead of thermal heating to extract moisture in cloth as a
cold mist, dramatically reducing drying time and energy consumption. The physi-
cal mechanism of ultrasonic fabric drying process in direct-contact mode is first
studied. A novel ultrasonic transducer driving method, in which the power supply
to the transducer is regulated by a binary modulating signal, is then developed for
use in direct-contact ultrasonic drying of fabrics. A demonstration unit is finally
fabricated to show the efficacy of the process and its energy saving compared to
thermal drying process.
Keywords: fabric drying, energy efficiency, ultrasonic vibration,

ultrasonic transducer, physical mechanism
1. Introduction
Clothes dryers offer a rapid means to dry laundry in households but consume
substantial residential electricity. Clothes dryers are the second largest source of resi-
dential energy use in a household following water heater [1]. Every year the operation
of clothes dryers in the United States consumes as much electricity as does the entire
state of Massachusetts (60 billion kWh per year) [2]. The demand of clothes dryers in
U.S. has increased by nearly 6% over the last decade. Until 2009, 80% of U.S. house-
holds had a clothes dryer and 80% of them are electric clothes dryers, the remaining
being gas dryers [3]. Although a set of technologies such as air-vented dryers and heat
pump dryers have been introduced to the market, the energy efficiency of clothes
dryers has not been improved significantly over the last 20 years.
In the current clothes dryer architecture, the clothes dry by passing hot air over
the wet fabric. The state of the art for clothes drying technology involves mechani-
cal (centrifugal) water extraction in the washing machine followed by thermal
drying in a dryer. The moisture initially extracted by the washing machine reduces
the remaining moisture in the clothes to ~50% of the dry weight [4]. The clothes are
then placed in a dryer drum, where the remaining moisture is removed by circulat-
ing heated air through them. Thermal water removal from clothes in all existing
111
Dryer type Average drying time Energy factor

(min) (lb/kWh)
Electric standard (≥4.4 ft3 capacity) [3] 40 3.73

3
Electric compact (120 V, ≤4.4 ft capacity) [3] 40 3.61
3
Electric compact (240 V, ≤4.4 ft capacity) [3] 35 3.27
Gas standard [3] 35 3.30
Heat pump [2] 82 7.6
Table 1.
Average clothes drying time and energy factor (EF) values for different types of commercialized clothes dryers.
dryer technologies [3, 5–10] (including heat, heat pump, vacuum, or microwave
drying) requires a heat source to provide a latent heat of evaporation of about
2.5 MJ/kg water. The heat source for a dryer can be electric resistance, natural gas
and/or an electric heat pump.
The metrics to measure the drying efficiency of a clothes dryer is called energy
factor (EF), which commonly has three different types of definitions, depend-
ing on how the drying effect is qualified: (1) the mass of moisture removed per
energy consumption; (2) the mass of cloth dried per energy consumption; or (3)
the latent heat of moisture removed per energy consumption. In the United States,
the Department of Energy standard of EF measures the mass of cloth (saturated to
certain water content) that can be dried per unit of electricity consumed (lb/kWh)
[3]. For gas dryers, it measures the pounds of clothes being dried per equivalent
kilowatt-hour of natural gas consumed. Here, we focus on EF (lb/kWh) which is
commonly used in the United States. Table 1 summarizes the EF values for the typi-
cal types of existing clothes dryers.
Recently, for the first time, we have introduced a totally new cloth drying
technology and are collaborating with Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL)
researchers to develop the world’s first direct-contact ultrasonic cloth dryer that
could potentially change the concept of residential heat-drying technology [11–15].
This novel approach uses high-frequency mechanical vibrations generated by piezo-
electric ceramics instead of heat to extract moisture as a cold mist, dramatically
reducing drying time and energy use. On the basis of inverse piezoelectric effect,
when an electric field is applied in the polarization direction of piezoelectric ceram-
ics, the ceramics will produce mechanical deformation in a certain direction. When
a high frequency electric field is applied, the piezoelectric transducer generates
acoustic vibration. If the oscillation frequency is larger than 20 kHz, it generates
ultrasonic waves that propagate through its surrounding media [12, 16]. Coming to
the studies reported on ultrasonic cloth drying per se, to our knowledge, Khmelev
et al. [17, 18] is the only paper on this topic. However, a non-contact technique was
used in their study, making our study unique and the first of its kind.
This study will address the feasibility of adopting the ultrasonic technique for
cloth drying with the objective of achieving lower power consumption and process
duration compared to the existing energy-intensive, thermal-based clothes dryers.
2. Experimental setup and method
A schematic of the experimental setup for studying both the water droplet
atomization and the fabric drying process is shown in Figure 1. The setup mainly
consists of six components: an ultrasonic transducer, a function generator, a power
112
Figure 1.
Schematic representation of the experimental setup for droplet atomization and fabric drying studies [11].
Figure 2.
Experimental setup for fabric drying study [11].
Transducer Working diameter (mm) Resonant frequency (kHz) Type
A 20 1600 Piezo crystal
B 50 1060 Piezo crystal
C 4.2 135 Metal mesh
Table 2.
Parameters of transducers tested in this study [11].
amplifier, a high-speed camera, an infrared (IR) camera and a microbalance with a

resolution of 0.1 mg for measuring the fabric weights. An image of the experimen-
tal setup is provided in Figure 2.
The detailed characteristics of the transducers tested in this study are summarized
in Table 2. Transducer A and B are traditional piezoelectric transducers, the work-
ing surfaces of which consist of a piezoelectric ceramic, as shown in Figure 3a–b.
Transducer C is a metal mesh-based transducer, which consists of a thin metal mesh
sandwiched between two piezoelectric rings (Figure 3c) that vibrate the mesh. If
a water droplet is in direct contact with the mesh surface, the metal mesh–based
transducers allow water to pass through the mesh.
For the water droplet atomization study, a water droplet of a specified volume
was deployed at the center of the transducer by using a micro-pipette. The atomiza-
tion process was monitored using the high-speed camera at a frame rate of 3600
113
Figure 3.
Images of the transducers used in this study: (a) transducer A, (b) transducer B, and (c) transducer C [11].
Figure 4.
Scanning electron microscope images of the two DOE fabrics [11].
frames per second. The camera line of view was normal to the vibrating surface,
thus providing top-view images of the atomizing droplets (Figure 1) [11]. During
the water droplet atomization process, the IR camera was also used to monitor the
droplet and transducer temperature changes. It was mounted in the same way as the
high-speed camera. Trials were performed with the following values of the initial
droplet volume: 10, 50, and 100 μL.
In the studies, two kinds of US Department of Energy (DOE) standard fabrics
(hereinafter called F-1 and F-2) were tested. The SEM images of the fabrics are
shown in Figure 4. As can be seen from Figure 4, F-1 has larger major pore sizes
than F-2. Details on the contents, thicknesses and densities for these two fabrics can
be found in Ref. [11].
In the studies, the microbalance, AL104, with an error of 0.1 mg was used to
measure the weight of the saturated and unsaturated fabric samples to determine
the volume of water remaining in the fabric. Prior to the drying test, the dry fabric
was placed on the transducer and the weight of this system was measured on the
microbalance. After this measurement, the fabric was wet with a known volume
of water. The transducer was then actuated to begin the drying process. After 5 s
elapsed, the transducer was turned off and the weight of the transducer-fabric
system was measured. Immediately after this measurement, the fabric was com-
pletely dried by heating it to 80°C. The fabric was then rewet and the weight of
the transducer-fabric system was measured after actuating the transducer for 10 s.
The fabric was then completely dried. In this manner, the weight of an initially
saturated transducer-fabric system was measured after actuating the transducer in
increments of 5–10 s, with the fabric dried after each measurement. For each time
114
interval, the tests were repeated for at least three times. The measurements were
recorded until the weight of the transducer-fabric system was less than 5% of the
initially saturated system. This method of determining the drying rate of fabrics
was repeated for the two fabrics on the three transducers.
3. Ultrasonic atomization of water droplet
Figure 5 illustrates the high-speed images recorded during the atomization of

a 10 μL water droplet on transducer A. A qualitative analysis of these images can
provide clues to the kinetics of the atomization process. In the initial stage after the
transducer was turned on, the oscillations of the transducer surface were trans-
mitted to the surface of the droplet resulting in the formation of capillary waves
(Figure 5b). As time progressed, the capillary waves grew to form surface liga-
ments (Figure 5c), followed by the atomization of droplet (Figure 5d–j), which
the droplet broke up via ejection of secondary droplets. The atomization of the
droplet exhibited a very chaotic dynamic. In addition to the production of fine mist
from the droplet surface, the droplet was observed to spread and deform during
the process. [11].
The observed kinematics of droplet atomization can be explained by analyzing
the relative magnitudes of the oscillation force (Fo) and surface tension force (Fs)
influencing the process [11]. Assuming that the droplet forms a half-sphere on the
transducer surface (Figure 6), the scale of Fo applied on the water droplet (droplet
mass, m drop, and density, ρ) can be presented as,
1 πd 3 𝜌𝜌A ω 2
F0 ~ m drop A ω 2 ~ _ (1)
12
where A and ω are the vibration amplitude and angular frequency (ω = 2𝜋𝜋f),
respectively. On the other hand, the scale of the surface tension force (Fs) experi-
enced by the droplet surface can be presented as [19],
Fs = 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎dcos𝜃𝜃 (2)
where σ is the liquid surface tension which is temperature (Τ) dependent; d is

the droplet diameter which varies with time (t); and θ represents the contact angle
formed at the liquid–solid interface.
Figure 5.
Different regimes of droplet atomization process on transducer A: (a) unperturbed droplet, (b) capillary wave
regime, (c) ligament regime, and (d)–(j) catastrophic drop breakup and atomization [11].
115
Figure 6.
Schematic of a water droplet on a vibrated transducer surface.
The relative magnitude of Fo and Fs can be expressed as,

F d 2 𝜌𝜌A ω 2
R ~ _0 ~ _ (3)
Fs 12𝜎𝜎cos𝜃𝜃
For a 10 μL water droplet on transducer A (Figure 5a), Fo > Fs (i.e. R > 1) when
the transducer was turned on. This caused the liquid–vapor interface to rupture
(leading to atomization), reducing the droplet radius (r) and R. The atomization
continued with time until Fs > Fo (at a critical volume), at which point, the atomiza-
tion process ceased.
During the ultrasonic droplet atomization process, the droplet temperature was
also changed due to the viscous dissipation of continuous vibration. And as illus-
trated in Eq. 3, the surface tension of the droplet (σ) is temperature (T) dependent.
Higher the droplet temperature, lower the surface tension will be. The lower surface
tension will result in the lower surface tension force (Fs) (Eq. 3). In the following
section, the temperature changes on the two types of transducers, piezoelectric
crystal transducer and metal mesh transducer, were studied during the droplet
atomization process.
Three different volumes of water, 10, 50, and 100 μL, were tested on transduc-
ers A, B and C. The thermal responses of these droplets were recorded using the IR
camera and the maximum liquid temperature was extracted from this data. Figure 7
presents the temporal variations in the maximum temperatures of these droplets on
transducers. The x-axis represents a non-dimensional time (t*) defined as
t∗ = _t (4)
t0
where t0 represents the total duration of time that was recorded using the IR
camera (Tables 3 and 4).
As can be seen from Figure 7a, the temperature for 10 μL droplet varied little
immediately after the transducer A was actuated. The temperature went up to
Figure 7.
The maximum temperature of liquid on the surface of (a) transducer A, (b) transducer B and (c) transducer
C, extracted from the IR images recorded during liquid atomization [11].
116
Initial volume (μL) Process time, to (s)
Transducer A Transducer B Transducer C

10 3.29 157.33 31.83
50 3.23 248.67 —
100 2.43 265.00 —
Table 3.
Summary of the total process time for different droplet volumes on transducers A, B and C [11].
Droplet volume (μL) Non-dimensional time (t*) Threshold temperature (°C)
10 0.13 67.4
50 0.05 57.5
100 0.04 46.3
Table 4.
Threshold temperature and non-dimensional time at which atomization was induced on transducer B [11].
the peak value and then went down sharply. After that process, the temperature
increased again and then kept stable. However, for 50 and 100 μL droplet, the
temperature just showed the increase in the whole process in Figure 7a. And the
maximum temperature was much smaller than that of the 10 μL droplet on trans-
ducer A. As discussed before, Fo > Fs, the droplets could be burst out on transducer
A immediately after the transducer was actuated. Meanwhile, the temperature on
transducer A kept stable in this tiny time interval as shown in Figure 7a. After that
the temperature increased due to the viscous dissipation.
For the transducer B in Figure 7b, Fo < Fs when the transducer was turned on,
the water droplet just vibrated continuously on the transducer B. And because of
viscous energy dissipation, the temperature of the droplet went up quickly during
the droplet vibrations as shown in Figure 7b. When the temperature on transducer
B reached a peak value, the droplet on transducer B began to break up. As discussed
before, this was because the surface tension of water (σ) decreased with the increase
of temperature (T) and Fs < Fo. Meanwhile, when the secondary droplets were burst
out, the temperature on transducer B decreased continuously.
For the droplet 10 μL on the transducer C, Fo > Fs when the transducer was
turned on, large amounts of droplets were jetted out. At this small time interval the
temperature on transducer C kept stable, which was similar to the thermal response
of the 10 μL droplet on transducer A.
4. Ultrasonic drying behavior of fabric under continuous driving
The baseline dewatering time of fabrics was determined by thermally dry-

ing two different saturated fabrics (F-1 and F-2) with the size 4 × 4 mm2 at 80°C
(Figure 8). The saturation volumes for the 4 × 4 mm2 fabrics, F-1 and F-2, were
~6.45 and ~8.55 μL respectively. It was observed that the water content in a given
fabric (via thermal evaporation) varied linearly with time (Figure 8), since it was
directly related to the amount of water stored in the fabric.
Figure 9 demonstrates the drying characteristics of saturated fabrics F-1 and
F-2 on transducers A, B, and C. The fabric size was selected such that the sample
area did not exceed the working area of the transducers. It was seen that water
117
Figure 8.
Thermal drying behavior of two different fabrics [11].
Figure 9.
Drying behavior of different types of fabric on (a) transducer A, (b) transducer B, and (c) transducer C [11].
shedding via ultrasonic excitation dewatered fabrics quicker than thermal

drying (Figure 8), with up to an 82% reduction in drying time for fabric F-1 on
transducer C. The data in Figure 9 show that the drying curve for each fabric
on transducers A and C consist of two distinct regions (indicated by the
arrows in Figure 9):
• An initial region where the water content in the fabric decreases non-linearly
with time;
• A second region where the water content in the fabric decreases linearly
with time.
These two regions of the drying curve arise due to the impact of the two major
forces involved in the water shedding process—the oscillation force (Fo) and the
surface tension force (Fs). There are two kinds of pores in the fabrics: the large pores
between the fabric threads and the small pores within the fabric threads (Figure 4).
Due to the pore size distribution in the fabric, the surface tension force (Fs) in the
fabric spans a range of values—large pores in the fabric generate low Fs while small
118
pores generate large Fs. At t* = 0, the oscillation force generated by the transducer
surface (Fo) was sufficiently large to overcome the surface tension forces (Fs) in the
larger pores of the fabric, resulting in rapid shedding of water from these pores. The
shedding of a large fraction of water via ultrasonic excitation resulted in a non-linear
decrease in the fabric water content. The fraction of water shedding in this region
was dictated by the fraction of pores in the fabric with Fo > Fs, with the amount of
water shedding increasing as the number of such pores increase. Based on the data
presented in Figure 9, it can be deduced that fabric F-1 consist of a larger fraction
of pores with Fo > Fs than fabric F-2, resulting in a greater decrease in water content
during the initial non-linear phase. This conclusion can also get the evidence from
Figure 4, which fabric F-2 shows denser structure and smaller pores compared with
fabric F-1. At the end of the non-linear phase, the only pores containing liquid were
those with Fs > Fo. The continued excitation of the transducer surface caused the
temperature of liquid trapped in these pores to rise via viscous dissipation without
shedding water from the fabric. This response was similar to the thermal response of
droplets observed when Fs > Fo. The increase in temperature of the liquid (and the
fabric) induced thermal evaporation from the fabric, which caused a linear decrease
in the fabric water content (similar to the trend presented in Figure 8).
Here, the kinematics of fabric drying on transducer B were similar to those of
droplet atomization, where Fs > Fo at t* = 0. Therefore, the primary response of the
liquid upon excitation was thermal, and the fabric temperature rapidly increased due to
viscous dissipation. However, since the surface tension force (Fs) in the fabric was much
greater than that of the 10 μL droplet, the increase in temperature did not cause Fs to
decrease below Fo. Therefore, ultrasonic drying was not induced on this transducer,
resulting in the absence of a non-linear drying region. Compared with the thermal
drying curves for different fabrics (Figure 8), it also indicates that the water shedding
on transducer B was primarily driven by thermal evaporation. As in the case of thermal
drying, the drying time of the F-1 fabric was shorter than that of the F-2 fabric.
In addition, the drying data suggest that a larger volume of water was shed from
the fabric during the nonlinear regime on transducer C than on transducer A and,
overall, fabrics dried more quickly on transducer C than on transducer A and B.
5. Ultrasonic drying behavior of fabric under burst-mode driving
A simple analysis of the dynamics of the contact between the fabric and ultra-
sonic transducer during the fabric drying process illustrates that the transducer does
not need to be constantly on to obtain the same drying effect. As the transducer
vibrates, it pushes the fabric upward. The fabric loses contact with the surface of
the transducer. After some time, the fabric falls back onto the transducer due to the
gravity. During the time when there is no contact between the fabric and the trans-
ducer, power is consumed with no contribution to the fabric drying [12]. Therefore,
power can be supplied to the transducer in bursts rather than continuously without
affecting the drying process, which can increase the energy efficiency.
The drying behavior of fabric F-1 at different duty cycles for a given modulat-
ing frequency on transducer C is presented in Figure 10. The fabric size was fixed
at 4 × 4 mm2 and the initial water mass was 10 mg. The modulating frequency in
Figure 10a–b is 100 and 1000 Hz, respectively. The drying behavior of the fabric
with the modulating signal added keeps the same with the drying behavior of
the fabric without modulating signal (represented by “No DC” in Figure 10), as
illustrated in Figure 10. The total drying time increased from 20 to 30 s when the
duty cycle was 20%. However, when the duty cycle was 40%, the drying time was
25 s and was 5 s less than the total drying time when the duty cycle was 20%, as
119
Figure 10.
Effect of duty cycle (DC) on the drying curves of fabric F-1 on transducer C. Modulating frequency: (a) 100 Hz
and (b) 1000 Hz [12].
illustrated in Figure 10(a). Increasing the duty cycle from 20 to 60% did not sig-
nificantly affect the total drying time of the non-linear region of the drying curve.
However, the slope of the linear region of the drying curve changed when the duty
cycle was below 40%, resulting in an increase in the drying time.
When the transducer was turned on, because the ultrasonic excitation force of
transducer C was much larger than the surface tension force of water in the large pores
(i.e., R > 1), regardless of the duty cycle, the water accumulated in the large pores
could be ejected quickly. However, water accumulated in the small pores experienced
a larger surface tension force than the ultrasonic excitation force (R < 1). Therefore,
the non-linear region of the drying behavior corresponded to water removal from
the large pores while the linear region corresponded to drying in the small pores. In
addition, in Figure 10(a), it illustrates that adding the duty cycle did not change the
nonlinear region of the drying process, but it changed the linear region of the drying
process. This is also because the water embedded in the larger pores was easier to be
atomized immediately after the transducer was actuated. As illustrated in
Figure 10(a), compared with the drying time in the nonlinear region, the drying time
of the linear region was 3 times of that in the nonlinear region which there was no
duty cycle added although the water percentage in the linear region was just 25% of
the nonlinear region. For the duty cycle added, the linear region took even longer time
compared with no duty cycle added. This is because the power in this situation was not
continuously turned on and was determined by the duty cycle. The water in the fibers
was even harder to be taken out by the atomization effect than the situation when there
was no duty cycle. From the above analysis, it can be concluded that the duty cycle did
not affect the water accumulated in the larger pores, but it affected the water accumu-
lated in the small pores. These conclusions can also be arrived from Figure 10(b).
As can be seen from Figure 10, it illustrates that when the duty cycle increased from
20 to 40%, the drying time decreased. The drying time also changed when the duty
cycle kept the same but the modulation frequency changed. Such as, when the duty cycle
was 20%, the drying time was 30 s at 100 Hz modulation frequency, but at 1000 Hz
modulation frequency the drying time was 25 s. Therefore, both the duty cycle and
modulation frequency of the modulating signal affected the drying time of the fabric.
The effects of different duty cycles and modulating frequencies on the drying
time of a 4 × 4 mm2 swatch of fabric F-1 on transducer C is presented in Figure 11a.
The initial water mass was fixed at 10 mg. At a 100% duty cycle, the drying time was
20 s, irrespective of modulating frequency (Figure 11a). This value is identical to the
drying time obtained when the transducer was continuously driven. The results here
120
demonstrate that the drying time cannot be decreased by changing the duty cycle;
however, the power consumed by the transducer can be lowered by doing so [12].
To understand the effects of duty cycle and modulating frequency on fabric
drying times, the drying time of a 5 × 5 mm2 swatch of fabric F-1 was also studied
on transducer C. The initial water mass was fixed at 15 mg. The results of these
experiments are presented in Figure 11b. The results demonstrate that reducing
the modulating frequency increased the drying time of fabric [12]. Furthermore,
at a given modulating frequency, the drying time decreased as the duty cycle was
increased up to a duty cycle D0. Increasing the duty cycle beyond this value of D0
did not change the drying time. The results also indicate that the value of D0 is
dependent on the modulating frequency, such that D0 increased as the modulating
frequency decreased. As shown in Figure 11b, D0 = 60% for a modulating frequency
of 1000 Hz, and D0 = 80% for a modulating frequency of 700 Hz. This implies that
at a given modulating frequency, the energy consumption can be reduced without
affecting the drying time by operating the transducer at a duty cycle D0.
Figure 11.
Effects of duty cycle on the drying time of fabric F-1 on transducer C. Fabric size: (a) 4 × 4 mm2 and
(b) 5 × 5 mm2 [12].
Figure 12.
Effects of modulating frequency on the drying time for fabric F-1 on transducer C. Fabric size: (a) 4 × 4 mm2
and (b) 5 × 5 mm2 [12].
121
The effects of modulating frequency on the drying time of a 4 × 4 and a 5 × 5 mm2

swatch of fabric F-1 on transducer C are presented in Figure 12a–b. The initial water
mass for the 4 × 4 and 5 × 5 mm2 pieces of fabric were 10 and 15 mg, respectively.
As seen in Figure 12a, since the difference of drying times at different modula-
tion frequencies were relatively small, such as for the duty cycle 40%, the drying
time at 100 Hz modulating frequency was 25 s and at 1000 Hz modulating fre-
quency the drying time was 20 s, the drying time kept the same at certain modulat-
ing frequency. But following that modulating frequency, the drying time decreased
linearly with the increase of the modulating frequency. Also, Figure 12b illustrates
that the drying time reduced with the increase of modulating frequency. These
conclusions can also be derived from the data in Figure 11.
6. Energy efficiency analysis
The EF (EF100–20%) values for the drying of fabric F-1 at different drying
conditions were compared (Table 5). The duty cycle and modulating frequency
corresponding to each drying condition are shown in Table 5. Drying type A refers
to fabric F-1 drying on transducer A; drying types C1–C5 refer to fabric F-1 drying
Drying Duty cycle (%) Modulating frequency EF100–20% (lb/kWh)

types (Hz)
A Continuous driving mode 0.27
C1 Continuous driving mode 2.79
C2 10 100 19.01
C3 10 400 19.01
C4 10 700 26.61
C5 10 1000 44.35
Table 5.
Comparison of energy factors (EF) for drying fabric F-1 at different drying conditions [12].
Figure 13.
(a) A mid-scale press type ultrasonic clothes dryer, and (b) its energy consumption data at different initial
water content [11].
122
on transducer C. As illustrated in Figures 11 and 12, the drying time for fabric F-1
dropped with an increase in the modulating frequency and duty cycle up to D0. The
EF100–20% values at different modulating frequencies with the duty cycle fixed at
10% (shortest duty cycle in the tests) were calculated and compared with continu-
ous transducer driving (Table 5). The values in Table 5 show that EF100–20% values
for the new drying method with modulating signals are about 7–16 times greater
than those for continuous transducer driving.
A mid-scale press type ultrasonic cloth dryer was designed and fabricated, for
which the ultrasonic transducer C was utilized due to its best drying performance
among all the three transducers. Figure 13a shows the demonstration unit of this
ultrasonic press dryer, which a shirt size cloth can be dried by this unit. The energy
consumption per unit mass of water content (kJ/g) removed from the fabric by
this ultrasonic press dryer was tested. The energy efficiency of it was compared
with the latent heat of evaporation for water (at ambient temperature and pres-
sure) and the typical electric resistance (ER)-based dryer (Figure 13b). The
results show that the energy efficiency of the ultrasonic drying process is much
higher than the thermal evaporation and ER-based drying method. Compared
with the typical ER-based dryer, the energy efficiency of this ultrasonic press
dryer is more than 10 times higher.
7. Conclusion
In this chapter, high-frequency, direct-contact vibrational drying of fabrics

using ultrasonic transducers have been introduced as a promising technology to
reduce both the drying time and energy consumption of the drying process. The
physical mechanism of fabric drying was comprehensively analyzed. The results
showed that the fabric drying processes consist of nonlinear and linear regimes,
which were dominated by ultrasonic vibration and thermal evaporation, respec-
tively. The electric power could be supplied to ultrasonic transducer in burst mode
rather than continuously, saving energy but not affecting the drying processes.
Operating the transducer on a shorter duty cycle and at a higher modulating
frequency was more energy-efficient for fabric drying. Based on the initial tests on
a press type ultrasonic clothes dryer, this direct-contact ultrasonic drying technique
showed energy efficiency more than 10 times higher than a typical electrical resis-
tance dryer, and 5 times higher than the latent heat of evaporation at water content
greater than 20%.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to express sincere gratitude to Prof. Saeed Moghaddam in
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Florida, for
his support during the research work in University of Florida.
The author also would like to acknowledge support from Oak Ridge National
Laboratory for its assistance.
Conflict of interest
The author declares that there are no affiliations with or involvement in any
organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the
subject matter or material discussed in this manuscript.
123
Author details
Chang Peng* and Saeed Moghaddam

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Florida,
Gainesville, FL, USA
*Address all correspondence to: chang.peng@ufl.edu
124
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126
The drying stage is important in biotechnological and chemical processes because

it allows the pretreatment of feedstocks with different moisture contents for their
physical or chemical transformation. Drying also enables the post-treatment of
products for their final presentation and packaging, thus having wide application in
the food, agro-industrial, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries.
Current Drying Processes presents recent advances in the development of drying
operations through the presentation of chapters dealing with theoretical and
experimental aspects of different technologies, namely solar, convective, fluidized,
and ultrasonic drying, for organic and inorganic materials.
ISBN978-1-83880-109-0
ISBN 978-1-78985-861-7
Published in London, UK
© 2020 IntechOpen
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Current Drying Processes

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Current Drying Processes

Edited by Israel Pala-Rosas

Published in London, United Kingdom

© The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2020

First published in London, United Kingdom, 2020 by IntechOpen

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Additional hard and PDF copies can be obtained from orders@intechopen.com

Current Drying Processes

4,900+ 123,000+ 140M+

Our authors are among the

Selection of our books indexed in the Book Citation Index

Interested in publishing with us?

Israel Pala-Rosas is a biochemical engineer at the Instituto

The transformation of a raw material in to a commodity or specialty product implies

From a process approach, the development of drying equipment requires the

Kinetics of Drying Medicinal

Historically, medicinal plants have always had an important place in medicine.

Keywords: medicinal plants, indirect solar drying, mathematical model,

2.1 Construction of the solar dryer

2.2 Measuring instruments

In order to ensure the reliability of the experimental results, different measuring

2.3 Drying process and experimental setup

2.4 Mathematical modeling

2.4.1 Adjusting experimental drying curves

The experimental moisture-versus-time ratio was adjusted by nonlinear regres-

Model name Model equation Reference

Newton MR ¼ expð�ktÞ [35]

Page MR ¼ expð�ktn Þ [36]

Henderson and Pabis MR ¼ a expð�ktÞ [38]

Logarithmic MR ¼ aexpð�ktÞ þ c [39]

Two-term MR ¼ aexpð�k0 tÞ þ b expð�k1 tÞ [40]

Two-term exponential MR ¼ aexpð�ktÞ þ ð1 � aÞ [41]

Wang and Singh MR ¼ 1 þ at þ bt2 [42]

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Weather conditions

3.2 Solar drying kinetics

3.2.1 Moringa oleifera leaves

3.2.2 Annona muricata leaves

As can be seen in Figure 8, the drying kinetics of the Cymbopogon sample

3.3 Colorimetric analysis

Color is a primary characteristic perceived by the consumer of a product and

3.4 Computational analysis

Computational simulation is performed by using of a free software called

L*, a*, b* values and drying Medicinal plants

Moringa oleifera Cymbopogon Annona muricata

Dehydration with tunnel dryer

L: 40.4 L: 41.27 L: 37.02

Model Coefficients and fit parameter Value

Modified page k 0.0116

Model Coefficients and fit parameter Value

Modified page k 0.0369

Model Coefficients and fit parameter Value

3.5 Mathematical modeling

3.5.1 Adjusting experimental drying curves

The drying kinetics obtained experimentally in the medicinal plants were

Moringa oleifera, Cymbopogon, and Annona muricata have antioxidant, antican-

1 Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, Campus V,

2 Centro Universitario del Norte, Universidad de Guadalajara, Colotlán, Jalisco,

3 Energy Department, Polythecnic University of Guerrero’s State, Puente

*Address all correspondence to: mcastill@uacam.mx

[1] Pérez Ortega G, González Trujano E. plants. Drug Development Research.

experimental study of the solar Navarro Cruz AR, López-Malo A.

[32] Guiné Raquel PF, Barroca Maria J. American Society of Agricultural

Postharvest Treatment of Tropical

L, a, b* values and drying Medicinal plants

10 W•m2. Temperature readings were recognized every hour from 8:00 am to

Solar radiation (W • m2) Pineapple (% H) Mamey (% H) Banana (% H)