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Nutrition Exercise and Behavior An Integrated Approach To Weight Management 3rd Edition Ebook PDF
Nutrition Exercise and Behavior An Integrated Approach To Weight Management 3rd Edition Ebook PDF
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Contents
Preface xvii
C HA PTE R 2
Assessment of Body Weight, Body Composition,
and Associated Comorbidities 23
Why Assess? 24
Anthropometric Assessment: Body Size, Shape, and Composition 24
What Are We Made Of? 24
What Are Common Measures of Body Size? 27
How Should the BMI Be Used in Assessment? 29
vi
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Contents vii
C HA PTE R 3
Eating Disorders 59
Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, and Binge-Eating Disorder 60
What Is “Normal” Eating? 61
Anorexia Nervosa 62
Bulimia Nervosa 63
Binge-Eating Disorder 64
What Other Types of Disordered Eating Are There? 65
Summary 67
Application 3.1 The Freshman 15 68
Comorbidities of Eating Disorders 68
Effects on the Cardiovascular System 69
Effects on the Digestive Tract and Kidneys 70
Effects on the Endocrine System 71
Effects on the Skeletal System 71
Summary 72
Predisposing Factors for Eating Disorders 72
Do People with Eating Disorders Have a Common Psychological Profile? 72
Is There an “Eating Disorder” Personality? 74
Are There Biologic Causes of Eating Disorders? 74
What Family Issues Are Risk Factors? 75
Do Cultural Factors Increase Risk? 76
Are Athletes More Susceptible to Eating Disorders? 77
Can Dieting Cause Eating Disorders? 78
What Is the Connection between Diabetes and Eating Disorders? 79
Summary 79
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viii Contents
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Contents ix
C HA PTE R 5
Regulation of Eating Behavior and Body Weight 125
Homeostasis and Regulation of Weight 126
The Brain: Central Regulator of Weight 127
What Is the Role of the Brain in Regulating Weight? 128
Which Neurotransmitters Are Involved in Regulating Weight? 129
How Else Does the Brain Regulate Energy Balance? 131
Summary 132
The Digestive System: Receptor and Effector in Regulation of Weight 133
How Do the Taste and the Smell of Food Contribute to Weight Regulation? 133
How Is the Digestive System Involved in Regulating Intake? 135
What Is the Function of Insulin in Hunger and Satiety? 136
Summary 137
Application 5.1 The Obese Family, Part 1 137
Storage Fat: An Active Participant in Weight Regulation 138
How Do the Body Fat Stores Develop? 138
What Determines Fat Cell Number and Size? 140
What Are the Other Functions of Adipose Tissue? 141
What Determines Where Body Fat Is Deposited? 145
Summary 147
BAT: Effector of Energy Expenditure 147
How Does Thermogenesis Occur? 147
Is BAT Defective in Obesity? 148
Summary 148
Genetic Factors and Body Composition 148
How Are Traits Inherited? 149
What Genes Might Be Obesity-Promoting? 149
What Other Genetic Factors Might Promote Weight Gain? 151
Application 5.2 The Obese Family, Part 2 152
How Do Heredity and Environment Interact? 153
Summary 155
Conclusion 155
Application 5.3 The Obese Family, Part 3 156
References 156
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x Contents
C HA P TE R 7
Physical Activity, Health, and Weight Management 193
Role of Physical Activity in Weight Management 194
What Are the Fat-Burning Effects of Low-to Moderate-Intensity
Activity? 194
What Are the Fat-Burning Effects of High-Intensity Activity? 195
How Do We Preserve Lean Body Mass? 196
How Does Activity Affect Appetite? 196
Does Exercise Prevent Weight Regain? 197
Summary 197
Developing Activity Programs That Work 198
Which Types of Activity Are Most Effective for Weight Management? 198
How Is the Appropriate Intensity of Exercise Determined? 200
Application 7.1 Exercise Intensity 203
How Much Exercise Is Enough? 204
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Contents xi
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xii Contents
C HA P TE R 9
Dietary Approaches to Weight Management 267
Dietary Assessment 268
What Is a 3-Day Diet Record? 268
Summary 271
Diet Planning: How Much to Eat 271
What Is an Appropriate Caloric Intake for Weight Loss, Gain, or Maintenance? 271
Summary 273
Diet Planning: What to Eat 273
What Is the Role of Fruits and Vegetables in Health and Weight Management? 274
What Is the Role of Starches and Grains in Health and Weight Management? 275
Do Dairy Products Help People Lose Weight? 275
How Does Fat Intake Affect Weight and Health? 276
Summary 277
Diet Planning Guides 278
How Are the Dietary Guidelines for Americans Used for Diet Planning? 278
Application 9.1 Diet Analysis 278
How Is the U.S. Food Exchange System Used for Diet Planning? 278
Summary 281
Dietary Approaches That Address Health Concerns in Overweight/Obesity 281
Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension 282
The Mediterranean Diet 282
Vegetarian Diets 283
High-Carbohydrate Diets 283
The “Diabetic Diet” 285
Low-Fat Diets 286
Summary 287
Dietary Considerations for Children 288
Healthy Diets in Infancy 288
Dietary Considerations for Toddlers and Young Children 289
Promoting Healthy Eating for Older Children 289
Summary 290
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Contents xiii
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xiv Contents
C HA P TE R 11
Lifestyle Modification to Promote Health and Weight Management 333
How People Change 334
Stages of Change Theory 335
Summary 337
Behavioral Strategies for People Thinking about Change 337
What Characterizes the Precontemplation Stage? 337
How Does the Health Belief Model Explain Early Stages of Change? 338
What Are Some Strategies for Precontemplators? 338
Summary 339
Behavioral Strategies for People Ready to Act 340
What Characterizes the Contemplation
and Preparation Stages? 340
How Does the Theory of Planned Behavior Help Explain Readiness for Change? 340
What Are Some Strategies for People Ready to Act? 341
Summary 342
Application 11.1 What Stage of Change Are You In? 342
Behavioral Strategies for People Taking Action 342
What Characterizes the Action Stage? 342
How Does Social-Cognitive Theory Explain Behavior Change? 343
What Are Some Strategies for Action? 343
Summary 349
Application 11.2 Skills for Action 349
Behavioral Strategies for Maintenance and Termination 349
What Characterizes the Maintenance and Termination Stages? 350
What Are Some Strategies for Maintenance? 350
Do People Who Keep Off Lost Weight Have Secrets of Success? 353
Summary 355
Culture and Behavior Change 356
What Is Culture? 356
How Does Culture Influence Weight Management Behaviors and Beliefs? 356
How Can Behaviorally Based Interventions
Become Culturally Relevant? 360
Summary 360
Expected Outcomes from a Lifestyle Modification Approach to Weight
Management 361
Application 11.3 Social Norms for Body Size 362
References 362
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Contents xv
Appe ndix A
Body Composition Assessment Tools 365
Table A-1. Body Mass Index Calculator 366
Table A-2. Metropolitan Desirable Weights for Men and Women, 1959
(according to height and frame, ages 25 and over) 367
Table A-3. Metropolitan Height and Weight Tables for Men
and Women, 1983 368
Table A-4. Determination of Frame Size from Elbow Breadth 369
Table A-5. Prediction Equations from Skinfold Measures 370
Table A-6. Prediction Equations from Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis 372
Table A-7. Prediction Equations from Circumference Measures 373
Table A-8. Body Mass Index-for-Age Percentiles, Ages 2–20 Years: Boys 374
Table A-9. Body Mass Index-for-Age Percentiles, Ages 2–20 Years: Girls 375
Appe ndix B
Nutrition and Physical Activity Assessment Tools 376
Table B-1. Food Record Form 376
Table B-2. Physical Activity Record Form 377
Table B-3. MET Values of Common Activities 380
Appe ndix C
Exchange Lists for Weight Management 382
Exchange Lists 382
Table C-1. Exchange Lists 383
Foods on Each List 383
A Word about Portion Sizes 383
Meal Planning with Exchange Lists 384
Choose Your Foods: Exchange Lists for Weight Management 384
Table C-2A. Starch: Bread 385
Table C-2B. Starch: Cereals and Grains 385
Table C-2C. Starch: Starchy Vegetables 386
Table C-2D. Starch: Crackers and Snacks 387
Table C-2E. Starch: Beans, Peas, and Lentils 388
Table C-3. Fruits 388
Table C-4. Milk 390
Table C-5. Sweets, Desserts, and Other Carbohydrates 391
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xvi Contents
Appe ndix D
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) 404
Estimated Energy Requirements (EER), Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA),
and Adequate Intakes (Al) for Water, Energy, and the Energy Nutrients 405
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) and Adequate Intakes (AI)
for Vitamins 407
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) and Adequate Intakes (AI)
for Minerals 408
Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL) for Vitamins 409
Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL) for Minerals 410
Index 411
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Preface
S
ince the publication of the first edition of this text in 2001, we have learned more
about the incidence, prevalence, and consequences of obesity/overweight and eating
disorders, we have seen updates to Dietary Guidelines and recommended nutrient
intakes, and have been given revised exercise guidelines. Additional physiological factors
affecting weight have been discovered and treatment approaches to weight management
problems have evolved. And yet obesity is still on the rise, in the United States and around
the world.
In the United States today, over two-thirds of the adult population and one-third of
children and adolescents are overweight or obese. Only Mexico has a higher rate of over-
weight and obesity, and rates continue to increase in most industrialized nations and in
many developing countries as well. On May 29, 2014, the journal Lancet reported that
2.1 billion people around the world are overweight or obese; this was widely covered by
the media. Excess fat in particular is responsible for a rise in serious health conditions and
an increase in health care costs by billions of dollars each year. Obese adults—and some
children!—are more likely to have cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and type 2 diabetes.
Obesity is now seen at much earlier ages. While rates are slowing in several nations,
almost 20% of American preschoolers, children, and adolescents are obese. These rates are
poised to have a profoundly negative effect on health and longevity, possibly lowering life
expectancy of younger generations for the first time in decades.
Weight management is a complex topic; far more complicated than popular diet
books, reality television programs, or exercise videos would suggest. This book looks at
weight management holistically, considering the role of physiology, culture, the environ-
ment, and human behavior to explain obesity and eating disorders. It offers in-depth cover-
age of important areas supported by current evidence with tables and figures to synthesize
and summarize key points. An extensive reference list at the end of each chapter allows
students to read original research.
xvii
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xviii Preface
This book is designed for students and professionals in many disciplines who are
confronted—and confounded—by weight-management issues. While many people think
of excess weight as an individual failure—not enough exercise and too much food—
addressing this problem requires more than individual effort. Cultural and environmental
factors so significantly influence people’s individual behaviors that any interventions aimed
at lowering rates of obesity and preventing overweight must take into consideration the
individual, family, community, and broader environment. Rising rates of overweight and
obesity around the world show the importance of a multifaceted approach.
Ancillaries
Instructor’s Companion Site
Everything you need for your course in one place! This collection of book-specific lecture
and class tools is available online via www.cengage.com/login. Access and download
PowerPoint presentations, an instructor’s manual, and test questions.
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Preface xix
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank reviewers of this and prior editions for providing detailed comments,
which were extremely helpful in revising this text. Many thanks to Susan Berkow (George
Mason University), Jeffery Betts (Central Michigan University), Jeffery Harris (West Chester
University), Cindy Marshall (Saddleback Community College), Kathy Munoz (Humboldt
State University), Susan Perry (Appalachian State University), Laura McArthur
(Western Illinois University), Beverly Moellering (University of Saint Francis), Jessica
Coppola (Sacramento City College), Bonnie Jobe (Henry Ford Community College), Lisa
Herzig (California State University, Fresno), Beverly Moellering (University of Saint Francis),
Kelly Eichmann (Fresno City College), Kay Stearns Bruening (Syracuse University), and Jill
Ascher Mohr (Heartland Community College) for their thorough reviews and insights. And
a very special thanks to Content Developer Casey Lozier, who not only kept us on track but
whose ideas and insights greatly enhanced the third edition.
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CHAPTER
Overweight, Underweight,
and Obesity
1
Chapter Outline
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2 PART I An Introduction to Weight Management
O
ver two-thirds of American adults and one-third of American children are over-
weight. Of those, about 17% of children and 35% of adults are at a high enough level
of fatness to be considered obese. This is a matter of concern from a public health
standpoint because excess weight may be associated with chronic disease. The cost of health
problems associated with excess weight is perhaps as much as $147 billion annually.1 This
is also a concern from an individual’s standpoint. Most people do not want to be overweight
for a variety of reasons—feeling better, looking better, fitting into clothes. Bookstores stock
hundreds of “diet” books, and these books as well as special foods, weight-loss programs,
and over-the-counter diet aids generate an estimated $35–50 billion in sales each year.
Our national preoccupation with weight has not only kept the weight-loss industry
alive, but it has also contributed to a rise in disordered eating and other behaviors. In the
quest for thinness, millions of individuals engage in severe caloric restriction, excessive
exercise, and abuse of laxatives and other drugs. Underweight has increasingly been rec-
ognized as a factor associated with early death. And concern about weight and adoption
of extreme dieting and exercise behaviors lead to clinical eating disorders in 1–4% of the
adult and adolescent population.
Losing weight is difficult. People who enter weight-loss programs can usually lose about
10% of their body weight; however, keeping off lost weight is even harder, and an unaccept-
ably high proportion of those who lose weight regain it within 3–5 years. The psychological
and physiological tolls of this repeated cycle of “failure” can be considerable.
We now know that far more than gluttony and poor choices contribute to excess weight.
Physiological, social, cultural, and environmental factors are contributors to the develop-
ment and continuation of overweight and obesity. Social, familial, and cultural pressures
also share responsibility with physiological factors for eating disorders and underweight.
© Fotoluminate LLC/Shutterstock.com
Two-thirds of American adults and one-third of American children are at an unhealthy weight.
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CHAPTER 1 Overweight, Underweight, and Obesity 3
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4 PART I An Introduction to Weight Management
Obesity can also be determined by measuring body fat. Desirable body fat ranges have
more consensus than the ranges that constitute obesity. Men are considered to be in healthy
fat ranges when between 10% and 20% of their body weight is composed of fat; for women,
the range is 17–25%. Men are said to be obese when 25% or more of their body weight is
in the form of fat; women are considered obese at 32% fat or higher. In nonclinical settings,
percent fat is usually determined by using skinfold measurements or bioelectrical imped-
ance analysis. These techniques require a great deal more skill than measuring weight and
are discussed at length in Chapter 2.
Defining obesity based on BMI is more difficult with children and adolescents because
they have not yet reached their maximum height and their body composition is changing.
When skinfold measurements are used, a fat percentage of 20% in boys and 25% in girls is
considered moderately high. When BMI is used, gender- and age-specific charts must be con-
sulted (these charts may be found in Appendix A). For ages 2–19 years, a BMI at or above the
85th percentile designates overweight and a BMI at or above the 95th percentile defines obesity.
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CHAPTER 1 Overweight, Underweight, and Obesity 5
© Wallenrock/Shutterstock.com
Although 120% IBW in women and 124% IBW in men (based on the 1983 Metropoli-
tan Height and Weight Tables) are sometimes used as indicators of obesity, body weight
alone is not a reliable measure. Total body weight consists of fat, bone, water, muscle,
organs, and other tissues. Overweight individuals may have an excess of any or all of these
components. Many overweight people have excessive body fat, but some, especially those at
lower levels of overweight, may not. Bodybuilders, for example, carry a lot of muscle weight
and may weigh more than their IBW, but most are not overfat (obese) or even unhealthy.
As people gain progressively more weight, it is increasingly likely that the excess weight
is fat, not muscle. Individuals who weigh twice their IBW or who are more than 100 pounds
over IBW are most certainly obese. So, you would be safe in saying that not everyone who
is overweight is obese, but probably everyone who is obese is overweight.
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6 PART I An Introduction to Weight Management
a relatively short time. Based on the findings from NHANES III, one-third (33.3%) of the
adult population of the United States was estimated to be overweight—31% of men and
35% of women. Results from NHANES (2003–2006) indicated that, while rates of over-
weight (BMI 25–29.9 kg/m 2) held to about one-third of the population, rates of obesity
(BMI $ 30 kg /m 2 ) continued to increase. NHANES data from 2007 to 2008 showed some
leveling-off of obesity rates for women and small increases for men.4
The newest data for 2011–2012 found increased rates of obesity, although slowing; in
some groups, overweight prevalence has decreased.5
Table 1-3 provides current estimates of adult overweight and obesity in the United
States. Today, over two-thirds of the adult population (72% of men and 64% of women)
is overweight or obese (having a BMI at or above 25), and 34% has a BMI $ 30 (32% of
men and 35.5% of women). Racial-ethnic minorities, particularly women, have higher rates
of obesity than whites. Over half of African American women are obese, and over 40% of
Hispanic men and women are obese. (Note: NHANES, from which these data were derived,
was designed to study only people of Mexican origin and not all Hispanic groups in the
Overweight
(BMI $ 25–29.9 kg/m2) Obese (BMI $ 30 kg/m2)
(percentage of population) (percentage of population)
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CHAPTER 1 Overweight, Underweight, and Obesity 7
United States. There has only been a category for all Hispanics since 2007–2008.) Asian
Americans, included in the data for the first time in 2010, are the one minority group that
has much lower rates of overweight and obesity than other groups in the U.S. population.
The prevalence of overweight and obesity among children and adolescents has increased
significantly as well, although it appears to be slowing among many population groups.
Approximately 8% of 2–5 year olds, 18% of 6- to 11-year-olds, and 20% of 12- to 19-year-olds
are at or above the 95th BMI percentile and considered obese.5 Tables 1-4 and 1-5 present
obesity prevalence data for children and adolescents.
Contrast these figures with the prevalence of underweight. Just under 2% of the adult
U.S. population is underweight (BMI , 18.5 kg /m 2 ). Most of these individuals (3%) are 20- to
39-year-olds; 1% are 40 and older.6 Among children and adolescents, about 3% are under-
weight (below the 5th age- and gender-specific BMI percentile)—3% of 2- to 11-year-olds
and 4% of those over age 11.7 As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, 1–4% of the
population has an eating disorder, and underweight may be an indicator of anorexia nervosa,
a very serious eating disorder discussed in Chapter 3.
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8 PART I An Introduction to Weight Management
WHO’s International Obesity Task Force maintains the Global Database on Body Mass
Index (available at apps.who.int/bmi/). Table 1-6 is derived from this database and includes
a sampling of nations and shows that, while the United States leads the way in prevalence
of adult obesity and overweight, other countries are catching up. The rate of overweight
in several countries—the United Kingdom, Canada, Poland, Hungary, Chile, Saudi Arabia,
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CHAPTER 1 Overweight, Underweight, and Obesity 9
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10 PART I An Introduction to Weight Management
• Less likely, the stabilization of childhood obesity may have resulted as a selection
bias. In other words, as the stigma attached to obesity has increased, parents of obese
children may have declined participation in studies of health and wellness so are not
being counted.8
Summary
In the United States, about two-thirds of the adult population is overweight or obese. While
the prevalence of overweight has remained about the same for the past 30 years, obesity
rates have more than doubled in that time period, with some racial and ethnic groups
disproportionately affected. Globally, rates of overweight and obesity are increasing at a
similar rate in higher-income nations, and lower-income nations are also seeing weight gain
in their populations.
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CHAPTER 1 Overweight, Underweight, and Obesity 11
ACTIVITY DIET
• Food and agriculture policies
• School policies (PE, recess)
Societal • Food marketing/media
• Media access (inactivity)
environment • Health care
• Health care
• Economics (pricing)
Physical
environment • School or worksite food
• Neighborhood safety
environment
• Sidewalks • Restaurants, fast food
• Recreation facilities Social • Grocery stores
environment
Individual
factors
• Knowledge
• Attitudes
• Skills
• Genetics/biological factors
• Race/ethnicity
• Socioeconomic status
Figure 1-1 The Role of Diet and Activity in Promoting Obesity: A Social-Ecological Perspective.
Source: © 2016 Cengage Learning®.
social
Social, physical, and societal factors are known as social determinants of health,
determinants defined by the WHO as “the conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work, and
of health Factors age, including the health system” (www.who.int/social_determinants/en/). Social determinants
within families, of health—standard of living, education, employment, the built and natural environments
communities, and in which we live, social relationships, freedom from discrimination, and access to health
the environment care—are factors that lead to health disparities and contribute to higher rates of overweight
that affect health, and obesity among racial and ethnic minorities.
including income,
education, employ-
ment relationships What Is the Role of Diet?
with others, and
Today, food is abundant for most residents of higher-income countries. For the average
access to health
care.
American, this has translated into consumption of about 200 kilocalories (kcal) more
each day than in 1980. The reason caloric consumption has increased is no mystery.
kilocalories
(kcal) Measure
of the energy value
Cultural and Familial Factors
of food or physical • Attitudes about exercise, food preparation methods, and preferred foods are all respon-
activity. sive to cultural influences. In addition, parents who were raised in poverty may model
the same dietary behaviors that they were exposed to as children.
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
12 PART I An Introduction to Weight Management
• Some cultures and some families have a greater acceptance of—and even a preference
for—heavier body weight. A larger child may mean “healthier” in these families; a larger
parent may be seen as “stronger.”
• The number of single-parent families and women working outside the home has
increased, so there may be less time for meal preparation and greater reliance on con-
venience foods.
Socioeconomic Factors
Educational attainment, income, and occupation combine to determine socioeconomic
status. In industrialized societies, obesity is more prevalent among people at low socioeco-
nomic levels, regardless of race or ethnicity. In the United States, poverty rates are higher
for African Americans and Hispanics than for whites, which is linked to obesity for several
reasons:
• Many socioeconomically disadvantaged communities are said to exist in food deserts,
food deserts
Areas, often in
areas with limited access to lower-fat foods, including fresh fruits and vegetables, whole
low-income grains, low-fat milk, and fresh fish. A study in Chicago found that residents of predomi-
communities and nantly African American neighborhoods had to go twice as far to access a supermarket
neighborhoods, as a fast-food restaurant.9
where there is • Prices may be higher in these urban markets, and poor access to transportation creates
limited access to an additional barrier to finding healthy, affordable food.10
healthy foods. • When people must rely on government-surplus foods and donated foods from com-
munity agencies, they do not necessarily receive low-fat or reduced-calorie items.
• Lack of equipment and instruction may result in less use of healthy food preparation
techniques, such as steaming and microwaving.
• Less access to health care prevents regular contact with health professionals who could
advise families on healthy eating.
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.