ARTICLES

PUBLISHED ONLINE: 27 MARCH 2011 | DOI: 10.1038/NNANO.2011.36

A stretchable carbon nanotube strain sensor for

human-motion detection
Takeo Yamada1, Yuhei Hayamizu1, Yuki Yamamoto1, Yoshiki Yomogida1, Ali Izadi-Najafabadi1,
Don N. Futaba1 and Kenji Hata1,2 *

Devices made from stretchable electronic materials could be incorporated into clothing or attached directly to the body.
Such materials have typically been prepared by engineering conventional rigid materials such as silicon, rather than by
developing new materials. Here, we report a class of wearable and stretchable devices fabricated from thin films of aligned
single-walled carbon nanotubes. When stretched, the nanotube films fracture into gaps and islands, and bundles bridging
the gaps. This mechanism allows the films to act as strain sensors capable of measuring strains up to 280% (50 times
more than conventional metal strain gauges), with high durability, fast response and low creep. We assembled the carbon-
nanotube sensors on stockings, bandages and gloves to fabricate devices that can detect different types of human motion,
including movement, typing, breathing and speech.

C
onventional electronic devices, fabricated on rigid but brittle
semiconductor wafers, have evolved through a drive towards
miniaturization with a view to realizing faster, smaller and
more integrated devices. An alternative approach to future electronics
is to integrate the attributes of flexibility and stretchability to realize
soft1–9 and human-friendly devices8–10. Stretchability—the ability to
conform to and cover movable and arbitrarily shaped objects—
could be exploited in the development of wearable devices8–10 that
can be embedded into clothes and garments or even attached directly
to the skin. Possible applications of this include the detection of
human motion, monitoring personal health and therapeutics.
Owing to the difficulties in developing stretchable electric
materials, the current mainstream strategy in attempting to
achieve stretchability is not to develop new materials, but instead
is to engineer new structural constructs from established materials1.
For example, ultrathin silicon structures formed into buckled geo-
metries offer stretchability, and the strain applied to the device is
absorbed by deformation of the silicon structures1. Consequently,
the functional materials are exposed to a minimal amount of
harmful strain. Various stretchable devices have been created
using this approach, including conductors, transistors, diodes,
photodetectors and integrated systems containing conventional
rigid materials2,3, with the advanced functions and properties
characteristic of modern semiconductor technology.
A different approach is to assemble a device from stretchable
materials. Examples of stretchable materials include polymer com-
posites with conductive fillers8,11 and extremely thin metal films
on stretchable polymer substrates12. In such stretchable devices,
the functional materials themselves are directly exposed to strain
and therefore stretched. This feature offers a unique opportunity
to measure the strain-dependent change in device performance to
monitor motion, for example of the human body.
Here, we introduce a new type of stretchable electric nanomater-
ial consisting of aligned single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT)
thin films13–15 that deform when stretched in a manner similar to
the structural deformation of a string cheese when peeled. In this
way we realized a novel strain sensor that can measure and with-
stand strain up to 280%, with high durability (10,000 cycles at
150% strain), fast response (delay time, 14 ms) and low creep
(3.0% at 100% strain). These important features allow the material
to be used to precisely monitor large-scale and rapid human
motion, as was demonstrated by embedding various strain sensors
into clothing worn over the skin then using it to detect movement,
typing, breathing and phonation (speech).
Carbon nanotube film strain sensor
Figure 1a schematically illustrates the key processes in fabricating
and operating a SWCNT film strain sensor. Vertically aligned and
very sparse (3–4% occupancy) SWCNT thin films (height, 1 mm;
thickness, 6 mm; length, 16 mm) were first grown from patterned
catalysts using water-assisted chemical vapour deposition13. To
make long films of arbitrary length, films were individually
removed and laid side by side, with a 1 mm overlap, onto a flat elas-
tomeric dog-bone-shaped substrate (poly(dimethylsiloxane),
PDMS; thickness, 1 mm), with the alignment of the SWCNTs
arranged perpendicular to the strain axis (Fig. 1b). For each iter-
ation, the film was wet with a droplet of isopropyl alcohol, which
flattened the film (thickness, 400 nm) to the substrate in a
manner similar to deflating an air mattress; this allowed the
SWCNTs to be packed into a highly densely packed solid form
(density, 0.46 g cm23; occupancy, 42%; SWCNT spacing,
4.1 nm)14,15. This process resulted in the development of a strong
van der Waals contact with the substrate, achieved without any
additional mechanical pressure. The adhesion strength was
measured as 12 N cm22 and was sufficient to bear large strain.
Representative resistivity–strain data recorded for the device in
Fig. 1b showed a monotonic increase up to 280% strain (strain
speed, 1 mm min21) (Fig. 1c), at which point the PDMS substrate
ruptured. This monotonic increase in resistivity with strain demon-
strates the potential use of this device as a gauge to measure strains
much higher than the 5% limit of conventional metal strain gauges
(Fig. 1c). Strain gauges register resistance changes when stretched,
and are used to measure acceleration, pressure, tension and strain.
The most commonly used strain gauge consists of a non-stretchable
metal foil, which, on stretching, deforms to become narrower and
longer, resulting in an increase in resistance16. The use of a

1
Nanotube Research Center, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, 305-8565, Japan, 2 Japan Science and
Technology Agency (JST), Kawaguchi, 332-0012, Japan. * e-mail: kenji-hata@aist.go.jp

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NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY DOI: 10.1038/NNANO.2011.36 ARTICLES
a

Strain sensor
SWCNT films
SWCNT films and in IPA
stretchable substrate

Sensor under strain

b SWCNT films

f 40
100
35

in resistance (%)
Relative change
Aligned direction 40 80

Strain (%)
112
30 38.4
104 60
36.8
Sensor under strain 25 96
35.2 40
c 500 20 33.6 88
10 20
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5
15 0
400 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5
in resistance (%)
Relative change

Time (s)
300 g 6
0 11
0 4 8
5
in resistance (%)
200
Relative change

Strain (%)
10
Aligned SWCNTs 4
100 Random SWCNTs 9
Metal strain gauge 3
0 8
0 100 200 300 2
Strain (%) 7
0 1 2 3 4 5
d 60 Time (s)
80
50 h 6
75 11
in resistance (%)

Resistance (k )
Relative change

in resistance (%)

40 5
Relative change

70
10

Strain (%)
30 4
65
30 9
20 3
60
8
10
20 55 2
0 10 20 7
0
0 50 100 150 200 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.0
Strain (%) Time (s)

e 40 i 20
90
35
Sensor 3
in resistance (%)

30 15
in resistance (%)
Relative change

Resistance (k )
Relative change

25 PDMS 85
20 Sensor 2 10 packaging
15 10th SWCNTs
10 Sensor 1 100th 5 80
1,000th PDMS
5 10,000th Electrode
0 0
50 100 150 200 0 40 80 120 160
Strain (%) Strain (%)

Figure 1 | SWCNT-film strain sensor. a, Key steps in fabricating the SWCNT strain sensor. b, Photograph of the SWCNT-film strain sensor under strain.
c, Relative change in resistance versus strain for the strain sensor (aligned SWCNTs, red), randomly oriented SWCNTs (blue) and conventional metal thin
film (black). Inset: close-up of the low-strain region. d, Relative change in resistance for the initial loading (red) and unloading (blue) cycle. Inset: enlarged
unloading plot. e, Relative change in resistance versus strain for multiple-cycle tests: 10 (red), 100 (blue), 1,000 (green) and 10,000 (black) cycles at
5–100% (sensor 1), 5–150% (sensor 2) and 5–200% (sensor 3) strain. The baselines of sensors 2 and 3 are raised by 5 and 10%, respectively. f, Relative
change in resistance (blue) in response to a 5–100% step function of mechanical strain. Inset: close-up of the overshoot. g, Relative change in resistance
(blue) during 2.5 Hz frequency cycling between 2.0 and 5.4% strain (red). h, Close-up of the final cycle of g. i, Initial loading (red) and unloading (blue)
of relative change in resistance versus strain for the packaged sensor. Inset: image of the packaged sensor structure.

non-stretchable metal foil limits device performance, highlighting (strain speed, 6 mm s21) differed in the loading and unloading
that the high deformability of SWCNT films results from its fibre phases (Fig. 1d). The unloading behaviour (Fig. 1d, blue line) was
structure, as discussed later. The resistivity behaviour observed characterized by two linear regions (strain of 0 to 40% and 60
during the first loading–unloading cycle and subsequent cycles to 200%) with different slopes. The slope reflects the gauge factor

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ARTICLES NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY DOI: 10.1038/NNANO.2011.36

a b c d e
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Island Gap

Initial strain

f g

Buckling

is
ax
a in
Str

Island Gap Gap

Island
Buckling

h i j
Suspended SWCNT bundle 8 Island width
Gap width
Distance ( m)

4
k
2

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Gap
Strain (%)

Figure 2 | Fracturing mechanism of film. a–e, Images of the SWCNT film on initial loading. Scale bar, 100 mm. f, SEM image of the fractural structure of the
SWCNT film at 100% strain. Scale bar, 5 mm. Inset: three-dimensional image at 100% strain. g, Low-resolution SEM image of homogeneous fracturing of the
SWCNT film. Scale bar, 50 mm. h, SEM image of the suspended bundles. Scale bar, 1 mm. i, Average island width (blue) and gap (red) versus strain for initial
loading. Error bars indicate standard deviation. j,k, Paper model of the unstrained and strained states, respectively.

(the sensitivity of the SWCNT film to strain), which is defined as
(dR/R)/(dL/L), where R is resistance and L is length. The gauge
factors were calculated to be 0.82 (0 to 40% strain) and 0.06
(60 to 200%); in comparison, conventional metal gauges have a
factor of 2.0 (5% maximum strain)16 and polymer composites
(thermal plastic elastomer) with 50 wt% carbon black a factor of
20 (80% maximum strain)8. Our carbon-nanotube strain sensor
exhibited excellent durability and stability, even at high strain levels
(100, 150 and 200% at a strain speed of 6 mm s21). At 100 and
150% strain, the strain sensor electrical response remained nearly
unchanged after 10,000 cycles (Fig. 1e). At 200% strain, the sensor
was stable for 3,300 cycles, until the substrate ruptured, showing
that the performance was limited by the substrate.
Additional important advantages of the carbon-nanotube strain
sensor include its low creep and fast response. The sensor was
cycled between 5 and 100% strain at a speed of 10.6 mm s21 and
with a recovery time of 5 s (Fig. 1f, red line). The response of the
carbon-nanotube strain sensor to this strain (Fig. 1f, blue line) was
fast, with a low overshoot of 3.0% and recovery time of 5 s. This
is markedly different from the 8.8% overshoot and more than
100 s recovery time observed for polymer composites with conduc-
tive fillers, even with a three times lower strain speed8. To evaluate the
delay time, the nanotube strain sensor was subjected to a sinusoidal
strain. The electrical delay was evaluated to be 14 ms (Fig. 1g,h;
Supplementary Fig. S1). To the best of our knowledge, this is the
only reported delay time on the order of milliseconds in this kind
of large strain gauge to date.
Several tests were performed to clarify the selectivity of the strain
sensor to other types of deformations, such as twist and
compression. The strain sensor (length, 5 mm) was first twisted
while measuring resistivity (Supplementary Fig. S2). The relative
change in resistance at 908 twist was 0.5%, corresponding to strain
of 2%. The strain sensor was then subjected to normal mechanical
strain across the sensor face using a 1-cm-radius pressure head and a
static mechanical analyser to load compressive stress while measur-
ing the resistivity (Supplementary Fig. S2). The relative change in
resistance at 30% compression was 1%, corresponding to 3%
strain. These results demonstrate that the strain sensor has a high
selectivity against other types of deformation.
Further tests were carried out to investigate environmental effects
such as temperature and humidity. First, by its nature, the strain
sensor is sensitive to temperature, because the expansion/shrinkage
of the substrate caused by variation in temperature will be detected
as a strain by the sensor. When the temperature was raised from
room temperature to 50 8C, the relative change in resistance was
6%. This effect was observed as a slow drift in resistivity that can
be corrected practically using a.c. measurements or, more precisely,
compensated directly using a temperature monitor. Second, any
environmental effect that influences the conductivity of carbon
nanotubes would also influence the strain sensor. For example,
exposure to gases is well known to dope carbon nanotubes and
change their conductivity. When the strain sensor was exposed to
an exhaled breath (Supplementary Fig. S3), the resistivity changed
by 0.6%, correspondsing to 2% strain.
Packaging is therefore important in reducing the sensitivity of the
strain sensor to environmental effects and to prevent damage from
abrasion. To address this, the strain sensor was sealed with a PDMS
coating. Importantly, when sealed, the behaviour of the strain sensor

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NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY DOI: 10.1038/NNANO.2011.36
a c
100% b 50%
Gap
Strain unloading
f 6
5
Distance ( m)
4
3
1 R2
Island width
Gap width
0
0 20 40 60 80
Strain (%)
Figure 3 | Properties of SWCNT film. a–e, Film surface morphology during the unloading–loading cycle. Scale bar, 100 mm. f, Average island width (blue) and
gap (red) versus strain for cycling following the conditioning step. Error bars indicate standard deviation. g, Model of the basic circuit of the film.
(Fig. 1i) was similar to that of the unsealed sensor, with only a slight
decrease in the gauge factor (0.05). Moreover, the sealed strain
sensor showed improved linearity, with a linear increase in resis-
tivity observed up to 150% strain.
There have been several reports of the individual strengths and
advantages of other stretchable materials, but no material has
achieved this level of stretchability and durability, as well as a fast
response and low creep. For example, a polymer composite
(thermal plastic elastomer) with conductive material (carbon
black, 50 wt%) has been assembled into textiles to measure large
strains (80%)8. This composite material has a large interfacial area
and therefore friction, leading to long delays (recovery time above
100 s, versus 5 s for the present arrangement) and creep (8.8%
versus 3.0%). Thin metal films on flexible and stretchable polymer
substrates rupture into connected islands, and have been used as
strain sensors up to 60% strain12. However, their delay time was
over 40 s at 0.5% strain12. Several reports have used composites of
carbon nanotubes and polymers as strain sensors, and the results
are summarized in Supplementary Table 1. Although some of
those sensors had a large gauge factor (15), they only tolerated a
small maximum strain (1%). A multiwalled carbon-nanotube
forest was infiltrated with polyurethane (PU) to make a conducting
polymer composite that was more stretchable (1,000%) than PU
alone17. However, the large drift in resistance over repeated
loading–unloading cycles and probable large delay time owing to
the large interfacial area of the carbon nanotubes and polymer
would hinder its use as a strain sensor17. No reported sensors
have shown a performance level comparable to the sensor reported
here in terms of maximum strain, durability, creep and delay time.
The nanotube strain sensor can be regarded as a cross between
thin-film-based strain sensors and composite strain sensors, where
the conducting filler material is not infiltrated, but is instead
coated onto the surface of the polymer, thereby combining the
strengths of both systems. This configuration provides a minimum
interfacial area between the nanotubes and the polymer, thereby
minimizing the friction18 that causes delay, creep and durability.
In fact, our preliminary analysis showed that delay and creep were
dominated by the substrate properties (Supplementary Fig. S4),
suggesting that the nanotube strain sensor could be further
improved. In contrast to traditional stretchable conducting
materials, these results demonstrate that the nanotube strain
sensor has the potential to precisely monitor rapid and large-scale
human motion.
NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY | VOL 6 | MAY 2011 | www.nature.com/naturenanotechnology
ARTICLES
e
0% d 50% 100%
Island
Strain loading
g
R1 R2
RC
R1
100
Fracturing mechanism of carbon nanotube film
To understand the underlying mechanism of the film stretchability,
we examined the structural change in the SWCNT film under differ-
ent levels of strain (Fig. 2a–e; Supplementary Movie 1). On initial
stretching, irreversible fracturing throughout the film created gaps
and islands; with further strain, their numbers and also the gap
widths increased (Fig. 2f–i), explaining the observed linear increase
in resistivity (Fig. 1d). Uniformity of the SWCNT film was vital for
homogeneous fracturing throughout the film (Fig. 2g). In addition,
the film showed buckling parallel to the strain axis, because it fol-
lowed the same positive Poisson’s ratio as the substrate; that is,
the substrate width narrowed as strain was applied (Fig. 2f ).
Importantly, suspended SWCNT bundles bridging the gaps
(Fig. 2h; with an appearance similar to peeled string cheese) were
created, preventing film rupturing. This highlights the importance
of the alignment of the SWCNTs in allowing exceptional strain tol-
erance compared with randomly oriented vacuum filtrated SWCNT
buckypaper (5% failure strain). Lateral interconnections between the
SWCNTs were essential to create the suspended bundles, and milli-
metre-scale SWCNTs produced durable and elongated bundles
spanning wide gaps. The islands, in contrast, acted as anchors to
prevent film detachment. As demonstrated using a stretchable
paper model (Fig. 2j,k), the mechanism of stretchability is analogous
to the structural deformation of the open-mesh geometries used to
wrap three-dimensional objects, such as eggs4. When the paper film
was stretched, open holes deformed to allow stretching (Fig. 2k),
while the strips acted as bending units. This process was downsized
by a factor of 2,000 for the SWCNT film, with suspended bundles
acting as the bending units.
Repeated loading–unloading cycle properties
The structural deformation (Fig. 3a–c) observed during the first
unloading phase and subsequent loading–unloading cycles differed
significantly. During the subsequent phases (Fig. 3c–e), new gaps
and islands were neither created nor annihilated, as demonstrated
by the unvarying widths of the islands with strain (Fig. 3f ).
Instead, all of the strain was absorbed by a reversible opening and
closing of the gaps (Fig. 3a–e; Supplementary Fig. S5, Movie 1).
The reversible fracturing of the SWCNT film not only explained
the extreme level of stretchability, but was also key to the exceptional
durability, as demonstrated by the 10,000 cycle durability test
(Fig. 1e), which showed little degradation. The resistance of the
film increased monotonically (Fig. 1e) but not linearly with strain,
299
ARTICLES
resistance (%)
b 2
change in
Strain sensor
Relative
Bandage
c
resistance (%)
change in
Relative
e f
in resistance (%)
Relative change
5%
Extending Flexing Marching Squatting Jumping
2s Time (s)
Figure 4 | Stretchable wearable devices. a,d,f, Photographs of a bandage strain sensor (a), a strain sensor fixed to a stocking (d) and a data glove (f). Inset
to a: Photograph of the sensor adhered to the throat. Inset to d: close-up of the device. b,c,e,g, Relative changes in resistance versus time for breathing,
phonation (speech), knee motion and data glove configurations, respectively.
and was characterized by two consecutive regions with different
gauge factors. To understand this resistivity behaviour, we devel-
oped a simple model to describe the resistance of the fractured
film (Fig. 3g):
R1 Rc + 2R1 R2 + R2 Rc
R=
R1 + 2Rc + R2
where R1 , R2 and Rc are the resistances of the island, gap and sus-
pended bundle, respectively. Physically, suspended bundles are ana-
logous to wires, and Rc (bridge elongation) should increase linearly
with strain. Therefore, at large strain, when R2 ≫ R1 and Rc ,
equation (1) becomes R ¼ 2R1 þ Rc . R1 , and Rc can be determined
by fitting to experimental data (Supplementary Fig. S6) (R1 ¼
37.6 kV; Rc ¼ 28.0 × strain (%) V). Thus, by knowing R1 and
Rc , the value of R2 is shown to increase exponentially with
strain (Supplementary Fig. S6) (R2 ¼ 147.9 × exp(0.0515 × strain
(%)) kV). The good agreement between model and experiment
(Supplementary Fig. S6) allows us to gauge the resistance to absolute
strain. From these results, we interpret the double gauge factor be-
haviour of the resistance of the strain sensor as deriving from a
shift in the dominant contributions from gap opening (R2) under
low strain, to bridge elongation (Rc) under high strain.
Application in human motion detection
To demonstrate the potential of the SWCNT films in wearable
devices8–10, we fabricated a stretchable human motion detector by
connecting stretchable electrodes to the films and assembling
them on bandages and clothing. To avoid mechanical failure at the
junction between the stretchable SWCNT film and rigid electrodes,
we used SWCNT conductive rubber paste5,6 to fabricate the
stretchable electrodes and a PDMS rubber glue (SH-780) to assem-
ble the components onto the target material (bandage, clothing, and
so on). The SWCNT conductive paste was fabricated by dispersing
highly elastic fluorinated copolymer rubber into a SWCNT gel. This
gel was composed of millimetre-long SWCNTs and an ionic liquid
mixed by a high-pressure jet-milling homogenizer. This SWCNT
rubber paste was painted on the ends of the SWCNT film and
dried to form an elastic conductor. Finally, the PDMS glue was
used to cover the electrodes, both for reinforcement and to fix the
device onto a commercial adhesive bandage.
300
NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY DOI: 10.1038/NNANO.2011.36
d SWCNT rubber PDMS glue
SWCNTs
0 Support
electrode PDMS
−2 Strain sensor
0 20 40 60
Time (s)
0
Stocking
−2
0 40 80 120
Time (s)
Strain sensor g
Relative change in resistance (%)
Little
Ring
Middle
Jumping Index
Glove
from Thumb
squatting
100%
0 20
Time (s)
Adhesive bandages are used daily to protect small wounds and
adhere securely to the body and conform to every contortion of
the skin. As a result of the stretchable device architecture, the
skin, bandage and SWCNT film device behave as a single cohesive
stretchable object, so deformation of the skin can be monitored
directly and precisely using the SWCNT film (Fig. 4a). When
(1)
fixed to the chest, respiration could be monitored by the upward
and downward slopes of the relative resistance associated with inha-
lation and exhalation (chest expansion and contraction) (Fig. 4b). In
contrast, when attached to the throat (Fig. 4a, inset), the device
monitored phonation (speech) by detecting motion of the laryngeal
prominence (the Adam’s apple) (Fig. 4c). Such devices might be
useful in a breathing monitor for the early detection of sudden
infant death syndrome (SIDS) in sleeping infants, alerting parents
to any potential problems19.
In the basic act of walking, the skin on the feet, waist and joints
repeatedly stretches and contracts by as much as 55%
(Supplementary Fig. S7), which already exceeds the limits (5%)
for conventional strain sensors. To detect large-scale human
motion, we seamlessly connected small films to fabricate a large
SWCNT strain sensor with extended sensing area. Eight films
were connected together to form a 10 cm × 1 mm SWCNT film
assembled on a commercial stocking (Fig. 4d) over the knee joint.
The large SWCNT film was necessary to detect and distinguish
every movement of the knee. As the knee joint moves in one direc-
tion (as well as swivelling on its axis), the knee constantly rolls and
glides during movement, so the deformation site of the skin is con-
stantly varying. Although it was made from just one sensor, the
device could easily detect, and also discriminate, various human
motions related to the extension and flexion of the knee, including
bending, marching, squatting and jumping, and combinations of
these (Fig. 4e; Supplementary Movie 2). For example, the complex
motion of explosive jumping using a squatting motion could be
clearly determined from the initial knee flexing (upward slope),
quick knee extension (downward slope), slight flexure from the
landing (second upward slope) and recovery (final downward
slope). One advantage of using clothing-integrated devices is the
option for repeatable and sharable use of the sensor. In addition,
this device does not restrict motion, in contrast to conventional
rotary encoders, and would therefore be beneficial for human-
friendly rehabilitation20.
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NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY DOI: 10.1038/NNANO.2011.36
Integration of the SWCNT strain devices creates a system with
which to examine the configuration of the human body, as demon-
strated by a data glove made from five independent SWCNT strain
sensors assembled on a single glove (Fig. 4f ). A data glove is an
interactive device, resembling a glove normally worn on the hand,
which facilitates fine-motion control in robotics and virtual
reality. Our data glove could detect the motion of each finger indi-
vidually and precisely (Fig. 4g; Supplementary Movie 3), and the
output of each gauge could be measured to assess the hand configur-
ation. Conventional data glove systems use optical fibres or metal
strain gauges (cyber glove) as sensing elements21. Our data glove
is lighter, simpler, allows integration of more sensors than the
complex optical fibre system, and does not limit any range of
motion of the hand, as does the metal-strain-gauge system. This
device might be used as a master-hand to control a remote slave
robot to remotely perform surgical procedures (telesurgery)22 or
to increase demining safety and speed23.
Conclusions
Although the functions of the devices presented here were simple
compared to the wearable systems made from commercial
devices24, we have presented a route to materials and structures,
developed through nanotechnology, that can be used to develop
human-friendly devices with realistic functions and abilities that
would not be feasible by mere extension of conventional technology.
Our research suggests devices that can act as part of human skin or
clothing, and can therefore be used ubiquitously. We believe that
such devices could eventually find a wide range of applications in
recreation, virtual reality, robotics and health care.
Methods
SWCNT film devices for strain sensor characterization were fabricated on a dog-
bone-shaped backing structure made of PDMS (SH9555, Dow Corning Toray).
The backing structure was 1 mm thick, with a width of 25 mm and an overall
length of 65 mm.
Strain property characterizations of the devices were performed on a computer-
controlled, home-made actuating unit located on an optical bench. Surface structure
evaluations of the SWCNT film (islands, gaps and suspended bundle structure) were
performed using a laser microscope (VK-9700, Keyence) and a scanning electron
microscope (S-4800, Hitachi).
Fabrication of the wearable devices followed the same procedure as that for the
SWCNT devices, using 1-mm-thick rectangular PDMS (SILPOT 184, Dow Corning
Toray) backings of appropriate size. Before setting the SWCNT films, support
electrodes of Ti(3 nm)/Au(100 nm)/Ti(10 nm) were deposited at both ends of the
substrate. After setting and drying the films, lead wires were connected to the
support electrodes using carbon nanotube rubber6 in place of the rigid silver paste,
and the rubber was coated with PDMS glue (SH-780, Dow Corning Toray). Finally,
the device was glued to the target clothing. For human-motion sensing, the
lead wires of the sensor(s) were connected to a potentiostat (VMP3, Princeton
Applied Research).
Received 3 August 2010; accepted 18 February 2011;
published online 27 March 2011
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Acknowledgements
The authors thank Y. Yamada and T. Toida for their assistance. The authors also
acknowledge partial support from Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology
(CREST) of the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST).
Author contributions
T.Y., Y.H. and K.H. conceived and designed the experiments. T.Y. and Yu.Y. performed the
experiments. D.F. contributed to materials preparation, Yo.Y. and A.I. contributed to device
demonstration. T.Y. and K.H. co-wrote the paper.
Additional information
The authors declare no competing financial interests. Supplementary information
accompanies this paper at www.nature.com/naturenanotechnology. Reprints and
permission information is available online at http://npg.nature.com/reprintsandpermissions/.
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to K.H.
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