EXPERIMENT AIM: To detenmine _nesistance pen_cm of a given wire by plotting a raph of polentiol arffenence versus waent oI ‘MATERTAL REQUIRED: fn ammelen, A Voltmeter ), Rheostat, One-way key, a given wine of unknown mesittonce, td a_day cell /batteny and connecting wines s J : EORY : Ohms law was given by Greonge Simon Ohm in [1828. TH states that the cument I “flowing thnough a I conductoy ts dinectly pmopotional to the potential difference _ acnoss the two ends of the conductry provided the | physical conditions (tempenatuse, pressure ett-) of the conductor _do rot change. a = _ Tet - | v=IR ZV 7 I eH —| IE —_|| The _constant_of ae R_is_called_ the Electnical = __|Resistonce. The valve of mesistane depends _on the _natune — lof material of the conductos, its dimensions and_physical Ltonditions . = ITE does not depend_on the independent values_of V and_I. - [i find the valves of the voltage V fon different valves —_ 2 the connent T. A gaaph is then plotted between V (along r Teacher's Signatur... {| a; Botte . Batey ; ® 44 (3 kK Rh iit | eeey-axis) and T (along w-axis), The gzaph isa stnaight line dhe slope which gives _us the mesistance R of the wine The _nesistance_p pen_cm_of the wre is then given by— T pe h cen | L OBSERVATIONS: - ' Least cont of Ammeten= A= 10 div = 0.25 AS 1 diy = 0.025 A \ [heast count of vollmeten= V= 10 div=ly51dweo.10 7 i Zeno _cosnection of Ammeten= A-0 Pa L Zeno connection of VoHmelen= Vv -0 7 Length of wine between two tenminale= L - 22 en © x 0.025 = 0.18 8025 = 0.2 {Lx 0.025 =0.28 13* 9.025 = 0.37 16 «0.025 =6.4 18 x 9.025= 0.95 Resistance of win@=O+ 1.33 + SH4B ths thSwc = 1.3 + length of wine =32 em = Resistance por_om of the _wine= 1.3 = 0.04 Jem co 32 _ Teaches Signature.| onstant je, VKL. + | From _ the graph, we can see that V vis T giv 4 stanaight _ | Nine which again shows that Y= comtart I CALCULATIONS: _ - __Take_any too poirts AB well apastt_on the _gnaph. From A and B, draw 2 fines ACand BC Hal to voltage and cuesertt axes andl neasune them on thei, sespective scales then, AC= Ve O.4V BC= A= 0.38 zi Resistance “por unit cm of wine = & ohm om = 13 Qe : i ; ii — . oo | PRECAUTIONS: SO . i in the ends oF wines \Be—sardpapen_ betone making the ~. Aa low stheostat must be Connections may be loose. the wine may not be unibam at all places. Mi The ends of wines may not be clean.EXPERIMENT AIM: find the nesistane of given wine using meten bridge _jand_hence determine the specific nesistance_ of its material _| MATERTAL REQUIRED: Al meten bridge, a galvanometen , _ one-way key, a mesistance box , a Daniel cell, a Jockey, _unknown mesistance, a seneW gauge and sand paper. __ THEORY Bridge - A \heatstone bridge is anaangement of + _nesistances f,0,K,S + form ABCD bridge A Cell is connector ‘between “A and ‘C’ thaough key fk’ The point. B and D ane eomected_ thtovgh_ a galvanometen and_a key. - _ The _sesist Ris so adjusted such thet there is no »_galvanometen. The point B and D ane at thé _and_the Buidge is_said to be balanced. the _cunnent thaovgh ans AB andAC is same and that _thnough AD and DC _jsalso the same. a let Te and Te be custzents, and Va,Ve,Ve and Vp be potentials the point A,B;T D xespectively. fon balanced Wheatstone bridge - P=Rk as 40 is lengtin_of wine and 'D" is the diamefen, then, P4l or L = SnD? | from whene fis obtained. 4b ae te as Teachers Signature| - OBSERVATIONS : (Fon Unknown Resistance lpn Diameter of Wine — No. of motetions given= 4 _ ‘tch = 1 mm Number loft divisions inc cinculan cular scale = Loo Teacher's Signature ince_moved_on the vertical scale (a) =4+ mmMain Scale Reading (0) mm Lalovlations— length cf wine = op =Sa Dt= +L Standard Values fon tables jp Eon = OI cr i> Enson= Exxon = 0.22 % __Aletval Exon RESET |___ The nesistonce_of given wire is _0.54 2, andthe | Specie mesistance of the given wine is 4 10-7 Am PRECAUTIONS: DAIL connections should 46 neat andl tight. {i Hold the _jockey“penpendiculan fo the wise cf the mek bridge Wi) the balance point should lie between +0 em to 60 em _—— | Teather’ Signature“SOURCE OF ERROR: | The_scoews of the _intyuments _may be loose e_wines may not be unitoamely thick thsroughout The keys of the xesistance te_Keys of the sesistaneParal le! Combinationa vr | a TTI TI | EYPERINMENT-3 ALM: To verify law of combination (senies and pazallel ) of nesistance using _a_tmeten bridge _ MATER: TAL REQUIRED: Heten bnidge, Galvanometer, one-way key, a nesistance box, a cell, a jockey, 2 unknown nesistances cand connecting wines. _ THBGE ar nation, resictns ane connecled end to end as “| ehown - The counce_of _cunnertt is _conneckd between the tree ends of the inst and last nesiston. Tn this annangement, the cunnent through each sesiston fg the same but potential _ difference acnoss different mesiston is different. let ‘i? be cumnent thnovgh each case of nesistance Ri, ke, Rs and —NaVe, Vs the potential difference acmnoss—each other, then- Vie vee where Reg _is_the equivalent nesistance of combination, foo two sesiston Re and kz connected in cenies [Tn Ponollel Combination, the effective nesistance Rr of the | combination of two mesistons when connected is panallel can : Teacher's SignaturePage No Balancing length AB=% a : 00S). em known Resistance salancig Teor ») [R= red Dd) ee =g : Teacher’ SignatureI “rage Ho ; | oa] io |Since Roe Ri+Re within limits of experimental e170 7, therefore , | iLaw of sexies combination is verified - | (ii) fen Fanallel Combination _ _ —_ _ R and R> ane both connec led panallél Mean ky = 0.5 __Mean Rp Ri Re Since “Rp Bike RR (there fone, the law of parallel combination of nesistancé 1s veified. = PRECAUTIONS an _conr should be tight and_nice. Tay +o obtain the _ balance. point between +0 em b 60 cm. Move the jockey gently 0 on the wine and don’t keep =, the jockey and wine in conluct fon a long time - _ - Teacher's Signature(ii Page No, (Ome 120 ‘SOURCES OF ERRoR: (0) the scnews of inshument may be loose. (i) || The key of secis tance box may not be clean ana tight. | The wine may not be vnifenmely Brick thaoughe dt, Le a(i) Fon half detlection method E —<+{ + ky —— Ik (ii) Fon Figuae of of menit ex} Ht —— -Page No _EXPERIMENT-4. AIM: % d ermine the nesislance of galano metea by _half- | detection method and to find she figure ot _menit. _ REQUIREMENTS: iciuonomelen, A Voimelon, A bates Lb _ t 10 nesistance boxes, heogtat of high yesistance, one-way key, - + connecting wines —| EORY: | P_Galvanometen is_a device which is ysed to detect the _cunzent._ 7 The coil is pivoted in madial magnetic field. When the cunnent a re_coil deflects. Its deflection ts_measuned by a ipointen to the cil. The deflecti mopomtional fo the — Gunnert passed. A galvanometen has a modenate_nesistonce |_| 400 and _very_smalt~ amount — of comment (LmA). The nesistance | of galvanometeris found by half-deflection method. The key _ 48 “ig ing6rled and deflection © is determined with a _ suitable value HE is the emf of all and I ic cuvvent in inculan, then—_ TR otal nesistance of cincvit=R+G T= _E 2 kO= & | RG Rt+G - — __ ‘Now, Key (Kz) is inserted and adjust the shunt aesistance 'S) ~— 60 that deflection becomes 6 . Teachers Sgnatue| RG aAS)4 GS 2064) a IL GS = RG-RS _ G= RS — iM RS _ - Knowing and S, Gi can be determined & if RSS, G= -S. “Faure of wet : The siquae_of _mesit +k’ of a galvanometen_may ~\be_defined ag the cunzert nequined fon producing a deflection of 1 division. Tt ig _measuned in Amp] Division. When a high _ _ SY aesistance 'R’ is taken out fom -the mesistance box, a cuwent — __ Teacher's Signature"Flows in the ae and it produces deflection @ t=_E =ke 7 er. E R+G aeEY _ * maximum cunnent that can be obtained by ‘the — galvanometen _is_Ig= NK, where Nis total no. of divisions on _ejthen of zeno of galvanometen scale Teacher's Signature— a a |[Mean of figune of menit of Golvanomeler = 44% * 10° Ampldivision : I Resistance of Galvanometen= 104.25 __ PRECAUTIONS: : (i) | All the conmections should be neat, clean and tight _ (i) || Ensue that the plugs of mesistance box ane tight. - WW) Tnitially, a high nesistance fnom the sesistance box should be lintmoduced on else a_simall mesistance can damage the __|galvqnometen. ____ SOURCES OF ERROR: |The scnews of the inctnuments may be loose. __ | The plugs of galvarometen may not be tight W |The emt of the batley may not~be constarrt. Teacher's aS.~ EXPERIMENT (AM convent the given galvanometen Cof known nesistance and figuae of mesit) info a voltmeten of desined mange | (o-3 v) and to verity Pelee | THEORY: The nesistance of galvanometen can be ‘found out _vsing the fonmula> = RS, where R is the sesistance | : R-S connected in senies with G. | Figune of Menit+ «= € where E is the emf of the | RAO cell and 6 is the | deflection produced with R._ [Hence the maximum cunzert that can pass ‘hntough_ the galvanometen , Tenk whene ni . iA alvanometer\ 46 n “very S _Lonly small potential difference of the order rm\V-To ‘enable it to meagune high potential difference , it_has to | be convented into a voltmeten. sitive ig suitable on mneasusing ||P galvanometes can be converted into a voltmeten by - [connecting | a_ high nesistance 'R’ in ceniec with it, The value of ‘thig high mesictance depends upon the Teacher's Signature| convension of the voltmelen. let R be the nequined mesistance to be connected in | Senies _with ‘the galvanometen_nesistance © fon measuring upto V Volts. When V volts ane applied, the _connent “in -galvanometen must be equal to Ty. | tg & LV CALCULA Resistance of Gnalvanomeden (G)=0.500hm _ ____ Figune of amenit (kK) =448 0105 Aldiy No.of divisions on galvanometen ln) = 30 Ty =nk=13t7 10% | - Range (Vv) = 5 _ —|| REN -G=8H SQ | , Ty ___|VERTFICATION: Fon _nesistance of aglvanometen b by na deflechon method : faectnce PPh OS ntl ag IS 08 10 tos 7 Mean GF ES ‘Teachers SignaturePage No (Ome 20 Tat Voltmeter Galvanometex_ Reading Diffenence ; | aa W) Wwev to 3 0 Teacher's SignatureEXPERIMENT-6 : AIM: To find the value of v tan different values of u in Z - MATERIAL REQUIRED: Optical bench with thaee upmights, __& concave _minsion, a mission holden ', two_needles knitting _ THEORY: Wher a beam of light posallel_to the pstincipal axis Falls. on a concave minson, it reflects the beam which passes though “the focus. The _natune and size of image depends On whee the concave _minson and object ae placed. To find +he focal length of the _minzon— fle L+l oy f= cine Lohene, f= focal length of Ahe mison L= distance of the object from the pole v= distant of the image from he pole Here u,v and fF ane to be taken +ve oy -ve as por the sign convention. The enon in the focal length can be determined by — | ere Buy thu | [ fe ve az "Teachers Signature a a aeae |age No OBSERVATIONS: length of knitting needle m =) om Obsenved distances betweenOneedle and back of the concave minstoss y= | om Observed clistances between I needle and | back of the concave minnon z= _'- om _Thdex connection fox ae teeyons | Tnclex connection for _v =(%-z)em= | Bough focal length of the given concave minzon= Distance | Focal length _ image - PL f= uv upaight I Ww uty © u-v Gaaph a Select q suitable scale“ and plot_the graph between u and v- The rot 4 vis vV will be a sectangular ‘hyperbola. - Onaw the line ob making an angle of 45° with either a = Teacher’ Signature@® Page No (Dae 0 Moy y-axis meeting the curve at C. The point C where (t meets the nectangulas hypervela is (2, 2). Halt the value of eithes coondinate will give us the valve of f. to and L graph: uw v Select a suitable scale and plot the graph _ Yu and “Ww. This graph will be a straight line. A staaight line passing though the joins will cut the _ axis at A_and &. The intercept 08 =—~"/f, and _ oB= - If OC [ Then, [f= f. +2] ——— 2 _ —__— $$ RESULT : “The focal_length of the giveh_concave_minmon as determined trom : ) he Calevlation in tabular 213.8 tm i) fom u-v gztaph = 20 om Teacho’s Signature0 o net Silas the needle needle _clocen of the minson. Tips of | object needle lee image needle “should be. at_ the _some height and shovld be in level with the cent of the minon. (0 The upatight may not be. vertical . - | wi) The porta lax memoved may not_be perfect. Wid) The scale chosen on ‘the \gslagh” may not be accunerte. ©| tocal_length cannot be indingct method i¢ used An auxiliony convex lens whose movgh focal length has placed between the convex the object needle. The object needle _is_placed at _a dictance LS times. the stoug h Focal length of convex lens and convex_mismoy_behind—the convex lens Lis so _adjusted_that_a neal_-venled image of object _ needle is formed at FB will hk — length ofa AIM: To find the focal length of @ convex THEORY: Convex minston mt_always foam vintval image_and, _thenefore, its found _dinectly. To find the focal length, the position of it the says of _light stanting the object _O, strike the Convex _minmon_naymally Wy, atten _ the nefnaction hough the convex lens. Th the absence ef the convex misinon, these mays would havé met at the centne of cumvatune of the mingon. The focal convex miynon /— f=| Page No, i eo (Date 20 OBSERVATIONS: ~ [lengt of _ knitting, “needle. ae lS un Obsenvect_ “dictance ieee I Lnecdle, and _|__ back of convex misvor , Thdex_ aa hy R= (hy en No[fostion_of upright canmying [Radius of cuwvatuse(®] Focal length F=R Hi Convex. mivsox Tmnage § wedle | Obsesved Connected = ; - P i PL 2 = t. : . as 2 5 Mean f=12-83 om ___ |The Focal_length of the given convex mismon is 12-83 em. “PRECAUTIONS: Git _upai ghts should be vertical. - _ Do not place the needle (object? closer than tre rough — oe length of tke | _ oe ( (id) Tips of “object needle and ‘image nccule! oat be at_ ee “the same height and should cousecpond with the centore lof the minmon and_ ‘lene. - o_o —— iw)| Ke ut eye ate t icon em away. tnom_the image J —}needle to te view the mage ‘leant. — eee | — - Teacher's Signature ——Page No (Cae 1120 SOURCES OF ERROR: The uparights may not be vertical. The parallax memoved may not be ___—_ perfect - The. scale ae not be accunate "Teacher's Signature...object ~ Conyex Jens Object + bya F’ and 2F Tmage : Beyond 2Fi ; | IMENT-8 | AIM: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between wu and y ox between L and L | Ww MA L_REQUIRED: An optical bench, 3 upxights , |. convex lens, a lens holden , +wo-optical needles and a half -metne scale. | THERY : 7 _|| When a may of Jight , pasalle! to the potincipa v is incident on aq lens , it after nehaction, passes or appeans | to pow thaough the fos. Th case of convey lens, the nature and size of image depends upon the position of _ _|the object To find the ‘rcal length of given convex lens, we use*7 ok = a. where the image dist ust_be taken -ve as — per he sign convertion Uh this method, we find the values of v fost diffenert valves of u_using the method of pasallax. | We plot graphs between : Gand v - =— : WL ond £ ne L Teachers Signaturea nial iOBSERVATIONS length ot_knitting needle, n= 15 om Observed distance between object needle and convex lens py = 17-9 ¢m ___ Obsenvecl distance between Convex lens, z= | - |[Tndex conmection fon_u = (4t-y) om= 10.9 om _ a Thdex connection fox Vv = (u-z)um = 10.5 em presen Rough focal length of the lens= 25 em S.No] Position of the _venights Distances a So 20 LO H one Meant 24.95 am RESULT: The fecal length of the given convex lens as determined from :~ () The calculations in tabulan form = 27.75 om a From the u-v gstaph > 25° on _ ZL gnaph = 249 on Vv Teacher's Signature____ PRECAUTIONS: - _{0))The upsights should be vertical. _ __[® Do not “place the object needle closer than the rough focal length of the lens. ips_of object needle _and_image needle should be at __the_same height and should consespond with the centme of the lens. oe ee t WW keep oun eye at least 30 cm away fom the image _lneedle to view the image cleorly. _ (Th, _pacallax should be nemoved tip t tip. -_ SOURCES OF ERROR: 7 — oO The _upaight may. not be vertical. (i! The parallax semovecl_ma perfect. a WW) The scale chosen on tn —gzaph may not be accunate. | Teacher's Signaturei - Page No ) Doe 120 _| giver prism by plotting a_goaph between angle of _| incidence and angle of deviation. ~ MATERIAL REQUIRED: trism, daauing b white paper. THEORY, medium bounded by intersecting plane sustfaces that be disperse and deviate light. The two plane sunfaces_meet _|along an edge at a certain angle. These planes ate called nefnacting surfaces. The edge is called the sefmacting edge and the angle is called the angle of pmicm oy _ the nefnacting angle. A paism may be bound by any number of custfaces but the sustinee~an_ which _ light Lis incident and the sv must be _plar non-parallel. - _ 29,4 2Zm2.+ 2408 = dat.2s —O ZA+ 2Q0$ = avt.2s —-@ fam 03 @, Teacher's Signature. _ EXPERIMENT-9 Refraction through a glasc_pmis 2A _pmism_ ig a ncbactng - Zé from which light emerges The behaviowt of nay RO when incidert on the prism ABCD=i+e-A — f= DtA-e pez sini ——@) Sin When incident say suffers minimum deviethon 3 i= € and s2Te= 7 ne “of minimum deviation (Dm) : Tt ic 6 the” minimum value of - ongle of deviation. OBSERVATIONS : ~ Angle fm A= 60"Page No ~ CALCULATIONS: Draw the gvaph between f and D with D along y and roi i along w-arig. This gxtaph will be U-shaped. | Draw a taaight petpendicular line fxom the lowest point of. the gztaph to yraxis to find the angle of minimum deviation (Dn) RESUL \)/"The f-D_gnaph is _U- shaped _indicating that ac +the angle of incident incneases “angle of deviation finst decnenes Land then increases. (ii) The angle of minimum deviation = 35° (i) Then only one angle. of oe of deviation i¢_mirim um WY The nefnactive index of she pnigm ps l47 PREGAUTIONS: ® The angle incidence _chould_not be less than ir i oa we moxe_than 60°. The_pins fixed should be well apart (at leat 8 om —\aksay) and should be vertical. ii) The puism should not _be changed while performing the experiment. i Teacher's Signaturea Ww SOURCES OF ERROR: [The pin_paicks may be thick: Measunement of angles mag be wytong The pins fixed ane. ery close +o each othen. eo Nace hele i Ne Re a Teacher's IgM venomio Ae a‘E eS | \ging inside _an_optically dence _m red appeass less name) | (Ca) -EXPERIMENT-10 | AIM: To determine the nefnactive index of gs la ‘slab oe | using a travelling micnoscope - | | MATERTAL REQUIRED: 4 glass slab, white ch sheet “of paper, | Sewing needle/ shanp paper i toave ling microscope. : “THEORY: |[Nhen as a stay of light goes on a can. 1 optically densen _ : a medium to an optically manea_ medium , it bends -. from the nonmal. Considen an object 0 lying at 0, [the image at I is foamed by nefnachon. A Tay ¢ cas | (Aight ¢ tosrting fnom 0 along OA is —tmcident noxrrally ond goes _undeviated. Anothen _ “of light incidert- along 08 iS mefracted_atong &L. These two says | appear to meet at and fosm visttval image of 0. i as a _cokcequentte of nefnaction, the_depth of an object Tee the_ neal depth 4 Since, Sin i= Light alin Seon dencen to ‘nanen) —© Sin a BX “Teachers Signaturef=) mM i} S/ Re S A }——) P © (a> (b> Calvlation /— Mean p= Mire tps 4) 4 a F- 4.32] 3tif i and x ote small, OB 2 OA and I& =A ee A att ; i. AL fea Of = neal depth Oa an oe micnoscope foewed on S.No’ point © (a)} point O with without clab slab (b Teacher's Signature$$$ rr "RESULT: “he selnactive indey aie given glass slab = “PRECAUTIONS: 0 Find the least count of the travelling micno cope ‘accurately 5 (WD Recosd all neadings very conefully, (ii) The layen of the | yeopodium powder chould be vony Fine () Micnoscope tube should be ventical. (v) Fox focussing the mack and pimon anztangemert shold ‘be used only in the first sching of the set. SOURCES OF ERROR: The meadings may not be noted accumdely | ae } ‘me , | ca | aedPlane concave fens Pa aliquid Convex lent w Dee EEA AAV AYAVAVANANAANAANAee | | rei Com: EXPERIMENT: MH 7 AIM: To find the nefnactive Z [ens and plane minson. index of a liquid using convex. : REQUIREMENTS : A convex lenc, a plane _minnom, liquid, ie __||a_ sphenometen optical needle, a clamp gtand, a plumb line, 7 _| metre scale 7 : THEORY: eee eee | ~ | let a few drops of a liquid om waten be put ona flat _| surface. Now, place a convex lens oven the (i vid. A [plano -concave lens of liquid is formed between the lower _ __| Surface of the convex lens and “he plane susrface. One Ee __sunface_of the plano -contave_lens has _ nadivs of convahne | R equal to that of theTower sumface of the convex lens [ _suntacé has infinite sadive of cuswatuse. i the fecal lengths of the convex glass lens |_|,and_plano-concave._lens_of liqutid_and F,the tocal length _Lof Anein combination , then, i Teacher's SignatureFusrthen _b = M oumula, a | i py Bd | Now, let Ri=R and Rp = | then, = “(45) if | A-L= RP the siadivs of cuswature R can be meauned by spherometen R= tt th ; bh 2 OBSERVAT_IONS : Measunemert of focal length of convex lens: ~~ Rough focal lengthy of 4the SNe[ Distance of he tip of te cedle from the | = 4, +4, Upper cunface 2 1 convex leng (hi) plane missox (y,) 10.1 ' 10.1 0, Mean £=10,2 om Measurement of focal length of the combination Ste istane a ip of the oe om the uppen surface of | 16.4 8 Toons Mean E=Date _ GALCULATIONS: ~ Focal_length of the plano- concave lens of the liquid « The focal length" of the _plano- concave is given by * Tas leh : — A _ _ Nowy we Ap Ro+9 9 6.5 =1tO.5t fT 1esialoe? fIRESUIT 7 a ___[Refaactive index of the liquid p= 1-4 0 All_parallaxes should —be_nemovec._ from tip to tip. WW) Move the centnal scmew in the came—dinection > avoid lennon dve to backlash. _ (i Measune the distance between the tip of the needle and the lens lane _minston accunately with a plomb line: ) The panei pal axis af the convex lens shold be vertical. _be measured accunately a ax may not be mremoved tip to tip. - rma i” : : oo ? sher's Signature ;forged Biosing — +O= Cy te eee Sam | | [ {x} Ofes ny - —@ LL_ AIM! To_doaw the LV chanaclenictic conve fom a p-n_ _ junction diode in fonwond bias and mnevetse bias. MATERIAL REQUIRED: & pan junction diode, 0 2-V battery, high mesistance_xheostat , 0-5 volt voltmeten, one milliammeten, _jone-way key and connecting wises. fee EO ie eee eee as ff p-n junction diode is _a semiconductos device obtained _ by putting in contact a p-type semi conduc ton with an _ n-type semiconductom , The one piece device so obtained is also called a junction diode - { oe diede : oan : aoe ae __ A junction, can be biased in two diffenent—ways : _0 Fonwond_Bigc ng. Tn the fonword bi asiAig » the p-type of enystal_ —is_connected to the _+ve of he biag battery and n-type lh forward _biasing athe cunnent_ increases as the—foawand bias is _ineneased. The consent —Ineseases slowly in the beginning and then _cheenply.. The — fraword _cunzent flows only ifthe initial fomwand _ voltage is gmeatex than a certain minimum voltage epmesented by knee voltage. 0) Reverse Biasing : A en junction is said fo. be nevence biased Teacher's SignaturePage No if the _p-type crystal is connected to -ve terminal and n-type is _connecte to the ve _enminal of the biac battery. Now, very small cunnerrt (in yD flows due to _minonity casziens. This cunnent ic called ¢atnation _cxtnent because it is found tp be independent ct the -newrse biac. At a_centain mevense voltage, the cunnent _suddenly incmease due _to the _bmeaking of covalent bonds. __This severe voltage _ is called the zenen bmeakdown _ ~ lage OBSERVATIONS; 2 10 x0.05= 0.5 20*005= 1 BO %0.08= Lo 0.2 =0.02 to least Count :- Noltmeter= 5 = 0.5 ), 10 _ | 4010.5 = ~ 20 . | 95%0.S= 225 | 4.S¥0S= 23.95 me as a Microammeten= 20 = 2 10 Teacher's Signature= - PeSERUTTONS a iid’, Key should b e- used _ a a Tent el pad when _ ithe _cincu’t is notin use. —h) Avoid applying forward bias voltage. begond [-beakdown. i _ SOURCES OF ERROR: — s—s—sSCS he connection may not be tiglt—— a The junction diode way hE aly 5 : 7 “Teacher's ‘Signature