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Contents

CONTENTS

VOLUME I POETRY THERAPY

Acknowledgmentsxix
Chronological tablexxiii
Dedicationxxxv
Editor’s acknowledgmentsxxxvii
Prefacexxxix

General introduction 1

Introduction to Volume I: poetry therapy 5

PART 1
Poetry therapy – theory 7

1 Poetry therapy in ancient Greek literature 9

STEPHEN ROJCEWICZ

2 Poetry therapy as a tool of cognitively based practice 14

KATHRYN S. COLLINS, RICH FURMAN AND CAROL L. LANGER

3 The nuances of metaphor theory for constructivist psychotherapy 28

DENNIS TAY

4 Effectiveness of poetry therapy as an adjunct to self-psychology

in clinical work with older adults: a single case study 51
ANJANA DESHPANDE

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PART 2
Poetry therapy – practice 63

5 Breaking barriers: using poetry as a tool to enhance diversity

understanding with youth and adults 65
NORMA D. THOMAS AND RAINA J. LEÓN

6 Healing traditions in Black women’s writing: resources for

poetry therapy 77
STEPHANIE Y. EVANS

7 Looking out and looking in: journeys to self-awareness and

empathy through creative juxtapositions 94
GERI GIEBEL CHAVIS

8 
Poetry/creative writing for an arts and athletics community
outreach program for at-risk youth 104
NICHOLAS MAZZA

9 From destruction to creation, from silence to speech: poetry

therapy principles and practices for working with suicide grief 112
SHANEE STEPAKOFF

10 Working with metaphor in narrative therapy 135

TERESA LEGOWSKI AND KEITH BROWNLEE

11 The metaphors they carry: exploring how veterans use metaphor

to describe experiences of PTSD 144
PATRICK S. FOLEY

12 The use of poetry in reconciling unfinished business near

end-of-life164
ANNEMARIE CONLON

13 Potential misuses of poetry therapy: a process for reflecting

on practice 173
TED BOWMAN

14 The use of poetry therapy in crisis intervention and short-term

treatment: two case studies 181
JULIE A. SCHWIETERT

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15 The healing power of writing: applying the expressive/creative

component of poetry therapy 192
KATHLEEN CONNOLLY BAKER AND NICHOLAS MAZZA

16 Writing therapy using new technologies—the art of blogging 206

D. M. NAGEL AND K. ANTHONY

PART 3
Poetry therapy – research 211

17 A content analysis of poems most frequently utilized by

poetry therapists 213
LEAH OLSON-MCBRIDE

18 Evaluating the use of poetry to improve well-being and emotional

resilience in cancer patients 227
INGRID TEGNÉR, JOHN FOX, ROBIN PHILIPP AND PAMELA THORNE

19 Poetry therapy: an investigation of a multidimensional

clinical model 239
NICHOLAS F. MAZZA AND CHRISTOPHER J. HAYTON

20 “Poem is what?” Poetic inquiry in qualitative social

science research 259
MONICA PRENDERGAST

21 The benefits of writing and performing in the spoken word

poetry community 287
NADIA ALVAREZ AND JACK MEARNS

22 Internet-based expressive writing for kidney transplant recipients:

effects on posttraumatic stress and quality of life 302
KYLE POSSEMATO, PAIGE OUIMETTE AND PAMELA A. GELLER

VOLUME II MUSIC THERAPY

Acknowledgmentsvii

Introduction to Volume II: music therapy 1

PART 4
Music therapy – theory 3

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23 Analogy and metaphor in music therapy. Theory and practice 5

HENK SMEIJSTERS

24 Concepts of context in music therapy 28

RANDI ROLVSJORD AND BRYNJULF STIGE

25 A conceptual methodology to define the therapeutic function

of music 52
DEANNA HANSON-ABROMEIT

PART 5
Music therapy – practice 85

26 From uprooting to replanting: on post-trauma group music

therapy for pre-school children 87
RIVKA FELSENSTEIN

27 Use of the iso principle as a central method in mood management:

a music psychotherapy clinical case study 104
ANNIE HEIDERSCHEIT AND AMY MADSON

28 Music therapy practices and processes with foster-care youth:

formulating an approach to clinical work 121
MICHAEL L. ZANDERS

29 Playing with sound: the therapeutic use of music in direct work

with children 147
MICHELLE LEFEVRE

30 Singing for healing and hope: music therapy methods that use
the voice with individuals who are homeless and mentally ill 169
YASMINE AFIF ILIYA

31 Song discussion as music psychotherapy 190

SUSAN C. GARDSTROM AND JAMES HILLER

32 Rap music in social work practice with African-American and

Latino youth 212
EDGAR H. TYSON

33 Song to self: promoting a therapeutic dialogue with high-risk

youths through poetry and popular music 231
LEAH OLSON-MCBRIDE AND TIMOTHY F. PAGE

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PART 6
Music therapy – research 245

34 Music therapists’ perceptions of the impact of group factors on

the therapeutic songwriting process 247
FELICITY A. BAKER

35 An investigation of the sociocultural factors impacting on the

therapeutic songwriting process 263
FELICITY A. BAKER

36 The appeal of sad music: a brief overview of current directions in

research on motivations for listening to sad music 290
ANNEMIEKE J.M. VAN DEN TOL

37 Song lyrics and the alteration of self-image 304

FERESHTEH AHMADI

38 The meaning of music in the lives of older people: a

qualitative study 321
TERRENCE HAYS AND VICTOR MINICHIELLO

39 Developing identities using music technology in

therapeutic settings 338
KAREN BURLAND AND WENDY MAGEE

VOLUME III DANCE/MOVEMENT THERAPY AND

DRAMA THERAPY

Acknowledgmentsxi

Introduction to Volume III: dance therapy and drama therapy 1

PART 7
Dance/movement therapy 5

7.1 Theory7

40 In search of a vocabulary of embodiment 7

ROZ CARROLL

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41 Creating dances to transform inner states: a choreographic

model in Dance/Movement Therapy 21
HIMMAT KAUR VICTORIA

42 Intersensory and intersubjective attunement: philosophical

approach to a central element of dance movement psychotherapy 39
KATALIN VERMES

43 Grounding: theoretical application and practice in dance

movement therapy 51
PATRICIA DE TORD AND IRIS BRÄUNINGER

7.2 Practice69

44 The use of metaphors in dance movement therapy 69

ROSEMARIE SAMARITTER

45 The body and nonverbal expression in dance/movement group

therapy and verbal group therapy 80
JOAN WITTIG

46 Breathwork in body psychotherapy: clinical applications 95

HIMMAT KAUR VICTORIA AND CHRISTINE CALDWELL

47 Movement psychotherapy in a hospice: two case studies 110

CRISTINA ENDRIZZI, VALERIA GHELLERI, MIRELLA PALELLA AND
GABRIELLA D’AMICO

48 Working with withdrawn adolescents as a moving experience: a

community resourced project exploring the usefulness of
group dance movement psychotherapy within a school setting 124
LINDA EKE AND ANNE MARIE GENT

49 Reflection, reflective practice and embodied reflective practice 137

JENNIFER LEIGH AND RICHARD BAILEY

7.3 Research151

50 Using a dance/movement therapy-based wellness curriculum:

an adolescent case study 151
KENDALL PAULINE HAGENSEN

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51 Languaging the embodied experience 180

HEIDRUN PANHOFER AND HELEN PAYNE

52 Dance/Movement Therapy (D/MT) for depression: a scoping review 197

ANDREA MALA, VICKY KARKOU AND BONNIE MEEKUMS

53 Therapeutic dancing for Parkinson’s Disease 219

lorenna pryscia carvalho aguiar, priscila alves da rocha
and meg morris

54 Specific dance movement therapy interventions—which are

successful? An intervention and correlation study 235
IRIS BRÄUNINGER

55 Dance movement therapy group intervention in stress treatment:

a randomized controlled trial (RCT) 267
IRIS BRÄUNINGER

56 Diversity and dance: exploring the therapeutic implications of

world dance 287
SHAINNA ALI, KATELYN CUSHEY AND ALINA SIDDIQUI

57 The use of movement-based interventions with children diagnosed

with autism for psychosocial outcomes—a scoping review 305
KEVEN LEE, HEATHER LAMBERT, WALTER WITTICH, EVA KEHAYIA
AND MELISSA PARK

PART 8
Drama therapy 337

8.1 Theory339

58 Comedic improv therapy for the treatment of social

anxiety disorder 339
ALISON PHILLIPS SHEESLEY, MARK PFEFFER AND BECCA BARISH

59 
Philosophy of life: J. L. Moreno’s revolutionary philosophical
underpinnings of psychodrama and group psychotherapy 352
PETER C. HOWIE

60 Social constructionism and dramatherapy: creating

alternative discourses 364
DAPHNE MILIONI

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61 The implicated witness: towards a relational aesthetic

in dramatherapy 379
NISHA SAJNANI

8.2 Practice395

62 
Theater of the oppressed in an after-school program: middle
school students’ perspectives on bullying and prevention 395
FORAM BHUKHANWALA

63 A dramatherapy case study with a young man who has dual

diagnosis of intellectual disability and mental health problems 412
RINAT FENIGER-SCHAAL

64 Staging dramatic enactments to resolve conflicts in couples 428

DANIEL J. WIENER

65 Developmental transformations: improvisational drama therapy

with children in acute inpatient psychiatry 445
ADAM REYNOLDS

66 Performance as art-based research in drama therapy supervision 459

ROBERT LANDY, MARIA HODERMARSKA, DAVE MOWERS AND
DAVID PERRIN

67 Using the 6-Key Model as an intervention tool in drama therapy 469

SUSANA PENDZIK

68 Voices of pride: drama therapy with incarcerated women 484

ABIGAIL LEEDER AND COLLEEN WIMMER

69 Playback theatre and narrative therapy: introducing a new model 500

ADI BARAK

70 The place of psychodramatic methods and concepts in conventional

group and individual therapy 513
ADAM BLATNER

71 Kindergarten truck: participatory play in public 519

ANDREW M. GAINES

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8.3 Research531

72 Evaluating the efficacy of drama therapy in teaching social skills

to children with Autism Spectrum Disorders 531
MIRANDA D’AMICO, CORINNE LALONDE AND STEPHEN SNOW

73 Piloting PlayWrite: feasibility and efficacy of a playwriting

intervention for at-risk adolescents 552
ROSEMARY E. BERNSTEIN, JENNIFER C. ABLOW, KELLY C. MALONEY
AND JOEL T. NIGG

74 A step toward empirical evidence: operationalizing and uncovering

drama therapy change processes 573
CALLI RENEE ARMSTRONG, MIRA ROZENBERG,
MARGARET A. POWELL, JADE HONCE, LESLIE BRONSTEIN,
GABRIELLE GINGRAS AND EVIE HAN

75 Three challenges for drama therapy research: Keynote NADTA

conference, Montreal 2013 591
PHIL JONES

76 A combined drama-based and CBT approach to working

with self-reported anger aggression 606
JANINE BLACKER, ANDY WATSON AND ANTHONY R. BEECH

77 Participating in a community theatre production: a

dramatherapeutic perspective 615
TINA PYMAN AND SUE RUGG

78 Classroom drama therapy program for immigrant and refugee

adolescents: a pilot study 636
CÉCILE ROSSEAU, MARYSE BENOIT, MARIE-FRANCE GAUTHIER,
LOUISE LACROIX, NÉOMÉE ALAIN, MUSUK VIGER ROJAS,
ALEJANDRO MORAN AND DOMINIQUE BOURASSA

79 Life-crossroads on stage: integrating life review and drama

therapy for older adults 652
SHOSHI KEISARI AND YUVAL PALGI

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VOLUME IV ART THERAPY AND INTEGRATED ARTS THERAPY

Acknowledgmentsxi

Introduction to Volume IV: art therapy 1

PART 9
Art therapy 5

9.1 Theory7

80 Positive art therapy: linking positive psychology to art therapy

theory, practice, and research 7
REBECCA A. WILKINSON AND GIOIA CHILTON

81 Art therapy for combat-related PTSD: recommendations for

research and practice 22
KATE COLLIE, AMY BACKOS, CATHY MALCHIODI AND
DAVID SPIEGEL

82 Out of our mind. Art therapy and mindfulness with refugees,

political violence and trauma 36
DEBRA KALMANOWITZ AND RAINBOW T.H. HO

83 Therapeutic qualities of clay-work in art therapy and

psychotherapy: a review 59
MICHAL SHOLT AND TAMI GAVRON

84 The Expressive Therapies Continuum (ETC): interdisciplinary

bases of the ETC 73
VIJA BERGS LUSEBRINK, KRISTĪNE MĀRTINSONE AND
ILZE DZILNA-ŠILOVA

85 Coordinating principles of art therapy and DBT 94

JESSICA I. HECKWOLF, M. CHRISTY BERGLAND AND
MARIA MOURATIDIS

86 Art therapy and social action: a transpersonal framework 112

DAN HOCOY

9.2 Practice 132

87 A task-oriented approach to art therapy in trauma treatment 132

ANITA B. RANKIN AND LINDSEY C. TAUCHER

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88 Creating a framework: art therapy elicits the narrative 151

KAREN HARBER

89 A case example of art therapy in relation to Dialectical

Behaviour Therapy 166
KAREN HUCKVALE AND MALCOLM LEARMONTH

90 Using artist trading cards as an expressive arts intervention

in counseling 186
MARTA GARRETT

91 Between water and words: reflective self-awareness and symbol

formation in art therapy 197
JONATHAN ISSEROW

92 Making art from memories: honoring deceased loved ones

through a scrapbooking bereavement group 214
MARY KOHUT

93 Social action in practice: shifting the ethnocentric lens in

cross-cultural art therapy encounters 229
LYNN KAPITAN

94 Stories in the cloth: art therapy and narrative textiles 245

LISA RAYE GARLOCK

9.3 Research261

95 Establishing a research agenda for art therapy: a Delphi study 261

DONNA KAISER AND SARAH DEAVER

96 Art therapy for relief of symptoms associated with HIV/AIDS 276

DEEPA RAO, NANCY NAINIS, LISA WILLIAMS, DAUGHON LANGNER,
AUDRA EISIN AND JUDITH PAICE

97 Art promoting mental health literacy and a positive attitude

towards people with experience of mental illness 286
EUGEN KOH AND BRADLEY SHRIMPTON

98 An art therapy exploration of immigration with Latino families 297

DEBRA LINESCH, HILDA C. ACEVES, PAUL QUEZADA,
MELISSA TROCHEZ AND ELENA ZUNIGA

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99 Art therapy with sexually abused children and adolescents:

extended research study 312
TERRY PIFALO

100 Approaches to art therapy for cancer inpatients: research and

practice considerations 319
NANCY A. NAINIS

101 Art therapy in art museums: promoting social connectedness and

psychological well-being of older adults 333
ROSE BENNINGTON, AMY BACKOS, JENNIFER HARRISON,
ARNELL ETHERINGTON READER AND RICHARD CAROLAN

PART 10
Integrated arts therapies 357

10.1 Theory359

102 Response/ability: imagining a critical race feminist paradigm

for the creative arts therapies 359
NISHA SAJNANI

103 Expressive artistic therapies as mind–body medicine 373

PATRICIA SHERWOOD

104 Positive art: artistic expression and appreciation as an

exemplary vehicle for flourishing 388
TIM LOMAS

10.2 Practice414

105 Playing in the mud: health psychology, the arts and creative
approaches to health care 414
PAUL M. CAMIC

106 The healing power of symbolization in the aftermath of

massive war atrocities: examples from Liberian and
Sierra Leonean survivors 433
SHANEE STEPAKOFF

107 Meeting the needs of urban students: creative arts therapy in

Jersey City Public Schools 443
CINDY LOU NELSON

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108 Using arts activism and poetry to catalyze human rights

engagement and reflection 457
JANE MCPHERSON AND NICHOLAS MAZZA

109 Using computer technology in expressive arts therapy practice:

a proposal for increased use 474
SARAH EVANS

110 Voices in flight: integrating movement/dance with poetry therapy 488

NICHOLAS MAZZA

111 The integration of healing rituals in group treatment for women

survivors of domestic violence 493
KAREN NEUMAN ALLEN AND DANIELLE F. WOZNIAK

112 A story of a healing relationship: the person-centered

approach in expressive arts therapy 509
SUNHEE KIM

10.3 Research515

113 Creative arts as a public health resource: moving from

practice-based research to evidence-based practice 515
STEPHEN CLIFT

114 Child-centered expressive arts and play therapy: school groups

for at-risk adolescent girls 530
KRISTI L. PERRYMAN, ROCHELLE MOSS AND KATT COCHRAN

115 Expressive arts therapy group helps improve mood state in an

acute care psychiatric setting 548
GRACE CHIU, JANINE HANCOCK AND ANDREA WADDELL

116 Expressive group therapy with at-risk African American

adolescent girls 562
KARLY S. STUART AND MA. TERESA G. TUASON

117 Science as art: axiology as a central component in methodology

and evaluation of Arts-Based Research (ABR) 584
MICHAEL VIEGA

118 The effects of an expressive arts therapy group on female

counselors-in-training: a qualitative study 607
ELIZABETH A. KELLER-DUPREE AND KRISTI L. PERRYMAN

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119 Impact of integrated arts therapy: an intervention program for

young female offenders in correctional institution 623
KRISTI KÕIV AND LII KAUDNE

Afterword 637
Index 639

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42
INTERSENSORY AND
INTERSUBJECTIVE ATTUNEMENT
Philosophical approach to a central element of
dance movement psychotherapy

Katalin Vermes

Source: Body, Movement and Dance in Psychotherapy, 6, 1, 2011, 31–42.

This paper focuses on the connection of intersensory and inter-

subjective capacity of movement, which has basic importance in
Dance Movement Psychotherapy (DMP). This relationship has
become a central theme of several contemporary theories, such
as phenomenological philosophy or the psychological model of
self-development created by Daniel Stern. Nevertheless, think-
ing about this intertwining has a large tradition in the history
of culture. Aristotle also connected these dimensions, unfolding
the theme of ‘sixth sense’, or ‘sensus communis’, which unites
not only the five senses, but creates a primordial sympathy con-
necting us to other people and to the whole universe. Excessive
rationalization since the seventeenth century has simplified this
Aristotelian tradition and isolated human senses and human
persons. So the recent return of phenomenology and psychol-
ogy to the sensus communis encourages both dance thera-
pists and philosophers to cope with the alienations of modern
­thinking and to interpret our world and ourselves in new ways.

Introduction
The wonderful experience of intersensory and intersubjective attunement
constitutes both a central element and main therapeutic component of
dance and movement psychotherapies. This experience inspires movement
­improvisation, giving its fullness and beauty. Intersensory and intersubjective
attunement in creative movement opens up the possibility of restructuring the
core-self, the very basis of human personality, not usually accessible by words.

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Da n c e / m ov e m e n t t h e ra py – T h e o ry

This intertwining of intersensorality and intersubjectivity seems to be a rela-

tively new discovery both in philosophy and psychology. It has become a central
theme of several theories in the twentieth century, such as the new phenomeno-
logical philosophy according to Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1992), or the psycho-
logical model of self-development created by Daniel Stern (1985). Both of these
theories claim that higher forms of consciousness and personal development
have their roots in the work of our intersensorial-intercorporeal capacities.
It is not widely known that this intertwining has a remarkable and long
tradition in the history of western philosophy and culture. Becoming famil-
iar with this tradition helps us, as movement therapists, to appreciate the
enormous cultural and epistemological importance of the experience of
­intersensory and intersubjective attunement within our daily work.
Even Aristotle (1952) connected intersensory and intersubjective
­dimensions, unfolding the theme of ‘sixth sense’, or ‘sensus communis’. For
him the intersensorial capacity connected not only the five senses, but cre-
ated a primordial sympathy that also connected us to other people and to the
whole universe. Excessive rationalization since the seventeenth century has
simplified this Aristotelian tradition and isolated human senses and human
persons as well. This gave rise to epistemological misunderstandings, and also
caused a large amount of human suffering, ‘a 350-year-old wound’ in our cul-
ture which is ‘covered over, but it has not healed yet’ (Sheets-Johnstone, 2009,
p. 2). For the Cartesian model of personality, which has been determining the
scientific theory of the nature of people even up to today, bodily experience
has become a residuum of an epistemological reduction, a secondary element
of our existence, a bare material or instrument of an omnipotent mind. The
corporeal affects and movements have not assumed immediate significance,
they have to be transformed and translated into another language of sci-
entific and social objectivity. Our intersensory-intersubjective sensibility has
become mute, or lived a secret life under the domination of a scientific and
social rationality. So the recent return of phenomenology and psychology to
the ‘sensus communis’ encourages both dance therapists and philosophers to
cope with the alienations of modern thinking and to interpret our world and
ourselves in new ways.
The author is a philosopher and dance movement therapist, who combines
both in her practice. In this article she endeavours to give an overarching
picture for dance movement psychotherapists about the phenomenological,
psychological and historical aspects of the wonderful phenomenon named
after Aristotle ‘sensus communis’.

Beyond perceptual atomism: Gestalt psychology

and phenomenology
Thoughts about the intertwining of intersensory and intercorporeal aspects
of motion and perception, the central theme of some contemporary theo-

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i n t e r s e n s o ry a n d i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e at t u n e m e n t

ries, are in opposition to a long-lasting tradition of the so called perceptual

­atomism, which determined the main theories of psychology and philosophy
from the seventeenth to the twentieth century (Dillon, 1997). The ­far-reaching
consequences of atomistic logic have influenced our culture up to this day.
According to the theory of ‘perceptual atomism’ we perceive reality origi-
nally in separate sensorial modalities, as individual and atomic ‘sense data’.
Intersensory experience is not primary, it is a result of subsequent integration,
so ‘basic units of perception are not intrinsically related’ (Dillon, 1997, p. 64).
Gestalt psychology (Embree, 1997) was the first discipline in the twenti-
eth century that opposed psychological atomism, and understood motion
and perception in their totality. Gestalt means a form or experiential unity,
which is perceptually primary, defining its constituents, rather than being a
secondary integration of these parts. This theory considered every motion
an integral part of a moving system, every perception an integral part of a
holistic intersensory perceptual reality, and movement and perception as dif-
ferent aspects of the same Gestalt. These thoughts influenced the philosophy
of Edmund Husserl (1989), whose phenomenology built up a complex theory
of perception. His philosophy further inspired the philosopher and psycholo-
gist Maurice Merleau-Ponty. After the Second World War, when the Gestalt
School declined, the main psychological theories returned to a form of sensory
atomism. For example, Piaget (1998) thought that babies are not born with
intersensory capacities, but they have to accomplish them later through an inte-
gration of haptic and visual scheme called reciprocal a­ ssimilation. Despite the
dominant contemporary psychological theories of the time, Maurice Merleau-
Ponty maintained his theory of the original multimodality of perception, and
connected it to the phenomenological ­description of the moving body.

The phenomenological unity of perception

From a phenomenological point of view, lived experience is prior to abstract
reflection; it is pre-thematic origin of such scientific abstractions, as ‘sense
data’ or ‘sensory integration’. Scientific concepts are to be re-established via
phenomenological analysis of subjective experience. The experience of our
living body involves an original stratum of perceptions, which precedes the
separation of the senses. As Merleau-Ponty wrote, ‘My body is a ready-made
system of equivalents and transpositions from one sense to another. The
senses translate each other without any need of an interpreter, and are mutu-
ally comprehensible without the intervention of any idea’ (Merleau-Ponty,
1992, p. 235). The unity of the body scheme creates the unity of the senses. But
this scheme itself is organized by the operating intentionality of the moving
body, the ‘intentional arc’. The ‘intentional arc’ refers to ‘the tight connection
between body and world, such that, as the active body acquires skills, those
skills are stored, not as representations in the mind, but as dispositions to
respond to the solicitations of situations in the world’ (Dreyfus, 2002, p. 367).

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Da n c e / m ov e m e n t t h e ra py – T h e o ry

‘To perceive the world means to step into the world; our motions and percep-
tions have a common style, a common directedness. The blind man begins to
see the world through his moving stick. The insect deprived of one leg buzzes
louder. A movement towards the world or “potential movement” forms the
basis for the unity of the senses’ (Merleau-Ponty, 1992, p. 234).
The analysis of intersensory experience, which provides multimodal depth
to our reality, became an essential paradigm in Merleau-Ponty’s philosophy.
If I look at the world with one eye, I perceive only one picture of it and I
cannot see the real depth of the horizon. But when I see the world with both
eyes, slight differences arise between the two pictures I perceive. This differ-
ence gives me the impression of the depth of visual reality. The lived depth
of our world experience is not only visual: it comes to existence through the
differences of all our sensory modalities (Merleau-Ponty, 1992, pp. 233–234).
There is a primordial difference between the experiencing of various sensory
modalities (seeing, touching, smelling), as well as there is a difference or ‘gap’
between monocular images of double vision. But these gaps between sensory
modalities do not prevent us from grasping different aspects simultaneously:
there is no need for subsequent integration. Differences are constitutive ele-
ments of perception, giving us the depth and richness of reality. I move into
the picture; I touch, listen and smell the world. This primordial unity and
­fission of senses gives us the depth of experience, the richness of reality.
But there is also another difference, another gap, much deeper than the
difference of perceptions: this exists between the special perspectives of dif-
ferent persons. I cannot step into another person’s place while he or she is
standing there, and can never imagine exactly another person’s viewpoint. But
the depth and complexity of our world experiences can only be constituted
through the conflicts of these incompossible points of view. The phenom-
enological space we move into is not the abstract, three-dimensional space of
physics. We move originally into this intersensory, intersubjective depth when
different senses and different subjects work together, but they cannot be pre-
sented or translated from one to another. But it is precisely this multidimen-
sional quality that gives us the vivid unity of our world: ‘like the chiasm of the
eyes, this one is also what makes us belong to the same world – a world which
is not projective, but forms its unity across incompossibilities such as that
of my world and the world of the other’ (Merleau-Ponty, 1968, p. 215). So
the phenomenological depth of reality is built up by the moving body, which
moves through chiasms of different sensory modalities and different persons.
If we are attentive, if we open our senses we can feel this creative power of our
body-motion. We can feel how our motion bridges gaps between senses and
persons, spanning opposite sensual and affective dimensions. Merleau-Ponty
called this sensual openness ‘wild perception’ (Merleau-Ponty, 1968, p. 212).
We can emancipate the original capacity of perception from those domes-
ticated cultural preconceptions which dim our senses and prevent us from
feeling the richness of our intercorporeal world. But this emancipation is not

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confined to the world of philosophy. The body–mind techniques adopted by

post-modern dances and dance movement therapies use the liberating capac-
ity of ‘wild perception’ as well. Body–mind practices aim to wake up the
dormant sensibility of movement. In a moving meditation (in the meditative
openness of body-work) we can reach the ontological depth of our existence,
which offers an opportunity of personal change.

Psychological researches on sensory modalities

Although Merleau-Ponty disclosed the importance of intersensory–intersub-
jective attunement in his phenomenological theory as early as the 1940s, it
took decades for psychological theories to discover it. Psychological investiga-
tions conducted in the 1970s and 1980s confirmed his theory about the origi-
nal intersensory capacity of moving bodies: experiments proved that newborn
babies can transform visual, auditory, tactile, and kinaesthetic information
from one to another. Meltzoff and Borton (1979) demonstrated that newborn
babies have intersensory or transmodal capacities and can transfer tactile
information into visual. For example, one month old infants were blindfolded
and given two different pacifiers to suck. One of them had nubs, the other
was smooth. Later they showed the two objects to the infants, measuring the
length of time they gazed at each pacifier. Infants looked longer at the object
they had previously sucked, thus demonstrating an ability to recognize the
object with a different sense. Kaye and Bower’s (1994) research in the nine-
ties showed that newborns as young as 12 hours old have the same ability to
match seen shape with its orally presented shape. Field et al. (1982) reported
that newborn infants, aged two days, can imitate an adult model: they can
smile, frown, or show surprise on their faces.
But how do babies know that the face they see is anything like the face they
have? How can a baby realize that the seen, the heard, the touched can be one
and the same thing? We do not know exactly, but infants appear to experience
a world of perceptual unity, somehow translating one sensory modality into
another. In this article we are not to think about the neurological background
of original amodality or the multimodality of perception. Instead, we ask
with Stern, what is the experiential medium of this transformation? How
can intersensory experience be described in terms of phenomenology? (Stern,
1985, p. 51)
Werner (1948) claimed that affects are responsible for the intersensory
transformation, because they usually connect different modalities at the same
time. A sight, a sound or a touch can all be happy, sad or angry. It is evi-
dent that affects are channels of the supra-modal currency. Stern agreed with
Werner about the supra-modal work of affects, but he found this explanation
insufficient. We do not feel affects (like happiness or anger) very often, while
our intermodal capacities work continuously (Stern, 1985, p. 53).
So Stern suggested extending the traditional category of affects, and intro-

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duced the concept of ‘vitality affects’, in opposition to the so called ‘­ categorical

affects’ (Stern, 1985, pp. 53–61). What, we may ask, is the difference between the
two? Usually we think of affective experiences in terms of traditional categories
of Darwinian affects: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, surprise, interest,
and perhaps shame. But there are much more nuances of feelings, which we
cannot describe with these distinct categories. We have a continual, intersensory
affect of our moving and perceiving body, interconnected with its surroundings
and with other living creatures. We are never without vitality affects (whether
we are conscious of them or not), while regular affects come and go. We always
feel them, just as we feel we are alive. These include that special rhythm and dis-
position as we walk on the street, as we close a door, the special atmosphere as
we look at others, as we laugh or cry. This peculiar quality of our vitality affects
connects our motions and different sensory modalities, displaying that special
style by which our own body can interpret itself. As Merleau-Ponty says: ‘What
unites “tactile sensations” in the hand and links them to visual perceptions
of the same hand, and to perceptions of other bodily areas, is a certain style
informing my manual gestures and implying in turn a certain style of finger
movements, and contributing, in the last resort, to a certain bodily bearing. The
body is to be compared, not to a physical object, but rather to a work of art’
(Merleau-Ponty, 1992, p. 150). There is a certain style of seeing and touching,
walking and laughing which makes possible the original intersensory integra-
tion of body experiences and makes possible personal identity as well.
Vitality affects, which connect our senses, are the first and most basic forms
of interpersonal communication. They ‘can be expressed in a multitude of
parental acts: how the mother picks up baby, folds the diapers, grooms her
hair or the baby’s hair, reaches for a bottle, unbuttons her blouse. The infant is
immersed in these feelings of vitality’ (Stern, 1985, p. 54). These feelings form
the first, presymbolic patterns of interpersonal relatedness, which Stern called
implicit relational knowing (Stern, 2004, p. 242). The mother bends to her baby,
the baby raises its head, the mother caresses the head, the baby uses its voice,
and the mother responds saying something in the same rhythm. There is an
unconscious interpersonal attunement of motions and ­perceptions, forming a
common tissue of their lives. The baby feels the mother’s m ­ ovements, which fit
to its own movements, and this joining forms the baby’s ­self-perception. If this
fitting is not completed, the baby will feel slight differences between his and the
mother’s movements. But this experience of difference or hiatus strengthens his
personal separation. This intermodal–interpersonal fitting, and at the same time
differing interplay of vitality affects, forms the grounding for self-development
in the course of which the child assumes the sense of being an entity distinct
from other objects in its environment (Stern, 1985, pp. 72–92). The perpetual
movement of vitality affects creates the ‘core self’; the ­fundamental moods of
our personality for the whole of our lives from beginning to end.
Vital attunement deeply inspires the course of movement improvisation,
and serves as a central therapeutic factor in DMP. Well-prepared movement

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improvisation activates and expresses many levels of the self. It can be a sym-
bolic or metaphoric expression in which repressed unconscious contents are
brought to light (Samaritter, 2009). On the other hand, however, it mobilizes
a previous stratum of development, the primordial patterns of the s­ elf-core,
including implicit relational knowing. It is nonconscious material, rather
than unconscious, because in contrast with the psychoanalytic ‘dynamic
­unconscious’, it has never been conscious, never repressed, and never even
symbolised (Stern, 2004, pp. 116–117). Much of this implicit knowing is
bodily experience, not transposable into words; however, it can be worked
through in the course of movement and nonverbal attunement. Nevertheless,
a part of implicit material can enter into the process of symbolisation. Thus,
owing to the mobilization of vitality affects, therapeutic change is possible in
DMP even in those cases when the process of symbolisation is stuck.
Even Stern realized that movement improvisation has special ­potentialities:
‘Abstract dance and music are examples par excellence of the expressiveness
of vitality affects’; they express ‘a way of feeling’, rather than a specific con-
tent of feeling (Stern, 1985, p. 56). They refer to the form and quality, rather
than the object of the experience. The main qualities we can perceive intersen-
sorally are the special shape, form, pattern or rhythm. But the same transmit-
table character of shape, form, pattern or rhythm brings to light our vital
interpersonal communication. As Stern declared, ‘The capacities for identi-
fying cross-modal equivalences that make for a perceptual unified world are
the same capacities that permit the mother and the infant to engage in affect
attunement to achieve affective intersubjectivity’ (Stern, 1985, p. 156). So the
theory of vitality affects showed us the inherent connections between motion,
intermodal perception, affect and interpersonal attunement.

Connection of intersensorality and intersubjectivity in

Aristotle’s philosophy
Opposed to the dualistic and atomistic tradition of modernity, ­Merleau-Ponty’s
and Stern’s theories not only postulated an original, p ­re-objective,
intersensory-intersubjective order of experience but renewed also an old,
­
more complex, and humanistic way of thinking, built on the experience of
‘sensus communis’. Even Stern noticed that his theory of intermodal per-
ception is similar to Aristotle’s doctrine of the unity of the senses (Stern,
1985, p. 154). Aristotle (384–324 BC) added to the traditional five senses (sight,
hearing, touch, smell, and taste) a sixth or ‘common’ sense, which is uncon-
nected to any organs directly, but can apperceive the primary, amodal qualities
of ­sensation (Aristotle, 1993). These amodal qualities are similar to Stern’s
intersensory qualities: intensity, motion, rest, unity, form, and number. They
can be extracted from any modality, and translated among all sense modes.
The sixth sense is not another sense over and above the five, but presents
the common nature inherent in all. This unspecialized perception played an

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important role in Aristotle’s philosophy. Although the phrase ‘common sense’

itself is rare in Aristotle, it conveniently sums up a whole doctrine, which was
to exert enormous influence on later humanistic tradition (Ross, 1959, p. 138).
In addition, ‘sensus communis’ refers to the self-reflective and integrative
character of perception, and as such has ethical and theological connota-
tions as well. By ‘sensus communis’ we perceive not only in all modalities,
but we perceive that we perceive. (He who walks perceives that he walks.)
The senses reflect on each other; they create a common rhythm, an original
harmony of life (Aristotle, 1952, p. 424). This reflective and integrating qual-
ity of senses gives an elementary meaning to our perceptual, moving, living
world. In Ethica Nicomacheia (Aristotle, 1952), common sense is connected
to the joy that we not only live our life but reflect on, sense, and feel it. The
‘sixth sense’ is an ability to perceive that we perceive, and to perceive that we
exist. And perceiving that one lives is in itself pleasant, ‘for life is by nature
good’ (Aristotle, 1952, p. 424). ‘But we can feel the goodness of life not only
through our own multisensory self-perception, but through the perception of
the life of others – it is good to perceive our friends’ (Aristotle, 1952, p. 427).
So in Aristotle the intersensory capacity of common sense is connected with
affects, empathy, ethical values, and the original unity of life.

Cultural tradition of sensus communis: humanism

contra rationalism
These Aristotelian ideas survived and flourished until the seventeenth century,
exercising enormous influence on stoicism, scholasticism, the Renaissance and
pietism as well. As Gadamer (2003, pp. 19–30) explained in Truth and Method, a
whole tradition arose which connected the intersensorial capacity of the senses
with interpersonal sympathy and the sensible unity of the universe. Marcus
Aurelius (121–180), Vico (1668–1744), Shaftesbury ­(1671–1713), and Oetinger
(1702–1782) are just a few names from this tradition. Aristotle’s stoic and
Christian followers taught that sensus communis, which combines seeing, hear-
ing, and smelling, integrates diversity into simplicity and confirms the genuinely
divine unity of life. Real presence of God consists in life itself, in this ‘commu-
nal sense’ that distinguishes all living things from dead (Gadamer, 2003, p. 28)
The common root of outer senses is connected to ‘the love of a community or
society, natural affection, humanity, obligingness’ (Gadamer, 2003, p. 24).
These ideas served the basis for a humanistic tradition which, from the
seventeenth century onwards, has criticised excessive rationalization and
unfolded the importance and the humanistic value of sensuality and sen-
sual sympathy in opposition to bare abstractions. In contrast to the violent
anatomization of nature through experiment and calculation, this humanistic
tradition returns to the living complexity of sensual experience, and avers that
every truth has its origin in our common sense and that ‘sensible truths are
useful for all men at all times and places’ (Gadamer, 2003, pp. 28–29). In our

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age of globalization, when our relationship to nature, community and other

cultures has become problematic, these ideas can be illuminative and can
show us alternative ways of western thinking.
On the other hand, however, since the seventeenth century, the modern form
of rationalism has simplified, emptied and intellectualized the Aristotelian
tradition of ‘sensus communis’ to the theory of primary qualities of sensation
(such as extension perceptible through vision). The understanding of percep-
tion has lost its multidimensionality; it has become a perception of bare sense
data. Modern scientific thinking isolates human senses and human persons;
sensual experiences become atomistic and private (Gadamer, 2003, p. 30).
It cannot be a pure accident that both isolations proceeded s­ imultaneously.
Neither can it be a pure accident that the theories of intersensorality and
intersubjectivity gained a new lease of life in the twentieth century and
became simultaneously central themes of phenomenology and psychology.
Searching for an alternative to the excessive and naive rationalism of the
natural sciences, phenomenology, as we have seen, returned to this ­experience.
A simultaneous change in psychology occurred as well. In his theory of pri-
mary narcissism, Freud, like the most of his contemporaries, ignored the
tradition of sensus communis (Freud, 1914). Since the 1950s, psychoanalytic
theory has undergone a paradigm shift. It has moved from single mind to
intersubjective, relational theories, claiming that the origin of the self is not
only corporeal, but also intersubjective. Here we have to mention the theo-
ries of object-relations (Hamilton, 1990), of intersubjectivity (Stolorow,
Brandhoft, & Atwood, 1983), attachment (Bowlby, 1969), and Stern’s model
of self-development (Stern, 1985), which, as we have shown, interconnected
the theories of intersubjectivity and intersensorality.

Intersensory-intersubjective attunement and Dance

Movement Psychotherapy
Dance and movement therapies know these living connections and had
known them decades before Stern’s theory. Such theoretic results as the dis-
covery of vitality affects confirmed the well-functioning therapeutic practice,
and deepened the understanding of human motion. One of the first dance
therapists, Marion Chase (1896–1970) already emphasized the therapeutic
effects of group unity and interaction (Lewis, 1979, p. 27) which are closely
connected to intercorporeal attunement. All DMP methods, however, use
different aspects of sensus communis. The author gained her therapeutic expe-
rience through Psychodynamic Movement and Dance Therapy (PMDT),
a Hungarian method which was developed by Márta Merényi (2004). In
PMDT we set a high value on intersensory-intersubjective attunement which,
by inspiring movement improvisation, mobilizes hidden patterns of ‘implicit
relational knowing’, and opens new dimensions both for self-perception and
perception in interpersonal situations.

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In the process of improvisation we move with eyes closed sometimes,

concentrating on our inside, body-felt senses which usually go unnoticed
in everyday life. But we can decide to step out into the visual reality and
open our eyes, still maintaining contact with the inside senses. Then the
rhythms of inside and outside experiences weave together inspiring further
possibilities of movement. In the course of movement different modali-
ties of experience collaborate; touching, seeing, hearing, smelling resonate
with each other and create a common rhythm. In addition, the rhythm of
one’s body senses, impulses and movements is tuned with the others’; all
these interfere, creating the wonderful, living dance. The intense multidi-
mensional experience strengthens both individual self-coherence and group
coherence. Moreover, it leads to distinctions: to the differentiation of the
rhythm of moving individuals, and to a better perception of the limits
of the self. Merging and liminal experiences of attunement mobilize the
pre-symbolic, relational knowing fixed in the body-senses and repressed
unconscious ­ contents, respectively. These multiple (eventually cathartic)
­movement-experiences together with their verbal working through open up
the possibility of therapeutic change.

Fragmentation and reintegration of sensus communis

As it is written above, gaps differentiating sensory modalities and individuals
are to a certain degree constitutive parts of experience. Our culture, however,
dominated, as it is, by ‘vision-centred’ paradigm of knowledge, neglecting
other sensory modalities (Levin, 1993), and isolating individuals, alienates
us from the organic texture of intersensory-intersubjective attunement.
Alongside the psychopathological, there are also cultural causes for the fact
that for a lot of people we meet in PMDT groups it is not easy to perceive
their intimate body-felt senses. They are obsessed with the outside, visual
world to a degree that they lose contact with other senses of their own selves.
Others, however, are filled so much with their intimate felt senses that they are
incapable of seeing the others or themselves. All these patients are fixed to one
or two sensory modalities and have difficulties in tuning them with the others.
In applying Melanie Klein’s psychoanalytic theory (1975) to bodily
­experience, Katya Bloom (2006) wrote that ‘in differentiating between the
“paranoid-schizoid position” and the “depressive” position there is an
implied change from a depleted, tense, or flattened two dimensional surfaces
sense of self a “front”, one could say, to a filled out three dimensional being’
(Bloom, 2006, p. 53). Relying on Merleau-Ponty’s and Stern’s theory we can
add that the healthy experience of reality usually means an involvement
not only in a three-dimensional experience, but also in a multidimensional,
­intersensory-intersubjective depth of existence. Although development, both
cultural and personal, implies a certain abstraction from immediate bodily
experiences, it does not mean total disengagement. Loosing connection with

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this intersensory-intersubjective tissue is bound to lead to cosmic loneliness

and isolation. So, reparation of the torn tissue of sensus communis is one of
the main tasks of dance and movement therapies. It carries efficient thera-
peutic force even in some of the most serious mental diseases, as it reveals
presymbolic patterns of implicit relational knowledge and prepares new ways
of symbolization (Merényi, 2004).
Nevertheless, this living tissue forms the basis of other important thera-
peutic factors of Dance Movement Psychotherapies: phenomena of somatic
transference and countertransference (Dosamantes-Beaudry, 2007) arise
from intercorporeal connectedness; also, the transcultural competence
of DMP (Boas, 2004) originates in unifying and differentiating force of
­intersensory-intersubjective attunement. A detailed analysis of these issues is,
however, beyond the scope of this paper.
Finally, we may safely state that DMP groups are such therapeutic places
where a new, creative, conscious and refined culture of ‘sensus c­ ommunis’
comes to life, a culture we usually lack in everyday life. Although the
intersensory-intersubjective tissue is always present and it always organ-
izes our experience, as we pointed out above, our cultural tradition and
personal development tend to push it into the background. According to
­Merleau-Ponty, our fixed assumptions of scientific and everyday objects
deprive us of the richness of perception. Similarly, our fixed psychologi-
cal object-relations and implicit patterns simplify or fix our motions and
sensibilities. We have to carry out a special reduction, in order to get to
the authenticity of ‘wild perception’. We need special attention and have to
do special body-work to open this field for working on self issues and uni-
versal reflection. Therefore, what we do in dance-movement therapy means
more than personal change; we repair our culture as well, and renew those
native intersensory-intersubjective connections which are impaired by the
­one-sidedness of modern thinking.

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