An Investigation into Cicatrisation and Scarification in

African Culture and the Impacts of Slavery on these Tribal

Marks

Jonathan Horlor
Pearson Institute. 2016

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CONTENTS

TABLE OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... 2

RESEARCH QUESTION ............................................................................................................... 3
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 4
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................................................... 5
Conceptual Definitions ............................................................................................................ 5
CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................................... 6
History of Cicatrisation and Scarification in African cultures ......................................... 6
Motivation behind Tribal Marking .......................................................................................... 6
Scarification Ceremonies ........................................................................................................ 7
The Transatlantic Slave Trade and African Diaspora ........................................................ 9
METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................................... 11
Cultural Case Study as a Research Method ...................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2 .................................................................................................................................. 12
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 12
The History of the Yoruba Tribe........................................................................................... 12
Characteristics of Yoruba Scarification ............................................................................. 13
Functions of Yoruba Scarification....................................................................................... 15
Scarification Procedure ......................................................................................................... 16
The effects of Colonialism and Slavery on Scarification ................................................ 16
CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 19
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 20

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 TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1a Krutak, L 2002, Ceremonial Tools, online image, viewed 13 June 2016,
http://www.larskrutak.com/

Figure 1b Krutak, L 2002, Ceremonial Tools, online image, viewed 13 June 2016,
http://www.larskrutak.com/

Figure 1c Hampton, J 2008, The Triangular Trade, online image, viewed 13 June 2016,
https://pgapworld.wikispaces.com/triangular+trade

Figure 2a Choumali, J 2014, Hââbré: The Last Generation, online image, viewed 8 Sept
2016,
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/23/scarification_n_5850882.html

Figure 2b Choumali, J 2014, Hââbré: The Last Generation, online image, viewed 8 Sept
2016,
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/23/scarification_n_5850882.html

Figure 2c Johnson, S, 1960, Yoruba Tribal Markings, Lagos, C.M.S Nigeria Bookshops.

Figure 2d Adeoye, C, 2005, Asa ati ise Yoruba, Ibadan, Oxford University Press.

Figure 2e Johnson, S, 1960, Royal Oyo Markings, Lagos, C.M.S Nigeria Bookshops.

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 RESEARCH QUESTION

What is the history of cicatrisation and scarification in African Cultures, and in what ways did
the slave trade impact these tribal marks in Western African cultures?

ABSTRACT

The aims of this research paper are to investigate and put into context ‘cicatrisation’ and
‘scarification’, as well as to apply this knowledge to the socio-cultural context of African
discourse. Furthermore, this paper intends to explore the historical context, cultural
significance and aesthetic reasoning of indigenous African scarification and cicatrisation, with
particular attention to the Yoruba tribe.

Additional exploration and elaboration will be made on the impact the colonisation of Africa
and slave trade had on these traditional and ritualistic marks in the Yoruba tribes. A brief
historical overview and background of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade will be explained with
specific inquiry into the Eurocentric perception of the ‘other’.

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 INTRODUCTION

Africa has, historically, been a country rich in traditional antiquity, culture, belief systems and
practices. The majority of which have since been combed out, or completely eradicated, as a
result of colonisation and its subsequent western beliefs and imperialist rule. Scarification is a
practice which saw such a decline and inevitable cessation due to the impact of colonisation
and African diaspora.

Scarification is a ritualistic practice unique to tribes of Western Africa which can be seen not
only by the scar tissue on their bodies and faces, but also through their forms of art, poetry,
clay pottery, wood work, and masks. (Cullivan, 1998)

In order to further understand the historical and traditionalism of scarification in the cultures of
West Africa, as well as to identify the meaning of these marks, qualitative research from a
variation of reliable sources has been conducted. Further investigation into how and why the
slave trade influenced and impacted West African scarification will be explored. (Cullivan,
1998)

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 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Conceptual Definitions

Scarification
Scarification is a cultural activity which involves the scratching, etching, burning, branding or
incising of pictures, letters and designs with a sharp instrument into the skin. This is a practice
intended to permanently modify and scar the body. (Stevenson and Waite, 2011)

Cicatrisation
Cicatrisation is the medical term for a wound or defect in skin tissue, which when closed and
healed, develops into scar tissue (Stevenson and Waite, 2011). This is a specific form of
scarification whereby a precise cut is made in the skin with a sharp object, followed by an
irritant which is applied to the wound in the form of caustic plant juices. This results in
permanent raised blisters (known as ‘keloids’). Scarification, in comparison to cicatrisation, is
a broader term which can vary from superficial wounds to complete disfigurement. (Coleman,
2002)

Colonialism

Colonialism is a policy or practice of colonial dominance, which involves acquiring political

control and governing over foreign territory. The newly established colony is subsequently
followed by the exploitation, maintenance and expansion of the occupied territory. This said,
the term ‘colonist’ refers to those who invade and gain control of a territory, whereas the
‘indigenous people’ refer to the original occupants of the territory. (Kohn, 2006)

Eurocentrism

Eurocentrism is a practice where a Westernised and European bias is placed on culture,

ideals, values and concerns, without the consideration of other cultures. This is rooted in the
Eurocentric idea that the European existence and beliefs are qualitatively superior to that of
other forms of human life, culture and beliefs. (Serequeberhan, 2009)

Tribe, Tribal, Tribalism

The term tribe differs in contemporary, historical, sociological and anthropological contexts
which as a result, has led to varying definitions of the term. In a contemporary context, a tribe
refers to non-Western, rural societies, such as with Africa, Asia, Native Americans and so on.
The origin of the word stems from a rise in racist and evolutionist theories during the 19th
century. These racialist Westerners labelled, what they believed to be ‘inferior and alien non-
whites’, as primal, simpler beings, subsequently titling them as ‘tribal’. (Wiley, 2013)

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 CHAPTER 1

History of Cicatrisation and Scarification in African cultures

Scarification and Cicatrisation is considered a ritual practice in a number of African province.

The general understanding of the reasoning for scarification is due to the dark pigmented skin
of indigenous African people not being ideal for tattooing. To work around this ‘issue’, they
would cut into the first layer of skin and fill the wound with lighter shades of pigment. This
would result in a lighter shade of scar tissue to form to that of their natural skin colour, evidently
providing enough contrast between scar and their naturally dark skin. (Orie, 2011)

Motivation behind Tribal Marking

The rituals, patterns and purposes of scarring are African tribe specific, and vary among
individual tribes. This form of body art intends to communicate elements associated with
specific cultural systems and religious beliefs of the community. The act of scarification aims
to bring together the families as well as the tribe, and as the painful rituals are something only
they share, the markings are viewed as signs of love, respect and pride among the tribe. The
fact that the scars last a lifetime, these tribal markings cement the bond the people have with
their tribal identity. (Levinson, 2013)

Some examples include; Beauty, strength and courage, fertility, family pride and protection
from death. Note: the terms scarification and cicatrisation will be referred to as Tribal Marks,
Scars, or Stripes unless otherwise stated.

Beauty

In traditional African culture, scars are thought to adorn the body of the beholder. This would
begin in early childhood and was especially prevalent among young girls. The scarring would
take place as part of a ritualistic ceremony to celebrate certain milestones in a young girls life,
such as; the onset of puberty, the girls first menstrual cycle, pregnancy and childbirth. The
more of these adorning scars that are representative of milestones would make the female
appear ‘more beautiful’ and have greater appeal to the men of the culture. (Roper, 2016)

Strength and Courage

Due to the painful nature of scarification, the strength and courage of the person being scarred
is tested. Those who can endure the painful process are considered to have tested their
personal strength and courage by going through with the process without crying or moaning
in pain. If one were to cry, they would humiliate themselves in front of their tribe. The amount
of scarring one succeeds in receiving, as well as the degree of the scars, correlates to his/ her

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personal strength, and subsequently deems them as more respected within the community.
(Roper, 2016)

Fertility

When women become of a marriageable age, the abdominal scars they are given are seen
as an indication that they are willing and ready to bear children. This is considered to be highly
desirable in African culture and is a key factor in a man’s decision in choosing a potential wife.
The scars are also seen as an erogenous zone for the females due to the sensitive nature of
the scarring, thus adding to the sexual appeal to potential husbands. (Cullivan, 1998)

Family Pride

People of African culture strive to have their families feel a sense of pride and honour in them.
As part of a coming of age ceremony, young men are required to endure a ritualistic beating.
The sisters of the men are required to whip the backs of the men, which leaves a number of
bloody scars on the backs of the men. These scars are viewed as signs of love, respect and
pride from the sisters for their brothers – the sisters are required to not show emotional pain
while whipping their brothers. This is an example of a ceremony which, when successful,
brings a great deal of honour to the entire family. (Levinson, 2013)

Protection

Spirituality is an integral aspect of African culture, and this plays a large role in the scarification
and significance of tribal marks. In contrast to scarification on the body serving as a means of
beautifying, often the face was scarred in a specific way to make a person less desirable to
the ‘spirit of death’ (Levinson, 2013).

Scarification Ceremonies

Following is a description of the ritualistic process that is undertaken when scarring a person
within a tribe. This is a description of what is done in a ceremony, but the example consists
solely of the scarification of a child. Furthermore, this is the generalised method and notice
must be made that each tribe’s ceremonies can vary. This is taken from Levinson’s (2013)
summarised version of Lars Krutak’s (2002) article “Scarification and Tattooing in Benin:
The Bétamarribé Tribe of the Atakora Mountains.”

The first event which takes place before cutting begins is known as a ‘divination ceremony’.
This is where the scarmaster –the person who performs the ceremony – designs the pattern
which will be cut into the skin. This is decided by casting a set consisting of five cowry shells
into a ceramic pot filled with water, which is known as the divining pot. Depending on how the

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cowry shells land and float, the scarmaster will be able to determine the pattern which will be
cut into the skin. There are typically four major pattern variations, which depend entirely on
the scarmaster’s repertoire of designs. Figure 1a (Krutak, 2002) illustrates the aforementioned
as well as the process which follows (Levinson, 2013).

Figure 1a.) Krutak, L, Divination Ceremony, (2011), Photograph

As soon as the divination ceremony is completed, a bed is made up of broad leafed plants
and places on the ground where the children are to be cut. The scarmaster, who learns the
art from previous generations, uses a hand-made arrowhead-like tool and begins to incise the
skin. Examples of the tools can be seen in figure 1b (Krutak, 2002The designs resemble a
series of horizontal ‘V’ patterns which unify at the corner of the. The upper lip and the nasal
regions are cut with parallel vertical lines. Lastly, the forehead of the child is scarred with three
larger V shaped zigzags. The overall aesthetic of this results in a delicate pattern which is
prominent in proper light (Levinson, 2013).

Figure 1b.) Krutak, L, Ceremonial Tools, (2011), Photograph

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Following the cutting, the facial orifices of the child’s face are thoroughly cleaned with a
separate pot of water. The scarmaster accompanies this with a prayer to the spirits of the
ancestors which have gone before them. An anti-inflammatory is rubbed on the wounds with
a chicken feather in the form of shea butter, which is widely used across West Africa. The
mother of the child will take the baby in her arms until the wounds have dried in the sun, which
is shortly followed by the scarmaster rubbing charcoal into the cuts with the belief that ‘evil
spirits will be kept at bay (Krutak, 2002)’. This process various from gender, age, ceremony
as well as tribes. Each ceremony is occasion specific and is structured according to the
ceremony set out by the scarmaster of the tribe.

The Transatlantic Slave Trade and African Diaspora

The slave trade refers to the transatlantic trading patterns which were established as early as
the mid-17th century. Trading ships would set sail from Europe with a cargo of manufactured
goods to the west coast of Africa. There, these goods would be traded, over weeks and
months, for captured people provided by African traders. African tribes would raid other
settlements far away from the African coast and brought those young and healthy enough to
the coast to be sold into slavery (Klein, 2010).

Once full, the European trader's ship would depart for the Americas, or the Caribbean on the
notorious 'Middle Passage'. The middle passage refers to the point of the trip where the slaves
would be kept in the ship's hold, crammed close together with little or no space to move.
Conditions were filthy and many people did not survive the voyage. On the final leg of the
transatlantic route, European ships returned home with cargoes of sugar, rum, tobacco and
other 'luxury' items (Klein, 2010). This triangular pattern of voyaging can be seen in figure 1c
(Hampton, 2008).

Figure 1c.) Hampton, J, The Triangular Trade, (2008), Map Route

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These slaves were dispersed across the Americas and Europe by European slave traders.
These Africans would be forced to lead lives of degradation and brutality in a European
governance. Of those who survived the shipping to the Americas, many died in the possession
of these slave traders as they were beaten, murdered and exploited. As a result of the slave
trade, people of African descent are spread throughout the Americas and Western Europe.
This is what is known as the ‘African Disapora’ (Klein, 2010).

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 METHODOLOGY

This aims to delve into how colonisation impacted and influenced the development of
scarification and cicatrisation among traditional the Yoruba tribe in Western Africa.
Furthermore, the impacts African scarification had on Westernised traditions will be explored.

Cultural Case Study as a Research Method

An imperative aspect to accurate research are the types of research methods used. A cultural
study is an interdisciplinary study method focussed on investigating the way in which ‘culture’
can create, alter, and manipulate individual experiences, life and socio-political standings
(Pickering, 2008). Experience is central to any cultural study, as concrete evidence and
knowledge must be drawn from first-hand sources to gather the most appropriate information.
A case study design is an in-depth study focussed on a particular problem rather than a
broader set of information. This methods is primarily used to narrow down a large field of
research into a specific section (Mills, Durepos and Wiebe, 2010).

This is the most effective means of providing an analysis on a specific tribe, rather than a
study on all existing African tribes. Evidence of the cultural practices of the Yoruba tribe will
be gathered by journal articles, recorded accounts and other sources. This will then be
reviewed, and placed into a contextual analysis.

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 CHAPTER 2

Introduction

The Yoruba tribe are one of the most prominent tribes of Nigeria, Western Africa. They are a
farming community who dwell in small towns, are synonymous with being artistic people, and
are governed by both a monarchical and democratic political system. Their indigenous religion
is polytheistic, meaning they believe in multiple deities, but do recognise a supreme deity,
Olorun. (Biobaku, 1958).

The Yoruba possess a homogenous culture, which is noticeable throughout the areas in which
they inhabit. Yoruba have inhabited French Dahomey and Togo, where they are referred to
as ‘Nagot’ and ‘Anago’. Furthermore, the Yoruba people can be found anywhere from Benin,
Niger, Nembe and Onitsha, to Sierra Leon. An offshoot of the Yoruba, known as the ‘Aku’, can
even be found as far as Brazil. (Biobaku, 1958).

The History of the Yoruba Tribe

The people of the Yoruba tribe are indigenous to Nigeria, Western Africa. Evidence of the first
Yoruba, discovered by archaeologists, dates back as far as 4 th century BC. The first Yoruba
are however, said to have originated from the Mesolithic Oyo population. They originally
emigrated from the Near East when they came under influence of the Etruscans, Jews and
ancient Egyptians. As a result of this, the Yoruba came under Arab influences, which led to
their subsequent migration being connected with Arab movements. The Nigerian population
consists of more than 21 percent Yoruba people, while around 40 million Yoruba’s are said to
exist in total – this includes regions such as the Caribbean, Brazil, Ghana, Benin and Togo.
(Biobaku, 1958)

As a farming community, the Yoruba have utilised this as their means of trading and income.
Seasonally, they will farm anything from cocoa, yams, cassava, maize, cottons and nuts, to
beans. These goods were traded with the Portuguese, during the slave trade, in exchange for
a large arsenal of guns. These guns were bought in an effort to take over a neighbouring area,
Fulani, which had pushed most of Yoruba land to the South. In the 1800’s however, a treaty
between the Yoruba land and Fulani had been formed.) 1901 saw the British colonise Yoruba
land. (Biobaku, 1958)

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 Characteristics of Yoruba Scarification

In comparison to a Westernised sense of identification being in the form of an Identity Book

or card, the Yoruba people use scarification as their identification equivalent. The incisions
made in the skin of the tribe are generally linear, and are thus referred to as ‘stripes’. A
Yoruba with scars is referred to as “òkolà” – ‘the one who has facial stripes’. A Yoruba
without scars is referred to as “oboro” – ‘the plain, non-striped face.’ (Orie, 2011) See figure
2a-2b (Choumali, 2014) for contemporary examples of Yoruba people with stripes.

Figure 2a-b.) Choumali, J, The Last Generation, (2014), Photographs

There are three main characteristics seen in Yoruba facial markings. Firstly, the foundation
of all tribal scars consist of three basic markings: “Singular vertical stripes; a set of two either
vertical or horizontal stripes; or four vertical stripes (Orie, 2011).” Furthermore, less common
patterns are used, which are the result of a combination of the basic stripe patterns. For
example, if a tribesman were to have six stripes, this could be a combination of three sets of
two stripes. (Orie, 2011)

The second characteristic is that of Yoruba facial marking symmetry. The markings on a
right cheek should always be mirrored on that of the left, and vice versa. See Figure 2c
(Johnson 1960:105). The only instance whereby asymmetry would occur, is if members from
separate royal families intermarry. This results in the children of those parents having scars
symbolic of both families – each cheek representative of each royal family See Figure 2d
(Adeoye, 1979:180). The third and final characteristic is that no individual will have scars on
only one side of their face. (Orie, 2011)

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 Figure 2c.) Johnson, S, Yoruba Tribal Markings, (1960), Illustrations

Figure 2d.) Adeoye, C, Asa ati ise Yoruba, (2005), Illustrations

These foundation characteristics provide the basis on which the various Yoruba styles scar
their faces. Some of which include the Pele, Owu, Gombo and Abaja. The Pele style
consists of three horizontal stripes on both cheeks. The Owu marks consists of six horizontal
or vertical stripes on both cheeks. An example of the aforementioned is former President of
Nigeria, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo, bares this symbolic pattern (Adeoye, 2013). The Gombo
variant, otherwise referred to as Keke, is represented by several horizontal and curved
stripes. These are inscribed on the cheeks, near the side of the mouth. Lastly, the Abaja
variant consists of more complex identifying marks. An Abaja marking can consist of
anywhere between three, four, twelve or six lines on both cheeks. This style is indigenous to

14
the Oyo tribe of West Nigeria, the most prominent of the Yoruba’s. Moreover, several other
styles exist, including The Mande, Ture, Bamu and Jamgbadi. (Adeoye, 2013)

Functions of Yoruba Scarification

Orie (2011) elaborates on these primary functions of scarification; namely kinship

identification, security, a revival of heritage and beautification. Kinship identification refers to
the fact that these particular patterns of scars serve as identification symbols of the person
who they adorn. If someone knowledgeable in reading traditional scarification were to see a
tribespersons face, they would be able to ascertain the person’s family line, the town in which
they were born, as well as their regional affiliation. As an example provided by Biobaku (1958),
someone with a set of four horizontal lines on their cheeks identifies them as belonging to the
Òyó Yoruba. In contrast, someone belonging to the Royal Òyó family, would possess two
separate sets of three stripes on each cheek, in a horizontal formation (Orie, 2011) – as seen
in figure 2e (Johnson, 1960).

Figure 2e.) Johnson, S, Royal Oyo Markings, (1960), Illustration

Furthermore, scarification serves the purpose of providing security to those who possess
them. The bearers of these markings have been saved from enslavement, such as when the
Òwu war in Western Africa took place. The war began when the Ife Yoruba broke a law
whereby Òyó citizens were not to be captured and sold to the slave trade. Those who had
been captured by the Ife, were later freed from the fate of being sold to slave traders, when
the soldiers of the Òwu war identified them by their markings. (Orie, 2011) Additionally, during
the period of July 1967 to January 1970, Nigeria experienced a Civil War. In summary, the
war was a result of xenophobia between the Eastern and Western regions of Nigeria. This war
saw countless Igbos people from the Eastern regions slaughtered, whereas the Yoruba were
spared on account of their scars. Their stripe patterns identified them as ‘true Yoruba’s’
(meaning they were situated in the Western regions of Nigeria), as opposed to the Eastern.
(Biobaku, 1958)

15
The third function of these scars is to revive the heritage and culture of these people. This was
particularly necessary during the transatlantic slave trade. At this time, facial stripes allowed
for people to identify with others in their family during the diaspora. The final function of scars
is to beautify – or adorn. This is however, only secondary in motivation, and are usually only
found on individuals possessing desirable or symbolically significant visual features. (Orie,
2011)

Scarification Procedure

The process of scarification begins at the young age of three weeks old. A procedure is
performed whereby a specialist in scarification, known as an ‘olóolà’ etches striped patterns
into the children’s faces. These specialists are disciples of the Yoruba deity, ‘Ogun’ (the god
of iron) (Orie, 2011). The ceremonial surgery is carried out at dawn when the temperature is
coolest, in an effort to reduce the potential for blood loss. The men of the family then hold the
child during the whole procedure, whilst the women stand away from the ceremony and
perform praise poetry specific to their family name or lineage. Post-surgery treatments of palm
oil and a variety of herbs with haemostatic (causing blood to coagulate) and antimicrobial
properties are applied to the wounds to initiate healing.

Ceremoniously, the viscous underside of a snail is rubbed on the wounds. This snail is used
to “cool the wounds, like water on fire”. Afterward, a live chicken is rubbed over the face of the
child to cleanse the body of any illness. Two days later the chicken will be sacrificed and the
family will eat from it. (Barnes, 1997)

The effects of Colonialism and Slavery on Scarification

Tribal marks were not a result of slavery, however the slave trade was responsible for a surge
and the continuation of scarification practices among Western Africa and Ghana. Tribal marks
allowed one to preserve their heritage if they were to have been captured. As a result of their
community’s commonality, unity and safety being threatened, they developed a great sense
of pride in preserving and cultivating their ethnic heritage. (Cullivan, 1998)

Furthermore, if they had been taken into oppression, these marks allowed slaves to reunite
with other members of their tribes who had also been captured. Based on the scars incised,
the family would recognise to which ethnic tribe each person belonged. This was a result of
the slave trade evidently separating families and transporting them abroad – making it unlikely
that they would ever reunite (Cullivan, 1998). Additionally, these scars served as a means of
protection. Scarring was done in an effort to evade falling victim to slavery. The tribes would
make the scars on their faces more prominent, in an effort to make themselves appear less

16
attractive to prospective slave traders. The more disfigured an African looked, the less likely
a slave owner would want to buy them (Levinson, 2013).

The turn of the century brought a new perspective to scarification, the idea that it was brutal,
as well as the concerns the process may have to health. Human rights organisations began
fighting for a standardisation and regulation of these age-old practices, subsequently banning
the entire practice which was so integral to ancestral heritage. Any practice which was
considered as being detrimental to a person’s health was, in 1990, abolished. This included
any form of scarification practices. This regulation is Africa spread to America and Europe,
where they were quick to enforce their own prohibition and banning of any form of African
body art, scarification and cicatrisation without a licensed professional. Under this law, any
form of scarification may only be performed in a medical facility, which meant that traditional
scarmaster’s in native lands, would no longer be allowed to practice. (Levinson, 2013)

There are objective rationalisations for these health regulations regarding unsanitary practices
likely to be performed in a traditional setting. The principle health risks involved in scarification
are “blood-borne infections such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV, all of which are easily
transmitted through improper hygiene and sterilisation practices (Oultram, 2009).”
Furthermore, the wounds become susceptible to infection and septicaemia post-cicatrisation.
Oultram (2009) further expands on the legislation enforced, particularly in the United Kingdom,
as to why these practices are prohibited in an unlicensed place. With regards to the
scarification of children, which is paramount to Yoruba tradition, it is deemed a punishable
offence under the Tattooing of Minors Act (1966). No child under the age of 18 may be scarred
or tattooed, although they may receive any form of bodily piercing (excluding those which are
sexually infringing). This is because a child experiences tremendous pain in the process, is
not aware of what or why they are receiving these markings, nor do they give any consent to
having permanent scarification. This westernised argument conflicts that of traditional
standings on the matter, and is one which can only be argued with fact and opinion from both
parties. (Oultram, 2009)

Though most countries with Western influences have banned scarring, the practice still
remains. There is a fine line drawn between what a Westernised ideal of appropriate practices
are, and those of ethnic groups. This is the timeous result and cause of the transatlantic slave
trade. The indigenous African’s who were forced to retain their heritage and start their lives on
foreign soil are now further oppressed by the governing of a Westernised ruling. Moreover,
the purpose and symbolism of these marks had, as a result of the slave trade, been changed
forever (Cullivan, 1998). This raises the point of a double-standard institutionalised by an
oppressive Westernised society, when considering Jewish tradition. The Jewish community is

17
rightfully allowed to practice ritual circumcision on male children, whose only consent are their
parents’. Society deems this act as normal and civilized, and has legalised it as an “important
ritual passage signifying the passage of a child into adulthood (Oultram, 2009).” This however
contradicts the ideology that the Yoruba scarification, which also signifies the advent into
adulthood, is primitive and should not be practiced. Scarification is any deliberate wound or
incision made to the skin, with the intention to leave a permanent mark. Facial scars and
circumcision both do as such, and should therefore be treated the same. (Oultram, 2009)

In a contemporary sense, scarification has taken on an entirely Westernised form. Modern

scarification is performed in a highly sterile environment and is done with a primary intention
to beautify and adorn, whereas traditionally this was a secondary factor. The process is
prolonged after the initial scars are made, so as to irritate the skin and make the scars appear
more prominent. The wounds will have peroxide applied to them, which further wounds the
skin and allows for ‘richer’ scar tissue to form. (Levinson, 2013)

It can then be said that aside from stripping the culture from a practice older than colonialism
was not the only change the slave trade brought. Additionally, the slave trade stole the
practices, created a Westernised basis on ‘how to practice’ scarification and evidentially made
it their own. It can be argued that the discourse of African traditions have been perverted by
the Westernised governing. Something so sacred, precious and bound by a rich heritage,
which serves a purpose to bring a tribe together, is replaced with the purpose to beautify
(Cullivan, 1998). This is however not always the case, as there are exceptions in any area of
analysis. For example, one might have a scarification pattern as a tribute to, or in memory of
someone, something or with some other interpretation. It is merely the denial of a practice to
one in a traditional way, but granting the same practice to another nationalism of people.

18
 CONCLUSION

Originally a symbol of tribal pride and unity, these markings no longer serve their intended
purpose. They are instead a means to reflect on a time where they were separated from their
families to be commoditised as slaves. Their scars served as a means to retrace their roots
and to be reminded of where they came from. (Cullivan, 1998) Furthermore, the markings of
the Yoruba tribe will continue to have a meaning superseding the original purpose of
identification. These scars enable the wearer to return home, and if this is unlikely, then they
will bare an identity unbeknown to others, but understood by them. (Cullivan, 1998)

The ceremonial aspects of scarification continue to serve their place in history, with many still
practicing illegally worldwide. The slave trade imposed a domino effect which de Africanised
of traditional African practices. Regardless of these attempts, transnational Africanised sub-
cultures continue to take stands, with the likes of Pan-Africanism and Afropolitanism. This
allows people with ties to Africa to form a connection with a continent, a heritage and a culture
which one was theirs prior to colonialization. This said, colonialization evidentially happened,
and the outcome is irreversible, meaning there are only means to moving forward united.

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 REFERENCES

Adeoye, D. (2013). Tribal marks in modern Nigeria: The burden, the anguish. Nigerian
Tribune.

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