A Review of Low Cost Housing

Technologies in India

Vishal Puri, Pradipta Chakrabortty and Swapan Majumdar

Abstract One of the three basic needs for mankind's survival is shelter which is
not adequate in India as per the estimation reported by the Ministry of Housing and
Urban Poverty Alleviation, Government of India. With an annual population
growth rate of 1.64 % as compared to world population growth rate of 1.23 %
during the last decade there is a great vulnerability to housing needs in the coming
decades. This would result in an enormous over dependence on traditional building
materials like steel, cement and wood. To reduce this over dependence there is a
need to review alternate building materials and formulate guidelines for their
application in construction industry. This paper focuses on the recent advancements
in energy efficient, eco-friendly low cost building materials like fly ash, earthen
materials and natural fibers (bamboo) along with the different problems associated
with them. Numerous technologies are available nowadays to build two storey
bamboo house, pre-engineered bamboo portal frame buildings, composite bamboo
beams and columns, fly ash concrete, fly ash bricks, fly ash blocks, non-erodible
mud plaster, terra cotta skin in mud walls, tumbler tiles, and fibrous boards. The
recent developments in this area in India by various organizations like Building
Materials and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC), Central Building
Research Institute (CBRI), Indian Institute of Technology (Delhi, Roorkee, Madras,
Kharagpur) and Indian Plywood Industries Research and Training Institute (IPIRTI)
have been discussed along with their potential applications, cost aspects. Numerous
problems such as lack of codal guidelines, technology transfer and manufacturing
facilities associated with these materials have been discussed. Need of the hour is
for their widespread usage and awareness among peoples but the lack of specific
guidelines unlike other countries hinder their application.

Keywords Low cost housing
Bamboo
Fly ash
Earthen material
Natural
fibres

V. Puri (&)
P. Chakrabortty
S. Majumdar

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, IIT Patna, Patna, India
e-mail: vishal.pce13@iitp.ac.in

© Springer India 2015 1943

V. Matsagar (ed.), Advances in Structural Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2187-6_150
1944 V. Puri et al.

1 Introduction

The housing shortage at the beginning of 12th Five Year plan (2012–2017) is
estimated at 18.78 million as per the Report of the Technical Group on Urban
Housing Shortage, Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, Government
of India [1]. With the annual population growth rate of 1.64 % as compared to world
population growth rate of 1.23 % [2] during 2000–2010 there is a great vulnerability
to housing needs in the coming decades. However, with the traditional building
technologies it is impossible to solve this menace as we cannot solely depend on
the traditional construction materials such as concrete, bricks, wood to cover all
housing needs, as they are produced from the natural resources. The continuous
exploitation and depletion of natural resources is harming the environment. More-
over, different toxic substances such as carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen
oxides and suspended particulate matter are invariably emitted to the atmosphere
during the manufacturing process of traditional construction materials. Emission of
toxic matter further contaminates the air, water, soil, and aquatic life which influence
the human health and the standard of living. Thus there is a need for adoption of
“Eco-Structures”, which are the constructions that are in harmony with the sur-
roundings and does not violate the environment neither through building materials or
construction methods [3]. Also with the over exorbitant dependence on the building
materials like steel, cement and wood the construction cost is increasing day by day
because of high demand, scarcity of raw materials and high price of energy. The use
of alternative construction materials has now become a global concern from the
standpoint of energy concerns. Thus there arises the need to look out for cheaper yet
sustainable low cost housing technologies.
Sustainability is defined as the development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs [4].
Sustainable development involves the social, environmental and economic
accountability often known as triple bottom line [4]. For every sustainable material,
the selection and usage depends on its performance which depends on different
factors such as [5]:
1. Locally produced and sourced materials
2. Transport costs and environmental impact
3. Thermal efficiency
4. Occupant needs and health considerations
5. Financial viability
6. Recyclability of building materials and the demolished building
7. Waste and pollution generated in the manufacturing process
8. Energy required in the manufacturing process
9. Use of renewable resources
10. Toxic emissions generated by the product
11. Maintenance costs.
A Review of Low Cost Housing … 1945

Use of natural materials like straw, bamboo, fibers and husk is a very old
practice in India. These materials are locally available and have easy workability
and also promotes speedy construction. Also different industrial wastes like fly ash,
rice husk can be used for construction purposes as they are easily available. This
paper focuses on the recent advancements in the various energy efficient, eco-
friendly and alternative materials like bamboo, fly ash, earth, natural fibers along
with their affordability and problems associated.

2 Low Cost Housing Building Materials

Low cost housing refers to those housing units which are affordable by that section
of society whose income is below than median household income. This depends on
three key parameters—income level, size of dwelling unit and affordability.
Affordability depends on the type of construction materials used and the cost
associated with them. Natural materials such as fibers, earth and fly ash are some of
the materials which are easily available and have excellent prospects of being used
in the construction industry. Figure 1 categorizes the different low cost housing
building materials. The following sections focus on the emerging technologies
available in India that provide an alternative to traditional construction materials.

2.1 Earthen Material

Oldest building material used for centuries even though with faced difficulties like
erosion, water penetration, attack by termites and pests and high maintenance.
Figure 2 shows the world’s largest mud brick building. However, with recent
advancements this technology can be still widely used for enhanced positive results.
Central Building Research Institute (CBRI) has developed Non-Erodible mud
plaster. This is prepared by mixing bitumen cutback (Bitumen and Kerosene oil
mixture) with a specified mud plaster [6]. This is an economical and effective
technique that provides protection against water. Also to protect mud-walls from rain
and moisture, Centre for Science for Villages, Wardha, India has developed a
technique of providing potter made tile lining also termed as Terra Cotta Skin to
Mud walls [6]. They have also developed a technique for manufacturing Tumbler
tiles which are used for roofing, are light weight and can bear the weight up to 1 T/m2
with an expected lifespan of 50 years and require no repairs [7]. CBRI has developed
a machine to produce C-Bricks which has enhanced properties over the conventional
bricks [8]. BMTPC has developed a technique to manufacture red mud polymer door
shutters and panel products which are termite, fungus, fire, and weather resistant [9].
They are cheaper than wood, energy efficient, requires less maintenance cost. With
such a widespread development in technology the challenge is now to bring it to the
masses and use them on a massive scale.
1946 V. Puri et al.

Fig. 1 Different low cost building materials

Fig. 2 The great mosque of

Djenné—largest mud brick
building in the world, Mali,
West Africa

http://lanalog.blogspot.in/

2.2 Natural Fibers

Natural fibers are those which are found from vegetable or animal origin. They are
environment friendly, biodegradable, cheap as compared to synthetic fibers and can
be used as an excellent substitute to the synthetic fibers.

2.2.1 Bamboo

One of the fastest growing plants in the world with some of its species growing at
an incredible rate of 91 cm per day as per Guinness Book of world Records [10] is
an excellent low cost substitute to wood. India is the second largest producer of
bamboo in the world after china with over 136 species presently cultivated [6].
Figure 3 shows the major bamboo growing areas in India. A specimen bamboo
structure is shown in Fig. 4.
A Review of Low Cost Housing … 1947

Fig. 3 Major bamboo www.nbm.nic.in/grow_bamboo.html

growing areas in India

Fig. 4 Bamboo structure

www.joostdevree.nl/shtmls/bamboe.shtml

Bamboo has high tensile strength and a very good weight to strength ratio which
makes it highly useful against high velocity winds and earthquakes. As compared to
materials like steel, plastics, aluminum it requires very less energy for production.
Steel requires 50 times more energy than bamboo to produce 1 m3 material per unit
of stress [11]. However being susceptible to termite attack it needs to be treated first
either by chemical or non-chemical treatment [3] which increases its life span. In
India, the treatment specification for bamboo structures are defined by IS 9096 [12].
1948 V. Puri et al.

The structural design guidelines are stipulated by National Building Code 2005
[13]. With such a widespread availability, affordability and excellent material
properties bamboo is an excellent construction material with great future prospects.
Bamboo has various applications in all components of small buildings both
structural and nonstructural. Bamboo could be used in foundations, floors, walls,
roofs, roof covering, doors and windows [14]. Numerous studies have been carried
out to study the engineering characteristics of bamboo. Prospects of bamboo as a
replacement of steel in reinforced concrete beams, columns were studied by Ghavami
[11]. Fracture behavior of bamboo reinforced concrete members were studied by
Terai and Minami [15]. Seismic performance of bamboo structure was studied by
Elizabeth and Datta [16] and Sharma [17]. A special type of Glue laminated girder
using laminated bamboo veneers were studied by Xiao et al. [18]. A two story house
constructed using laminated bamboos were demonstrated by Xiao et al. [19]. Pre-
fabricated bamboo panel houses were demonstrated by Zehui et al. [20].
In India bamboo is used traditionally in many regions. However, its usage is
limited to semi load bearing element or as infill material in light frame wood
houses.
Indian Plywood Industries Research and Training Institute (IPIRTI) have
developed a two story house using bamboo at Bangalore. The house has split
bamboo grid and wire mesh plastered with cement mortar for walls with bamboo
columns providing support and ceiling was made up of light bamboo mat corru-
gated sheets. These types of houses are best suitable for earthquake prone areas as
the test results showed that these houses resisted seven repetitions of typical zone 5
earthquakes.
Researchers at IIT Delhi have developed pre-engineered bamboo portal frames,
bamboo domes, composite bamboo beams, and columns for low cost housing.
Considerable research is also being carried out to establish whether the bamboo
composites could be used for high rise buildings especially in earthquake prone
areas. Research has highlighted that the structures made from bamboo could be
replaced to those made by conventional building materials. These structures are
several times cheaper, eco-friendly and could be used for sustainable housing
development.
Building materials and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC) in collabo-
ration with different organizations have also developed several products like
bamboo mat corrugated sheets, bamboo mat doors, pre-fabricated double walled
composite house, bamboo roofing sheets, bamboo laminates. These products have
shown good performance in different climates. Table 1 shows a comparison
between different properties of bamboo and steel. The R and D efforts for devel-
opment of these products have established the technical feasibility and are being
commercially produced and marketed.
Bamboo which has a great potential as a substitute to steel is available in the market
for about Rs. 5,000 per ton as compared to steel bars price of Rs. 40,000–50,000 per
ton. In two recent case studies it was observed that about 26 and 23 % of the con-
struction cost could be saved using low cost housing technologies [21].
A Review of Low Cost Housing … 1949

Table 1 Comparison for different properties of bamboo and steel

S. Property Bamboo Steel
No.
1 Density (515–817) for different species in 7,850
(kg/m3) green condition
(640–758) for different species in
air dry condition [13]
2 Modulus of (0.61–15.01) × 103 for different 2 × 105
elasticity species in green condition
(N/mm2) (3.77–21.41) × 103 for different
species in air dry condition [13]
3 Grading for As per diameter, taper, straightness, As per its yield stress,
structural inter nodal length, wall thickness, ultimate tensile stress,
utilization density and strength, durability elongation
and seasoning [13]
4 Compression (25–100) MPa [14] Mild steel—compression
strength in column bars: 130 MPa
5 Tensile (100 to 400) MPa [14] Mild steel—permissible
strength stress in tension
140 MPa (up to 20 mm
dia)
130 MPa (over 20 mm dia)
6 Bending (70–300) MPa [14] 0.66 × yield stress
strength
7 Factor of safety For safe working stresses 1.15—Structural member
(F.O.S) of bamboo [13] for limit state of collapse
4—Extreme fiber stress in beams
4.5—Modulus of elasticity
3.5—Maximum compressive stress
parallel to fibers

However number of important considerations still limits the use of bamboo as a

universally applicable construction material. Durability of bamboo is affected by
attack of fungi and insects. Effective joining methods are still being researched.
Figure 5 shows the different types of bamboo cuts to make bamboo joints. Bamboo
structures don’t behave well in fire and cost of treatment is relatively high. Also
there is a lack of design guidance and standardization of the design of bamboo
structures [14]. Although India has an extensive distribution of bamboo but still raw
material supply chain for manufacturing different composites is not adequate.
Adhesives used for bamboo products are similar to those used in wood. Thus there
arises a need to formulate or improve the formulations of existing adhesives to
make them more environment-friendly. Also there is a great need to enhance the
scale of manufactured bamboo products along with spreading awareness so as to
use it on a mass level.
1950 V. Puri et al.

Fig. 5 Different types of bamboo cuts to make bamboo joints

2.2.2 Other Natural Fibers

Considerable research has been carried out on developing artificial fibers like
carbon, aramid and glass. However the other natural fiber’s such as straw, kenaf,
flax, jute, sisal widespread usage is still lacking. Main advantages of natural fibers
over synthetic fibers include—biodegradability, energy recovery, lower specific
weight which gives higher specific strength and stiffness, renewable resource, low
investment, good thermal and acoustic properties, natural working conditions.
Figure 6 shows three different fibers—kena, flax and hemp.
Glass fiber reinforced gypsum panels were utilized by IIT Madras researchers
[22] to showcase a low cost housing model. The 800 sq. ft house was constructed at
a cost of Rs. 10 lakhs. GFRG panels were utilized for entire building system
including floors, roofs, staircases which significantly reduced the consumption of
reinforced cement concrete.
BMTPC has developed several products like fiber fly ash cement boards, fibrous
gypsum plaster boards, coir cement board, straw panels, jute fiber polyester panels
in association with different other organizations. Red mud jute fiber polymer
composite which is made up of raw materials like red mud, polymers and natural
fibers has been developed which is used for door shutters and panels [23]. These
materials provided excellent alternative to conventional building materials which
are costlier and polluting our environments.

KENA FLAX HEMP

www.naturfaserverbundwerkstoffe.de

Fig. 6 Different natural fibers

A Review of Low Cost Housing … 1951

2.3 Industrial and Building Waste

2.3.1 Fly Ash

Presently India generates about 70 % of electricity through thermal power plants

which produces fly ash in plenty and with the future production also predominantly
on coal; the fly ash disposal seems to be a big concern. India ranks 4th in the world
in production fly ash after USSR, USA and China [24]. As per the recent estimates
fly ash generation is expected to reach 225 million tons by 2017 [25]. With such
huge volume requiring massive land area for disposal along with the presence of
heavy metals in it which are not biodegradable. Its safe disposal is also a huge
concern as it affects the environment and ground water.
Fly ash is defined as a heterogeneous mixture of amorphous and crystalline
phases and is a finely powdered ferro-alumino-silicate material having Al, Ca, Fe,
Na and Si as predominant materials. Fly ash is a finely divided powdered material
the particles of which are spherical in shape and range in size from 0.5 to 100 µm.
Fly ash is broadly classified into two categories as Class C and F as per ASTM
C-318 [26]. The properties of both the classes vary based on the type of fuel from
which they are produced. Based on the fly ash characteristics it could have various
applications.
To study the elemental characteristics of fly ash authors performed elemental
analysis using energy dispersive X-ray emission spectroscopy (EDXE) and XRD
analysis. Figure 7 shows the FESEM image of fly ash samples obtained from NTPC
Kahalgaon, Bihar. Twenty one elements were quantified in the fly ash samples with
predominant O, Al and Si.
Fly ash has a great potential for usage in building materials as it possesses
pozzolanic properties which are utilized to produce different construction materials
like—ready-mix fly ash concrete, clay-fly ash bricks, lime-fly ash bricks, lime-fly ash
cellular concrete blocks, Portland pozzolona cement, and fly ash sand lime bricks.

Fig. 7 FESEM image of fly

ash samples obtained from
NTPC Kahalgaon
1952 V. Puri et al.

Indian metals and ferro-alloys have showcased a new effective method of fly ash
utilisation [27] by producing low-density aggregate (LDA). The low-density
aggregate (LDA) are produced using 85 % fly ash along with sand and lime. These
low density aggregates can be used as substitute to natural aggregates as they are
lightweight, reduces pollution and also the permeable surface of LDA pellets
enables better quality concrete as compared to stone chips. Being lightweight these
aggregates just add mass to concrete not much weight. Although this technology is
widely used abroad but in India recent advances have just started.
BMTPC in collaboration with regional research laboratory, Bhopal have
developed a technology to use fly ash based polymer composites [28] as wood
substitute which is used in many applications like door shutters, partition walls,
flooring tiles, wall paneling.
Materials such as fly ash which could be used as a potential replacement to cement
costs just around Rs. (75–500) per million Tons as compared to cement which costs
nearly Rs. 330 for a bag of 50 kg. As fly ash is a waste product of thermal power plants
it is sold very cheaply especially during monsoons when the demand is very less. Fly
ash could be used as part replacement in cement up to 35 % without compromising its
strength, durability and economy in construction [29].
With the recent advancements in technology fly ash is now recognized as a
valuable substance which is useful for different applications and is categorized as
“resource material” instead of “waste material”. Even though numerous steps have
been taken by Government of India like—updating existing standards IS 3812, IS
456, IS 1489, enhanced policies for effective utilization of fly ash. Ministry of
Environment and Forests (MOEF) issued a regulation making it mandatory for both
existing and new coal based thermal power plants to utilize 100 % of the fly ash
produced within a stipulated timeframe [30]. However, the fly ash utilization rate in
construction field is only 38 % [30]. There is a great need to implement the order for
utilization of fly ash by developing different above mentioned bi-products in a
massive scale.

2.3.2 Other Waste Materials

Different industrial and construction waste materials also have a great potential in
low cost housing. Construction waste is basically the unwanted material that is
produced incidentally or directly during the construction purposes. They include
electrical wiring, metal waste, concrete waste, marble waste. Also in industrial
sector, different waste materials are produced such as blast furnace slag, cement kiln
dust. These could be utilized for soil stabilization before construction. Waste tyres
in the automobile industry could be utilized as aggregates. Glass waste from the
glass industry could be utilized in the glass fiber reinforcement. Concrete waste
could be utilized for making tiles, earth fill. Since all these materials are waste
products they are cheaply available and have a great potential for low cost housing.
A Review of Low Cost Housing … 1953

3 The Traditional Versus Low Cost House Construction

Technologies

Walls: Low cost housing involves cheap materials such as wall panels made from
fibers or polymers whereas traditional method involves brick walls.
Roof: In low cost housing it is generally of tiles made from cheap materials
whereas traditional building involves R.C.C. slabs.
Beams and columns: In traditional buildings they are generally made from
cement concrete whereas in low cost buildings materials such as bamboo, fly ash
partially replaced with cement are used.
Plaster: In low cost housing plastering is generally avoided or cheaper con-
ventional materials are used whereas traditional houses involves cement plaster
along with high costs exterior paints.
Doors and Windows: The doors and windows of low cost houses are generally
formed from fiber boards whereas traditional houses involve high costs wooden
doors.
Flooring: It is generally made of terracotta tiles or color oxides in low cost
houses whereas traditional houses involve costly marble flooring.

4 Summary

Building houses for low income families poses a great challenge. It involves a great
effort to develop new technologies for using different alternate materials in the
construction industry. In this study, low cost housing technologies were studied and
the potential for the materials to be used as alternative building materials was
discussed. Even though different low cost housing technologies have been devel-
oped but still there is a shortage of housing. Still we are unable to provide shelter to
people from low income sections. There are no proper guidelines formulated for
structural aspects of these alternate building materials. Lack of awareness is also
there among builders on the applicability and benefits of these materials.
Although fly ash bricks are good alternative to conventional bricks, but still there
is a shortage of manufacturers as there is a lack of awareness regarding its benefits
and applications. There is no proper network chain for supply of raw materials like
fly ash from different thermal plants. Fly ash is a great substitute to cement but still
a lot of research is required to be carried out for all products made of cement where
fly ash could be replaced such as frames, arches, domes.
Bamboo has been used traditionally in India but only recently a 2 storey house
was showcased. That also could not be replicated widely in the market. Bamboo is
called as poor man’s steel but still its usage is limited in villages with traditional
construction practices. Research for its application in composite materials has been
1954 V. Puri et al.

carried out but its market replication on a mass scale is still lacking due to dearth of
policies and regulations.
A lot of continuous efforts are required especially from the industry point of
view so as to attain the dream of housing for all.

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