Unit 2:

Sentence structure:
Functions
Week 3
MAIN CONTENTS

1. Subject and predicate

2. Noun phrase and verb phrase

3. Dependency and function

Head
The modifier-head relation
The head-complement relation
Introduction
INTRODUCTION

• Understanding the structure of a sentence involves knowing not only

its constituents but also the category and the function of those
constituents.

• These three aspects of syntactic analysis are closely bound up with one
another.

• A systematic sentence analysis is best begun, not by immediately

considering the words in the sentence but by first identifying the
largest phrases/ the immediate constituents of the sentence.
1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
A simple sentence is generally divisible into the two largest/ immediate
constituents.

For example:

The same division of immediate constituents can be applied to other sentences:

[The ducks] + [are paddling away].

[The gigantic ducks] + [were paddling away furiously].

1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

[The ducks] + [paddle].

[The ducks] + [are paddling away].
[The gigantic ducks] + [were paddling away furiously].

All these sentences have the same GENERAL structure:

• All are divisible into two CONSTITUENTS
• They are of the same general kind (CATEGORY) as the corresponding
constituents in other sentences.
• They have exactly the same syntactic FUNCTIONS as those in other sentences
1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

Subje Predicate Sentence

ct
1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

Consider again the sentence

Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream.

Which of the following tree diagrams best represents the structure of

this sentence:
1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
When sentences become more complicated, it can be more difficult to
identify the subject and the predicate.

 Question test for subject

• Turn the sentence into a yes/no question.

• The phrase functioning as subject is the one that changes its position
when the sentence is also changed.

It is the subject that changes position in yes/no questions.

1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

• The question test is essential in sentences with special structures:

• It and there are called empty subjects/dummy subjects/expletives.

1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

Practice:
Using this test, identify the subjects of the following sentences:
1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

Answer:
1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

Note:
The subject does not always stand at the beginning of the sentence

[16] As a matter of fact, [the man you paid to do it][has been arrested].

(As a matter of fact, has the man you paid to do it been arrested?)
2. NOUN PHRASE AND
VERB PHRASE
2. NOUN PHRASE AND VERB PHRASE

What categories of phrases function as subjects?

Look again at those examples:

[1] Ducks paddle.

[2] Those gigantic ducks were paddling away furiously.

[3] None of her attempts to give up chocolate were successful.

 All the subjects contain and are centered on the same category of word: noun (n)

 They are all noun phrases (NP).

 The single words that can replace them are all nouns and pronouns.
2. NOUN PHRASE AND VERB PHRASE

What categories of phrases function as predicates?

Look again at those examples:

[1] Ducks paddle.

[2] Those gigantic ducks were paddling away furiously.

[3] None of her attempts to give up chocolate were successful.

 The phrases functioning as predicates all contain and are centered on a verb

 They are all verb phrases (VP). They can be replaced by single-word verbs.
2. NOUN PHRASE AND VERB PHRASE

Why do we need to distinguish between the category and the function of a constituent?

Consider the examples:

[1] I have read her new poem.

[2] Her new poem is marvellous.

What are the category and function of the bold phrase in the two sentences?
2. NOUN PHRASE AND VERB PHRASE
PRACTICE:
Combine any two phrases in the list below to make well-formed sentences of subject
(NP) + predicate (VP):
(a) remind me of you

(b) as quickly as he could

(c) soggy chips

(d) pamphlets advertising new syntactic theories

(e) by the end of this week

(f) suddenly rained from the sky

(g) are in demand.

2. NOUN PHRASE AND VERB PHRASE

Up to this point, we can represent the GENERAL STRUCTURE of a

sentence by LABELLING the appropriate NODES to include information
about the CATEGORIES of the immediate constituents of the sentence
in a phrase marker:
2. NOUN PHRASE AND VERB PHRASE

Notes:
• Information about FUNCTIONS of the constituents (here subject and
predicate) is not normally included in the phrase marker (tree diagram).

• It can be inferred from other information about CATEGORY and

POSITION

The subject of a sentence is the NP immediately dominated by S.

The predicate of a sentence is the VP immediately dominated by S.

2. NOUN PHRASE AND VERB PHRASE

• Categories are dealt in more detail in the next chapter.

• What’s important here is to see how the parts of a sentence function in relation
to each other.

• Without the idea of subject function and predicate function, it would be

difficult to know where to begin the analysis of a sentence.

• In giving an analysis of a sentence, you should always be sure that anything you
want to say is a constituent and has a well-defined function and meaning.

• This goes not only for the immediate constituent of S but for all constituents.
3. DEPENDENCY
AND FUNCTION
3. DEPENDENCY AND FUNCTION

• A is the MOTHER of B and C.

• B and C are said to be SISTERS.
3. DEPENDENCY AND FUNCTION

• The subject NP and the predicate VP are sisters.

• The NP has its subject function in respect of its sister, the VP.

• The VP has its predicate function in respect of their subject NP.

3.1. HEAD

Other main concepts in discussing functions and relationships between

Modifier

Complement

Head
3.1. HEAD

• The HEAD of a phrase is the element that the phrase is centred on.

• It is the essential, obligatory element in that phrase.

3.1. HEAD

• A phrase is Noun Phrase because it is centred on a Noun.

• Similarly for Verb Phrase and other phrases.

• It is the category of the head of a phrase that determines the category

of the phrase.
3.2. THE MODIFIER-HEAD RELATION
Consider the phrase:
two rather dubious jokes.
1. Can you draw the phrase maker for it? The relation between
sister constituents is
called MODIFICATION.

2. Can you identify the sister relationships in this diagram?

3.2. THE MODIFIER-HEAD RELATION

Take the phrase rather dubious as an example.

• Analyze the modification relationship between rather and dubious.

• Are they dependent on each other?

• Are both of them obligatory? What does modification mean?

Modification means one-way function/dependency

*two rather jokes

3.2. THE MODIFIER-HEAD RELATION

Work in pairs
Can you take turns to explain the modification relationship between the
other sister constituents of two rather dubious jokes.

i.e. between (1) two – Phrase-b; (2) Phrase-c – jokes.

3.2. THE MODIFIER-HEAD RELATION

Consider the phrase marker below.

Can you explain why this analysis is incorrect?
3.2. THE MODIFIER-HEAD RELATION

Consider the next analysis and explain what is wrong with it.
3.3 THE HEAD-COMPLEMENT RELATION

Consider the sentence “Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream” and the
phrase marker for “beside a stream”.

1. How many sister relations are there in the phrase?

=>Sister nodes
(1) a – stream
(2) beside – Phrase-b
3.3 THE HEAD-COMPLEMENT RELATION

=>Two-way dependency as neither of these elements can be omitted

without harming the grammaticality of the left strings

* Old Sam sunbathed a stream
* Old Sam sunbathed beside
* Old Sam sunbathed beside a
* Old Sam sunbathed beside stream
3.3 THE HEAD-COMPLEMENT RELATION

If both elements are obligatory in the phrase, what is the HEAD?

• The phrase beside a stream specifies a location.

• It is the word beside that gives the phrase LOCATIONAL character

=>beside is the HEAD of the phrase.

• As a phrase is named after its head and beside is a preposition, this is a

prepositional phrase.

When a head DEMANDS a further expression, that further (OBLIGATORY)

expression is said to COMPLEMENT the head.
3.3 THE HEAD-COMPLEMENT RELATION

E.g. a stream is the COMPLEMENT of the HEAD beside

• A stream does not tell us something about the head as modifiers do.

• This is not the functional relation of MODIFICATION, but the

functional relation of COMPLEMENTATION.

• Complements typically follow their heads.

• Modifiers can precede or follow their heads.

3.3 THE HEAD-COMPLEMENT RELATION

Modifier HEAD Complement

3.3 THE HEAD-COMPLEMENT RELATION

Consider the sentence

Phil dreads affectionate cats.
Can you draw a phrase marker of this sentence and indicate the
dependency relations of elements in this sentence using arrows?
SUMMARY
SUMMARY

• Constituency, function, and meaning are interrelated.

• The meaning of a sentence depends not just on the meaning of its

words, but on how those words are structured in phrases, and on the
functions of those words and phrases.

• Constituents have their functions in respect of their sisters.

SUMMARY

There are three kinds of functional relation between sisters:

(1) Subject - Predicate: two immediate constituents of sentences (NP &

VP)– two-way dependency; both are obligatory; S precedes P

(2) Modifier – Head: one-way dependency - modifiers are optional; some

modifiers precede and some follow heads

(3) Head – Complement: two-way dependency – complements are

obligatory; needed to complete the meaning of the phrase. The head
generally precedes its complement.
SUMMARY

• The head is the obligatory centre of its phrase.

• Every phrase has a head and no more than one head.

• The category of the head determines the category of the phrase.