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M U N S O N , YO U N G A N D O K I I S H I ’ S

Eighth Edition

Philip M. Gerhart Andrew L. Gerhart John I. Hochstein

x About the Authors

Dr. Hochstein has twice been a NASA Summer Faculty Fellow for two consecutive summers: once
at the NASA Lewis (now Glenn) Research Center, and once at the NASA Marshall Space Flight
Center. Dr. Hochstein’s current primary research focus is on the capture of hydrokinetic energy to
produce electricity.
Dr. Hochstein is an Associate Fellow of AIAA and has served on the Microgravity Space
Processes Technical Committee since 1986. He joined ASME as an undergraduate student and
served for 4 years on the K20 Computational Heat Transfer Committee. He is a member of ASEE
and has served the profession as an ABET Program Evaluator since 2002.
 About the New Authors xi

A Quarter-Century of Excellence

Bruce R. Munson, Professor Emeritus of Engineering Mechanics at Iowa State University, received
his B.S. and M.S. degrees from Purdue University and his Ph.D. degree from the Aerospace Engi-
neering and Mechanics Department of the University of Minnesota in 1970.
Prior to joining the Iowa State University faculty in 1974, Dr. Munson was on the mechanical
engineering faculty of Duke University from 1970 to 1974. From 1964 to 1966, he worked as an
engineer in the jet engine fuel control department of Bendix Aerospace Corporation, South Bend,
Indiana.
Dr. Munson’s main professional activity has been in the area of fluid mechanics education and
research. He has been responsible for the development of many fluid mechanics courses for studies
in civil engineering, mechanical engineering, engineering science, and agricultural engineering and
is the recipient of an Iowa State University Superior Engineering Teacher Award and the Iowa State
University Alumni Association Faculty Citation.
He has authored and coauthored many theoretical and experimental technical papers on
hydrodynamic stability, low Reynolds number flow, secondary flow, and the applications of viscous
incompressible flow. He is a member of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Donald F. Young, Anson Marston Distinguished Professor Emeritus in Engineering, received his
B.S. degree in mechanical engineering, his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in theoretical and applied me-
chanics from Iowa State University, and has taught both undergraduate and graduate courses in fluid
mechanics at Iowa State for many years. In addition to being named a Distinguished Professor in
the College of Engineering, Dr. Young has also received the Standard Oil Foundation Outstanding
Teacher Award and the Iowa State University Alumni Association Faculty Citation. He has been
engaged in fluid mechanics research for more than 35 years, with special interests in similitude and
modeling and the interdisciplinary field of biomedical fluid mechanics. Dr. Young has contributed
to many technical publications and is the author or coauthor of two textbooks on applied mechanics.
He is a Fellow of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Ted H. Okiishi, Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering at Iowa State University, joined the
faculty there in 1967 after receiving his undergraduate and graduate degrees from that institution.
From 1965 to 1967, Dr. Okiishi served as a U.S. Army officer with duty assignments at the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio, where
he participated in rocket nozzle heat transfer research, and at the Combined Intelligence Center,
Saigon, Republic of South Vietnam, where he studied seasonal river flooding problems.
Professor Okiishi and his students have been active in research on turbomachinery fluid dy-
namics. Some of these projects have involved significant collaboration with government and indus-
trial laboratory researchers, with two of their papers winning the ASME Melville Medal (in 1989
and 1998).
Dr. Okiishi has received several awards for teaching. He has developed undergraduate and
graduate courses in classical fluid dynamics as well as the fluid dynamics of turbomachines.
He is a licensed professional engineer. His professional society activities include having been
a vice president of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and of the American
Society for Engineering Education. He is a Life Fellow of The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers and past editor of its Journal of Turbomachinery. He was recently honored with the
ASME R. Tom Sawyer Award.

Wade W. Huebsch, Associate Professor in the Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineer-
ing at West Virginia University, received his B.S. degree in aerospace engineering from San Jose
State University where he played college baseball. He received his M.S. degree in mechanical engi-
neering and his Ph.D. in aerospace engineering from Iowa State University in 2000.
Dr. Huebsch specializes in computational fluid dynamics research and has authored multiple
journal articles in the areas of aircraft icing, roughness-induced flow phenomena, and boundary

xi
xii A Quarter-Century of Excellence

layer flow control. He has taught both undergraduate and graduate courses in fluid mechanics and
has developed a new undergraduate course in computational fluid dynamics. He has received mul-
tiple teaching awards such as Outstanding Teacher and Teacher of the Year from the College of
Engineering and Mineral Resources at WVU as well as the Ralph R. Teetor Educational Award from
SAE. He was also named as the Young Researcher of the Year from WVU. He is a member of the
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, the Sigma Xi research society, the Society of
Automotive Engineers, and the American Society of Engineering Education.

Alric P. Rothmayer, Professor of Aerospace Engineering at Iowa State University, received his un-
dergraduate and graduate degrees from the Aerospace Engineering Department at the University of
Cincinnati, during which time he also worked at NASA Langley Research Center and was a visiting
graduate research student at the Imperial College of Science and Technology in London. He joined
the faculty at Iowa State University (ISU) in 1985 after a research fellowship sponsored by the Office
of Naval Research at University College in London.
Dr. Rothmayer has taught a wide variety of undergraduate fluid mechanics and propulsion courses
for over 25 years, ranging from classical low and high speed flows to propulsion cycle analysis.
Dr. Rothmayer was awarded an ISU Engineering Student Council Leadership Award, an ISU
Foundation Award for Early Achievement in Research, an ISU Young Engineering Faculty Research
Award, and a National Science Foundation Presidential Young Investigator Award. He is an Associ-
ate Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), and was chair of the
3rd AIAA Theoretical Fluid Mechanics Conference.
Dr. Rothmayer specializes in the integration of Computational Fluid Dynamics with asymp-
totic methods and low order modeling for viscous flows. His research has been applied to diverse
areas ranging from internal flows through compliant tubes to flow control and aircraft icing. In 2001,
Dr. Rothmayer won a NASA Turning Goals into Reality (TGIR) Award as a member of the Aircraft
Icing Project Team, and also won a NASA Group Achievement Award in 2009 as a member of the
LEWICE Ice Accretion Software Development Team. He was also a member of the SAE AC-9C
Aircraft Icing Technology Subcommittee of the Aircraft Environmental Systems Committee of SAE
and the Fluid Dynamics Technical Committee of AIAA.
 Preface

This book is intended to help undergraduate engineering students learn the fundamentals of fluid
mechanics. It was developed for use in a first course on fluid mechanics, either one or two semesters/
terms. While the principles of this course have been well-established for many years, fluid mechanics
education has evolved and improved.
With this eighth edition, a new team of authors is working to continue the distinguished tradi-
tion of this text. As it has throughout the past seven editions, the original core prepared by Munson,
Young, and Okiishi remains. We have sought to augment this fine text, drawing on our many years
of teaching experience. Based on our experience and suggestions from colleagues and students,
we have made a number of changes to this edition. The changes (listed below, and indicated by the
word New in descriptions in this preface) are made to clarify, update, and expand certain ideas and
concepts.

New to This Edition

In addition to the continual effort of updating the scope of the material presented and improving the
presentation of all of the material, the following items are new to this edition.

Self-Contained: Material that had been removed from the text and provided only on-line has been
brought back into the text. Most notable are Section 5.4 on the second law of thermodynamics and
useful energy loss and Appendix E containing units conversion factors.

Compressible Flow: Chapter 11 on compressible flow has been extensively reorganized and a lim-
ited amount of new material added. There are ten new example problems; some of them replace
previous examples. All have special emphasis on engineering applications of the material. Example
solutions employ tabulated compressible flow functions as well as graphs.

Appendices: Appendix A has been expanded. Compressible flow function tables have been added
to Appendix D. A new extensive set of units conversion factors in a useful and compact format
appears in Appendix E.

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD): A still unsettled issue in introductory fluid mechanics
texts is what to do about computational fluid dynamics. A complete development of the subject is
well beyond the scope of an introductory text; nevertheless, highly complex, highly capable CFD
codes are being employed for engineering design and analysis in a continually expanding number
of industries. We have chosen to provide a description of many of the challenges and practices that
characterize widely used CFD codes. Our aim is twofold: to show how reasonably complex flows
can be computed and to foster a healthy skepticism in the nonspecialist. This material is presented
in an expanded Appendix A.

Problems and Examples: Many new examples and problems emphasize engineering applica-
tions. Approximately 30% new homework problems have been added for this edition, and there are
additional problems in WileyPLUS.

Value: Nearly everyone is concerned about the upward spiral of textbook prices (yes, even authors
and publishers!). We have taken a few modest steps to keep the price of this book reasonable. Most
of these steps involve the removal of “bells and whistles.” For example, the thumbnail photos that
accompanied the video icons in the 7th edition have been dropped. Wiley has also developed a num-
ber of different products to meet differing student needs and budgets.

xiii
xiv Preface

y Key Features
Fr < 1

Fr = 1
Illustrations, Photographs, and Videos
Fr > 1 Fluid mechanics has always been a “visual” subject—much can be learned by viewing various char-
acteristics of fluid flow. Fortunately this visual component is becoming easier to incorporate into
E
the learning environment, for both access and delivery, and is an important help in learning fluid
mechanics. Thus, many photographs and illustrations have been included in the book. Some of these
are within the text material; some are used to enhance the example problems; and some are included
as margin figures of the type shown in the left margin to more clearly illustrate various points dis-
cussed in the text. Numerous video segments illustrate many interesting and practical applications
of real-world fluid phenomena. Each video segment is identified at the appropriate location in the
(© Photograph courtesy
text material by a video icon of the type shown in the left margin. Each video segment has a separate
of Pend Oreille Public associated text description of what is shown in the video. There are many homework problems that
Utility District.) are directly related to the topics in the videos.

Examples
V1.9 Floating One of our aims is to represent fluid mechanics as it really is—an exciting and useful discipline. To
VIDEO razor blade this end, we include analyses of numerous everyday examples of fluid-flow phenomena to which
students and faculty can easily relate. In this edition there are numerous examples that provide de-
tailed solutions to a variety of problems. Many of the examples illustrate engineering applications of
fluid mechanics, as is appropriate in an engineering textbook. Several illustrate what happens if one
or more of the parameters is changed. This gives the student a better feel for some of the basic prin-
ciples involved. In addition, many of the examples contain photographs of the actual device or item
involved in the example. Also, all of the examples are outlined and carried out with the problem
solving methodology of “Given, Find, Solution, and Comment” as discussed in the “Note to User”
before Example 1.1.

The Wide World of Fluids

The set of approximately 60 short “The Wide World of Fluids” stories reflect some important, and
novel, ways that fluid mechanics affects our lives. Many of these stories have homework problems
associated with them. The title of this feature has been changed from the 7th edition’s “Fluids in the
News” because the stories cover more than just the latest developments in fluid mechanics.

Homework Problems
A wide variety of homework problems (approximately 30% new to this edition) stresses the practical
application of principles. The problems are grouped and identified according to topic. The following
types of problems are included:
1) “standard” problems,
2) computer problems,
3) discussion problems,
4) supply-your-own-data problems,
5) problems based on “The Wide World of Fluids” topics,
6) problems based on the videos,
7) “Lifelong learning” problems,
8) problems that require the user to obtain a photograph/image of a given flow situation and write
a brief paragraph to describe it,
 Preface xv

Computer Problems—Several problems are designated as computer problems. Depending on the

preference of the instructor or student, any of the problems with numerical data may be solved with
the aid of a personal computer, a programmable calculator, or even a smartphone.
Lifelong Learning Problems—Each chapter has lifelong learning problems that involve obtaining
additional information about various fluid mechanics topics and writing a brief report about this
material.

Well-Paced Concept and Problem-Solving Development

Since this is an introductory text, we have designed the presentation of material to allow for the grad-
ual development of student confidence in fluid mechanics problem solving. Each important concept
or notion is considered in terms of simple and easy-to-understand circumstances before more com-
plicated features are introduced. Many pages contain a brief summary (a highlight) sentence in the
margin that serves to prepare or remind the reader about an important concept discussed on that page.
Several brief elements have been included in each chapter to help the student see the “big
picture” and recognize the central points developed in the chapter. A brief Learning Objectives sec-
tion is provided at the beginning of each chapter. It is helpful to read through this list prior to reading
the chapter to gain a preview of the main concepts presented. Upon completion of the chapter, it is
beneficial to look back at the original learning objectives. Additional reinforcement of these learn-
ing objectives is provided in the form of a Chapter Summary and Study Guide at the end of each
chapter. In this section a brief summary of the key concepts and principles introduced in the chapter
is included along with a listing of important terms with which the student should be familiar. These
terms are highlighted in the text. All items in the Learning Objectives and the Study Guide are
“action items” stating something that the student should be able to do. A list of the main equations
in the chapter is included in the chapter summary.

System of Units
Three systems of units are used throughout the text: the International System of Units (newtons,
kilograms, meters, and seconds), the British Gravitational System (pounds, slugs, feet, and seconds),
and the English Engineering System, sometimes called the U.S. Customary System (pounds (or
pounds force), pounds mass, feet, and seconds). Distribution of the examples and homework prob-
lems between the three sets of units is about 50%, 40%, 10%.

Prerequisites and Topical Organization

A first course in Fluid Mechanics typically appears in the junior year of a traditional engineering
curriculum. Students should have studied statics and dynamics, and mechanics of materials should
be at least a co-requisite. Prior mathematics should include calculus, with at least the rudiments of
vector calculus, and differential equations.
In the first four chapters of this text the student is made aware of some fundamental aspects
of fluid mechanics, including important fluid properties, flow regimes, pressure variation in fluids
at rest and in motion, fluid kinematics, and methods of flow description and analysis. The Bernoulli
equation is introduced in Chapter 3 to draw attention, early on, to some of the interesting effects
and applications of the relationship between fluid motion and pressure in a flow field. We believe
that this early consideration of elementary fluid dynamics increases student enthusiasm for the more
complicated material that follows. In Chapter 4 we convey the essential elements of flow kinematics,
including Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions of flow fields, and indicate the vital relationship
between the two views. For instructors who wish to consider kinematics in detail before the material
on elementary fluid dynamics, Chapters 3 and 4 can be interchanged without loss of continuity.
Chapters 5, 6, and 7 expand on the basic methods generally used to solve or to begin solving
fluid mechanics problems. Emphasis is placed on understanding how flow phenomena are described
mathematically and on when and how to use infinitesimal or finite control volumes. The effects
of fluid friction on pressure and velocity are also considered in some detail. Although Chapter 5
xvi Preface

considers fluid energy and energy dissipation, a formal course in thermodynamics is not a neces-
sary prerequisite. Chapter 7 features the advantages of using dimensional analysis and similitude for
organizing data and for planning experiments and the basic techniques involved.
Owing to the growing importance of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) in engineering de-
sign and analysis, material on this subject is included in Appendix A. This material may be omitted
without any loss of continuity to the rest of the text.
Chapters 8 through 12 offer students opportunities for the further application of the principles
learned earlier in the text. Also, where appropriate, additional important notions such as boundary
layers, transition from laminar to turbulent flow, turbulence modeling, and flow separation are intro-
duced. Practical concerns such as pipe flow, open-channel flow, flow measurement, drag and lift, the
effects of compressibility, and the fundamental fluid mechanics of turbomachinery are included.
Students who study this text and solve a representative set of the problems will have acquired
a useful knowledge of the fundamentals of fluid mechanics. Faculty who use this text are provided
with numerous topics to select from in order to meet the objectives of their own courses. More
material is included than can be reasonably covered in one term. There is sufficient material for a
second course, most likely titled “Applied Fluid Mechanics.” All are reminded of the fine collection
of supplementary material. We have cited throughout the text various articles and books that are
available for enrichment.

Instructor Resources

WileyPLUS provides instructor resources, such as the Instructor Solutions Manual, containing com-
plete, detailed solutions to all of the problems in the text, and figures from the text appropriate for
use in lecture slides. Sign up for access at www.wileyplus.com.

Student Resources:
Through a registration process, WileyPLUS also provides access to students for appropriate resources
such as fluids videos and additional problems, among others.

Harnessing the full power of WileyPLUS:

If an educator chooses to require WileyPLUS for their course, the educator will set up the WileyPLUS
course in advance and request students to register and use it. Students obtain access via a registration
code that may be added to a print edition or purchased for online-only access.
WileyPLUS builds students’ confidence because it takes the guesswork out of studying by provid-
ing students with a clear roadmap: what to do, how to do it, if they did it right. This interactive
approach focuses on:
CONFIDENCE: Research shows that students experience a great deal of anxiety over studying.
That’s why we provide a structured learning environment that helps students focus on what to do,
along with the support of immediate resources.
MOTIVATION: To increase and sustain motivation throughout the semester, WileyPLUS helps
students learn how to do it at a pace that’s right for them. Our integrated resources—available
24/7—function like a personal tutor, directly addressing each student’s demonstrated needs with
specific problem-solving techniques.
SUCCESS: WileyPLUS helps to assure that each study session has a positive outcome by putting
students in control. Through instant feedback and study objective reports, students know if they did
it right, and where to focus next, so they achieve the strongest results.
With WileyPLUS, our efficacy research shows that students improve their outcomes by as much as
one letter grade. WileyPLUS helps students take more initiative, so you’ll have greater impact on
their achievement in the classroom and beyond.
 Preface xvii

What do students receive with WileyPLUS?

■ The complete digital textbook, saving students up to 60% off the cost of a printed text.
■ Question assistance, including links to relevant sections in the online digital textbook.
■ Immediate feedback and proof of progress, 24/7.
■ Integrated, multimedia resources—including fluids phenomena videos, problem-solving videos,
What An Engineer Sees animations, practice reading questions, and much more—that provide
multiple study paths and encourage more active learning.

What do instructors receive with WileyPLUS?

■ Reliable resources that reinforce course goals inside and outside of the classroom.
■ The ability to easily identify those students who are falling behind.
■ Media-rich course materials and assessment content including Instructor Solutions Manual, fig-
ures from the text appropriate for use in lecture slides, Fluids Phenomena Videos, autogradable
Reading Questions that can be used in Pre-Lecture Quizzes, autogradable concept questions,
autogradable Homework Problems, and much more.
Sign up for access at www.wileyplus.com.

Acknowledgments

First, we wish to express our gratitude to Bruce Munson, Donald Young, Ted Okiishi, Wade
Huebsch, and Alric Rothmayer for their part in producing seven editions of this excellent book. Also
we thank the people at Wiley, especially Don Fowley, Linda Ratts, and Jenny Welter, for trusting us
to assume responsibility for this text. Finally, we thank our families for their continued encourage-
ment during the writing of this edition.
Working with students and colleagues over the years has taught us much about fluid mechanics
education. We have drawn from this experience for the benefit of users of this book. Obviously we
are still learning, and we welcome any suggestions and comments from you.

Philip M. Gerhart
Andrew L. Gerhart
John I. Hochstein
 Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 1 2.13 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 79
Learning Objectives 1 References 80, Problems 81
1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids 3
1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity,
and Units 4
1.2.1 Systems of Units 6
1.3 Analysis of Fluid Behavior 11
1.4 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight 11
1.4.1 Density 11
1.4.2 Specific Weight 12
1.4.3 Specific Gravity 12
1.5 Ideal Gas Law 12
1.6 Viscosity 14
1.7 Compressibility of Fluids 20
1.7.1 Bulk Modulus 20
1.7.2 Compression and Expansion of
Gases 21
1.7.3 Speed of Sound 22
1.8 Vapor Pressure 23
1.9 Surface Tension 24
1.10 A Brief Look Back in History 27
1.11 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 29
References 30, Problems 31
2 FLUID STATICS 40
Learning Objectives 40
2.1 Pressure at a Point 40
2.2 Basic Equation for Pressure Field 41
2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest 43
2.3.1 Incompressible Fluid 44
2.3.2 Compressible Fluid 46
2.4 Standard Atmosphere 48
2.5 Measurement of Pressure 50
2.6 Manometry 52
2.6.1 Piezometer Tube 52
2.6.2 U-Tube Manometer 53
2.6.3 Inclined-Tube Manometer 55
2.7 Mechanical and Electronic
Pressure-Measuring Devices 56
2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface 59
2.9 Pressure Prism 65
2.10 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved
Surface 68
2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability 70
2.11.1 Archimedes’ Principle 70
2.11.2 Stability 73
2.12 Pressure Variation in a Fluid with
Rigid-Body Motion 74
2.12.1 Linear Motion 75
2.12.2 Rigid-Body Rotation 77
3 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS—
THE BERNOULLI EQUATION 101
Learning Objectives 101
3.1 Newton’s Second Law 101
3.2 F = ma along a Streamline 104
3.3 F = ma Normal to a Streamline 108
3.4 Physical Interpretations and Alternate
Forms of the Bernoulli Equation 110
3.5 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and
Total Pressure 113
3.6 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli
Equation 117
3.6.1 Free Jets 118
3.6.2 Confined Flows 120
3.6.3 Flowrate Measurement 126
3.7 The Energy Line and the Hydraulic
Grade Line 131
3.8 Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli
Equation 134
3.8.1 Compressibility Effects 134
3.8.2 Unsteady Effects 135
3.8.3 Rotational Effects 137
3.8.4 Other Restrictions 138
3.9 Chapter Summary and
Study Guide 138
References 139, Problems 140
4 FLUID KINEMATICS 156
Learning Objectives 156
4.1 The Velocity Field 156
4.1.1 Eulerian and Lagrangian Flow
Descriptions 159
4.1.2 One-, Two-, and Three-
Dimensional Flows 160
4.1.3 Steady and Unsteady Flows 161
4.1.4 Streamlines, Streaklines,
and Pathlines 161
4.2 The Acceleration Field 165
4.2.1 Acceleration and the Material
Derivative 165
4.2.2 Unsteady Effects 168
4.2.3 Convective Effects 168
4.2.4 Streamline Coordinates 171
4.3 Control Volume and System
Representations 173
4.4 The Reynolds Transport Theorem 175
4.4.1 Derivation of the Reynolds
Transport Theorem 177
xix
xx Contents
4.4.2 Physical Interpretation 182
4.4.3 Relationship to Material Derivative 182
4.4.4 Steady Effects 183
4.4.5 Unsteady Effects 184
4.4.6 Moving Control Volumes 185
4.4.7 Selection of a Control Volume 186
4.5 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 187
References 188, Problems 189
5 FINITE CONTROL VOLUME
ANALYSIS 197
Learning Objectives 197
5.1 Conservation of Mass—The Continuity
Equation 198
5.1.1 Derivation of the Continuity
Equation 198
5.1.2 Fixed, Nondeforming
Control Volume 200
5.1.3 Moving, Nondeforming
Control Volume 206
5.1.4 Deforming Control Volume 208
5.2 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear
Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum
Equations 211
5.2.1 Derivation of the Linear
Momentum Equation 211
5.2.2 Application of the Linear
Momentum Equation 212
5.2.3 Derivation of the Moment-of-
Momentum Equation 226
5.2.4 Application of the Moment-of-
Momentum Equation 227
5.3 First Law of Thermodynamics—
The Energy Equation 234
5.3.1 Derivation of the Energy Equation 234
5.3.2 Application of the Energy Equation 237
5.3.3 The Mechanical Energy Equation
and the Bernoulli Equation 241
5.3.4 Application of the Energy
Equation to Nonuniform Flows 247
5.3.5 Combination of the Energy
Equation and the Moment-of-
Momentum Equation 250
5.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics—
Irreversible Flow 251
5.4.1 Semi-infinitesimal Control Volume
Statement of the Energy Equation 251
5.4.2 Semi-infinitesimal Control Volume
Statement of the Second Law of
Thermodynamics 251
5.4.3 Combination of the Equations of the
First and Second Laws of
Thermodynamics 252
5.5 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 253
References 255, Problems 256
6 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS
OF FLUID FLOW 277
Learning Objectives 277
6.1 Fluid Element Kinematics 278
6.1.1 Velocity and Acceleration
Fields Revisited 279
6.1.2 Linear Motion and Deformation 279
6.1.3 Angular Motion and Deformation 280
6.2 Conservation of Mass 283
6.2.1 Differential Form of Continuity
Equation 283
6.2.2 Cylindrical Polar Coordinates 286
6.2.3 The Stream Function 286
6.3 The Linear Momentum Equation 289
6.3.1 Description of Forces Acting on
the Differential Element 290
6.3.2 Equations of Motion 292
6.4 Inviscid Flow 293
6.4.1 Euler’s Equations of Motion 293
6.4.2 The Bernoulli Equation 293
6.4.3 Irrotational Flow 295
6.4.4 The Bernoulli Equation for
Irrotational Flow 297
6.4.5 The Velocity Potential 297
6.5 Some Basic, Plane Potential
Flows 300
6.5.1 Uniform Flow 301
6.5.2 Source and Sink 302
6.5.3 Vortex 304
6.5.4 Doublet 307
6.6 Superposition of Basic, Plane
Potential Flows 309
6.6.1 Source in a Uniform Stream—
Half-Body 309
6.6.2 Rankine Ovals 312
6.6.3 Flow around a Circular
Cylinder 314
6.7 Other Aspects of Potential Flow
Analysis 319
6.8 Viscous Flow 320
6.8.1 Stress–Deformation
Relationships 320
6.8.2 The Navier–Stokes Equations 321
6.9 Some Simple Solutions for Laminar,
Viscous, Incompressible Flows 322
6.9.1 Steady, Laminar Flow between Fixed
Parallel Plates 323
6.9.2 Couette Flow 325
6.9.3 Steady, Laminar Flow
in Circular Tubes 327
6.9.4 Steady, Axial, Laminar Flow
in an Annulus 330
6.10 Other Aspects of Differential Analysis 332
6.10.1 Numerical Methods 332
6.11 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 333
References 334, Problems 335
 Contents xxi

7 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS, 8.4 Dimensional Analysis of Pipe Flow 427

SIMILITUDE, AND MODELING 346 8.4.1 Major Losses 428
Learning Objectives 346 8.4.2 Minor Losses 433
7.1 The Need for Dimensional Analysis 347 8.4.3 Noncircular Conduits 443
7.2 Buckingham Pi Theorem 349 8.5 Pipe Flow Examples 446
7.3 Determination of Pi Terms 350 8.5.1 Single Pipes 446
7.4 Some Additional Comments about 8.5.2 Multiple Pipe Systems 456
Dimensional Analysis 355 8.6 Pipe Flowrate Measurement 460
7.4.1 Selection of Variables 355 8.6.1 Pipe Flowrate Meters 460
7.4.2 Determination of Reference 8.6.2 Volume Flowmeters 465
Dimensions 357 8.7 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 466
7.4.3 Uniqueness of Pi Terms 358
References 467, Problems 468
7.5 Determination of Pi Terms by
Inspection 359
7.6 Common Dimensionless Groups in
Fluid Mechanics 361 9 FLOW OVER IMMERSED
7.7 Correlation of Experimental Data 366 BODIES 482
7.7.1 Problems with One Pi Term 366 Learning Objectives 482
7.7.2 Problems with Two or 9.1 General External Flow Characteristics 483
More Pi Terms 367
9.1.1 Lift and Drag Concepts 484
7.8 Modeling and Similitude 370
9.1.2 Characteristics of Flow
7.8.1 Theory of Models 370 Past an Object 487
7.8.2 Model Scales 373 9.2 Boundary Layer Characteristics 491
7.8.3 Practical Aspects of Using Models 374 9.2.1 Boundary Layer Structure
7.9 Some Typical Model Studies 376 and Thickness on a Flat Plate 491
7.9.1 Flow through Closed Conduits 376 9.2.2 Prandtl/Blasius Boundary
7.9.2 Flow around Immersed Bodies 378 Layer Solution 495
7.9.3 Flow with a Free Surface 382 9.2.3 Momentum Integral Boundary
7.10 Similitude Based on Governing Layer Equation for a Flat Plate 499
Differential Equations 385 9.2.4 Transition from Laminar to
7.11 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 388 Turbulent Flow 504
9.2.5 Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow 506
References 389, Problems 390
9.2.6 Effects of Pressure Gradient 510
9.2.7 Momentum Integral Boundary Layer
Equation with Nonzero Pressure
8 VISCOUS FLOW IN PIPES 401 Gradient 514
Learning Objectives 401 9.3 Drag 515
8.1 General Characteristics of Pipe Flow 402 9.3.1 Friction Drag 516
8.1.1 Laminar or Turbulent Flow 403 9.3.2 Pressure Drag 517
8.1.2 Entrance Region and Fully 9.3.3 Drag Coefficient Data and
Developed Flow 405 Examples 519
8.1.3 Pressure and Shear Stress 406 9.4 Lift 533
8.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow 407 9.4.1 Surface Pressure Distribution 535
8.2.1 From F = ma Applied Directly to a Fluid 9.4.2 Circulation 541
Element 408 9.5 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 545
8.2.2 From the Navier–Stokes References 546, Problems 547
Equations 412
8.2.3 From Dimensional Analysis 413
8.2.4 Energy Considerations 415
8.3 Fully Developed Turbulent Flow 417 10 OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW 559
8.3.1 Transition from Laminar to Learning Objectives 559
Turbulent Flow 417 10.1 General Characteristics of Open-Channel
8.3.2 Turbulent Shear Stress 419 Flow 559
8.3.3 Turbulent Velocity Profile 423 10.2 Surface Waves 561
8.3.4 Turbulence Modeling 427 10.2.1 Wave Speed 561
8.3.5 Chaos and Turbulence 427 10.2.2 Froude Number Effects 564
xxii Contents
10.3 Energy Considerations 566
10.3.1 Energy Balance 566
10.3.2 Specific Energy 567
10.4 Uniform Flow 570
10.4.1 Uniform Flow Approximations 570
10.4.2 The Chezy and Manning Equations 571
10.4.3 Uniform Flow Examples 574
10.5 Gradually Varied Flow 579
10.6 Rapidly Varied Flow 581
10.6.1 The Hydraulic Jump 582
10.6.2 Sharp-Crested Weirs 587
10.6.3 Broad-Crested Weirs 590
10.6.4 Underflow (Sluice) Gates 593
10.7 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 594
References 596, Problems 596
11 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 604
Learning Objectives 604
11.1 Ideal Gas Thermodynamics 605
11.2 Stagnation Properties 610
11.3 Mach Number and Speed of Sound 612
11.4 Compressible Flow Regimes 617
11.5 Shock Waves 621
11.5.1 Normal Shock 622
11.6 Isentropic Flow 626
11.6.1 Steady Isentropic Flow of
an Ideal Gas 627
11.6.2 Incompressible Flow and
Bernoulli’s Equation 630
11.6.3 The Critical State 631
11.7 One-Dimensional Flow in a Variable
Area Duct 632
11.7.1 General Considerations 632
11.7.2 Isentropic Flow of an Ideal
Gas With Area Change 635
11.7.3 Operation of a Converging Nozzle 641
11.7.4 Operation of a Converging–
Diverging Nozzle 643
11.8 Constant-Area Duct Flow With Friction 647
11.8.1 Preliminary Consideration: Comparison
with Incompressible Duct Flow 647
11.8.2 The Fanno Line 648
11.8.3 Adiabatic Frictional Flow
(Fanno Flow) of an Ideal Gas 652
11.9 Frictionless Flow in a Constant-Area
Duct with Heating or Cooling 660
11.9.1 The Rayleigh Line 660
11.9.2 Frictionless Flow of an Ideal
Gas with Heating or Cooling
(Rayleigh Flow) 662
11.9.3 Rayleigh Lines, Fanno Lines,
and Normal Shocks 666
11.10 Analogy between Compressible and Open-
Channel Flows 667
11.11 Two-Dimensional Supersonic Flow 668
11.12 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 670
References 673, Problems 673
12 TURBOMACHINES 679
Learning Objectives 679
12.1 Introduction 680
12.2 Basic Energy Considerations 681
12.3 Angular Momentum Considerations 685
12.4 The Centrifugal Pump 687
12.4.1 Theoretical Considerations 688
12.4.2 Pump Performance Characteristics 692
12.4.3 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) 694
12.4.4 System Characteristics,
Pump-System Matching,
and Pump Selection 696
12.5 Dimensionless Parameters and
Similarity Laws 700
12.5.1 Special Pump Scaling Laws 702
12.5.2 Specific Speed 703
12.5.3 Suction Specific Speed 704
12.6 Axial-Flow and Mixed-Flow
Pumps 705
12.7 Fans 707
12.8 Turbines 708
12.8.1 Impulse Turbines 709
12.8.2 Reaction Turbines 716
12.9 Compressible Flow Turbomachines 719
12.9.1 Compressors 719
12.9.2 Compressible Flow Turbines 723
12.10 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 725
References 726, Problems 727
A Computational Fluid Dynamics 737
B Physical Properties of Fluids 756
C Properties of the U.S. Standard
Atmosphere 761
D Compressible Flow Functions
for an Ideal Gas 763
E Comprehensive Table of Conversion
Factors 771
Answers See WileyPLUS for this material
Index I-1
 1 Introduction

Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
■ list the dimensions and units of physical quantities.
■ identify the key fluid properties used in the analysis of fluid behavior.
■ calculate values for common fluid properties given appropriate information.
■ explain effects of fluid compressibility.
■ use the concepts of viscosity, vapor pressure, and surface tension.

Fluid mechanics is the discipline within the broad field of applied mechanics that is concerned with
the behavior of liquids and gases at rest or in motion. It covers a vast array of phenomena that occur
in nature (with or without human intervention), in biology, and in numerous engineered, invented,
𝓵
or manufactured situations. There are few aspects of our lives that do not involve fluids, either
directly or indirectly.
The immense range of different flow conditions is mind-boggling and strongly dependent on
p the value of the numerous parameters that describe fluid flow. Among the long list of parameters
involved are (1) the physical size of the flow, ℓ; (2) the speed of the flow, V; and (3) the pressure,
V p, as indicated in the figure in the margin for a light aircraft parachute recovery system. These are
just three of the important parameters that, along with many others, are discussed in detail in various
sections of this book. To get an inkling of the range of some of the parameter values involved and
the flow situations generated, consider the following.

(Photograph courtesy
■ Size, ℓ
of CIRRUS Design Every flow has a characteristic (or typical) length associated with it. For example, for flow
Corporation.) of fluid within pipes, the pipe diameter is a characteristic length. Pipe flows include the
flow of water in the pipes in our homes, the blood flow in our arteries and veins, and the
airflow in our bronchial tree. They also involve pipe sizes that are not within our everyday
experiences. Such examples include the flow of oil across Alaska through a 4-foot-diameter,
799-mile-long pipe and, at the other end of the size scale, the new area of interest involving
flow in nano scale pipes whose diameters are on the order of 10−8 m. Each of these pipe
flows has important characteristics that are not found in the others.
Characteristic lengths of some other flows are shown in Fig. 1.1a.
■ Speed, V
As we note from The Weather Channel, on a given day the wind speed may cover what we
think of as a wide range, from a gentle 5-mph breeze to a 100-mph hurricane or a 250-mph

1
2 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

V1.1 Mt. tornado. However, this speed range is small compared to that of the almost imperceptible
VIDEO St. Helens flow of the fluid-like magma below the Earth’s surface that drives the continental drift
eruption motion of the tectonic plates at a speed of about 2 × 10−8 m/s or the hypersonic airflow
around a meteor as it streaks through the atmosphere at 3 × 104 m/s.
Characteristic speeds of some other flows are shown in Fig. 1.1b.
■ Pressure, p
The pressure within fluids covers an extremely wide range of values. We are accustomed
to the 35 psi (lb/in.2) pressure within our car’s tires, the “120 over 70” typical blood pres-
sure reading, or the standard 14.7 psi atmospheric pressure. However, the large 10,000 psi
pressure in the hydraulic ram of an earth mover or the tiny 2 × 10−6 psi pressure of a sound
wave generated at ordinary talking levels are not easy to comprehend.
Characteristic pressures of some other flows are shown in Fig. 1.1c.
The list of fluid mechanics applications goes on and on. But you get the point. Fluid
mechanics is a very important, practical subject that encompasses a wide variety of situations. It
is very likely that during your career as an engineer you will be involved in the analysis and
design of systems that require a good understanding of fluid mechanics. Although it is not pos-
sible to adequately cover all of the important areas of fluid mechanics within one book, it is
hoped that this introductory text will provide a sound foundation of the fundamental aspects of
fluid mechanics.

V1.2 E. coli 108

VIDEO swimming Jupiter red spot diameter

Ocean current diameter

106 106
Diameter of hurricane

Meteor entering atmosphere

104 Mt. St. Helens plume 104 106
Space Shuttle reentry

Average width of middle Rocket nozzle exhaust Water jet cutting

Mississippi River Speed of sound in air Mariana Trench in Pacific
102 102 Tornado 104 Ocean
Boeing 787 Hydraulic ram
Water from fire hose nozzle Scuba tank
NACA Ames wind tunnel
Flow past bike rider Car engine combustion
Diameter of Space Shuttle
100 main engine exhaust jet 100 Mississippi River 102 Fire hydrant
𝓵, m

Outboard motor prop Auto tire

V, m/s

Standard atmosphere
“Excess pressure” on hand
p, lb/in.2

Water pipe diameter Syrup on pancake held out of car traveling 60

10-2 10-2 100
mph
Raindrop
Atmospheric pressure on
Mars
Water jet cutter width
10-4 Amoeba 10-4 Microscopic swimming 10-2 Pressure change causing
Thickness of lubricating oil animal ears to “pop” in elevator
layer in journal bearing Pressure at 40-mile altitude
Diameter of smallest blood
vessel Glacier flow
10-6 10-6 10-4
Artificial kidney filter Vacuum pump
pore size
Sound pressure at normal
Nano scale devices Continental drift talking
10-8 10-8 10-6
(a) (b) (c)

■ Figure 1.1 Characteristic values of some fluid flow parameters for a variety of flows: (a) object size, (b) fluid
speed, (c) fluid pressure.
 1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids 3

1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids

One of the first questions we need to explore is––what is a fluid? Or we might ask–what is the
difference between a solid and a fluid? We have a general, vague idea of the difference. A solid is
“hard” and not easily deformed, whereas a fluid is “soft” and is easily deformed (we can readily
move through air). Although quite descriptive, these casual observations of the differences between
solids and fluids are not very satisfactory from a scientific or engineering point of view. A closer
look at the molecular structure of materials reveals that matter that we commonly think of as a solid
(steel, concrete, etc.) has densely spaced molecules with large intermolecular cohesive forces that
allow the solid to maintain its shape, and to not be easily deformed. However, for matter that we
normally think of as a liquid (water, oil, etc.), the molecules are spaced farther apart, the intermo-
lecular forces are smaller than for solids, and the molecules have more freedom of movement. Thus,
liquids can be easily deformed (but not easily compressed) and can be poured into containers or
forced through a tube. Gases (air, oxygen, etc.) have even greater molecular spacing and freedom
of motion with negligible cohesive intermolecular forces, and as a consequence are easily deformed
Both liquids and
gases are fluids.
(and compressed) and will completely fill the volume of any container in which they are placed.
Both liquids and gases are fluids.

THE WIDE WORLD OF FLUIDS

Will what works in air work in water? For the past few years
a San Francisco company has been working on small, maneuver-
able submarines designed to travel through water using wings,
controls, and thrusters that are similar to those on jet airplanes.
After all, water (for submarines) and air (for airplanes) are both
fluids, so it is expected that many of the principles governing the
flight of airplanes should carry over to the “flight” of winged
submarines. Of course, there are differences. For example, the
submarine must be designed to withstand external pressures of
nearly 700 pounds per square inch greater than that inside the
vehicle. On the other hand, at high altitude where commercial
jets fly, the exterior pressure is 3.5 psi rather than standard sea-
level pressure of 14.7 psi, so the vehicle must be pressurized
internally for passenger comfort. In both cases, however, the
design of the craft for minimal drag, maximum lift, and efficient
thrust is governed by the same fluid dynamic concepts.

F
Although the differences between solids and fluids can be explained qualitatively on the basis
of molecular structure, a more specific distinction is based on how they deform under the action of
Surface
an external load. Specifically, a fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously when
acted on by a shearing stress of any magnitude. A shearing stress (force per unit area) is created
whenever a tangential force acts on a surface as shown by the figure in the margin. When common
solids such as steel or other metals are acted on by a shearing stress, they will initially deform
(usually a very small deformation), but they will not continuously deform (flow). However, com-
mon fluids such as water, oil, and air satisfy the definition of a fluid—that is, they will flow when
acted on by a shearing stress. Some materials, such as slurries, tar, putty, toothpaste, and so on, are
not easily classified since they will behave as a solid if the applied shearing stress is small, but if
the stress exceeds some critical value, the substance will flow. The study of such materials is called
rheology and does not fall within the province of classical fluid mechanics. Thus, all the fluids we
will be concerned with in this text will conform to the definition of a fluid.
Although the molecular structure of fluids is important in distinguishing one fluid from
another, it is not yet practical to study the behavior of individual molecules when trying to describe
the behavior of fluids at rest or in motion. Rather, we characterize the behavior by considering the
average, or macroscopic, value of the quantity of interest, where the average is evaluated over a
small volume containing a large number of molecules. Thus, when we say that the velocity at a
certain point in a fluid is so much, we are really indicating the average velocity of the molecules in
a small volume surrounding the point. The volume is small compared with the physical dimensions
of the system of interest, but large compared with the average distance between molecules. Is this
a reasonable way to describe the behavior of a fluid? The answer is generally yes, since the spacing
between molecules is typically very small. For gases at normal pressures and temperatures, the
spacing is on the order of 10−6 mm, and for liquids it is on the order of 10−7 mm. The number of
4 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

molecules per cubic millimeter is on the order of 10 18 for gases and 10 21 for liquids. It is thus clear
that the number of molecules in a very tiny volume is huge and the idea of using average values
taken over this volume is certainly reasonable. We thus assume that all the fluid characteristics we
are interested in (pressure, velocity, etc.) vary continuously throughout the fluid—that is, we treat
the fluid as a continuum and we refer to the very small volume as a point in the flow. This concept
will certainly be valid for all the circumstances considered in this text. One area of fluid mechanics
for which the continuum concept breaks down is in the study of rarefied gases such as would be
encountered at very high altitudes. In this case the spacing between air molecules can become large
and the continuum concept is no longer acceptable.

1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units

Since in our study of fluid mechanics we will be dealing with a variety of fluid characteristics, it
is necessary to develop a system for describing these characteristics both qualitatively and quan-
titatively. The qualitative aspect serves to identify the nature, or type, of the characteristics (such
as length, time, stress, and velocity), whereas the quantitative aspect provides a numerical mea-
sure of the characteristics. The quantitative description requires both a number and a standard by
which various quantities can be compared. A standard for length might be a meter or foot, for
Fluid characteris- time an hour or second, and for mass a slug or kilogram. Such standards are called units, and
tics can be several systems of units are in common use as described in the following section. The qualitative
described description is conveniently given in terms of certain primary quantities, such as length, L, time,
qualitatively in T, mass, M, and temperature, ϴ. These primary quantities can then be used to provide a qualita-
terms of certain tive description of any other secondary quantity: for example, area ≐ L 2, velocity ≐ LT −1,
basic quantities
density ≐ ML−3, and so on, where the symbol ≐ is used to indicate the dimensions of the
such as length,
secondary quantity in terms of the primary quantities. Thus, to describe qualitatively a velocity,
time, and mass.
V, we would write
V ≐ LT −1
and say that “the dimensions of a velocity equal length divided by time.” The primary quantities are
also referred to as basic dimensions.
For a wide variety of problems involving fluid mechanics, only the three basic dimensions, L,
T, and M are required. Alternatively, L, T, and F could be used, where F is the basic dimensions of
force. Since Newton’s law states that force is equal to mass times acceleration, it follows that
F ≐ MLT −2 or M ≐ FL−1 T 2. Thus, secondary quantities expressed in terms of M can be expressed
in terms of F through the relationship above. For example, stress, σ, is a force per unit area, so that
σ ≐ FL−2, but an equivalent dimensional equation is σ ≐ ML−1T −2. Table 1.1 provides a list of
dimensions for a number of common physical quantities.
All theoretically derived equations are dimensionally homogeneous—that is, the dimensions
of the left side of the equation must be the same as those on the right side, and all additive separate
terms must have the same dimensions. We accept as a fundamental premise that all equations
describing physical phenomena must be dimensionally homogeneous. If this were not true, we
would be attempting to equate or add unlike physical quantities, which would not make sense. For
example, the equation for the velocity, V, of a uniformly accelerated body is
V = V0 + at (1.1)
where V0 is the initial velocity, a the acceleration, and t the time interval. In terms of dimensions
the equation is
LT −1 ≐ LT −1 + LT −2T
and thus Eq. 1.1 is dimensionally homogeneous.
Some equations that are known to be valid contain constants having dimensions. The equation
for the distance, d, traveled by a freely falling body can be written as
d = 16.1t 2 (1.2)
 1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units 5

■ Table 1.1
Dimensions Associated with Common Physical Quantities

FLT MLT FLT MLT

System System System System

Acceleration LT −2 LT −2 Power FLT −1 ML2T −3

Angle F 0L0T 0 M 0L0T 0 Pressure FL−2 ML−1T −2
Angular acceleration T −2 T −2 Specific heat L2T −2 ϴ −1 L2T −2 ϴ −1
Angular velocity T −1 T −1
Specific weight FL−3 ML−2 T −2
Area L2 L2
Strain F 0L0 T 0 M 0L0 T 0
Density FL−4T 2 ML−3 Stress FL−2 ML−1T −2
Energy FL ML2T −2 Surface tension FL−1 MT −2
Force F MLT −2 Temperature ϴ ϴ
Frequency T −1 T −1
Time T T
Heat FL ML2T −2
Torque FL ML2T −2
Length L L Velocity LT −1 LT −1
Mass FL−1T 2 M Viscosity (dynamic) FL−2 T ML−1T −1
Modulus of elasticity FL−2 ML−1T −2 Viscosity (kinematic) L2 T −1 L2T −1
Moment of a force FL ML2T −2
Volume L3 L3
Moment of inertia (area) L4 L4
Work FL ML2T −2
Moment of inertia (mass) FLT 2 ML2
Momentum FT MLT −1

and a check of the dimensions reveals that the constant must have the dimensions of LT −2 if the
equation is to be dimensionally homogeneous. Actually, Eq. 1.2 is a special form of the well-known
equation from physics for freely falling bodies,
gt 2
d= (1.3)
2
in which g is the acceleration of gravity. Equation 1.3 is dimensionally homogeneous and valid in
any system of units. For g = 32.2 fts2 the equation reduces to Eq. 1.2 and thus Eq. 1.2 is valid
only for the system of units using feet and seconds. Equations that are restricted to a particular
system of units can be denoted as restricted homogeneous equations, as opposed to equations valid
General homoge- in any system of units, which are general homogeneous equations. The preceding discussion indi-
neous equations cates one rather elementary, but important, use of the concept of dimensions: the determination of
are valid in any
one aspect of the generality of a given equation simply based on a consideration of the dimensions
system of units.
of the various terms in the equation. The concept of dimensions also forms the basis for the powerful
tool of dimensional analysis, which is considered in detail in Chapter 7.
Note to the users of this text. All of the examples in the text use a consistent problem-
solving methodology, which is similar to that in other engineering courses such as statics. Each
example highlights the key elements of analysis: Given, Find, Solution, and Comment.
The Given and Find are steps that ensure the user understands what is being asked in the
problem and explicitly list the items provided to help solve the problem.
The Solution step is where the equations needed to solve the problem are formulated and the
problem is actually solved. In this step, there are typically several other tasks that help to set up the
solution and are required to solve the problem. The first is a drawing of the problem; where appro-
priate, it is always helpful to draw a sketch of the problem. Here the relevant geometry and coordi-
nate system to be used as well as features such as control volumes, forces and pressures, velocities,
and mass flow rates are included. This helps in gaining an understanding of the problem. Making
appropriate assumptions to solve the problem is the second task. In a realistic engineering problem-
solving environment, the necessary assumptions are developed as an integral part of the solution
process. Assumptions can provide appropriate simplifications or offer useful constraints, both of
6 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

which can help in solving the problem. Throughout the examples in this text, the necessary assump-
tions are embedded within the Solution step, as they are in solving a real-world problem. This
provides a realistic problem-solving experience.
The final element in the methodology is the Comment. For the examples in the text, this
section is used to provide further insight into the problem or the solution. It can also be a point in
the analysis at which certain questions are posed. For example: Is the answer reasonable, and does
it make physical sense? Are the final units correct? If a certain parameter were changed, how would
the answer change? Adopting this type of methodology will aid in the development of problem-
solving skills for fluid mechanics, as well as other engineering disciplines.

EXAMPLE 1.1 Restricted and General Homogeneous Equations

GIVEN A liquid flows through an orifice located in the side of

a tank as shown in Fig. E1.1. A commonly used equation for
determining the volume rate of flow, Q, through the orifice is
h
Q = 0.61 A √2gh
A
where A is the area of the orifice, g is the acceleration of gravity, Q

and h is the height of the liquid above the orifice.

FIND Investigate the dimensional homogeneity of this formula.

(a) (b)

SOLUTION ■ Figure E1.1

The dimensions of the various terms in the equation are Q =

volume/time ≐ L3T −1, A = area ≐ L2, g = acceleration of gravity ≐
LT −2, and h = height ≐ L.
These terms, when substituted into the equation, yield the dimen-
sional form:
(L3T −1 ) ≐ (0.61) (L2 ) ( √2 ) (LT −2 ) 1 2 (L) 1 2
or
(L3T −1 ) ≐ [0.61√2](L3T −1 )
It is clear from this result that the equation is dimensionally
homogeneous (both sides of the formula have the same dimen-
sions of L3T −1 ), and the number 0.61 √2 is dimensionless.
If we were going to use this relationship repeatedly, we might
be tempted to simplify it by replacing g with its standard value of
32.2 ft s2 and rewriting the formula as
Q = 4.90 A √h
A quick check of the dimensions reveals that
L3T −1 ≐ (4.90) (L5 2 )
and, therefore, the equation expressed as Eq. 1 can only be
dimensionally correct if the number 4.90 has the dimensions
of L1 2T −1. Whenever a number appearing in an equation or
formula has dimensions, it means that the specific value of the
number will depend on the system of units used. Thus, for the case
being considered with feet and seconds used as units, the num-
ber 4.90 has units of ft1 2s. Equation 1 will only give the
correct value for Q (in ft3s) when A is expressed in square
feet and h in feet. Thus, Eq. 1 is a restricted homogeneous
equation, whereas the original equation is a general homoge-
neous equation that would be valid for any consistent system
of units.
COMMENT A quick check of the dimensions of the various
terms in an equation is a useful practice and will often be
helpful in eliminating errors—that is, as noted previously, all
(1) physically meaningful equations must be dimensionally homo-
geneous. We have briefly alluded to units in this example, and
this important topic will be considered in more detail in the
next section.

1.2.1 Systems of Units

In addition to the qualitative description of the various quantities of interest, it is generally neces-
sary to have a quantitative measure of any given quantity. For example, if we measure the width of
this page in the book and say that it is 10 units wide, the statement has no meaning until the unit of
length is defined. If we indicate that the unit of length is a meter, and define the meter as some
standard length, a unit system for length has been established (and a numerical value can be given
to the page width). In addition to length, a unit must be established for each of the remaining basic
 1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units 7

quantities (force, mass, time, and temperature). There are several systems of units in use, and we
shall consider three systems that are commonly used in engineering.
International System (SI). In 1960 the Eleventh General Conference on Weights and
Measures, the international organization responsible for maintaining precise uniform standards of
measurements, formally adopted the International System of Units as the international standard.
This system, commonly termed SI, has been widely adopted worldwide and is widely used
(although certainly not exclusively) in the United States. It is expected that the long-term trend will
be for all countries to accept SI as the accepted standard and it is imperative that engineering stu-
dents become familiar with this system. In SI the unit of length is the meter (m), the time unit is the
second (s), the mass unit is the kilogram (kg), and the temperature unit is the kelvin (K). Note that
there is no degree symbol used when expressing a temperature in kelvin units. The kelvin tempera-
ture scale is an absolute scale and is related to the Celsius (centigrade) scale (°C) through the
relationship
K = °C + 273.15
Although the Celsius scale is not in itself part of SI, it is common practice to specify temperatures
in degrees Celsius when using SI units.
The force unit, called the newton (N), is defined from Newton’s second law as
1 N = (1 kg)(1 m s2 )
Thus, a 1-N force acting on a 1-kg mass will give the mass an acceleration of 1 ms2. Standard
In mechanics it is
gravity in SI is 9.807 ms2 (commonly approximated as 9.81 ms2) so that a 1-kg mass weighs 9.81 N
very important to
distinguish between under standard gravity. Note that weight and mass are different, both qualitatively and quantita-
weight and mass. tively! The unit of work in SI is the joule (J), which is the work done when the point of application
of a 1-N force is displaced through a 1-m distance in the direction of a force. Thus,
1J=1N∙m
The unit of power is the watt (W) defined as a joule per second. Thus,
1 W = 1 Js = 1 N ∙ ms
Prefixes for forming multiples and fractions of SI units are given in Table 1.2. For example,
the notation kN would be read as “kilonewtons” and stands for 103 N. Similarly, mm would be read
as “millimeters” and stands for 10−3 m. The centimeter is not an accepted unit of length in the SI
system, so for most problems in fluid mechanics in which SI units are used, lengths will be
expressed in millimeters or meters.
British Gravitational (BG) System. In the BG system the unit of length is the foot (ft), the
time unit is the second (s), the force unit is the pound (lb), and the temperature unit is the degree
Fahrenheit (°F) or the absolute temperature unit is the degree Rankine (°R), where
°R = °F + 459.67

■ Table 1.2
Prefixes for SI Units

Factor by Which Unit Factor by Which Unit

Is Multiplied Prefix Symbol Is Multiplied Prefix Symbol

1015 peta P 10−2 centi c

1012 tera T 10−3 milli m
109 giga G 10−6 micro μ
106 mega M 10−9 nano n
103 kilo k 10−12 pico p
102 hecto h 10−15 femto f
10 deka da 10−18 atto a
10−1 deci d
8 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

The mass unit, called the slug, is defined from Newton’s second law (force = mass × acceleration)
as
1 lb = (1 slug)(1 ft s2 )
This relationship indicates that a 1-lb force acting on a mass of 1 slug will give the mass an accel-
eration of 1 fts2.
Two systems of units The weight, 𝒲 (which is the force due to gravity, g), of a mass, m, is given by the equation
that are widely
𝒲 = mg
used in engineering
are the British and in BG units
Gravitational
(BG) System and 𝒲(lb) = m (slugs) g(fts2 )
the International
Since Earth’s standard gravity is taken as g = 32.174 fts2 (commonly approximated as 32.2 fts2 ),
System (SI).
it follows that a mass of 1 slug weighs 32.2 lb under standard gravity.

THE WIDE WORLD OF FLUIDS

How long is a foot? Today, in the United States, the common
length unit is the foot, but throughout antiquity the unit used
to measure length has quite a history. The first length units
were based on the lengths of various body parts. One of the
earliest units was the Egyptian cubit, first used around 3000 B.C.
and defined as the length of the arm from elbow to extended
fingertips. Other measures followed, with the foot simply taken
as the length of a man’s foot. Since this length obviously varies
from person to person it was often “standardized” by using the
length of the current reigning royalty’s foot. In 1791 a special
French commission proposed that a new universal length unit
called a meter (metre) be defined as the distance of one-
quarter of the Earth’s meridian (north pole to the equator)
divided by 10 million. Although controversial, the meter was
accepted in 1799 as the standard. With the development of
advanced technology, the length of a meter was redefined in
1983 as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum during the
time interval of 1/299,792,458 s. The foot is now defined as
0.3048 meter. Our simple rulers and yardsticks indeed have an
intriguing history.

English Engineering (EE) System. In the EE system, units for force and mass are defined
independently; thus special care must be exercised when using this system in conjunction with
Newton’s second law. The basic unit of mass is the pound mass (lbm), and the unit of force is the
pound (lb).1 The unit of length is the foot (ft), the unit of time is the second (s), and the absolute
temperature scale is the degree Rankine (°R). To make the equation expressing Newton’s second
law dimensionally homogeneous we write it as
ma
F= (1.4)
gc
where gc is a constant of proportionality, which allows us to define units for both force and mass.
For the BG system, only the force unit was prescribed and the mass unit defined in a consistent
manner such that gc = 1. Similarly, for SI the mass unit was prescribed and the force unit defined
in a consistent manner such that gc = 1. For the EE system, a 1-lb force is defined as that force
which gives a 1 lbm a standard acceleration of gravity, which is taken as 32.174 fts2. Thus, for
Eq. 1.4 to be both numerically and dimensionally correct
(1 lbm) (32.174 fts2 )
1 lb =
gc
so that
(1 lbm) (32.174 fts2 )
gc =
(1 lb)

1
It is also common practice to use the notation, lbf, to indicate pound force.
 1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units 9

1.0 1.0 1.0

3 2 0.2
0.06

ft
m kg slug N
lbm lb
2
0.04

0.5 0.5 0.5

1 0.1

1 0.02

0 0 0 0 0 0 ■ Figure 1.2 Comparison of SI, BG,

Length Mass Force and EE units.

With the EE system, weight and mass are related through the equation

mg
𝒲=
gc

where g is the local acceleration of gravity. Under conditions of standard gravity (g = gc ) the
weight in pounds and the mass in pound mass are numerically equal. Also, since a 1-lb force gives
a mass of 1 lbm an acceleration of 32.174 ft s2 and a mass of 1 slug an acceleration of 1 ft s2, it
follows that

1 slug = 32.174 lbm

When solving We cannot overemphasize the importance of paying close attention to units when solving
problems it is problems. It is very easy to introduce huge errors into problem solutions through the use of incor-
important to use a rect units. Get in the habit of using a consistent system of units throughout a given solution. It
consistent system really makes no difference which system you use as long as you are consistent; for example, don’t
of units, e.g., don’t mix slugs and newtons. If problem data are specified in SI units, then use SI units throughout the
mix BG and SI solution. If the data are specified in BG units, then use BG units throughout the solution. The rela-
units. tive sizes of the SI, BG, and EE units of length, mass, and force are shown in Fig. 1.2.
Extensive tables of conversion factors between unit systems, and within unit systems, are
provided in Appendix E. For your convenience, abbreviated tables of conversion factors for
some quantities commonly encountered in fluid mechanics are presented in Tables 1.3 and 1.4
on the inside back cover (using a slightly different format than Appendix E). Note that numbers
in these tables are presented in computer exponential notation. For example, the number 5.154 E+2
is the number 5.154×102 in scientific notation. You should note that each conversion factor
can be thought of as a fraction in which the numerator and denominator are equivalent. For
example, an entry for “Length” from Table 1.4 instructs the user “To convert from … m … to
… ft … Multiply by 3.281.” Therefore 1 m is the same length as 3.281 ft. Therefore a fraction
formed with a numerator of 1 m and a denominator of 3.281 ft is the very definition of a fraction
with a value of one, as is its reciprocal. This may seem obvious when the units of the denomina-
tor and numerator are of the same dimension. It is equally true for the more complicated conver-
sion factors that include multiple dimensions and therefore a greater number of units. You
already know that you can multiply any quantity by one without changing its value. Likewise,
you can multiply (or divide) any quantity by any conversion factor in the tables, provided you
use both the number and the units. The result will not be incorrect, even if it does not yield the
result you hoped for.
10 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

EXAMPLE 1.2 BG and SI Units

GIVEN A tank of liquid having a total mass of 36 kg rests on

a support in the equipment bay of the Space Shuttle.
FIND Determine the force (in newtons) that the tank exerts on
the support shortly after lift off when the shuttle is accelerating
upward as shown in Fig. E1.2a at 15 ft s2.

SOLUTION

A free-body diagram of the tank is shown in Fig. E1.2b, where

𝒲 is the weight of the tank and liquid, and Ff is the reaction of
the floor on the tank. Application of Newton’s second law of
motion to this body gives
∑ F = ma
or
Ff − 𝒲 = ma (1)
where we have taken upward as the positive direction. Since
𝒲 = mg, Eq. 1 can be written as
Ff = m (g + a) (2)
Before substituting any number into Eq. 2, we must decide on a
system of units, and then be sure all of the data are expressed in these
units. Since we want Ff in newtons, we will use SI units so that
Ff = 36 kg [9.81 m s2 + (15 ft s2 ) (0.3048 m ft)]
= 518 kg ∙ m s2
■ Figure E1.2a (Photograph courtesy of NASA.)
Since 1 N = 1 kg ∙ m s2 , it follows that
Ff = 518 N (downward on floor) (Ans)
The direction is downward since the force shown on the free-
body diagram is the force of the support on the tank so that the
force the tank exerts on the support is equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction.

𝒲
a COMMENT As you work through a large variety of problems
in this text, you will find that units play an essential role in
arriving at a numerical answer. Be careful! It is easy to mix units
and cause large errors. If in the above example the acceleration
Ff had been left as 15 fts2 with m and g expressed in SI units, we
would have calculated the force as 893 N and the answer would
■ Figure E1.2b have been 72% too large!

THE WIDE WORLD OF FLUIDS

Units and space travel A NASA spacecraft, the Mars Climate
Orbiter, was launched in December 1998 to study the Martian
geography and weather patterns. The spacecraft was slated to
begin orbiting Mars on September 23, 1999. However, NASA offi-
cials lost communication with the spacecraft early that day and
it is believed that the spacecraft broke apart or overheated
because it came too close to the surface of Mars. Errors in the
maneuvering commands sent from earth caused the Orbiter to
sweep within 37 miles of the surface rather than the intended
93 miles. The subsequent investigation revealed that the errors
were due to a simple mix-up in units. One team controlling the
Orbiter used SI units, whereas another team used BG units. This
costly experience illustrates the importance of using a consis-
tent system of units.
 1.4 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight 11

1.3 Analysis of Fluid Behavior

The study of fluid mechanics involves the same fundamental laws you have encountered in physics
and other mechanics courses. These laws include Newton’s laws of motion, conservation of mass,
and the first and second laws of thermodynamics. Thus, there are strong similarities between the
general approach to fluid mechanics and to rigid-body and deformable-body solid mechanics. This
is indeed helpful since many of the concepts and techniques of analysis used in fluid mechanics will
be ones you have encountered before in other courses.
The broad subject of fluid mechanics can be generally subdivided into fluid statics, in which
the fluid is at rest, and fluid dynamics, in which the fluid is moving. In the following chapters we
will consider both of these areas in detail. Before we can proceed, however, it will be necessary to
define and discuss certain fluid properties that are intimately related to fluid behavior. It is obvious
that different fluids can have grossly different characteristics. For example, gases are light and
compressible, whereas liquids are heavy (by comparison) and relatively incompressible. A syrup
flows slowly from a container, but water flows rapidly when poured from the same container. To
quantify these differences, certain fluid properties are used. In the following several sections, prop-
erties that play an important role in the analysis of fluid behavior are considered.

1.4 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight

1.4.1 Density
The density of a The density of a fluid, designated by the Greek symbol ρ (rho), is defined as its mass per unit
fluid is defined as volume. Density is typically used to characterize the mass of a fluid system. In the BG system, ρ
its mass per unit has units of slugsft3 and in SI the units are kgm3.
volume. The value of density can vary widely between different fluids, but for liquids, variations in
pressure and temperature generally have only a small effect on the value of ρ. The small change in
the density of water with large variations in temperature is illustrated in Fig. 1.3. Tables 1.5 and 1.6
list values of density for several common liquids. The density of water at 60 °F is 1.94 slugsft3 or
999 kgm3. The large numerical difference between those two values illustrates the importance of
paying attention to units! Unlike liquids, the density of a gas is strongly influenced by both pressure
and temperature, and this difference will be discussed in the next section.
The specific volume, υ, is the volume per unit mass and is therefore the reciprocal of the
density—that is,
1
υ= (1.5)
ρ
This property is not commonly used in fluid mechanics but is used in thermodynamics.

1000

990
@ 4°C ρ = 1000 kg/m3
Density, ρ kg/m3

980

970

960

950
0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature, °C

■ Figure 1.3 Density of water as a function of temperature.

12 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

1.4.2 Specific Weight

Specific weight The specific weight of a fluid, designated by the Greek symbol γ (gamma), is defined as its weight
is weight per unit per unit volume. Thus, specific weight is related to density through the equation
volume; specific
γ = ρg (1.6)
gravity is the ratio
of fluid density where g is the local acceleration of gravity. Just as density is used to characterize the mass of a
to the density of fluid system, the specific weight is used to characterize the weight of the system. In the BG
water at a certain system, γ has units of lbft3 and in SI the units are Nm3. Under conditions of standard gravity
temperature. (g = 32.174 fts2 = 9.807 ms2 ), water at 60 °F has a specific weight of 62.4 lbft3 and
9.80 kNm3. Tables 1.5 and 1.6 list values of specific weight for several common liquids (based
on standard gravity). More complete tables for water can be found in Appendix B (Tables B.1
and B.2).

1.4.3 Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of a fluid, designated as SG, is defined as the ratio of the density of the fluid
to the density of water at some specified temperature. Usually the specified temperature is taken as
4 °C (39.2 °F), and at this temperature the density of water is 1.94 slugsft3 or 1000 kgm3. In
equation form, specific gravity is expressed as
ρ
SG = (1.7)
ρH2O@4 °C
13.55 and since it is the ratio of densities, the value of SG does not depend on the system of units used.
For example, the specific gravity of mercury at 20 °C is 13.55. This is illustrated by the figure in
Water
the margin. Thus, the density of mercury can be readily calculated in either BG or SI units through
the use of Eq. 1.7 as
ρHg = (13.55)(1.94 slugsft3 ) = 26.3 slugsft3
or
Mercury
ρHg = (13.55) (1000 kgm3 ) = 13.6 × 103 kgm3
1 It is clear that density, specific weight, and specific gravity are all interrelated, and from a
knowledge of any one of the three the others can be calculated.

1.5 Ideal Gas Law

Gases are highly compressible in comparison to liquids, with changes in gas density directly related
to changes in pressure and temperature through the equation
p
ρ=
RT
or, in the more standard form,
p = ρRT, (1.8)
where p is the absolute pressure, ρ the density, T the absolute temperature,2 and R is a gas constant.
Equation 1.8 is commonly termed the ideal or perfect gas law, or the equation of state for an ideal
In the ideal gas gas. It is known to closely approximate the behavior of real gases under typical conditions when the
law, absolute gases are not approaching liquefaction.
pressures and Pressure in a fluid at rest is defined as the normal force per unit area exerted on a plane
temperatures must
surface (real or imaginary) immersed in a fluid and is created by the bombardment of the surface
be used.
with the fluid molecules. From the definition, pressure has the dimension of FL−2 and in BG units

2
We will use T to represent temperature in thermodynamic relationships although T is also used to denote the basic dimension of time.
 1.5 Ideal Gas Law 13

is expressed as lbft2 (psf) or lbin.2 (psi) and in SI units as Nm2. In SI, 1 Nm2 defined as a
44.7 30 pascal, abbreviated as Pa, and pressures are commonly specified in pascals. The pressure in the
ideal gas law must be expressed as an absolute pressure, denoted (abs), which means that it is
measured relative to absolute zero pressure (a pressure that would only occur in a perfect vacuum).
Standard sea-level atmospheric pressure (by international agreement) is 14.696 psi (abs) or 101.33
kPa (abs). For most calculations these pressures can be rounded to 14.7 psi and 101 kPa, respec-
tively. In engineering it is common practice to measure pressure relative to the local atmospheric
14.7 0 pressure, and when measured in this fashion it is called gage pressure. Thus, the absolute pressure
can be obtained from the gage pressure by adding the value of the atmospheric pressure. For
example, as shown by the figure in the margin, a pressure of 30 psi (gage) in a tire is equal to
0 –14.7
(abs) (gage) 44.7 psi (abs) at standard atmospheric pressure. Pressure is a particularly important fluid character-
p, psi istic and it will be discussed more fully in the next chapter.

E X AMPLE 1.3 Ideal Gas Law

GIVEN The compressed air tank shown in Fig. E1.3a has a

volume of 0.84 ft3. The temperature is 70 °F and the atmospheric
pressure is 14.7 psi (abs).
FIND When the tank is filled with air at a gage pressure of 50 psi,
determine the density of the air and the weight of air in the tank.

SOLUTION

The air density can be obtained from the ideal gas law (Eq. 1.8)
p
ρ=
RT
so that
(50 lbin.2 + 14.7 lbin.2 ) (144 in.2ft2 )
ρ=
(1716 ft ∙ lbslug ∙ °R)[(70 + 460)°R]
= 0.0102 slugs/ft3 (Ans)
Note that both the pressure and temperature were changed to
absolute values.
The weight, 𝒲, of the air is equal to
𝒲 = ρg × (volume) ■ Figure E1.3a (Photograph courtesy of Jenny
= (0.0102 slugft3 ) (32.2 fts2 ) (0.84 ft3 ) Products, Inc.)
= 0.276 slug ∙ ft/s2

0.5 so that since 1 lb = 1 slug ∙ ft s2

0.4 𝒲 = 0.276 lb (Ans)

0.3 COMMENT By repeating the calculations for various values

W, lb

(50 psi, 0.276 lb) of the pressure, p, the results shown in Fig. E1.3b are obtained.
0.2 Note that doubling the gage pressure does not double the amount
of air in the tank, but doubling the absolute pressure does. Thus,
0.1 a scuba diving tank at a gage pressure of 100 psi does not contain
twice the amount of air as when the gage reads 50 psi.
0
–20 0 20 40 60 80 100
p, psi
■ Figure E1.3b
14 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

The gas constant, R, which appears in Eq. 1.8, depends on the particular gas and is related to
the molecular weight of the gas. Values of the gas constant for several common gases are listed in
Tables 1.7 and 1.8. Also in these tables the gas density and specific weight are given for standard
atmospheric pressure and gravity and for the temperature listed. More complete tables for air at
standard atmospheric pressure can be found in Appendix B (Tables B.3 and B.4).

1.6 Viscosity

V1.3 Viscous The properties of density and specific weight are measures of the “heaviness” of a fluid. It is clear, how-
VIDEO fluids ever, that these properties are not sufficient to uniquely characterize how fluids behave since two fluids
(such as water and oil) can have approximately the same value of density but behave quite differently
when flowing. Apparently, some additional property is needed to describe the “fluidity” of the fluid.
To determine this additional property, consider a hypothetical experiment in which a mate-
rial is placed between two very wide parallel plates as shown in Fig. 1.4a. The bottom plate is
rigidly fixed, but the upper plate is free to move. If a solid, such as steel, were placed between the
two plates and loaded with the force P as shown, the top plate would be displaced through some
small distance, δa (assuming the solid was mechanically attached to the plates). The vertical line
V1.4 No-slip AB would be rotated through the small angle, δβ, to the new position AB′. We note that to resist
VIDEO condition the applied force, P, a shearing stress, τ, would be developed at the plate–material interface, and for
equilibrium to occur, P = τA where A is the effective upper plate area (Fig. 1.4b). It is well known
that for elastic solids, such as steel, the small angular displacement, δβ (called the shearing strain),
is proportional to the shearing stress, τ, that is developed in the material.
Real fluids, even
though they may
What happens if the solid is replaced with a fluid such as water? We would immediately notice
be moving, always a major difference. When the force P is applied to the upper plate, it will move continuously with a
“stick” to the solid velocity, U (after the initial transient motion has died out) as illustrated in Fig. 1.5. This behavior is
boundaries that consistent with the definition of a fluid—that is, if a shearing stress is applied to a fluid it will deform
contain them. continuously. A closer inspection of the fluid motion between the two plates would reveal that the
fluid in contact with the upper plate moves with the plate velocity, U, and the fluid in contact with
the bottom fixed plate has a zero velocity. The fluid between the two plates moves with velocity
u = u (y) that would be found to vary linearly, u = Uyb, as illustrated in Fig. 1.5. Thus, a velocity
gradient, dudy, is developed in the fluid between the plates. In this particular case the velocity
gradient is a constant since dudy = Ub, but in more complex flow situations, such as that shown
by the photograph in the margin, this is not true. The experimental observation that the fluid “sticks”
to the solid boundaries is a very important one in fluid mechanics and is usually referred to as the
no-slip condition. All fluids, both liquids and gases, satisfy this condition for typical flows.

δa
P P
B B' τA

A δβ ■ Figure 1.4 (a) Deformation of material

Fixed plate placed between two parallel plates. (b) Forces
(a) (b) acting on upper plate.

U δa
P

B B'
u

b
y

A δβ ■ Figure 1.5 Behavior of a fluid placed between two

Fixed plate parallel plates.
 1.6 Viscosity 15

y u = u(y) In a small time increment, δt, an imaginary vertical line AB in the fluid would rotate through
an angle, δβ, so that

u = 0 on surface δa
δβ ≈ tan δβ =
b
Solid body Since δa = U δt, it follows that
U δt
δβ =
b
We note that in this case, δβ is a function not only of the force P (which governs U) but also of
time. Thus, it is not reasonable to attempt to relate the shearing stress, τ, to δβ as is done for
solids. Rather, we consider the rate at which δβ is changing and define the rate of shearing
strain, γ̇, as
δβ
γ̇ = lim
δt→0 δt
which in this instance is equal to
U du
γ̇ = =
b dy
A continuation of this experiment would reveal that as the shearing stress, τ, is increased by
increasing P (recall that τ = P/A), the rate of shearing strain is increased in direct proportion—
that is,
τ ∝ γ̇
or
du
τ∝
dy
V1.5 This result indicates that for common fluids such as water, oil, gasoline, and air the shearing stress
VIDEO Capillary tube and rate of shearing strain (velocity gradient) can be related with a relationship of the form
viscometer
du
τ=μ (1.9)
dy
where the constant of proportionality is designated by the Greek symbol μ (mu) and is called the
absolute viscosity, dynamic viscosity, or simply the viscosity of the fluid. In accordance with
Eq. 1.9, plots of τ versus dudy should be linear with the slope equal to the viscosity as illustrated
in Fig. 1.6. The actual value of the viscosity depends on the particular fluid, and for a particular
fluid the viscosity is also highly dependent on temperature as illustrated in Fig. 1.6 with the two
Dynamic viscosity curves for water. Fluids for which the shearing stress is linearly related to the rate of shearing strain
is the fluid property (also referred to as the rate of angular deformation) are designated as Newtonian fluids after Isaac
that relates Newton (1642–1727). Fortunately, most common fluids, both liquids and gases, are Newtonian. A
shearing stress and more general formulation of Eq. 1.9 which applies to more complex flows of Newtonian fluids is
fluid motion. given in Section 6.8.1.

THE WIDE WORLD OF FLUIDS

An extremely viscous fluid Pitch is a derivative of tar once
used for waterproofing boats. At elevated temperatures it
flows quite readily. At room temperature it feels like a solid—it
can even be shattered with a blow from a hammer. However,
it is a liquid. In 1927 Professor Parnell heated some pitch and
poured it into a funnel. Since that time it has been allowed to
flow freely (or rather, drip slowly) from the funnel. The flowrate
is quite small. In fact, to date only seven drops have fallen
from the end of the funnel, although the eighth drop is
poised ready to fall “soon.” While nobody has actually seen a
drop fall from the end of the funnel, a beaker below the
funnel holds the previous drops that fell over the years. It is
estimated that the pitch is about 100 billion times more
viscous than water.
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 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN