Systems

INTERNATIONAL ISO/IEC/
STANDARD IEEE
21841
First edition
2019-07
Systems and software engineering —

Taxonomy of systems of systems
Ingénierie système et logiciel — Taxonomie des systèmes de systèmes
Reference number
ISO/IEC/IEEE 21841:2019(E)
© ISO/IEC 2019
© IEEE 2019
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ii © IEEE 2019 – All rights reserved

Contents Page
Foreword......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... iv
Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................v
1 Scope.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 1
2 Normative references....................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
3 Terms and definitions...................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
3.1 General terms............................................................................................................................................................................................ 1
3.2 SoS types....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
4 Concepts and application............................................................................................................................................................................. 3
4.1 Overview....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
4.2 Importance of taxonomies to SoS............................................................................................................................................ 3
4.3 Use of SoS taxonomies....................................................................................................................................................................... 3
5 Taxonomies for systems of systems................................................................................................................................................... 4
5.1 General............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
5.2 Taxa: directed, acknowledged, collaborative and virtual.................................................................................... 4
5.2.1 Overview.................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
5.2.2 Description of the taxa................................................................................................................................................. 4
5.2.3 Examples of potential application of the taxa.......................................................................................... 5
5.2.4 When to use........................................................................................................................................................................... 5
5.2.5 How to use.............................................................................................................................................................................. 5
5.2.6 Why to use.............................................................................................................................................................................. 6
5.2.7 Limitations............................................................................................................................................................................. 6
5.2.8 Benefits of use..................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Annex A (informative) Summary of SoS taxonomies............................................................................................................................ 7
Bibliography................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
IEEE notices and abstract.............................................................................................................................................................................................10

© IEEE 2019 – All rights reserved iii

Foreword
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iv © IEEE 2019 – All rights reserved

Introduction
Systems of systems engineering (SoSE) is a concept that is increasingly thought of as a discipline
important for the realization and sustainability of large and persistent sociotechnical systems in areas
as diverse as healthcare, transportation, energy, defense, corporations, cities and government.
While SoSE applies broadly to hardware, software, middle-ware as well as embedded, cyber-physical
and digital systems, the importance of SoSE has been heightened in the last fifteen years by the rapid
increase in the pervasiveness of information technology (IT), illustrated by new technologies and
paradigms such as Sensor Networks, Cloud Computing, the Internet of Things, Big Data, Smart Devices
and Artificial Intelligence. It is, for instance, the application of these technologies to cities that transform
them into “smarter” cities.
This pervasiveness of IT was not only driven by the availability of these technologies, but also more
importantly by the requirements in our resource and environmentally-constrained world for increased
and sustainable economic development and, ultimately, personal well-being.
SoSE goes well beyond IT and potentially applies to all types of systems, including hardware and
cyber physical systems where IT is an enabler. SoSE addresses functionality, performance and
interdependencies of the systems as well as their connectivity. The interconnectivity of systems has
become pervasive in large command and control systems, defense systems, communications systems,
transportation systems and medical/health systems, among others. The accelerating need to share
information and leverage capabilities from other systems has changed how systems need to be viewed
and engineered.
Taxonomies provide a means in many fields to classify and describe the relationships among the
relevant elements being studied. The elements of a taxonomy, or taxa, form a partitioning or means of
classification within that body of knowledge. In the context of systems of systems (SoS), the relevant
elements of the system of interest are, by definition, systems themselves. Using essential characteristics
to partition the various types of SoS provides an abbreviated nomenclature for thinking about SoS.
Based on taxonomies, different approaches to the engineering of systems of systems are possible,
improving the efficiency and effectiveness of systems of systems engineering.

© IEEE 2019 – All rights reserved v
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO/IEC/IEEE 21841:2019(E)
Systems and software engineering — Taxonomy of systems

of systems
1 Scope
This document defines a normalized taxonomy for systems of systems (SoS) to facilitate communications
among stakeholders. It also briefly explains what a taxonomy is and how it applies to the SoS to aid in
understanding and communication.
2 Normative references
There are no normative references in this document.
3 Terms and definitions

For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.
NOTE For additional terms and definitions in the field of systems and software engineering, see
ISO/IEC/IEEE 24765, which is published periodically as a “snapshot” of the SEVOCAB (Systems and software
Engineering Vocabulary) database and is publicly accessible at www.computer.org/sevocab.
ISO, IEC, and IEEE maintain terminological databases for use in standardization at the following
addresses:
— ISO Online browsing platform: available at https://www.iso.org/obp
— IEC Electropedia: available at http://www.electropedia.org/
— IEEE Standards Dictionary Online: available at http://dictionary.ieee.org
3.1 General terms

3.1.1
constituent system
CS
independent system that forms part of a system of systems (SoS) (3.1.4)
Note 1 to entry: Constituent systems can be part of one or more SoS. Each constituent system is a useful system
by itself, having its own development, management (3.1.3), utilization, goals, and resources, but interacts within
the SoS to provide the unique capability of the SoS.
[SOURCE: ISO/IEC/IEEE 21839:2019, 3.1.1, modified — The abbreviated term "CS" has been added.]
3.1.2
governance
process of establishing and enforcing strategic goals and objectives, organizational policies and
performance parameters
Note 1 to entry: This definition is adapted from Reference [8].

© IEEE 2019 – All rights reserved 1

3.1.3
management
system of controls and processes required to achieve the strategic objectives set by the organization's
governing body
Note 1 to entry: Management is subject to the policy guidance and monitoring set through corporate governance
(3.1.2).
[SOURCE: ISO/IEC/IEEE 24765:2017, 3.2338]

3.1.4
system of systems
SoS
set of systems or system elements that interact to provide a unique capability that none of the constituent
systems (3.1.1) can accomplish on its own
Note 1 to entry: System elements can be necessary to facilitate interaction of the constituent systems in the
system of systems.
[SOURCE: ISO/IEC/IEEE 21839:2019, 3.1.4]

3.1.5
systems of systems engineering
SoSE
process of planning, analyzing, organizing, developing and integrating the capabilities of a mix of
existing and new systems, including inter-system infrastructure, facilities, and overarching processes
into a system-of-systems capability that is greater than the sum of the capabilities of the constituent
systems (3.1.1)
Note 2 to entry: SoSE also includes testing, modification, maintenance and other post-integration activities.
3.1.6
taxonomy
scheme that partitions a body of knowledge and defines the relationships among the pieces
[SOURCE: ISO/IEC/IEEE 24765:2017, 3.4167, modified — Definition 2 has been removed; Note 1 to entry
has been removed.]
3.2 SoS types

3.2.1
acknowledged system of systems
acknowledged SoS
SoS (3.1.4) with recognized objectives, a designated manager, and resources for the SoS
Note 1 to entry: Constituent systems (3.1.1) retain their independent ownership, objectives, funding, and
development and sustainment approaches. Changes in the systems are based on cooperative agreements
between the SoS and the system.
3.2.2
collaborative system of systems
collaborative SoS
SoS (3.1.4) in which component systems interact more or less voluntarily to fulfill agreed-upon central
purposes
Note 1 to entry: Constituent systems (3.1.1) collectively decide how to provide or deny service, thereby providing
means of enforcing and maintaining consistency.

2 © IEEE 2019 – All rights reserved

3.2.3
directed system of systems
directed SoS
SoS (3.1.4) created and managed to fulfill specific purposes and the constituent systems (3.1.1) are
subordinated to the SoS
Note 1 to entry: Component systems maintain an ability to operate independently; however, their normal
operational mode is subordinated to the central managed purpose.
3.2.4
virtual system of systems
virtual SoS
SoS (3.1.4) that lacks a central management (3.1.3) authority and a centrally-agreed-upon purpose
for the SoS
Note 1 to entry: Large-scale behavior emerges—and can be desirable—but this type of SoS relies on relatively
invisible mechanisms to maintain it.
Note 2 to entry: Virtual SoS are typically self-organizing.
4 Concepts and application
4.1 Overview
Taxonomies provide a means in many fields to classify and describe the relationships between the
relevant elements being studied. The elements of a taxonomy, or taxa, form a partitioning or means of
classification within that body of knowledge. Partitioning based on essential characteristics provides
an abbreviated nomenclature to refer to a larger composite of characteristics, facilitating discussion
about the partitions (taxa) without having to refer to each of the characteristics.
4.2 Importance of taxonomies to SoS

In systems engineering (SE), the relevant pieces of the system of interest can be called subsystems,
elements or components. In the context of SoS, the relevant pieces of the system of interest are, by
definition, systems themselves. These are called constituent systems (CS) throughout this document.
That is, an SoS consists of some number of CS, plus any inter-system infrastructure, facilities and
processes necessary to enable the CS to integrate or interoperate. Relationships between CS affect
the SoS. Using essential characteristics to partition the various types of SoS provides an abbreviated
nomenclature for thinking about SoS. While Clause 5 elaborates one mature SoS taxonomy, Annex A
provides a list of SoS less-mature taxonomies. Based on taxonomies, different approaches to the
engineering of systems of systems are possible, improving the efficiency and effectiveness of SoSE.
NOTE 1 Taxonomies can have some overlap in their definition and need not be orthogonal to each other to
be useful. An SoS can be considered as belonging to several taxonomies as long as its characteristics meet the
definitions of the taxonomies.
NOTE 2 It is possible that inter-system infrastructure, facilities and processes do not meet the criteria for
being systems in their own right. From the perspective of the SoS, these could be system elements (or SoS
elements).
4.3 Use of SoS taxonomies

There are many characteristics such as scale and scope, around which taxonomies can be derived. The
SoS taxonomy in Clause 5 organizes the relevant aspects or essential characteristics of SoS, providing

specific viewpoints that align with stakeholder concerns. This organization facilitates communications
between the various stakeholders that are involved with activities like governance, engineering,
operation and management of these SoS, and provides a reference for other related standards. The
taxonomy in Clause 5 meets the following criteria.
— External references are publicly available.
— The taxa are stable with evidence of having been applied in multiple systems.
Annex A lists additional SoS taxonomies that do not meet all of the above criteria. These developing
taxonomies can still be useful, but they lack sufficient maturity to be included in Clause 5. As the
discipline matures, it is likely that more taxonomies will evolve.
5 Taxonomies for systems of systems
5.1 General
SoS taxonomies organize the relevant aspects or essential characteristics of SoS, providing specific
viewpoints that align with stakeholder concerns. Taxonomies can have some overlap in their
construction, but the lack of orthogonality does not inhibit their application.
Since most of the taxonomies are not explicitly named, they are most often referenced in practice by the
author’s names or the names of the taxa. Consequently, the taxonomies are presented using the taxa
names themselves, using the author’s order.
5.2 Taxa: directed, acknowledged, collaborative and virtual
5.2.1 Overview
In this taxonomy, SoS are classified according to the degree of managerial and operational independence.
Four types are defined: directed, acknowledged, collaborative and virtual.
This taxonomy is mature, originating in the work of Maier (1998)[6], expanded by Dahmann and Baldwin
(2008)[9] and published as an informative annex in ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288. Maier’s observation was that
SoS are not simply systems in which the constituents are also systems. One essential characteristic
is that constituent systems within the SoS are operationally independent. Operational independence
means that the CS are able to usefully operate independently, that is, fulfil customer purposes on
their own. Consequently, SoS deal with multiple consumers that can have different priorities and
expectations. Unlike a system, which has been designed to fulfill a purpose and an expected quality of
service, the quality of service within an SoS can be subject to additional variation.
Another essential characteristic is that the CS within the SoS are managerially independent. The CS
operate with each other to produce the SoS capabilities; however, managerial independence means
that the CS also not only can but do operate independently from each other. This suggests that the CS
are managed independently, and that these organizations can have different goals and objectives for
the CS. If so, the degree of independence of governance can be more appropriate than the degree of
independence of management. Regardless of the means of managing the organizations, alignment (or
lack thereof) in the goals and objectives affect the system of systems.
5.2.2 Description of the taxa
5.2.2.1 Directed
The strongest governance relations apply to directed SoS, where an SoS organization has authority
over all of the CS even though the CS were not originally engineered to support the SoS. All aspects of
the CS of the SoS fall under that authority from the point at which they become an element of the SoS. In
a directed SoS, CS are very strongly aligned managerially and operationally.


5.2.2.2 Acknowledged
Somewhat less control is afforded for acknowledged SoS, where allocated authority between the
CS and the SoS has an impact on the application of some of the SE processes. For the acknowledged
SoS, although the authority for the CS is distributed, there are agreements to work together under a
designated management structure to have an SoS authority and manage the SoS. In an acknowledged
SoS, CS are less strongly aligned managerially and operationally than in a directed SoS and can fulfill
additional customer-operator purposes on their own.
5.2.2.3 Collaborative
Collaborative SoS do not have centralized management. Instead, CS interact voluntarily to fulfil agreed-
upon purposes, collectively deciding how to interoperate, as well as how to enforce and maintain
standards. In a collaborative SoS, CS are less strongly aligned managerially and operationally than in
an acknowledged or directed SoS and fulfill additional customer-operator purposes on their own. The
degree of alignment affects the potential quality of service as CS have greater autonomy to prefer goals
and objectives outside the SoS.
5.2.2.4 Virtual
Virtual systems of systems lack a central management authority and lack a centrally-agreed-
upon purpose. Managerial and operational alignment is the weakest in virtual SoS because CS are
managerially and operationally very independent. Consequently, SoS behaviors and capabilities rely
upon relatively invisible mechanisms rather than explicit governance to maintain them.
5.2.3 Examples of potential application of the taxa
The following list provides explanations of how the taxa apply to some examples.
— An intelligent transportation SoS links various information sources to provide enhanced capabilities.
Examples include route planning applications that use data from vehicles to leverage real-time
speed information to improve routing. Without a central management authority or a centrally-
agreed-upon purpose, such systems could be considered virtual SoS.
— The Internet could be considered a collaborative SoS because this system consists of networks
that are independently owned and managed but bounded by a common set of protocols, rules and
address schemes maintained by a non-profit association. CS cooperate to develop standards and
voluntarily comply with standards.
— A smart city can have a wide range of potential functionality and therefore could fall into any of
the classifications. If a smart city has recognized objectives, a designated manager and its own
resources, it could be considered an acknowledged SoS even while CS retain their independent
ownership, management and resources.
— Integrated Air Defense could be considered a directed SoS because such systems are often
developed and operated to a common purpose. That common purpose is expressed through formal
organizations, technical standards and the socialization of its operators.
5.2.4 When to use
This taxonomy can be used effectively throughout the life cycle of an SoS. Since the characteristics of an
SoS can evolve over the life cycle, the SoS’s characterization or alignment to the taxa can evolve as well.
5.2.5 How to use
Consider the degree of operational or managerial independence along a spectrum in general terms from
high to low. The characteristics in the taxa can be used to facilitate the classification of a candidate SoS.
Based on the classification, explore options to improve the alignment of goals and objectives.


5.2.6 Why to use
This taxonomy can be effective when the degree of operational or managerial independence, or the
alignment between the goals and objectives of the constituent systems, can be determined.
5.2.7 Limitations
The following are potential limitations with this taxonomy.

— This taxonomy mixes multiple, overlapping characteristics (e.g., authority, purpose, management,
operations, ownership, resources) in the taxa, making a clean distinction of the underlying
characteristics more difficult.
— The term “managerial independence” can obscure the implications of the goals and objectives more
clearly evident in the term “governance.”
— One of the characteristics for a collaborative SoS notes that constituents “interact voluntarily to fulfill
agreed-upon purposes”, which presumes a positive outcome. One extension to this taxonomy would
be to accommodate that CS collaborate in ways that are not voluntary and without agreement on
purpose. CS could be utilized in ways they are not aware of (involuntary) that result in collaborative
activity. For example, the products or services of one CS could be directed or used by an independent
third party to support the needs of another CS.
— In some organizations, particularly those in which the existing managerial approach tends to be
directive, there can be an assumption that shifting the SoS to be more directed would be beneficial.
5.2.8 Benefits of use
Regardless of the classification, alignment of goals and objectives (or lack thereof) is an important
aspect of an SoS and SoSE. Options that improve the alignment in goals and objectives can lead to
improvements in the overall quality of service and resiliency of the SoS. However, the ability to influence
goals and objectives across multiple organizations depends on the type of SoS. In this regard, SoS are
very different from systems.


Annex A
(informative)
Summary of SoS taxonomies
Table A.1 summarizes SoS taxonomies.
Table A.1 — Summary of SoS taxonomies

Year of
Authors Taxa
Publication
1998 Maier Directed, Collaborative, Virtual
2005 Gideon, Dagli, and Miller Dedicated, Virtual
2005 Gideon, Dagli, and Miller Chaotic, Directed, Collaborative
2005 Gideon, Dagli, and Miller Physical, Conceptual, Social
2008 Dahmann and Baldwin Directed, Acknowledged, Collaborative, Virtual
2014 Somerville Organizational, Federated, Coalition




Bibliography
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[2] ISO/IEC/IEEE 21839:2019, Systems and software engineering — System of Systems (SoS)
considerations in life cycle stages of a system
[3] ISO/IEC/IEEE 24765:2017, Systems and software engineering — Vocabulary
[4] Gideon J, Dagli C.H. , Miller A. 2005. Taxonomy of Systems-of-Systems
[5] Somerville I., 2015. “Systems of Systems” included in Chapter 20 of "Software Engineering”,
10th Edition. Available at: https://www.dropbox.com/s/xo80lb1rvwtzd1e/Ch%2020%20
Systems%20of%20systems.pdf
[6] Maier M.W.1998. , Architecting Principles for Systems-of-Systems. Syst. Eng. pp. 267–284
[7] SEBoK Authors. "Systems of Systems (SoS)." in BKCASE Editorial Board. 2017. The Guide to
the Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge (SEBoK), v. 1.8. R.D. Adcock (EIC). Hoboken, NJ: The
Trustees of the Stevens Institute of Technology. Accessed August 8, 2017. Available at: https:
//www.sebokwiki.org/
[8] Software Extension to the PMBOK(R) Guide Fifth Edition
[9] DAHMANN J., BALDWIN K., 2008. US DoD Systems Engineering Guide for Systems of Systems.
Available at: https://www.acq.osd.mil/se/docs/SE-Guide-for-SoS.pdf


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Abstract
This document defines a normalized taxonomy for systems of systems (SoS) to facilitate
communications among stakeholders. It also briefly explains what a taxonomy is and how it applies
to the SoS to aid in understanding and communication. Taxonomies provide a means in many
fields to classify and describe the relationships between the relevant elements being studied. The
elements of the taxonomy, or taxa, form a partitioning or means of classification within that body
of knowledge. In the context of systems of systems (SoS), the relevant elements are, by definition,
systems themselves. Using essential characteristics to partition the various types of SoS provides
an abbreviated nomenclature for thinking about SoS. Based on the taxonomies, different approaches
to the engineering of systems of systems are possible, improving the efficiency and effectiveness of
systems of systems engineering.
Keywords: systems engineering (SE), systems of systems (SoS), systems of systems engineering
(SoSE), taxonomy, taxonomies, acknowledged SoS, collaborative SoS, directed SoS, virtual SoS

12

ICS 35.080
ISBN 978-1-5044-5965-5 STD23750 (PDF); 978-1-5044-5966-2 STDPD23750 (Print)
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Systems and software engineering — Taxonomy of systems

3 Terms and definitions

3.1 General terms

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[SOURCE: ISO/IEC/IEEE 24765:2017, 3.2338]

[SOURCE: ISO/IEC/IEEE 21839:2019, 3.1.4]

3.2 SoS types

Note 2 to entry: This definition is adapted from Reference [7].

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Note 2 to entry: This definition is adapted from Reference [7].

Note 2 to entry: This definition is adapted from Reference [7].

Note 2 to entry: Virtual SoS are typically self-organizing.

Note 3 to entry: This definition is adapted from Reference [7].

4 Concepts and application

4.2 Importance of taxonomies to SoS

4.3 Use of SoS taxonomies

5 Taxonomies for systems of systems

5.2 Taxa: directed, acknowledged, collaborative and virtual

5.2.2 Description of the taxa

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5.2.3 Examples of potential application of the taxa

5.2.4 When to use

5.2.5 How to use

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5.2.6 Why to use

The following are potential limitations with this taxonomy.

5.2.8 Benefits of use

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Summary of SoS taxonomies

Table A.1 summarizes SoS taxonomies.

Table A.1 — Summary of SoS taxonomies

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