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 | CONTENTS

Dedication iii Search with Consent 28

About the Authors iii Search Incident to Arrest 28
Preface xvii Search of a Motor Vehicle 30
Emergency (Exigent Circumstances) 31
1 Plain View Seizures 32
The Evolution of Criminal Stop and Frisk 33
Investigation and Forensic Fruits of the Poisonous Tree 34
Science 1 Key Terms 35
Introduction 2 Review Questions 35
Jurisdiction 2 Internet Activities 35
Criminal Investigation and Forensic Science 2
The Evolution of Criminal Investigation 3 3
The Impact of the Agricultural and Industrial Investigators, the Investigative
Revolutions 3 Process, and the Crime Scene 36
The Fieldings: Crime Information and the Bow Introduction 37
Street Runners 3 Types of Offenses 37
The Metropolitan Police Act of 1829 3
The Investigator and the Importance of
American Initiatives 3
Investigation 37
Pinkerton’s National Detective Agency 4
Essential Qualities of the Investigator 38
The Emergence of Municipal Detectives 6
Organization of the Investigative Process 39
Federal and State Developments 6
The Preliminary Investigation 40
The Police and the U.S. Supreme Court 8
1. Receipt of Information, Initial Response, and Officer
Historical Milestones of Forensic Science 9 Safety Procedures 40
Biometric Based Personal Identification 9 2. Emergency Care 42
DNA 12 3. Secure Scene and Control Persons and Evidence 42
Firearms Identification 14 4. Issue a Be-on-the-Lookout 43
Other Contributors 15 5. Conduct Neighborhood and Vehicle Canvass 44
Recent Developments 15 6. Administrative Procedures for Processing
Key Terms 16 Crime Scenes 46
7. The Incident/Offense Report 46
Review Questions 16
Types of Crime Scenes 48
Internet Activities 16
Organization of the Crime Scene Investigation 49
2 Overall Coordination 49
Legal Aspects of Investigation 17 Forensic Services 51
Introduction 18 Investigative Services 56

The Bill of Rights and the States 19 Types of Evidence 57

Evolution of the Fourteenth Amendment 20 Corpus Delicti Evidence 57
The Fourth Amendment 20 Associative Evidence 57
Tracing Evidence 57
Arrest 21
Ingredients of Arrest 21 Typical Crime Scene Problems 57
Arrest Distinguished from Detention 21 Rules for the Crime Scene Investigator 57
Arrest Distinguished from Charging 21 Maintain Control 58
Arrest Procedures 22 Conceptualize Events 59
The Arrest Warrant 22 Proceed with Caution 61
Probable Cause 24 Apply Inclusiveness 61
Search and Seizure 25 Maintain Documentation 62
Legal Searches and Seizures 26 Infectious Disease Risks and Precautions for
Search with a Warrant 26 Investigators 64
vi
 CO N T E N TS vii

The Crime Scene Search 66 Blood 105

1. Boundary Determination 67
2. Choice of Search Pattern 67
3. Instruction of Personnel 68
4. Coordination 68
Suspended Searches, Debriefing, and Release
of the Scene 69
Collection and Care of Evidence 69
Visual Documentation of the Crime Scene 69
Digital Video Recording 69
Digital Still Photography 70
Digital Image Management Systems 71
Crime Scene Sketching and Forensic Mapping 71
Submission of Evidence to the Crime Laboratory 77
Investigative Success 78
The Appearance of Bloodstains 105
Using Bloodstains to Reconstruct the Crime 106
Locating Blood Evidence 107
Laboratory Determinations 110
Lip Cosmetics, DNA, and Lip Prints 110
Firearms 110
Laboratory Determinations 111
Collecting Firearm Evidence 114
Marking and Packaging Firearm Evidence 115
Tool Marks 115
Questioned Documents 116
Handwriting Samples and Examinations 117
Laboratory Determinations 119
Collecting and Packaging Evidence 119

Key Terms 79 Key Terms 119

Review Questions 79 Review Questions 120
Internet Activities 79 Internet Activities 120

4 5
Physical Evidence 80 Interviewing and
Introduction 81 Interrogation 121
Class versus Individual Characteristics 81 Introduction 122
Comparison Samples 82 Interviews and Interrogations: Similarities and
Differences 122
Soil and Pollen 83
Locating and Handling Soil Evidence 84 Objectives of Interviewing 123
Footwear, Foot, and Tires: Prints and Impressions 84 Objectives of Interrogation 124
Preserving Residue Prints 85 Qualifications of Interviews and Interrogators 124
Preserving Impressions 86 Time, Place, and Setting of Interviewing and
Preserving Shoe Impressions in Snow 87 Interrogation 125
Paint 87 The Interrogation Room 126
Glass 89 Preparation for the Interview or Interrogation 127
Handling Glass Evidence 91 The Witness 127
Fibers, Cloth Fragments, and Impressions 92 The Offense 127
String, Cord, Rope, and Tape 93 The Victim 127
The Suspect 127
Fingerprints 93
Basis for Fingerprint Identification 94 Witnesses: Motivations, Perceptions, and
Latent Fingerprints 94 Barriers 128
Conditions Affecting the Quality of Latent Persons with Physical Infirmities 129
Fingerprints 95
Locating Latent Fingerprints 96
Methods of Developing Latent Fingerprints 96
Chemicals 97
Developing Latent Fingerprints on Bodies 99
Collecting and Preserving Latent Prints 99
Marking and Identifying Print Lifts 100
Forensic Odontology 100
Identification 101
Dental Profiling 101
Bite Marks 102
Hair 104
viii CO N T E N TS

Reliability of Eyewitness Identification 129 6

Witness Intimidation 131 Field Notes and Reporting 153
Forms of Witness Intimidation 131 Introduction 154
Response Strategies for Addressing Witness
Field Notes 154
Intimidation 131
Guidelines for Note-Taking 155
Deterring Intimidators 132
Note-Taking Equipment 155
Documenting Interviews 132
Six Interrogatory and Basic Investigative
Documenting Interrogations 133 Questions 156
The Use of Electronic Recordings for
Incident Reports 157
Interrogations 133
Formats for Incident Reports 157
Benefits of Recording for Police Officers and
NIBRS-Compliant Incident Reports 159
Prosecutors 134
Computer-Generated Reports 159
The Written Statement 134
Handwritten Reports 159
Why People Confess 136 Common Elements of Incident Reports 159
False Confessions 136 Writing Effective Reports: The Narrative 164
Voluntary False Confessions 136 The Narrative 164
Coerced–Compliant False Confessions 137
Supervisory Review and Disposition of Incident
Coerced–Internalized False Confessions 137
Reports 167
Recommendations to Reduce the Possibility of False
Confessions 137 Follow-Up Investigation and Supplemental
Reports 168
Admissibility of Confessions and Admissions 138
The Free-and-Voluntary Rule 138 Key Terms 168
The Delay-in-Arraignment Rule 138 Review Questions 168
Interviewing and Interrogation: Legal Internet Activities 169
Requirements 139
Preinterrogation Legal Requirements 139 7
Miranda v. Arizona 139 The Follow-Up Investigation and
Suspect’s Response: Waiver and Alternatives 140 Investigative Resources 170
In-Custody Interrogation 142 Introduction 171
Miranda and Misdemeanors 142
The Decision to Initiate a Follow-Up Investigation 171
Interrogation as Defined by the U.S. Supreme
Court 142 The Follow-Up Investigation Process 172
Most Recent U.S. Supreme Court Decision on the Right Reviewing the Incident and Supplemental
to Remain Silent 143 Reports 174
Court Proceedings 143 Jail Booking Report 175
Right to Remain Silent–Invocation 143 Vehicle Impoundment Report 175
Right to Remain Silent–Waiver 144
Field Interview/Information Reports 175
Detection of Deception 144
Traffic Citations 175
The Critical Role of the Comfort/Discomfort Equation in
Detecting Deception 144 Examining Physical Evidence 175
Establishing a Comfort Zone for Detecting Reinterviewing Victims and Witnesses 175
Deception 144 Leads 177
Defining Signs of Comfort 145
Using Databases 177
Signs of Discomfort in an Interaction 145
International 178
Pacifying Behaviors 147
National 178
Specific Behaviors to Consider in Detecting
Regional Information Sharing Systems (RISS) 180
Deception 148
State and Local Systems 180
Use of Technological Instruments to Detect Nonprofit and Private Sources 181
Deception 149
Informants 182
Polygraph 149
Computer Voice Stress Analysis 151 Surveillance 182
Purposes of Surveillance 182
Key Terms 151
Planning and Preparing for Surveillance
Review Questions 151 Operations 182
Internet Activities 152 Termination of Surveillance Operations 183
 CO N T E N TS ix

Guidelines for Conducting Photo Lineups, Live ATF Forensic Science Laboratories 222
Lineups, and Field Show-Ups 184 The FBI Crime Laboratory 223
Photo Lineups 184 Reference Files 225
Live Lineups 186
Problems in Crime Laboratories 226
Show-Ups 186
Lack of Training 227
Staged Crime Scenes 186 Lack of Accreditation 227
Cold Case Investigation 190 DNA Contamination 228
Investigative Support and Analytical Sentencing Mistakes and Poor Training 228
Tools 191 Backlog of Cases 229
Fusion Centers 191 Scandals and Mistakes within the FBI Crime Lab:
Intelligence Units 191 The Madrid Bombing Case 229
The Intelligence/Analytical Cycle 191 Code of Ethics 231
1. Planning and Direction 192 Key Terms 232
2. Collection 192 Review Questions 232
3. Processing 193
Internet Activities 232
4. Analysis and Production 193
5. Dissemination 193
6. Reevaluation 193 9
Surveillance Cameras and Facial Recognition Injury and Death
Software 193 Investigations 233
Crime Analysis 194 Introduction 234
Crime Scene Reconstruction 195 The Law 234
Criminal Profiling 198
The Medico-Legal Examination 235
Geographical Profiling 200
Remote Sensing 200 The Autopsy 235
Time-Event Charting and Link Analysis 201 Dead Body Evidence Checklist 235
The Internet 202 Postmortem Changes and Time of Death 236
Key Terms 203 Estimating Time of Death 236
Algor Mortis (Body Cooling) 236
Review Questions 203
Ocular Changes 237
Internet Activities 203 Stomach Contents 237
Rigor Mortis 237
Livor Mortis 237
8 Cadaveric Spasm 238
The Crime Laboratory 204 Decomposition 238
Introduction 205
Forensic Entomology 240
Crime Laboratories 206
Evidence from Wounds 242
The Morgue 207
Firearm Wounds 242
Digital Crime Labs 207
Incised and Stab Wounds 247
Expectations 208
Puncture Wounds 247
Measures of Crime Laboratory Effectiveness 209 Lacerations 247
Quality 209 Defense Wounds 249
Proximity 209 Strangulation Wounds 249
Timeliness 211
Responding to the National Academies of Science
(NAS) Report 212
Admissibility of Examination Results 212
Technologies 213
DNA Analysis 214
The Innocence Project 217
Next Generation Identification (NGI) Program 220
National Integrated Ballistic Information Network
Program 221
Handling Evidence in the Laboratory 222
Human Factors 222
Instrumental Analysis 222
x CO N T E N TS

Suicide 250 Condom Trace Evidence 282

Methods and Evidence of Suicide 251 Exchangeable Traces 283
Gender Differences in Suicidal Behavior 258 The Value of Condom Trace Evidence 284
Fire Deaths 258 Guidelines for Evidence Collection 285
Coordination and Cooperation 258 Record of Injuries 285
Degrees of Burning 259 Drug-Facilitated Sexual Assault 285
Identification of Remains 259 Drugs of Choice 286
Scene Considerations 259 Males as Rape Victims 287
Examination of the External Body 259 Other Date-Rape Drugs 288
Signs of Trauma 259 Evidence Collection and Processing 288
Examination of the Internal Body 260 The Investigation 288
Motives in Fire Deaths 261 Evidence 288
Serial Murder 261 Homosexual Lifestyles and Homicide
Defining Serial Murder 262 Investigation 289
Myths and Misconceptions about Serial Killers 263 Interpersonal Violence-Oriented Disputes and
Causality and the Serial Murderer 264 Assaults 289
Serial Murder and the NCAVC 265 Murders Involving Forced Anal Sex and/or
ViCAP CRIME REPORT 265 Sodomy 290
Key Terms 266 Extreme Sexual Self-Mutilation 290
Review Questions 266 Lust, Murders, and Other Acts of Sexual
Perversion 292
Internet Activities 267
Homosexual/Heterosexual Murder/Suicide 292
Fisting 293
10 Autoerotic Deaths/Sexual Asphyxia 294
Sex-Related Offenses 268 The Psychological Autopsy 296
Introduction 269 Key Terms 297
The Law 269 Review Questions 297
Sex-Related Investigations 269 Internet Activities 297
Interview of the Rape Victim 270
Type and Sequence of Sexual Acts during an
Assault 271
11
Crimes against Children 298
Deaf Victims of Sexual Assault 273
Introduction 299
Reluctance to Reach Out 273
Improving Police Response 274 Assaults against Children 300
Elder Sexual Abuse 274 Burn Injuries and Child Abuse 300
Signs and Symptoms of Sexual Abuse 274 Typologies of Burns 301
Assisted-Living Facilities 274 Medical Classification of Burn Severity 302
Nursing Homes 274 Causes of Burn Injuries 302
Early Recognition and Detection 275 Unexplained Child Fatalities 305
Interviewing Elder Victims of Sexual Abuse 275 Sudden Infant Death Syndrome 305
Signs of Physical Trauma 275 The Police Officer’s Role 306
Why Women Do Not Report Rape to the Police 276 Criminal Homicide as a Possibility 307
False Rape Allegations 276 Traumatic Brain Injuries and Death 307
“Coup-Contrecoup” Injuries 308
The Victim and Physical Evidence 278
Shaken-Baby Syndrome 308
Instructions to the Victim 278
Semen and Hair as Evidence 279 Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy 311
Information for the Examining Physician/Sexual-Assault Investigative Guidelines 312
Nurse Examiner 279 The Role of the Physician in Child-Abuse Cases 312
Collection of the Victim’s Clothing 279 Child Sexual Exploitation 313
The Role of the Investigator in Securing the Child Molestation 313
Rape Scene 280 Child Pornography 321
Incidence of Errors in the Collection of Evidence 281 Sex Tourism 324
Collecting Samples for DNA Analysis from Suspects 281 Use of the Computer and the Internet in
Sexual-Battery Examination 282 Child Pornography 325
 CO N T E N TS xi

Internet Crimes against Children 326 Information That Helps Identify Trafficking
Bullying and Cyberbullying 328 Offenders 353
Child Abduction 328 Search Warrants 353
The Parental Interview 329 A Single Lawyer for Multiple Trafficking Victims 353
Victimology of the Missing Child 329 The Role of Nongovernmental Organizations in
Abduction Patterns 330 Sex-Trafficking Cases 354
Checklist for Law Enforcement 330 Key Terms 354
Amber Alert Plan 331 Review Questions 354
Sex Offender Registration and Notification 332 Internet Activities 355
Crime in Schools 333
Threat Assessment 333 13
Classification of Threats 336 Robbery 356
The Role of Law Enforcement 337
Introduction 357
Investigating School Violence 337
Elements of the Crime 357
Key Terms 340 Taking 357
Review Questions 340 Carrying Away 358
Internet Activities 340 Personal Property 358
Another 358
Intent to Deprive Permanently 358
12 Use of Force, Fear, or Threat of Force 358
Human Trafficking 341
Overview: The Offense, the Victim, and the
Introduction 342 Offender 359
United States Law 342 Typology of Robberies 360
State Law 343 Visible Street Robberies 360
Antitrafficking Task Force 343 Use of Surveillance Cameras to Prevent Street
Training of Law-Enforcement Officers 343 Robberies 360
Carjackings 360
Trafficking versus Smuggling 344
Home-Invasion Robberies 361
When Smuggling Becomes Trafficking 344
Automatic-Teller-Machine Robberies 362
Forced Labor, Involuntary Servitude, Peonage, Taxicab Robberies 362
and Debt Bondage 345 Convenience-Store Robberies 364
Estimated Numbers of Victims 345 Truck-Hijacking Robberies 365
Types of Victims 345 Bank Robbery 365
Typical Characteristics of Traffickers 345 Bank Robbery Prevention 367
Industries Involved in Forced Labor 346
Responding to the Scene 370
Sex Trafficking 347 Action Stereotyping 371
Recruitment of Foreign Women for the Sex Trade 347 Physical Stereotyping 371
Delivery and Marketing of Trafficked Women 348 Situational Stereotyping 371
Locating Sex-Trafficking Victims 349
Follow-Up Robbery Investigative Procedures 372
Investigative Considerations in Sex-Trafficking Initial Investigation 372
Cases 349 Generating a Likeness of a Suspect 373
Victim-Centered Approach 349
Victim Interview Considerations 350
Interview Preparation 350
How to Dress 350
Immigration Status 351
The U-Visa 351
The T-Visa 352
Victim Living/Working Conditions 352
Confirming the Type of Employment 352
Things Victims May Be Lacking 352
Physical Indicators of Sex Trafficking 352
Psychological Effects of Sex Trafficking 352
Indications of Brothels 352
Social Networks and Personal Safety 353
xii CO N T E N TS

Key Terms 374 Insurance Fraud 416

Review Questions 375 Health-Care and Medicare Fraud 417
Workers Compensation Fraud 419
Internet Activities 375
Mortgage Fraud 419
Home Improvement and Repair Frauds 419
14 Internet Frauds and Scams 419
Burglary 376
Other Frauds: Pigeon-Drop and Bank-Examiners
Introduction 377 Cons 422
The Offense and Offenders 379 Victims of Fraud: Senior Citizens 423
The Law 382 Money Laundering 424
Approaching the Scene and Initial Actions 382 Placement 424
Layering 426
Investigative Considerations at the Scene 383
Integration 426
Recognition of Burglary Tools 384
Surreptitious Entries 386 Security and Investment Frauds 426
Importance of the Time Factor 386 Ponzi/Pyramid Schemes 427
Pump and Dump Schemes 428
Safe Burglaries 387
Affinity Fraud 428
Types of Safes 387
Pay Phones/ATM Machine Investments 430
Attack Methods for Safes 388
One-Year Callable Certificates of
Safe-Burglary Evidence 388
Deposit 430
ATM Attacks 389 Promissory Notes 430
Residential Burglary 389 Prime Bank Notes 430
Car, RV, and Trailer Burglaries 391 Viatical Settlements 431
Investigating Criminal Fences and Other Outlets for Telephone Scams 431
Stolen Property 392 1-900 and Foreign Exchange Numbers 431
Mexican Collect Call Scheme 431
The Investigator’s Crime Prevention Role 395
Cramming 431
Reducing the Risk of Commercial Burglary 396
Reducing the Risk of Residential Burglary 397 Telemarketing and Postal Frauds 432
Land Fraud 432
Key Terms 397
Franchise Cons 433
Review Questions 397 Unsolicited Merchandise 433
Internet Activities 398 Fees Charged for Normally Free Services 433
Missing Relatives 433
15 Phony Inheritance Schemes 433
Larceny/Theft and White-Collar Key Terms 433
Crime 399
Review Questions 434
Introduction 400
Internet Activities 434
The Offense and the Offender 402
Elements of the Crime 402 16
Shoplifting and Organized Retail Crime (ORC) 403 Vehicle Thefts and Related
Shoplifting 403 Offenses 435
Organized Retail Crime (ORC) 403 Introduction 436
Copper and Other Precious Metal Theft 405
Motor Vehicle Theft 437
Investigative Points 405
Miscellaneous Statistics and Notes 437
Identity Theft and Follow-On Crimes 406 Types of Theft 438
How Identity Theft Occurs 406 Methods of Operation—The Professional 439
Follow-On Crimes 409 Fraudulent Theft Schemes 440
Investigation of Identity Theft and Follow-On Cases 411
Theft of Heavy Construction Equipment 443
Credit Card Fraud 411
Commercial-Vehicle and Cargo Theft 445
Check Fraud 414
Investigative Tools and Techniques 445
Counterfeiting 415 Major Investigative Resources 446
Frauds, Scams, and Cons 416 AAMVANET 448
Vendor Fraud 416 Locating and Handling Vehicles 451
Charity and Disaster Frauds 416 Vehicle Identification 451
 CO N T E N TS xiii

Investigation of Vehicle Fires 459 Livestock and Tack Theft 494

Contact with the Owner 461 Cattle Rustling 496
Prevention Programs 461 Horse Rustling 497
Auto Theft 461 Tack Theft 497
Car Rentals 463 Livestock Identification 498
Heavy Equipment 463 Physical Evidence 499
Fraud 463
Crime Prevention Methods 500
Odometer Fraud 464 Farm Equipment Theft 500
Marine Theft 465 Timber Thef t 500
Hull Identification 466 Agrichemical Theft 500
Title and Registration Issues 467 Livestock and Tack Theft 500
NCIC Boat File 467 Wildlife Crimes 500
Investigative Resources 468 Major Threats to Wildlife 501
Preventive Measures 468 Investigations 503
Aircraft and Avionics Theft 468 Environmental Crime 504
Resources 469 The Legal and Enforcement Framework 505
Theft Techniques 469 Provisions of State RCRA Laws 505
Aircraft Identification 470 Investigative Methods 507
Theft Prevention Techniques 470
Key Terms 508
Key Terms 471
Review Questions 508
Review Questions 471
Internet Activities 508
Internet Activities 471

17 19
Arson and Explosives
Cybercrime 472 Investigations 509
Introduction 473
Introduction 510
Cybercrime: An Overview 473
Preliminary Investigation 511
Cybercrime Tools and Services Related to
Where and How Did The Fire Start? 511
Theft and Fraud 474
Two Factors Needed to Cause A Fire 511
Offenders and Offenses 475 Accidental Fires 512
Computer Intrusions 475 Spontaneous Heating and Ignition 513
Investigation of Cybercrimes 480 Burn Indicators 513
Federal Efforts 480 Alligatoring 513
State and Local Efforts 482 Depth of Char 513
Legal Considerations 482 Breaking of Glass 514
Consent Searches 482 Collapsed Furniture Springs 514
The Crime Scene 485 Distorted Light Bulbs 515
Computer and Peripheral Evidence 485 Temperature Determination 516
Crime Scene Processing 485
Key Terms 487
Review Questions 487

18
Agricultural, Wildlife, and
Environmental Crimes 488
Introduction 489
Dimensions of Agricultural, Wildlife, and
Environmental Crimes 490
Timber Theft 492
Theft of Agrichemicals 493
xiv CO N T E N TS

Fire Setting and Related Mechanisms 516 Key Terms 545

Ignition Devices 516 Review Questions 545
Telltale Signs of Accelerants 516
Internet Activities 545
Plants 519
Trailers 519
Missing Items 519 20
Arson for Profit 519 Recognition, Control, and
Financial Stress as the Primary Cause 519 Investigation of Drug
Arson Generated by Third Parties 522 Abuse 546
Other Motives for Arson 524 Introduction 547
Revenge-Motivated Arson 524 Drugs and Scheduling 548
Detection and Recovery of Fire-Accelerant Opiates 548
Residues 524 Opium 548
Alternative Fuels in Fire Debris Analysis 525 Morphine 548
Scientific Methods in Arson Investigation 525 Heroin (Diacetylmorphine) 550
Detection of Fire Accelerants 526 “Cheese” Heroin 551
Interviews 527 Codeine 551
Possible Witnesses 527 OxyContin 552
Firefighters at the Scene 527 Other Opium Derivatives 552
Insurance Personnel 527 Opiate Overdoses 552
Other Witnesses Concerning Finances of the Synthetic Narcotics 553
Insured 529 Meperidine (Demerol) 554
News Media Personnel 529 Methadone 554
The Medical Examiner 529 Stimulants 554
Interviewing a Suspect 529 Cocaine 554
Interviewing the Target and the Owner 529 Amphetamines 556
Interviewing a Potential Informant Who Is Not a Phenmetrazine (Preludin), Methylphenidate (Ritalin),
Suspect 530 and Pemoline (CYLERT) 556
The Arson Suspect 530 Crystallized Methamphetamine 556
Methcathinone 558
Photographing the Arson Scene 531
Khat 559
Still Photography 531
Videotape 531 Depressants (Sedatives) 559
Glutethimide (Doriden) 559
Explosives Investigation 531
Methaqualone 560
Know Your Explosives 531
Computerized Tomography 532 Speedballing 560
Sniffers 532 Hallucinogens 560
Types of Explosions 532 Phencyclidine (PCP) 560
Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) 533 Methylenedioxy Methamphetamine 561
Factors Affecting IED Construction 533 Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD 25) 561
Basic Components of the IED 533 Mescaline (Peyote) 561
Primary Effect by Type of IED 534 Psilocybin and Psilocyn 561
The United States as a Target of IEDs 536 Foxy and 5-MeO-AMT 562
Investigating the Explosion Scene 536 Ketamine 562
Locating and Identifying Articles of Evidence 537 Cannabis 563
Collecting Evidence at the Explosion Scene 538 Marijuana 563
Analyzing the Fuel Source 540 Hashish 565
Suspicious Packages and Letters 541 Hashish Oil 565
Use of Robotic Devices in Moving and Destroying Synthetic Marijuana 565
Dangerous Objects 541 Drug Paraphernalia 566
Bomb Threat Standoff 542 Inhalants 566
Reading The Bomber’s Signature 542 Major Countries of Origin and Trafficking
Similarities between Bombings 544 Patterns 566
Association of Bombings through Forensic Mexico 567
Examination 544 Colombia 569
 CO N T E N TS xv

The Golden Crescent 569 Domestic Terrorism 677

The Golden Triangle 569 Right-Wing Terrorists 607
Europe 569 Left-Wing Terrorists 609
Drug Investigations 570 Financing Terrorist Organizations 611
Gathering Information 570 New Laws and Legal Tools 612
Confidential Informants 570 Drug Smuggling 612
Informants: Motivations and Types 570 Arms Smuggling 614
Department Policy 571 Credit Card Fraud and Theft 614
Other Sources for Information 573 Charities Fraud and Linkages 615
Surveillance 574 National Counterterrorism Intelligence
Undercover Operations 575 Structures 617
High-Intensity Drug Trafficking Area (HIDTA) Other Criminal Activities Linked to Terrorist
Programs 577 Groups 617
Searches, Seizures, and Warrants 578 Investigation of Terrorist Activities 617
Probable Cause 578 Terrorist Crime Scenes 623
Search Warrants 578 Limited Biological Attacks: Anthrax 624
Past Reliability of the Confidential Chemical At tacks: Mass Casualties 627
Informant 579 Terrorism and the Future 628
Information Supplied by the
Key Terms 629
Informant 579
Corroboration of the Information Review Questions 629
Supplied 579 Internet Activities 630
The Exclusionary Rule 579
Warrantless Searches 579
Search Procedures 581 22
Evidence Handling 581 The Trial Process and
Pharmaceutical Diversions 583 the Investigator as a
Clandestine Drug Laboratories 584 Witness 631
Identifying Laboratory Operations 584 Introduction 632
Meth Labs 584 Evaluating a Case 632
Catching Cooks: Meth Monitors 585 The Investigator 632
Lab Seizure and Forfeiture 586 The Prosecutor 633
Conducting a Laboratory Raid 586
The Trial Process 634
Conspiracy Investigations 588 Jury Selection 634
Gangs and Drugs 588 The Trial 635
Paradigm Shif t 588 The Rules of Evidence 636
Key Terms 589 Evidence Defined 636
The First Rule of Evidence 636
Review Questions 589
Proof 637
Internet Activities 589 Testimony 637
Relevance 637
Materiality 637
21
Terrorism 590
Introduction 591
International Terrorism 592
Radical Islam 592
Radical Islamic Groups 594
Other Active International Groups 601
Other International Threats: Mexico 603
Homegrown Terrorism 604
Who Is the “Homegrown Terrorist”? 605
Attacks from Inside the United
States 606
The Threat 607
xvi CO N T E N TS

Competence of Evidence 637 Exceptions to the Hearsay Rule 643

Competence of Witnesses 637 Evidentiary Privileges 644
Weight of Evidence 638 Witnesses 645
Presumptions 638 The Investigator as a Witness 645
Inferences 638
Key Terms 650
Burden of Proof 638
Burden of Going Forward 638 Review Questions 650
Preponderance of Evidence 639 Internet Activities 651
Order of Proof 640
Judicial Notice 640 Glossary 652
Types of Evidence 640 Notes 667
The Hearsay Rule 642 Index 703

As with the previous editions, the first purpose of
this book is to provide a useful tool for those on law-
enforcement’s front lines. Thus, Criminal Investigation is
once again filled with practical “how to” information,
case studies, and color photographs that illustrate impor-
tant points and checklists that can be adapted to the
needs of local agencies.
We have scrutinized all aspects of the book, downsiz-
ing and deleting some content while elsewhere adding
new cutting-edge topics. The computer crime chapter
was dropped; an entirely new chapter, “Cybercrime,”
takes its place. Another new chapter, “Human Traffick-
ing,” examines the crimes associated with it in the United
States. Many portions of chapters have been substantially
or totally rewritten, including the guidelines for conduct-
ing photo lineups, live lineups, and field show-ups; crime
scene reconstruction; and forensic odontology. These and
other changes are more fully identified shortly.
Criminal Investigation continues to differ from other texts,
and the differences are again reflected throughout this edi-
tion. First, criminal investigation generally has been con-
ceived of, and touted as, an art. This approach depreciates
the precision required to conduct inquiries; it denies the
existence of, and adherence to, rigorous methods; and it
associates criminal investigation with unneeded mysticism.
Criminal investigation is in large part a science. The fact
that criminals are not always apprehended does not make
it less so. The rational scientific method is, of necessity,
supplemented by initiative and occasional fortuitous cir-
cumstances, but it is the application of the method rather
than shrewd hunches that most frequently produces results.
The most successful investigators are those who know how
to apply the rational scientific method; therefore, it is this
method that we consistently use in Criminal Investigation.
A second major difference between this text and others
arises from our belief that writing about techniques takes
on more substance if one understands something of the
nature of the event being investigated. Thus we have dis-
cussed typologies—including offenses, offenders, and
victims—in depth, so that our readers not only take away
a more comprehensive understanding of criminal inves-
tigation than they would from another textbook but also
have substantial information to use later as a reference.
Third, because crime-prevention technology has been
a significant milestone for both the police and the public,
we have inserted short sections on prevention in chapters
where appropriate. The complexity of crime prevention
dictates that it is a specialization within police depart-
ments. Yet at the scene of a crime, the investigator may
be in a unique position to make a few helpful, if rudi-
| PREFACE
mentary, suggestions to a victim on how to avoid further
loss. Criminal Investigation’s crime-prevention sections
give investigators the tools to accomplish this task.
Finally, most investigative books tend to blur the dis-
tinction between the roles of uniformed officers and detec-
tives; we draw this line distinctly. Although everyone may
not agree with our dichotomizing, the uniformed officer’s
role must be recognized for the contribution it makes to
the ultimate success of an investigation.
THE ELEVENTH EDITION
Criminal investigation is always evolving owing to scien-
tific, legal, and social developments, as well as to changes
in the behavior of criminals. Although many investigative
techniques are fundamental and remain basically the same
over time, significant changes also occur on a continuing
basis. In addition to having updated photographs, tables,
figures, and citations, this edition reflects both the ongoing
and the changing dimensions of criminal investigation by
including the following text updates and revisions:
• Chapter 1, “The Evolution of Criminal Investiga-
tion and Forensic Science,” a historically oriented
chapter, has a revised introduction that provides a
definition of the investigator and the investigation, as
well as an emphasis on the fundamental purpose of
investigation and forensic science and its role in dis-
covering the truth. A new section on jurisdiction has
been added that discusses the geographic area and
the legal/enforcement responsibility. The section
on personal identification now includes a focus on
biometrics.
• Chapter 2, “Legal Aspects of Investigation,”
addresses legal topics that uniformed officers and
investigators encounter on a daily basis and that are
essential for the successful resolution of every crimi-
nal case. The chapter includes updated information
on case law, including the scope of search of an auto-
mobile (Arizona v. Gant), legality of a search based on
erroneous information officers received from another
jurisdiction (Herring v. United States), legality of an
arrest and search of a motorist even though state law
required only the issuance of a summons (Virginia v.
Moore), and legality of a search based on exigent cir-
cumstances (Michigan v. Fisher).
• Chapter 3, “Investigators, the Investigative Process,
and the Crime Scene,” includes crime scene sketching
and forensic mapping. There are revised and expanded
xvii
xviii PREFACE
discussions of infection diseases, digital video and
photography, Digital Image Management Systems
(DIMS), and Automated Digital Imaging of Crime
Scenes using panoramic and laser scanning. A number
of new photographs have been added, including those
pertaining to crime scene control and coordination,
detection using sense of smell, latent fingerprint kits,
and the use of a privacy screen to shield bodies. The
chapter continues to emphasize its strong crime scene
and preliminary investigation focus.
• Chapter 4, “Physical Evidence,” has been thoroughly
revised and streamlined and includes new material
on forensic odontology, questioned documents, and
new photographs pertaining to electrostatic dust print
lifter (EDPL) and Hexagon OBTI.
• Chapter 5, “Interviewing and Interrogation,”
includes new sections on witness intimidation, the
use of electronic recordings for interrogation, why
people confess, the detection of deception, and recent
Supreme Court rulings relating to the rights of defen-
dants to remain silent under the provisions of the
Miranda ruling.
• Chapter 6, “Field Notes and Reporting,” has been
completely reorganized so that it moves through the
process of collecting information, recording notes,
understanding and completion of incident reports,
supervisory review and alternative dispositions,
follow-up investigations, and finally, the preparation
of supplementary reports.
• Chapter 7, “The Follow-Up Investigation and Inves-
tigative Resources,” has been thoroughly updated and
includes revised sections on reinterviewing victims and
witnesses and the use of facial recognition software.
The section on conducting photo and live lineups has
been updated to include new standards as well as
forms to be used with each of the three types of line-
ups. The section on crime scene reconstruction now
includes a step-by-step guide to using each of the
CSR models as well as examples of each. This chapter
also includes a number of new visuals pertaining to
geoprofiling maps, the use of trained dogs to detect
odors of cadavers, and a link/association diagram.
• Chapter 8, “The Crime Lab,” includes an updated
and expanded section on the measures of crime lab
effectiveness and includes recent BAS findings and
recommendations regarding the nation’s forensic sci-
ence system. A new section on the Next Generation
Identification (NGI) program has been added.
• Chapter 9, “Injury and Death Investigations,”
includes a new section on the law regarding criminal
homicides and felony assaults, a new “dead body
checklist,” and an updated section on serial murders
that includes a discussion of the myths and misconcep-
tions about, and the possible causes of, serial murder.
• Chapter 10, “Sex-Related Offenses,” includes new
sections on elder sexual abuse and the early recogni-
tion and detection of sexual assault of the elderly.
• Chapter 11, “Crimes against Children,” contains
expanded coverage of assaults against children,
including the signs that indicate abuse, shaken baby
syndrome, sex tourism, and Internet crimes against
children. New sections cover unexplained child fatali-
ties, traumatic brain injuries, and child pornography.
• Chapter 12, “Human Trafficking,” is new to this
edition and discusses U.S. and state laws concerning
human trafficking, the National Anti-Trafficking Task
Force, forced labor, involuntary servitude, peonage,
debt bondage, the delivery and marketing of women,
conducting victim interviews, the psychological
effects of sex trafficking on the victims, and informa-
tion on identifying brothels.
• Chapter 13, “Robbery,” includes expanded discus-
sions of taxi cab robberies, various crime prevention
strategies, and convenience store robberies. A new
section on police robbery prevention recommenda-
tions for convenience stores has been added.
• Chapter 14, “Burglary,” The references and data in
this chapter have been updated. Portions of this chap-
ter were rewritten for clarity.
• Chapter 15, “Larceny/Theft and White-Collar Crime”
includes new sections on mortgage frauds, Internet
frauds and scams, and senior citizens as fraud vic-
tims. The section on organized retail crime (ORC)
includes a new case box on Target that explains their
approach to dealing with ORC. The section on how
identity theft occurs includes information on FBI
scam letters as well as examples of these letters, debit
card skimming, and social security number theft. The
section on health care fraud has been expanded to
include coverage of Medicare fraud. The section on
security and investment frauds includes updates on
the Bernie Madoff scandal.
• Chapter 16, “Vehicle Thefts and Related Offenses,”
All statistics have been updated and show a contin-
ued decrease in the number of reported auto thefts
in this country but the problem is still of national
importance. Cloning of vehicles and obtaining titles
using fraudulant paperwork continues to increase. A
paragraph on Automated License Plate Recognition
Systems has been added to the materials on Major
Investigative Resources along with materials on the
major involvement of The National Insurance Crime
Bureau regarding the theft of heavy equipment.
• Chapter 17, “Cybercrime,” has been completely reor-
ganized and rewritten with the objective of preparing
first responders with the information needed to per-
form until a specialist arrives and what to do if one
is not available. The chapter distinguishes between

cyber- and computer crime; chronicles cybercrime
tools and services related to thefts and frauds; and
covers computer intrusions, malware, blended threats,
drive-bys, herders and botnets, viruses and worms,
time, logic, and email bombs, denial of services
attacks (DoSs), ransomware, dead drops, keyloggers,
rootkits, and scareware.
• Chapter 19, “Arson and Explosives,” includes a new
section called “Know Your Explosives” which includes
a detailed description of the characteristics of various
types of explosives as well as the ways in which they
can be scientifically analyzed and detected. An entirely
new module has been added on “Improvised Explo-
sive Devices” in which we discuss the components of
IEDs and provide a series of new photographs that
illustrate the various types of commonly used IEDs.
A detailed discussion and photos of two of the more
infamous cases involving IEDs occurring in the United
States in the last couple of years have been added.
• Chapter 20, “Recognition, Control, and Investigation
of Drug Abuse,” includes expanded coverage of
“cheese” heroine, codeine, opiate overdoses, crystal-
lized methamphetamine, synthetic marijuana (K2),
drug trafficking and violence in Mexico, and new
methods for producing meth. There is a new section
discussing the paradigm shift in how our nation is
addressing the war on drugs.
• Chapter 21, “Terrorism,” has received many updates
to reflect recent events regarding Al-Qaeda in Iraq,
Afghanistan, Yemen, and Somalia, as well as here in
the United States The section on Hizbollah includes
updates on the current presidential administration’s
efforts to normalize relations with it, as well as its
involvement in Mexico, Canada, and the United
States. The section on HAMAS has also been updated
to reflect recent events and activities, including
recruiting and fundraising. There are new sections
addressing the threat of the Mexican drug trade,
homegrown terrorism, and domestic right-wing ter-
rorism. The section on investigation of terrorist activi-
ties now has an expanded discussion of investigative
tools and techniques, including reference cards devel-
oped by New York state and the use of technology to
coordinate and disseminate intelligence.
• Chapter 22, “The Trial Process and the Investigator
as a Witness,” has an expanded section on evaluating
the case to include information the prosecutor needs
to evaluate the same case.
LEARNING AIDS
Working together, the authors and the editors have devel-
oped a format for the text that supports the goal of a read-
able, practical, user-friendly book. In addition to the
PREFACE xix
changes already mentioned, we have added a host of new
photographs, figures, and tables to reinforce and expand
the text coverage. A visual presentation of the book’s many
lists—which are so critical in a text that teaches profession-
als and future professionals “how to” investigate crime—
makes this material easy to digest. The learning aids in the
edition go beyond these visual elements, however:
• Chapter-opening photographs, outlines, and learn-
ing objectives draw readers in and serve as a road
map to the chapter.
• Chapter-opening overviews provide readers with
a snapshot of the entire chapter and are excellent
review tools for readers who are preparing for exams.
• Detailed captions accompany photographs, clarifying
precisely what readers should be looking for and
learning when examining each piece of art.
• End-of-chapter review sections featuring key-term
lists, review questions, and Internet activities make
preparing for exams easier than ever.
As mentioned, we have retained our plentiful, widely
acclaimed “cases” within every chapter, ensuring that the
eleventh edition is not only the most current, definitive
text on criminal investigation but also the most practical
and relevant. And with the enhancements we have made
to the learning aids, Criminal Investigation is, simply put,
the most mastery-oriented text available for the course.
SUPPLEMENTS
As a full-service publisher of quality educational prod-
ucts, McGraw-Hill does much more than just sell text-
books. The company creates and publishes an extensive
array of print, video, and digital supplements for students
and instructors. This edition of Criminal Investigation is
accompanied by a comprehensive supplements package.
FOR THE STUDENT
Online Learning Center Website: This unique, book-specific
website features interactive cases that not only are fun to
explore but also are terrific learning tools. The website
also includes self-grading quizzes and other exercises to
assist students in mastering the concepts in the book.
Visit it at www.mhhe.com/swanson11e.
FOR THE INSTRUCTOR
• Instructor’s Manual and Testbank: Includes detailed
chapter outlines, key terms, overviews, lecture notes,
transparency masters, and a complete testbank.
• Computerized Testbank: This easy-to-use computerized
testing program is for both Windows and Macintosh
computers.
xx PREFACE
• PowerPoint Slides: Complete chapter-by-chapter slide
shows feature text, art, and tables.
• Online Learning Center Website: Password-protected
access is provided for important instructor support
materials and additional resources.
• Course Management Systems: Whether you use
WebCT, Blackboard, e-College, or another course
management system, McGraw-Hill will provide you
with a cartridge that enables you either to conduct
your course entirely online or to supplement your
lectures with online material. And if your school
does not yet have one of these course management
systems, we can provide you with PageOut, an easy-
to-use tool that allows you to create your own
course web page and access all material on the
Online Learning Center.
• Primis Online: A unique database publishing system
that allows instructors to create a customized text
from material in this text or elsewhere and deliver
that text to students electronically as an e-book or in
print format via the bookstore.
• Videotapes: A wide variety of videotapes from the
Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences series is
available to adopters of the text.
All the preceding supplements are provided free of
charge to students and instructors. Orders of new (versus
used) textbooks help us defray the cost of developing
such supplements, which is substantial. Please contact
your local McGraw-Hill representative for more informa-
tion on any of the preceding supplements.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Without the kindness of many people throughout the
country—literally from Alaska to Maine—this book could
not have been written. We are grateful for the support of
our colleagues around the country who have contributed
case histories, reviewed portions of the manuscript within
their areas of expertise, written sections for inclusion in
the book, contributed photographs, forms, and other
illustrations, or otherwise gone out of their way to be
helpful. Our continuing concern in writing these acknowl-
edgments is that, inadvertently, we may have omitted
someone. If this is so, let us know so that we may correct
this oversight, and also please accept our apologies. Our
acknowledgments include persons who have contributed
to this edition and those who helped with earlier edi-
tions. Some of the people identified have retired or taken
on new responsibilities since assisting us, but, unless oth-
erwise requested, we include their organizational affilia-
tion and status at the time of the original contribution,
since we feel that the agencies then employing them are
also deserving of continued recognition.
Colleagues who have contributed photographs, forms,
and other illustrations are identified beginning on page
xxiii; thank you one and all. We would also like to thank
another group of individuals who helped out in a variety
of ways: Ross Gardner reviewed the new section of foren-
sic mapping and made helpful suggestions, as did Cap-
tain John P. Slater (retired), Training Director, National
Institute for Truth Verification with respect to the CVSA
II System. Special Agent, Joe Navarro, FBI (retired) was
kind enough to provide us with most of the information
discussing the detection of deception. Chief Jack Lumpkin
and Sgt. David Leedahl, Athens Clarke County (Georgia)
Police Department; Chief Dwayne Orrick, Cordele (Georgia)
Police Department; Chief Rick Boren, Lt. Ronnie Griffin,
and Sgt. Doug Shafer, Columbus (Georgia) Police Depart-
ment; Major Tolbert and Lt. Zapal, Savannah Police
Department; Bob Hopkins, Hillsborough County, Florida,
Sheriff’s Office gave us information to strengthen the
section on follow-up investigations; Commander Michael
Frazier, Phoenix, Arizona, Police Department, was help-
ful with information on arson and explosives, as were
Chief Richard Pennington and Officer R. Bonelli from the
New Orleans Police Department; Chief Lee Donahue and
Major William Gulledge, Honolulu, Hawaii, Police Depart-
ment; Kenneth V. Lanning, Supervising Special Agent of
the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the National Cen-
ter for Missing and Exploited Children allowed us to
reprint in Chapter 11 (“Crimes against Children”) from his
previously published material on the topics of child moles-
tation and child pornography. Major Andy Garrison and
Frank Broadrick, Northeast Georgia Police Academy,
reviewed the chapter on report writing and made good
suggestions for its revision. Steven Gottlieb, executive
director of the Alpha Group Center for Crime and Intelli-
gence Analyst Training, allowed us to adopt portions of
his textbook to explain the critical role of crime analysis in
law-enforcement investigations. Ron French of the Ecorse,
Michigan, Fire Department provided updated commen-
tary on where and how fires start, as well as on fire setting
and related mechanisms. Leigh Herbst from the University
of Nebraska helped with the new chapter-opening and
closing material.
Chief Robert Davis, Lt. Rick Martinez, and Police Artist
Gil Zamora, San Jose California Police Department, pro-
vided photographs for the robbery chapter. Lt. Anthony
Traina, Paterson (NJ) Police Department, provided infor-
mation and a photograph on using street surveillance
cameras to prevent street robberies.
Gene Lazarus, Florida State Fire College, Ocala, and
Steve Mraz, formerly with the Pinellas County, Florida,
Fire Academy, reviewed and contributed to the arson
chapter. Bob Quinn, Tom Costigan, Mike Rendina, Jim
Wilder, and Richard Frank, presently or formerly with the
Drug Enforcement Administration. Richard Souviron,
Chief Forensic Odontologist, Dade County Florida, Medi-
cal Examiners Office, was an early major contributor
of material dealing with bite marks and dental evidence.

Dr. Wally Graves, Medical Examiner for Lee, Henry, and
Glades Counties, Florida, provided information on dental
evidence. John Valor, forensic artist and photographer,
provided illustrations for the dental section. Dick Williams
of the FBI Crime Laboratory read the questioned-documents
section and made a number of suggestions to clarify and
strengthen it. Don Hampton of the Springfield, Missouri,
Police Department did the same for parts of the crime
scene chapter. We benefited also from the reviews and
research materials provided by Jim Halligan, formerly
with the Florida Department of Law Enforcement and
then a professor at Florida State University’s School of
Criminology. He was a superb teacher and a real friend.
Special thanks to Lt. Greg Terp, commander of the
Miami-Dade Auto Theft Task Force, and to some special
people with the National Insurance Crime Bureau—
Special Agent Lawrence “Dave” Dempsey; Regional
Manager Ron Poindexter; Vice-President and General
Counsel Robert H. “Bob” Mason; and Member Relations
Manager Ed Sparkman.
Thanks to professor Gail Anderson of Simon Frazer
University in Burnaby, B.C., Canada, for providing us
with updated information on forensic entomology. Robert
Aristarco, Assistant Vice President for Corporate Com-
munications, American Re-Insurance Company in Prince-
ton, New Jersey, allowed us to reprint material on arson
investigation published by his company. Linda Brown
and Robyn Royall of Help A Child, Inc. and SAVE (Sex-
ual Assault Victim Examination Program) in Pinellas
Park, Florida, provided us with all the material they use
to collect the physical evidence of sexual assault cases.
Dave Crosbie of the Burnsville Minnesota Fire Depart-
ment provided us with photos for the “Arson and Explo-
sives” chapter. Michael Dorn of Dorn’s, Inc. provided us
with current information on crimes in schools. Dr. Thomas
B. Kelley of Florida State University in Panama City
(Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice) pro-
vided us with both narrative information on underwater
crime scene investigation and photographs. Debbie
Lewis, Records Custodian, William A. Pellan, Director of
Forensic Investigations in Pasco and Pinellas Counties,
Largo, Florida, and John R. Thogmartin, M.D. provided
numerous photographs for Chapter 9 (“Injury and Death
Investigations”) and Chapter 10 (“Sex-Related Offenses”).
Sergeant Jim Markey of the Sex Crimes Unit of the Phoenix,
Arizona, Police Department supplied us with informa-
tion on how to reopen cold case sex crimes; he also pro-
vided us with a photograph. Robert Parker, Director, and
Major Raul M. Ubieta, Miami-Dade (Florida) Police
Department, supplied us with their agency’s Robbery
Standard Operating Procedure along with model form
letters sent to robbery victims. Greg C. Pauley of the
Temple Terrace, Florida, Police Department provided us
with a computer-generated composite image as well as
a police mug shot of a robbery suspect at the time he
was arrested. Lieutenant Ted Snodgrass of the Las Vegas,
Nevada, Metropolitan Police Department Robbery Sec-
PREFACE xxi
tion supplied us with considerable information about his
agency’s “Team Approach” in dealing with robbery
cases. Detective David Spraggs of the Boulder, Colorado,
Police Department provided us with material used in the
discussion of opening a cold case homicide investigation,
along with several photographs. Laurie A. Ward, Crime
Scene Administrator, Laura Sheffield, Forensic Artist,
and Sheriff Grady C. Judd, Jr., all of the Polk County
Sheriff’s Department Office in Barstow, Florida, pro-
vided us with information on the use of forensic artists
to re-create images of a robbery suspect along with a
picture of the suspect at the time he was arrested. Ser-
geant Scott Whittington of the Colorado Springs, Colo-
rado, Police Department supplied us with a video photo
of a robbery in progress. Maryellin Territo and Sal Territo
devoted long hours to researching sources for the most
current information relating to all facets of criminal
investigation.
A special thank you is extended to Mr. Ed Hueske for
his invaluable help and assistance on the Physical Evi-
dence and Crime Laboratory chapters. His forensics
expertise was instrumental in helping acquire photo-
graphs and addressing new techniques in the area. Also,
a very special thanks to Ms. Jennifer Davis for her hard
work, research, and assistance in developing the book.
She was an important coauthor on the “Crimes against
Children” chapter. Chief Jimmy Perdue, North Richland
Hills, Texas Police Department; Chief Richard Wiles, Dep-
uty Chief Dianna Kirk, and Mr. Stuart Ed, El Paso, Texas
Police Department; Chief Robert Lehner and Deputy
Chief Chuck Tilby, Eugene, Oregon Police Department;
and Chief David Kunkle, Dallas Police Department, pro-
vided opportunities within their departments for acquir-
ing photographs and learning new techniques in the
investigative process. Dr. Kall Loper has coauthored the
“Computer Crime” chapter in previous editions, and
some of his work was continued in this edition. Dr. David
Carter, Dr. Richard Holden, Dr. Jonathon White, and
Mr. Doug Bodrero, Institute for Intergovernmental Rela-
tions (Tallahassee, Florida), offered important informa-
tion on terrorism and intelligence gathering analysis that
highlighted the “Terrorism” chapter.
We would also like to thank Professor Barry Glover
and Ashlee Castle of the Department of Criminal Justice,
Saint Leo University, Saint Leo, Florida for providing us
with the material in Chapter 9, Injury and Death Investi-
gation, on the discussion of the Utilization of Criminal
Justice College Students to Evaluate Cold Cases. “We also
would like to thank Sharon Ostermann for graciously and
cheerfully typing up major portions of this edition. Her
constructive criticism, research skills, and editing greatly
improved the final product.”
This eleventh edition of the book benefited from a
counsel of reviewers. Thanks to:
Preston Baity, Milwaukee Area Technical College
Geriann Brandt, Maryville University
xxii PREFACE

Tyler Brewer, Southwestern College William Vizzard, California State University,

John Brooks, University of Arkansas Sacramento
Michael Brown, Southeast Missouri State University Charlene Weitzeil, Olympic College
Ruben Burgos, Milwaukee Area Technical College Donna Gaughan Wilson, Prince George’s Community
Steven Chavez, Western New Mexico University College
Stephen D’Arcy, California State University,
Finally, a few words about the hard-working people at
Sacramento
McGraw-Hill who helped make this a better book: We
Gene Evans, Camden County Community College
would like to thank our editors Katie Stevens and Craig
Anita Bledsoe Gardner, Cleveland Community
Leonard; project manager Mel Valentín, who kept this
College
project moving forward and on time; designer Cassandra
Barry Glover, Saint Leo University
Chu; photo research manager Brian Pecko, who found us
Don Haley, Tidewater Community College
photos and obtained permission to use them in a timely
Daniel Hebert, Springfield Technical Community
manner; marketing manager Joyce Chiu; copyeditor
College
Stacey C. Sawyer; and everyone else from the McGraw-
Edward Jackson, Baltimore City Community College
Hill production staff in San Francisco who worked on this
William Kemper, University of South Florida, Sarasota
edition of the text.
Dwayne Marshall, Lock Haven University of PA
Glenn McKiel, Middlesex Community College
Charles R. “Mike” Swanson
Joe Morris, Northwestern State University
Neil C. Chamelin
James Parlow, Winona State University
Leonard Territo
Dave Pauly, Methodist University
Robert W. Taylor
Scott Pray, Muskingum College
 | IN APPRECIATION

We are grateful to our colleagues from around the country Columbus, Georgia, Police Department
who have been kind enough to contribute photographs, Georgia Bureau of Investigation
forms, and other figures to the text. The inclusion of such Savannah Police Department
material helps ensure the relevancy and usefulness of the
text for all readers in all states. For this, we are indebted Idaho
to the following individuals, departments, and agencies: Idaho Bureau of Investigation

Alaska Illinois
State of Alaska Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory Chicago Crime Laboratory
Chicago Police Department
Arizona Cook County, Illinois, Sheriff’s Department
Phoenix, Arizona, Police Department Illinois Environmental Protection Agency
California Illinois State Police
California Bureau of Livestock Identification
Indiana
Kern County, California, Sheriff’s Department
Indiana State Police
Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department
Riverside County, California, Sheriff’s Department Iowa
San Bernardino County, California, Sheriff’s Iowa Criminalistic Laboratory, Department
Department of Public Safety
San Diego County Sheriff’s Department State Historical Society of Iowa
San Jose Police Department
Santa Ana, California, Police Department Kansas
Santa Barbara County, California, Sheriff’s Wichita, Kansas, Police Department
Department
Kentucky
Colorado Kentucky State Police
Westminster, Colorado, Police Department
Maine
Delaware Lewiston, Maine, Police Department
Delaware State Police
Maryland
Florida The SANS Institute
Big Bend Bomb Disposal Team, Tallahassee, Florida
Dade County Medical Examiner Department, Miami, Massachusetts
Florida Massachusetts Environmental Police
Florida Department of Law Enforcement National Fire Protection Association
Leon County Sheriff’s Department, Tallahassee,
Florida Michigan
Miami-Dade Police Department Ecorse, Michigan, Fire Department
Pinellas County, Florida, Public Health Unit, Sexual Sterling Heights, Michigan, Police Department
Assault Victim Examination Program Minnesota
Pinellas County, Florida, Sheriff’s Office Minneapolis, Minnesota, Police Department
Polk County Sheriff’s Office Minnesota Department of Health
Port Orange, Florida, Police Department
St. Petersburg, Florida, Police Department Missouri
Tallahassee Regional Crime Laboratory, Florida Regional Criminalistics Laboratory, Metropolitan
Department of Law Enforcement Kansas City, Missouri
Tampa, Florida Fire Department Springfield, Missouri, Police Department
Tampa, Florida Police Department St. Louis County, Missouri, Police Department
St. Louis Police Department
Georgia
Athens-Clarke County, Georgia, Police Department New Jersey
Atlanta Police Department New Jersey State Police
Cordele, Georgia, Police Department Paterson Police Department
xxiii
xxiv I N A P P R E C I AT I O N

New York Wisconsin Crime Laboratory

Nassau County, New York, Police Department
New York City Police Department
North Carolina
North Carolina Bureau of Investigation
SIRCHIE Fingerprint Laboratories, Inc.
Ohio
Geauga County, Ohio, Sheriff’s Department
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania State Police
Philadelphia Police Department
South Carolina
Georgetown, South Carolina, Police Department
Tennessee
Nashville Police Department
Tennessee Bureau of Investigation
Texas
Austin, Texas, Police Department
Dallas Police Department
Forensic Training and Consulting, LLC
Texas Department of Public Safety (Garland
Crime Lab)
Texas Parks & Wildlife
Utah
Utah Department of Public Safety, Bureau of
Forensic Sciences
Virginia
Alexandria, Virginia, Police Department
Fairfax County, Virginia, Police Department
Washington
Clark County Sheriff’s Office, Vancouver, Washington
Washington, D.C.
Police Executive Research Forum
Virginia Department of Forensic Services
Wisconsin
Madison Police Department
Milwaukee County Department of Social Service
Wisconsin State Police
Wyoming
Lincoln County, Wyoming, Sheriff’s Office
Wyoming State Crime Laboratory
Wyoming Game and Fish Department
Wyoming State Archives and Historical Department
National & Federal Agencies
Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice
Centers for Disease Control
Chester A. Higgins, Jr., and the U.S. Department of
Justice, Office of Justice Programs
Drug Enforcement Administration
Environmental Protection Agency
Federal Bureau of Investigation
Federal Emergency Management Agency
Immigration and Naturalization Service, Forensic
Document Laboratory
National Automobile Theft Bureau
National Center for Missing and Exploited Children
National Drug Intelligence Center
National Institute of Justice
National Insurance Crime Bureau
National Park Service
Office of Justice Programs, National Institute
of Justice
Pinkerton’s Archives
U.S. Customs Service
U.S. Department of Justice
U.S. Department of the Treasury, Bureau of Alcohol,
Tobacco, and Firearms
U.S. Forest Service
U.S. Public Health Service
U.S. Secret Service
International Agencies
London Metropolitan Police
Royal Canadian Mounted Police
Turkish National Police
 b Sir Robert Peel (1788–
1850), whose efforts led to
the establishment of the
London Metropolitan
Police in 1829. English
police officers are still
referred to as “Bobbies,”
a play on Peel’s first name.
(© The Granger Collection,
New York)

1
The Evolution
of Criminal
Investigation and
Forensic Science
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

1. Define “investigator.” 7. Identify the first major federal investigative agencies

2. Define the most fundamental purpose of
investigation.
3. State four additional objectives of the investigative
process.
4. Explain the importance of the Bow Street Runners.
5. Discuss the contribution of Sir Robert Peel’s reform
to early policing in the United States.
6. Explain the history and contributions of the Pinkerton
National Detective Agency.
and their responsibilities.
8. Explain the Supreme Court’s “due process revolution”
and its impact on policing.
9. Discuss Bertillon’s method of anthropometry.
10. Summarize the historical development of fingerprint
identification.
11. Explain the concept and practice of DNA typing.
12. Outline the milestones in the development of
firearms identification.
 | INTRODUCTION

An investigator is someone who gathers,

documents, and evaluates evidence and
information. This is accomplished through the
process of investigation. The most fundamental
purpose of criminal investigation and forensic science is to discover the truth.
By making this purpose the cornerstone of their behavior, investigators can
remain faithful to their oath of office and the accompanying ethical standards.
Four additional objectives of the investigative process are to (1) establish that
a crime was actually committed; (2) identify and apprehend the suspect(s);
(3) recover stolen property; and (4) assist in the prosecution of the person(s)
charged with the crime.

JURISDICTION CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

AND FORENSIC SCIENCE
The authority of law-enforcement officers is limited by such
factors as the Constitution, court decisions, federal and
For present purposes, the roots of criminal investigation
state laws, departmental policies, and jurisdiction, which
can be traced back to England in the eighteenth century, a
can be thought of as both a geographical area and the laws
period marked by significant social, political, and economic
for which an agency has enforcement responsibility.
changes. These changes were important to the develop-
The general rule is that the geographic jurisdiction of
ment of the first modern detective force, the Bow Street
police officers is limited to the area governed by their
Runners. In addition, London was the home of the first
employer. Law-enforcement officers employed by state
police reformer, Robert Peel. Both of these factors contrib-
agencies and county, as well as metropolitan and city
uted to the subsequent development of police organiza-
police departments, follow this general pattern. Depend-
tions and criminal investigation in the United States.
ing on the state, Sheriffs’ deputies and county police
Forensic science draws from diverse disciplines, such
departments usually patrol the unincorporated portions
as geology, physics, chemistry, biology, and mathematics,
of a county, although by contract they may provide law-
to study physical evidence related to crime. If it is sus-
enforcement services to municipalities. Sheriff’s deputies
pected that a person has died from poisoning, for exam-
may or may not have jurisdiction outside their home
ple, a toxicologist, who specializes in identifying poisons
counties. Investigations beyond the governing authority’s
and their physiological effects on humans and animals,
geographical boundaries usually are conducted with the
can assist in the investigation. Experts in other areas,
assistance of the appropriate law-enforcement agency.
such as botany, forensic pathology, entomology, and
Some states have statutorily extended the jurisdiction of
archaeology, may also provide helpful information to
peace officers—for example, allowing investigation
criminal investigators.
beyond their normal jurisdiction for offenses committed
Over hundreds of years many people have made con-
within the investigating officers’ regular jurisdiction,
tributions to the fields of criminal investigation and
when viewing serious misdemeanors or felonies, or
forensic science. To recognize all of them is beyond the
assisting another law-enforcement officer.
scope of this chapter and requires setting some limits.
The FBI provides a good illustration of enforcement
This chapter presents a brief history of criminal investiga-
responsibility. It has primary enforcement responsibility
tion and forensic science. Many volumes have been writ-
for all federal criminal laws, except cases for which respon-
ten about these entwined topics, but the space that can
sibility is by statute or otherwise assigned specifically to
be devoted to them here is limited. Sufficient broad per-
another agency. As a practical matter the enforcement
spectives and supporting details, however, are included
responsibility of the FBI is limited to roughly 200 laws.
2

CHAPTER OUTLINE
Introduction
Jurisdiction
Criminal Investigation and Forensic Science
The Evolution of Criminal Investigation
Historical Milestones of Forensic Science
Recent Developments
in this chapter to enable readers intrigued by these sub-
jects to independently pursue their interest armed with a
working knowledge of the basics.
THE EVOLUTION OF
CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
THE IMPACT OF THE AGRICULTURAL
AND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTIONS
During the eighteenth century, two events—an agricul-
tural revolution and an industrial revolution—began a
process of change that profoundly affected how police
services were delivered and investigations conducted.
Improved agricultural methods, such as the introduction
in 1730 of Charles Townshend’s crop rotation system and
Jethro Tull’s four-bladed plow, gave England increased
agricultural productivity in the first half of the eighteenth
century.1 Improvements in agriculture were essential pre-
conditions to the Industrial Revolution in the second half
of the eighteenth century, because they freed people from
farm work for city jobs. As the population of England’s
cities grew, slums also expanded, crime increased, and
disorders became more frequent. Consequently, public
demands for government to control crime grew louder.
THE FIELDINGS: CRIME INFORMATION
AND THE BOW STREET RUNNERS
In 1748, Henry Fielding became chief magistrate of Bow
Street and set out to improve the administration of jus-
tice. In 1750, he established a small group of volunteer,
non-uniformed home owners to “take thieves.” Known
as the “Bow Street Runners,” these Londoners hurried to
the scenes of reported crimes and began investigations,
thus becoming the first modern detective force. By 1752,
Fielding began publishing The Covent Garden Journal as a
means of circulating the descriptions of wanted persons.
On his death in 1754, Henry Fielding was succeeded by
his blind half-brother, John Fielding, who carried on Henry’s
ideas for another 25 years.2 Under John Fielding, Bow
Street became a clearinghouse for information on crime,
T H E E V O L U T I O N O F C R I M I N A L I N V E S T I G AT I O N 3
and by 1785 at least four of the Bow Street Runners were
no longer volunteers but paid government detectives.3
THE METROPOLITAN POLICE ACT OF 1829
In 1816, 1818, and again in 1822, England’s Parliament
rejected proposals for a centralized professional police
force for London as different political philosophies
clashed. One group argued that such a force was a direct
threat to personal liberty. The other group—composed
of reformers such as Jeremy Bentham and Patrick
Colquhoun—argued that the absence, rather than the
presence, of social control was the greater danger to per-
sonal liberty. Finally, in 1829, owing in large measure to
the efforts of Sir Robert Peel, Parliament passed the
Metropolitan Police Act, which created a metropolitan
police force for London. Police headquarters became
known as “Scotland Yard,” because the building formerly
had housed Scottish royalty. Police constables were
referred to as “Bobbies,” a play on Peel’s first name.4
Because French citizens had experienced oppression
under centralized police, the British public was suspi-
cious of, and at times even hostile to, the new force. In
response to the high standards set for the police force,
there were 5,000 dismissals and 6,000 forced resignations
from the force during the first three years of operations.5
This record was a clear indication to the public that police
administrators were requiring officers to maintain high
standards of conduct. Within a few years, the London
Metropolitan Police had won a reputation for fairness,
and it became the international model of professional
policing. Despite the growing popularity of the uni-
formed Bobbies, however, there was fear that the use of
“police spies”—detectives in plain clothes—would reduce
civil liberties.
In the years immediately following 1829, some Metro-
politan Police constables were temporarily relieved from
patrolling in uniform to investigate crimes on their beats.6
As the distinction between the use of uniformed consta-
bles to prevent crime and the use of plainclothes detec-
tives for investigation and surveillance became clear, the
public became uneasy. Illustratively, in 1833, a Sergeant
Popay was dismissed following a parliamentary investi-
gation that revealed that he had infiltrated a radical
group, acquired a leadership position, and argued for the
use of violence. In 1842, a regular detective branch was
opened at Scotland Yard (Figure 1-1), superseding the Bow
Street force.7 Initially, the detective force was limited to
no more than 16 investigators, and its operations were
restricted because of a distrust of “clandestine methods.”8
AMERICAN INITIATIVES
The success of Peel’s reform in England did not go unno-
ticed in the United States. Stephen Girard bequeathed
$33,190 to Philadelphia to develop a competent police
force. In 1833 Philadelphia passed an ordinance creating
4 C H A P T E R 1 T H E E V O L U T I O N O F C R I M I N A L I N V E S T I G AT I O N A N D F O R E N S I C S C I E N C E
m FIGURE 1- 1 New Scotland Yard
In 1890 the Metropolitan Police left their original quarters
and were housed in New Scotland Yard, pictured above.
Subsequently, in 1967 the Metropolitan Police moved again,
to their present facilities, which are also referred to as New
Scotland Yard.
America’s first paid, daylight police force. Although the
ordinance was repealed just three years later, the concept
of a paid police force would reappear as American cities
staggered under the burdens of tremendous population
growth, poverty, and massive crime. In 1836 New York
City rejected the notion of a police force organized along
the lines advocated by Peel. The committee studying the
idea concluded it was better in emergencies to rely on
citizens than “despotic governments.”9
Thus, before mid-century, few American cities had
police service, and those that existed were inadequate.
Many cities had paid police departments only at night or
treated day and night police services as entirely separate
organizations. Finally, in 1844 the New York state legisla-
ture created the first unified police force in the country,
although New York City did not actually implement the
measure until a year later. Other cities rapidly followed
New York’s lead: Chicago in 1851, New Orleans and
Cincinnati in 1852, and Baltimore and Newark in 1857.
By 1880 virtually every major American city had a police
force based on England’s Peelian reforms of 1829 and
pioneered in this country by New York City.
If one of the problems of the London Metropolitan
Police had been getting the public to accept some con-
stables’ working out of uniform as detectives, in the
United States the problem was getting the police to wear
uniforms in the first place. American officers believed
that a uniform made them easy targets for public harass-
ment and made them look like servants. Only after the
Civil War did the wearing of a uniform—invariably
Union blue—become widely accepted by American police
officers.
PINKERTON’S NATIONAL DETECTIVE AGENCY
America needed reliable detectives for several reasons:
(1) graft and corruption were common among America’s
big-city police officers; (2) the jurisdiction of sheriffs’
offices and municipal officers was limited; and (3) there
was little information sharing by law-enforcement agen-
cies. Thus, offenders often fled from one jurisdiction to
another with impunity. Information sharing has vastly
improved in the last 150 years but is an area that still
requires further development.
In 1846 seeing the need for reliable investigators, two
former St. Louis police officers formed the first recorded
private detective agency.10 However, the major private
detective agency of the nineteenth century was formed
by Allan Pinkerton (1819–1884, Figure 1-2.). In 1850, after
working as a Chicago detective and a U.S. mail agent,11
Pinkerton formed a private detective agency with attor-
ney Edward Rucker.12 Pinkerton’s trademark was an
open eye above the slogan “We never sleep.”13 The trade-
mark gave rise to the use of the term “private eye” in
reference to any private investigator.14 The Pinkertons
enjoyed such enormous success in the United States
and throughout the world that some people thought
“Pinkerton” was a nickname for any American govern-
ment detective.15
The list of achievements by Pinkerton is impressive.
Pinkerton reportedly discovered and foiled an assassina-
tion attempt on President-elect Lincoln in Baltimore.16 At
the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, Pinkerton orga-
nized a Secret Service Division within the army (not to
be confused with the U.S. Secret Service) and worked
closely with General McClellan.17 He infiltrated Confed-
erate lines in disguise on several occasions and usually
functioned as a military analyst.18
Following the Civil War, the Pinkertons were primarily
engaged in two broad areas: (1) controlling a discontented
working class, which was pushing for better wages and
working conditions, and (2) pursuing bank and railroad
robbers.19 Unrestricted by jurisdictional limits, Pinkerton
agents roamed far and wide pursuing lawbreakers. In a

m FIGURE 1-2 Pinkerton at work
Allan Pinkerton, President Lincoln, and General McClellan at
Antietam, Maryland, about October 3, 1862. Born in Scotland,
Allan Pinkerton was the son of a police sergeant. He found
employment as a barrel maker and advanced to supervisor.
At the same time, this red-headed, strong-willed man
advocated more voice in government for ordinary people,
a position that resulted in him becoming a wanted man.
Narrowly avoiding arrest on his wedding day, Pinkerton
and his wife fled to America, surviving a shipwreck while
en route. He started a successful barrel-making company.
While owner of that business, his initiative led to the arrest
of counterfeiters. This gave him an appetite for police work,
his father’s profession, and changed his life and American
policing forever. (Courtesy Pinkerton’s Archives)
violent time, they sometimes used harsh and unwise
methods. For instance, suspecting that they had found
the hideout of Jesse James’s gang, Pinkerton agents
lobbed in a 32-pound bomb, killing a boy and injuring a
woman.20
Pinkerton understood the importance of information,
records, and publicity and made good use of all of them.
For example, in 1868, Pinkerton agent Dick Winscott took
on the Reno gang. Winscott located Fred and John Reno
and, after a drinking bout, persuaded them to let him
T H E E V O L U T I O N O F C R I M I N A L I N V E S T I G AT I O N 5
m FIGURE 1-3 Butch Cassidy’s Pinkerton record
Note the “P.N.D.A.” initials on the first line, which stand for
Pinkerton National Detective Agency. Pinkerton agents were
highly successful in combating the bank and train robbers of
the Old West, such as the Hole in the Wall gang, so named
because of the small opening through rocky walls that led
to the valley in Johnson County, Wyoming, used as their
hideout. As many as 40 bandits may have lived there in
six cabins. Butch Cassidy and the Sun Dance Kid were both
members of the Hole in the Wall gang at various times.
(Courtesy Wyoming State Archives and Historical Department)
photograph them.21 He sent the photographs to Pinkerton
files, and within a year the Reno gang was smashed.22
Pinkerton also collected photographs of jewel thieves and
other types of criminals and photographed horses to pre-
vent illegal substitutions before races.23 The Pinkertons
also pushed Butch Cassidy (Robert Parker) and the Sun
Dance Kid (Harry Longabaugh) into leaving the United
States for South America, where they were reportedly
killed by Bolivian soldiers at San Vincente in 1909 (Fig-
ure 1-3.) Because of their better-known antilabor activi-
ties, the Pinkertons’ other work often is overlooked. But
they were the only consistently competent detectives
available in this country for over 50 years24 and provided
a good model for government detectives.
6 C H A P T E R 1 T H E E V O L U T I O N O F C R I M I N A L I N V E S T I G AT I O N A N D F O R E N S I C S C I E N C E
THE EMERGENCE OF MUNICIPAL DETECTIVES
As early as 1845 New York City had 800 plainclothes offi-
cers,25 although not until 1857 were the police authorized
to designate 20 patrol officers as detectives.26 In November
1857 the New York City Police Department set up a rogues’
gallery (Figure 1-4)—photographs of known offenders
arranged by criminal specialty and height—and by June
1858, it had over 700 photographs for detectives to study
so that they might recognize criminals on the street.27
Photographs from rogues’ galleries of that era reveal
that some offenders grimaced, puffed their cheeks, rolled
their eyes, and otherwise tried to distort their appearance
to lessen the chance of later recognition.
To assist detectives, in 1884 Chicago established this
country’s first municipal Criminal Identification Bureau.28
The Atlanta Police Department’s Detective Bureau was
organized in 1885 with a staff of one captain, one ser-
geant, and eight detectives.29 In 1886 Thomas Byrnes, the
dynamic chief detective of New York City, published Pro-
fessional Criminals in America, which included pictures,
descriptions, and the methods of all criminals known to
him.30 Byrnes thereby contributed to information sharing
among police departments. To supplement the rogues’
gallery, Byrnes instituted the Mulberry Street Morning
Parade. At 9 o’clock every morning, all criminals arrested
in the past 24 hours were marched before his detectives,
who were expected to make notes and to recognize the
criminals later.31
b FIGURE 1-4
NYPD rogues’ gallery
Uniformed officers of the New York
City Police Department maintaining
a rogues’ gallery in the detective
bureau, circa 1896. Police
departments have used rogues’
galleries since the late 1850s.
(Library of Congress)
FEDERAL AND STATE DEVELOPMENTS
From its earliest days, the federal government employed
investigators to detect revenue violations, but their respon-
sibilities were narrow and their numbers few.32 In 1865
Congress created the U.S. Secret Service to combat coun-
terfeiting. In 1903—two years after President McKinley
was assassinated by Leon Czolgosz in Buffalo—the previ-
ously informal arrangement of guarding the president
was made a permanent Secret Service responsibility.33
In 1905 the California Bureau of Criminal Identifica-
tion was set up to share information about criminal activ-
ity, and Pennsylvania governor Samuel Pennypacker
signed legislation creating a state police force. Widely
regarded then by labor as “strikebusters on manage-
ment’s side,” the Pennsylvania State Police nevertheless
was the prototype for modern state police organizations
(Figure 1-5). New York and Michigan in 1917 and Dela-
ware in 1919 adopted the state police concept. Since then,
state police forces have assumed the function of provid-
ing local police with help in investigations.
Although Virginia, Kentucky, and Arkansas have a
State Police, there are none in the deep South. To a large
degree, their use in that area has been foiled by politically
potent sheriffs seeking to maintain autonomy.
Where State Police agencies do not exist, a common
arrangement is to have a department that focuses pri-
marily on traffic enforcement and another for criminal
investigation—for example, in North Carolina there is a
 T H E E V O L U T I O N O F C R I M I N A L I N V E S T I G AT I O N 7

m FIGURE 1-5 The Pennsylvania State Police

Troop D, Pennsylvania State Police, Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, 1906. Note that both plainclothes and uniformed personnel are
represented. (Courtesy Pennsylvania State Police)

State Highway Patrol and the State Bureau of Investigation bery and kidnapping.35 During the Depression, some
(SBI). In such arrangements the crime laboratory may be a people saw John Dillinger, “Pretty Boy” Floyd, and Bonnie
separate department or part of the state investigative agency. and Clyde (Figures 1-6 and 1-7) “as plain folks” and did
Similarly, casino gaming enforcement may be a function not grieve over a bank robbery or the kidnapping of a
of a state police agency or a state gaming commission.
After Prohibition was adopted nationally in 1920, the
Bureau of Internal Revenue was responsible for its
enforcement. Eventually the ranks of the bureau’s agents
swelled to a massive 4,000.34 Because the Bureau of Inter-
nal Revenue was lodged in the Department of the Trea-
sury, these federal agents were referred to as T-men.
In 1908 U.S. Attorney General Charles Bonaparte cre-
ated the embryo of what was later to become the Federal
Bureau of Investigation (FBI) when he ordered that inves-
tigations were to be handled by a special group. In 1924
J. Edgar Hoover (1895–1972) assumed leadership of the
Bureau of Investigation; 11 years later Congress passed a
measure giving the FBI its present designation.
When Prohibition was repealed by the Eighteenth
Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1933, many for-
mer bootleggers and other criminals turned to bank rob-

c FIGURE 1 -6 Bonnie Parker

Texas-born Bonnie Parker (1910–1934) was part of the murderous
Barrow gang, which robbed and murdered its way across
Oklahoma, Missouri, Texas, and New Mexico. In 1930, she
smuggled a gun into the Waco (Texas) County Jail, helping Clyde
Barrow and a companion to escape. From 1932 until 1934, Bonnie
and Clyde left a deadly trail before they were stopped. (Courtesy FBI)
8 C H A P T E R 1 T H E E V O L U T I O N O F C R I M I N A L I N V E S T I G AT I O N A N D F O R E N S I C S C I E N C E
m FIGURE 1-7 Clyde Barrow
Clyde Barrow (1909–1934) was captured after his escape
from the Waco County Jail and served two years in prison.
Upon his release, he and Bonnie began their rampage.
Outside of Black Lake, Louisiana, they were killed by law-
enforcement officers who had pursued them tirelessly.
(Courtesy FBI)
millionaire.36 Given the restricted roles of other federal
investigative agencies, it became the FBI’s role to deal
with these criminals.
Under Hoover, who understood the importance and
uses of information, records, and publicity as well as
Allan Pinkerton had, the FBI became known for investi-
gative efficiency. In 1932, the FBI established a crime
laboratory and made its services available free to state
and local police (Figure 1-8). In 1935 it started the National
Academy, a training course for state and local police. In
1967 the National Crime Information Center (NCIC) was made
operational by the FBI, providing data on wanted persons
and property stolen from all 50 states. Altogether, these
developments gave the FBI considerable influence over
law enforcement throughout the country. Although some
people argue that such federal influence is undesirable,
others point out that Hoover and the FBI strengthened
police practices in this country, from keeping crime sta-
tistics to improving investigation.
The Harrison Act (1914) made the distribution of non-
medical drugs a federal crime. Enforcement responsibil-
ity was initially given to the Internal Revenue Service,
although by 1930 a separate Federal Bureau of Narcotics
(FBN) was established in the Treasury Department. In
1949 a federal commission noted that federal narcotics
enforcement was fragmented among several agencies,
including the Border Patrol and Customs, resulting in
duplication of effort and other ills. In 1968 some consoli-
dation of effort was achieved with the creation of the
Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (BNDD) in the
Department of Justice, and in 1973, with the creation of
its successor, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA).
Today the DEA devotes many of its resources to fight-
ing international drug traffic. Like the FBI, the DEA trains
state and local police in investigative work. The training
focuses on recognition of illegal drugs, control of drug pur-
chases, surveillance methods, and handling of informants.
In 2002 several federal agencies were consolidated to
form Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) in the
Department of Homeland Security (DHS).
THE POLICE AND THE U.S. SUPREME COURT
As the highest court in this country, the Supreme Court
is obligated to review cases and to make decisions that
often have considerable impact. From 1961 to 1966, a
period known as the “due process revolution,” the
b FIGURE 1-8
FBI crime laboratory
In 2003 the FBI occupied its 463,000
square foot state-of-the-art crime
laboratory, which cost $130 million.
(© AP Photo/Charles Dharapak)
 HISTORICAL MILESTONES OF FORENSIC SCIENCE 9

Supreme Court became unusually active in hearing cases uniquely identity, or verify the identity of, an individual
involving the rights of criminal suspects and defendants. through characteristics of the human body. Biometrics is
Its decisions focused on two vital areas: (1) search and superior to eye witness identification because it has a sci-
seizure and (2) the right to legal representation. Among entific foundation.
those cases was Miranda v. Arizona (1966), which estab- Historically, there have been three major scientific sys-
lished the well-known “Miranda rights.” Miranda and tems of biometric-based personal identification of crimi-
other decisions infuriated the police, who felt that the nals in wide use: anthropometry, dactylography, and
Supreme Court had “tied their hands.” deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) typing. The first was rela-
So what did the due process revolution and subse- tively short lived. The second, dactylography, or finger-
quent Supreme Court decisions really change? Question- print identification, remains in use today throughout the
able and improper police procedures and tactics were world. The third, DNA, is a relatively contemporary
greatly reduced. In turn, this created the need to develop development.
new procedures and tactics and to make sure that officers
were well trained in their uses. To no small extent, this Anthropometry
cycle has hastened the continuing professionalization of Anthropometry was developed by Alphonse Bertillon
the police while also asserting the principle that the (1853–1914), who is rightly regarded as the father of crim-
action of police officers anywhere may be subject to close inal identification (Figure 1-9). The first method of criminal
scrutiny by the Supreme Court. identification that was thought to be reliable, anthropometry
“was based on the fact that every human being differs
from every other one in the exact measurements of their
HISTORICAL MILESTONES body, and that the sum of these measurements yields a
OF FORENSIC SCIENCE characteristic formula for each individual.”38 Figure 1-10
depicts a New York City police detective taking one type
of measurement used in the “Bertillon system.”
The origins of criminalistics or forensic science are largely
European. Forensic science draws from diverse disci-
plines, such as geology, physics, chemistry, biology, and
mathematics, to study physical evidence related to crime.
The first major book describing the application of scien-
tific disciplines to criminal investigation was written in
1893 by Hans Gross, a public prosecutor and later a judge
from Graz, Austria.37 Translated into English in 1906 under
the title Criminal Investigation, it remains highly respected
today as the seminal work in the field.
The Frenchman Edmond Locard established the first
forensic laboratory in Lyon in 1910. All crime scenes are
searched on the basis of Locard’s exchange principle,
which asserts that when perpetrators come into contact
with the scene, they will leave something of themselves
and take away something from the scene, for example,
hairs and fibers. Expressed somewhat differently, Locard’s
exchange principle states that there is something to be
found. He is also recognized as the father of poreoscopy,
the study of pores and for advocating that if there were
12 points of agreement between two compared finger-
prints the identity was certain.
Forensic science enjoys periods of stability, but on the
whole it is dynamic and in constant progress. To illustrate
this principle of dynamic change, the histories of two
commonly used services—biometric-based personal iden-
tification and firearms identification—are traced in this
section.
m FIGURE 1-9 Bertillon
BIOMETRIC BASED PERSONAL
Alphonse Bertillon (1853–1914), the father of personal
IDENTIFICATION
identification. In 1882, he began using his system on those
Biometrics is from the Greek meaning life measurement. incarcerated in Paris’s Palais de Justice. (Courtesy Jacques Genthial)
The most important goal of biometric measurements is to
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 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN