Contents

1 Measurement and Error Concepts

1.1 The International System of Units
1.2 Unit Conversion
1.3 Accuracy, Precision, and Error in Measurement
1.4 Bisection Method of Reducing Error

2Plane Geometry: Concepts and Applications

2.1 Circles
2.2 Polygons
2.3 Perimeter of Polygons
2.4 Area of Polygons

3Solid Geometry: Concepts and Applications

3.1 Basic Concepts of Solids
3.2 Measurements of Solids

4Conic Section and Its Applications

4.1 Parabola
4.2 Ellipse
4.3 Hyperbola
 CHAPTER 1
MEASUREMENT AND ERROR CONCEPTS

1.1 The International System of Units

1.2 Unit Conversion
1.3 Accuracy, Precision and Error in Measurements
1.4 Bisection Method of Reducing Error

At the end of the chapter, students are expected to

 define the modern metric system called the International System of Units (SI
Units).
 apply the various conversion formulas of length, mass, time, area, and volume in
solving applied physical problems for both English Customary System of Units
and SI System of Units.
 distinguish and illustrate the notion of accuracy and precision in measurement.
 analyze and calculate the accuracy, precision, and error of single and repeated
measurements.
 apply the bisection method in estimating the root of an equation.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF MEASUREMENT

Measurement, loosely defined is the length, amount, or size of something that is

measured.

Measurement is as old as human history itself. Humans had always measure things and
phenomena around them. They measure time and passing of seasons, they tally their foods and
livestock, and they count their belongings. They have used various means to achieve these:
They used sticks to tally and count. They used sun dials and sand glasses to measure time and
seasons. Employing body parts, they measure lengths and heights.

Units of Measurements

The Egyptian cubit, the Indus Valley units of length referred to above and the
Mesopotamian cubit were used in the 3rd millennium BC and are the earliest known units used
by ancient peoples to measure length. The names for many units of measurement were
borrowed from human morphology. For example, the foot, the hand, the pace, etc. Still,
however, these units of measurement were not standardized. As industry and trade expanded
across the world, the need became dire for a single standardized system of measurement.
Today, units of measurement are generally defined on a scientific basis, overseen by
governmental or independent agencies, and established in international treaties, pre-eminent of
which is the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), established in 1875 by the
Meter Convention, overseeing the International System of Units (SI) and having custody of the
International Prototype Kilogram. The meter, for example, was redefined in 1983 by the CGPM
in terms of light speed.

Systems of Measurements

The earliest known uniform systems of weights and measures seem all to have been
created at some time in the 4th and 3rd millennia BC among the ancient peoples of Egypt,
Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley, and perhaps also Elam (in Iran) as well. The metric system
is a decimal system of measurement based on its units for length, the meter and for mass, the
kilogram. It exists in several variations, with different choices of base units, though these do not
affect its day-to-day use. Since the 1960s, the International System of Units (SI) is the
internationally recognized metric system. Metric units of mass, length, and electricity are
widely used around the world for both every day and scientific purposes.

1.1 The International System of Units

“Measure what is measurable and make measurable what is not so.”

- Galileo Galilei

The names for many units of measurement were borrowed from human morphology
like the foot, the hand, the pace, etc. Unfortunately, these units of measurement were not
standardized. As industry and trade expanded across the world, a single standardized system
of measurement must be developed to create balance across the various industries and
subsequently, the world. This unified system of measurement was then called the “metric
system”.

The metric system was developed in France in the 1790s and was considered the first
standardized system of measurement. However back in 1960, the metric system was revised,
simplified, and renamed to “Le Système International d’Unites” (The International System of
Units) or the “SI System of Units”, which is nowadays, the standard form of measurement in
almost every country across the globe, except for the United States. Despite not being a
commonly-used measurement in the United States, the SI system is the standard system used
by scientists worldwide, including those in the United States.

The SI system is made up of mutually independent 7 base units (see Table 1) that define
the 4 derived units (see Table 2) without special names and 22 derived units (see Table 3) with
special names and symbols.
 Table 1: The SI System Base Units

Base Quantity Unit Measurement Name Symbol

Length Meter
Mass Kilogram
Time Second
Electric Current Ampere
Temperature Kelvin
Amount of Substance Mole
Luminous Intensity Candela

Table 2: The SI System Derived Units without Special Names

Derived Quantity Symbol
Area
Volume
Velocity
Acceleration

Table 3: The SI System Derived Units With Special Names and Symbols
Derived Quantity Unit Measurement Symbol Equivalent SI Units
Name
Frequency Hertz Hz
Force Newton N
Pressure, Stress Pascal P
Energy, Work Joule J
Quantity of Heat
Power, Radiant Flux Watt W
Electric Charge Coulomb C
Electric Potential, Volt V
Electromotive Force
Electric Resistance Ohm Ω
Capacitance Farad F
Electric Conductance Siemens S
Magnetic Flux Weber Wb
Magnetic Flux Density Tesla T
Inductance Henry H
Plane Angle Radian rad -
Solid Angle Steradian Sr -
Illuminous flux Lumen lm
Illuminance Lux lx
Celsius Temperature degree Celsius -
Radioactivity Becquerel Bq
Absorbed Dose, Kerma Gray Gy
Equivalent Dose Sievert Sv
Catalytic Activity Katal Kat
1.1.1 Redefinition of the SI Base Units

On November 16, 2018, various measurement experts from 60 countries around the
globe have marked a historical breakthrough that will change the long-existing structure of the
unified measurement system. They unanimously agreed to redefine some of the SI base units of
measurements.

At the 26th convention of the General Conference on Weights and Measures

(Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures or CGPM) happened in Versailles, France, delegates
voted to redefine the International System of Units (SI), changing the world’s definition of the
four SI base units of measurement: the kilogram, the ampere, the Kelvin, and the mole. Such
changes have finally come into full force on 2019 World Metrology Day, which happened on the
20th of May.

The revision of the SI system is pretty much inevitable due to the fact this universal
measurement system has always been established based on the fundamental constants of
nature. Long before the redefinition of the SI system, its base units were defined based on
physical objects that would wear out over time; and experiments or phenomenon that are not
universal.

However, the decisions of the policy makers have ultimately made the old SI system into
a more refined structure that might truly become a metric system “for all times and for all
people”. This action would ensure the future stability and open the opportunity for the use of
new technologies (including quantum technologies) to implement the new definitions of the SI
base units.

Figure 1: Revised SI Base Unit Chart

Image taken from https://www.nist.gov/image/siillustrationconstantscolourfullpng