CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ELECTRIC CHARGE CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS CHARGING BY INDUCTION PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE CHARGE DISTRIBUTION ELECTRIC FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD LINES m& ELECTRIC DIPOLE %& =DIPOLE IN AUNIFORM EXTERNAL ELECTRIC FIELD % GAUSS LAW % BIBLIOGRAPHY FREER EEINTRODUCTION ELECTROSTATS:- Electrostatics is a branch of physics that studies electric charges at rest. ince classical physics, it has been known that some materials such as amber attract lightweight particles after rubbing. The Greek word for amber, NAEKTPOV, or electron, was the source of the word ‘electricity’. Electrostatic phenomena arise from the forces that electric charges exert on each other. Such forces are described by Coulomb's law. Even though electrostatically induced forces seem to be rather weak, some electrostatic forces such as the one between an electron and a proton, that together make up a hydrogen atom, is about 36 orders of magnitude stronger than the gravitational force acting between them. > There are many examples of electrostatic phenomena, [rom those as simple as the attraction of the plastic wrap to one's hand after it is removed from a package to the apparently spontaneous explosion of grain silos, the damage of electronic components during manufacturing, and photocopier & laser printer operation. Electrostatics involves the buildup of charge on the surface of objects due to contact with other surfaces. > Although charge exchange happens whenever any two surfaces contact and separate, the effects of charge exchange are usually only noticed when at least one of the surfaces has a high resistance to electrical flow. This is because the charges that transferred are trapped there for a time long enough for their effects to be observed. These charge: on the object until they either bleed off to ground or are quickly neutralized by a discharge: e.g., the familiar phenomenon of a static ‘shock’ is caused by the neutralization of charge built up in the body from contact with insulated surfaces. then remain» ELECTRIC CHARGE Historically the credit of discovery of the fact that amber rubbed with wool or silk cloth attracts light objects goes to Thales of Miletus, Greece, around 600 BC. The name electricity is coined from the Greek word elektron meaning amber. Many such pairs of materials were known which on rubbing could attract light objects like straw, pith} balls and bits of papers. You can perform the following activity at home to experience such an effect. Cut out long thin strips of white paper and lightly iron them. Take them near a TV screen or computer monitor. You will see that the strips get attracted to the screen. In fact they remain stuck to the screen for a while. It was observed that if two glass rods rubbed with wool or silk cloth are brought close to each other, they repel each other The two strands of wool or two pieces of silk cloth, with which the rods were rubbed, also repel each other. However, the glass rod and wool attracted cach other, Similarly, two plastic rods rubbed with cat’s fur repelled each other but attracted the fur. On the other hand, the plastic rod attracts the glass rod and repel the silk or wool with which the g ‘od is rubbed. The glass rod repels the fur. If a plastic rod rubbed with fur is made to touch two small pith balls (now-a-days we can use polystyrene balls) suspended by silk or nylon thread, then the balls repel each other and are also repelled by the rod. A similar effect is found if the pith balls are touched with a glass rod rubbed with silk. A dramatic observation is that a pith ball touched with glass rod cts another pith ball touched with plastic rod ‘These seemingly ‘acts were established from years of efforts and careful attra simple { experiments and their analyses. It was concluded, after many careful studies by different scientists, that there were only two kinds of an entity which is called the electric charge. We say that the bodies like glass or plastic rods, silk, fur and pith balls are electrified.They acquire an electric charge on rubbing. The experiments on pith balls suggested that there are two kinds of electrification and we find that (i) like charges repel and (ii) Gi) unlike chai The experiments also demonstrated that the charges are transferred from the rods to the pith balls on contact. It is said that the pith balls are electrified or are charged by contact. The property which differentiates the two kinds of charges is called the polarity of charge. s attract each other. Physicists believe that charge is a fundamental quantity, and will have its own unit. However, there is one interesting property of charge that mass, length and time do not have: charge is quantized in multiples of a basic charge. This means that the charge on any particle or object is an integer multiple of a fundamental charge unit called electron. Since all stable matter is made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons, the net charge q of a material is (Np — Ne)e where Np is the number of protons in the material and Ne is the number of an equal number of protons and electrons, the al. If the material has an excess of electrons (protons), then ive (positive) charge. Thus, q = (Np ~ Ne)e is quantized in multiples of e since Np and Ne ai This quantization doesn’t only hold for stable mater, but for all subatomic particles that are directly observed in the laboratory (quarks having a charge that is a fraction jofe). material is neutr the material has a net ne; > intege Thus, one really doesn’t need a special unit to denote the rge on an object. One only needs an integer denoting the number of fundamental charges on the object. Whether ¢ itself has units is a question that is considered in quantum mechanics. We will take the classical physics approach and assign a unit to charge, that being the Coulomb.. In terms of Coulombs, e ~ 1.6%10-19 Coulombs. The charge on any material object is equal to: q = (Np — Ne)1.6 * 10-19 Coulombs, and is consequently quantized. When macroscopic objects are *charged” large numbers of electrons are transfered (around 1010 or more). Because of this, we are notsensive to the quantization of charge and tend to think of charge as a continuous quantity. Millikan (1909) was the first to demonstrate experimentally that charge is quantized, and received a Nobel Prize for his. discovery. > Conductors and insulators The behavior of an object that has been charged is dependent upon whether the object is made of a conductive or a nonconductive material. Conductors are materials that permit electrons to flow freely from particle to particle. An object made of a conducting material will permit red across the entire surface of the object. If charge is charge to be transf transferred to the object at a given location, that charge is quickly distributed| across the entire surface of the object. The distribution of charge is the result of electron movement. Since conductors allow for electrons to be transported from particle to particle, a charged object will always distribute its charge until the overall repulsive forces between excess electrons is ged conductor is touched to another object, the charge to that obj adily if the second obj minimized. Ifa c conductor can even transfer The transfer of charge between objec tis made ofa conducting material. Conductors allow for charge transfer through the fre movement of electrons. Uniform Distribution of Charge on ConductorsInsulators are materials that impede the free flow of electrons from atom to atom and molecule to molecule. If charge is transferred to an insulator at a given location, the excess charge will remain at the initial location of charging. The particles of the insulator do not permit the free flow of electrons; subsequently charge is seldom distributed evenly across the surface of an insulator. ‘Applications While insulators are not useful for transferring charge, they do serve critical role in electrostatic experiments and demonstrations. Conductive objects are often mounted upon insulating objects. ‘This arrangement of a conductor on top of an insulator prevents charge from being transferred from the conductive object to its surroundings. This arrangement also allows for a student (or teacher) to manipulate a conducting object without touching it. The insulator serves as a handle for moving the conductor around on top of a lab table. 5 Conductor halater Mounting comducter (pop cans) on insulating pla tfomns (styrofsam cups) prevents chargp from escaping to the sirmundings. It alsomakes fora convenient handle.CHARGING BY INDUCTION One common demonstration performed in a physics classroom involves the| induction charging of two metal spheres. The metal spheres are supported by insulating stands so that any charge acquired by the spheres cannot travel to the ground. The spheres are placed side by side (see diagram i. below) so as to form a two-sphere system. Being made of metal (a conductor), electrons are free to move between the spheres - from sphere A to sphere B and vice versa. If a rubber balloon is charged negatively (perhaps by rubbing it with animal fur) and brought near the spheres, electrons within the two-sphere system is simply the principle that like charges repel. Being charged negatively, the electrons are repelled will be induced to move away from the balloon. This by the negatively charged balloon. And being present in a conductor, they are free to move about the surface of the conductor. Subsequently, there is a mass migration of electrons from sphere A to sphere B. This electron migration causes the two-sphere system to be polarized (see diagram il. below). Overall, the two-sphere system is electrically neutral. Yet the movement of electrons out of sphere A and into sphere B separates the negative charge from the positive charge. Looking at the spheres individually, it would be accurate to say that sphere A has an overall positive charge and sphere B has an overall negative em is polarized, sphere B is physically separated from sphere A using the insulating stand. Having been pulled further from the balloon, the negative charge likely uniformly about sphere B (see diagram iii. below). Meanwhile, the excess charge. Once the two-sphere sy edistributes itself positive charge on sphere A remains located near the negatively charged balloon, consistent with the principle that opposite charges attract. As the balloon is pulled away, there is a uniform distribution of charge about the surface of both spheres (see diagram iv. below).This distribution occurs as the remaining electrons in sphere A move across the surface of the sphere until the excess positive charge is uniformly distributed. Charging by Induction Ty) metal spheres The presemeofa=charge Sphere Bisseparated from The excess pe mumtedon indwese'tomovefom sphereAusingthemellating distributesi jilatingstands. sphere AtoB. The two- stand. Thetwosphereshave unifommby over sphere system 1s polarized. opposite charges, surface of the:PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE 1) Additive nature of charges Charges are additive in nature means they’re like scalars and can be added| directly. For An Example consider a system which consists of two charges| namely q: and q:, Now we wish to find the total charge of the system. The total charge of the system will be the algebraic sum of q: and q: i.e.q: + qp, The same thing holds for a number of charges in a system. Let's say a system contains qi,q2,q).q« will be .q., then the net charge of the entire system} p+ qtqgtqt.. at Qo The charge is a scalar quantity as it has only magnitude and no direction. The charge is just as other fundamental properties of the system like mass, ‘The only difference between mass and charge is that charge is both positive} and negative, while mass is always positive. 2) Charge is conserved ‘The charge is a conserved quantity which means charge can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be transferred from one body to another by certain methods like conduction and induction. As charging involves} rubbing two bodies, it is actually a transfer of electrons from one body to} another. We can’t create a charge in a body but eventually can transfer] them to another body with some convenient methods. In a system when charg distributed accordingly, by the principle off conservation the net charge of the system remains constant. As an example| if 5 C is the total charge of the system, then it can be redistributed as 1C, 2C and 2C or in any other possible permutation, but by conservation principle} the net charge of system will always be 5 C. Although the charge carriers} may be destroyed in a system but the net charge will remain conserved.3) Quantization of charge Charge only comes in countable number: The smallest amount of charge that has ever been observed is the charge on the electron and/or the che ge on the proton (both the same amount, but opposite type). Hence the term "quantization of charge." Quantum or "quantized" means that it is numbered or integer-countable (can come in -1, 0, 1, 2, 8, ete. but not 1.5 or pi, etc), and a quantum is essentially one of those quantized objects. The total charge on a charged object is therefore the number of individual charges, all of which are either electrons or protons, multiplied by the charge on lone of them. This explains the existence of the following equation: n*¢ Coulomb’s law is a quantitative statement about the force between two point charges. When the linear size of charged bodies are much smaller than the distance separating them, the size may be ignored and the charged bodies are treated as point charges. Coulomb measured the force between two point charges and found that it varied inversely as the square of the distance between the charges and was directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the two charges and acted along the line joining the two charges. Thus, if| ance rin vacuum, two point charges ql , q2 are separated by a dis! the magnitude of the force (F) between them is given by ,4ne, or? where, g, and q, are the stationary point charges and r is the separation bet! them in air or vacuum. Also, 129x109 N-m?/0? dre where, €) = permittivity of free space = 8.85419 x 107 C */(N-m? The force between two charges g, and go located at a distance r in a medium o| than free space may be expressed as Fo ae dne r? where, € is absolute permittivity of the medium. 1 49 Now, Feacoum ARE"? _e _ F 1 um e * dne where, €, is called relative permittivity of the medium also called dielectric constanl the medium. In vector form, r Principle of Superposition of Electrostatic Forces:- This principle states that the net electric force experienced by a given charge particle qo due to a system of charged particles is equal to the vector sum of the forces exerted on it due to all the other charged particles of the system.he. Fy =Po,+Fig+ Fog +... +B, 1 , Fy= N40 Tort 9290 Typ tant 9n40 Ane, |, 3 : 3 Yo | To Toy ; Toy | where, rp, =") 1), Fy, =foree on gy due to gy. Superposition of electrostatic forces Electrostatic Force due to Continuous Charge Distributio: ‘The region in which charges are closely spaced is said to hav continuous distribution of charge. It is of three types given as below:(i) Linear Charge Distribution dq=idl where, A = linear charge density 1 soda) R= aney |r|? ane, Net force on charge gy, F=—22- (i) Surface Charge Distribution dg =6 dS where, 6 = surface charge density Net force on charge qo, F j, “Si oS ire (iii) Volume Charge Distribution dq=pdV where, p= volume charge density pdV . Net force on ch , Fa 20 é ree dy, Fe f. ire Eccrric Field Lines :-[lectric field lines are a way of pictorially mapping the electric field around a configuration of charge(s). These lines start on lines at positive charge and end on negative charge. The tangent on thes any point gives the direction of field at that point. Electric field lines due to positive and negative charge and their combinations are shown as below:Electric Field Intensity The electric field intensity at any point due to source charge is defined as the force experienced per unit positive test charge placed at that point lwithout disturbing the source charge. It is expressed as E=tim= %—~ dg Here, qo 0, ie. the test charge g) must be small, so that it does not produce its own electric field, SI unit of electric field intensity (E)is N/C and it is a vector quantity. Electric Field Intensity (EFT) due to a Point Charge Electric field intensity at P is, then The magnitude of the electric field at a point P is given by 1 |E|=—— £ fi Amey r Hyperbola If q> 0, i.e. positive charge, then E is directed away from source © charge. On the other hand if q < 0, i.e. negative charge, then E is directed towards the source charge. Ext ‘ Pe Electric Field due to a System of Charges Same as the case of electrostatic force, here we will apply principle of superposivion, i.e.Electric Dipole ‘Two point charges of same magnitude and opposite nature separated by a small distance altogether form an electric dipole. Electric Dipole Moment The strength of an electric dipole is measured by a vector quantity known as| electric dipole moment (p) which is the product of the charge (q) and separation between the charges (21)+9 ——21 ———» p=qx2l = Ipl=4(2D Direction Its direction is from negative charge (~ q) to positive charge (+4). Sl unit Its SI unit is C-m. NOTE The line joining the two charges ~q and + qis called the dipole axis. (i) Eleetric Field at any Point on the Axial Line/End-on Position of Electric Dipole —— The direction of electric field at any point on axial line is along the direction electric dipole moment. (ii) Electric Field at any Point on Equatorial Line/Broadside on Position/Perpendicular Bisector of Electric Dipole E =—._=P _ suustorial “gre, (r? + PS? The direction of electric field intensity (E) due to dipole at any point on equatorial line is parallel to dipole and opposite to the direction of dipole moment. If Ixer, 1 Ipl 3Electric Field due to a Dipole Electric field of an electric dipole is the space around the dipole in which the electric effect of the dipole can be experienced. When [<< r, —/Pasiall__ 9 equatorial | [DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM EXTERNAL ELECTRIC FIELD ‘Torque on an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field (E) is given by t= px E=|tl= pEsin8 Minimum torque experienced by electric dipole in electric field, when @ = 0° or x T= Tmin = 0 Maximum torque t= tyaq, When sin@=1 = @= 1/2 Tmax = PE Dipole is in stable equilibrium in uniform electric field when angle between} pand Eis 0” and in unstable equilibrium when angle 8= 180°. Net force on electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field is zero.There exists a net force and torque on electric dipole when placed in non- uniform electric field. |Work done in rotating the electric dipole from 6, to 6. is W = pE (cos 8: - cos 8.) Potential energy of electric dipole when it rotates from 8; = 90° to 8-0 U = pE (cos 90° - cos) = -pE cos 8 = - p .E Work done in rotating the dipole from the position of stable equilibrium to unstable equilibrium, ic. when 8; = 0° and 8. = 7. W=2Pe [Work done in rotating the dipole from the position of stable equilibrium to the position in which dipole experiences maximum torque, i.e. when @, = 0° and Je. = 90°, W = pE APPLICATIONS ‘The value of dipole moment helps to predict the shape of the molecule. For example, experiments show that the dipole moment of BeF- is zero. This is possible only if bond dipoles of two Be - F bonds cancel each other. GAUSS’S LAW According to Gauss’s law, the total of the electric flux out of a closed surfac jis equal to the charge enclosed divided by the permittivity. The total electric flux through a closed surface is zero if no charge is enclosed by the surface. Gauss’s law is true for any closed surface, no matter what its shape or neludes the sum of all smay be located anywhere law i Phe term q on the right side of Gau: charges enclosed by the surface. The charg inside the surface.> In the situation when the surface is so chosen that there are some charges inside and some outside, the electric field [whose flux appears on the left side of Eq. (1.31)] is due to all the charges, both inside and outside S. The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law, however, represents only the total charge inside S. lo ‘The surface that we choose for the application of Gauss’s law is called the Gaussian surface. The Gaussian surface can pass through a continuous charge distribution. lo Gauss’s law is useful for the calculation of the electrostatic field for a symmetric system. |, Gauss’s law is based on the inverse square dependence on distance contained in the Coulomb's law. Any violation of Gauss’s law will indicate departure from the inverse square law. Flux through area element AS is, Ab=E-AS=—*_#- AS 4meyr Since # and AS have same direction, Ad = ead 7 For all area eteepants. the flux will be, = Zonas ize ral For same r of each area element, - -_2 b= Fa Lauas S82 aps Flux through a sphere of Area of sphere = 4nr2, radius r, with charge q o=t at its center. ‘The great significance of Gauss’s law is that it is true in general, and not only for the simple cases we have considered above. Let us note some important points regarding this law: (i) Gaus: or size. s law is true for any closed surface, no matter what its shape(ii) (iii) (iv) (vi) Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire Consider a long straight wire which carries the uniform charge per unit length . We expect the electric field generated by such a charge distribution to possess cylindrical symmetry. We also expect the field to point radially (in a cylindrical sense) away from the wire (assuming that the wire is positively charged). The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law, includes the sum of all charges enclosed by the surface. The charges may be located anywhere inside the surface. In the situation when the surface is so chosen that there are some charges inside and some outside, the electric field [whose flux appears on the left side of Eq. is due to all the charges, both inside and outside S. The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law, however, represents only the total charge inside S. ‘The surface that we choose for the application of Gaus: called the Gaussian surface. You may choose any Gat and apply Gauss’s law. However, take care not to let the Gaussian surface pass through any discrete charge. This is because electric field due to a system of discrete charges is not well defined at the location of any charge. (As you go close to the charge, the field grows without any bound.) However, the Gaussian surface can pass through a continuous charge distribution. Gauss’s law is often useful towarc electrostatic field when the system has some symmetry. This is facilitated by the choice of Finally, Gauss’s law is based on the inverse square dependence on distance contained in the Coulomb’s law. Any violation of Gauss’s law will indicate departure from the inverse square law. a much easier calculation of the suitable Gaussian surface.charged sire ganecion surfoes THE GAUSSIAN SURFACE FOR A LONG THIN WIRE OF UNIFORM LINEAR CHARGE DENSITY Let us dr: and length £ electric field generated by the wire is everywhere perpendicular to the curved surface of the cylinder. Thus, according to Gauss' lav B(R) 2 RL = 24, 70) Where ”“ js the electric field-strength a perpendicular distance B from the wire. Here, the lefi-hand side represents the electric flux through the gaussian surface. Note that there is no contribution from the two flat ends of the cylinder, since the field is parallel to the surface there. The right-hand eo side represents the total charge enclosed by the cylinder, divided by follows that ,- . . . - - ~ pA >O The field points radially (in a cylindrical sense) away from the wire if | A<0 and radially towards the wire if : APPLICATIONS Re: that is spherically symmetric, or a charged DNA that has some kind of rchers use symmetry to find the electric field due to a charged virus symmetry or charged symmetrical objects in nanotechnology. [am looking As another example, we will calculate the field from a uniform plane sheet of charge. Suppose that the sheet is infinite in extent and that the charge per unit area is 6. We are going to take another guess. Considerations of symmetry lead us to believe that the field direction is everywhere normal to the plane, and if we have no field from any other charges in the world, the fields must be the same (in magnitude) on each side. This time we choose for our Gaussian surface a rectangular box that cuts through the sheet, as shown in Fig. The two faces parallel to the sheet will have equal areas, say A. The field is normal to these two faces, and parallel to the other four.The total flux is E times the area of the first face, plus E times the area of the opposite face—with no contribution from the other four faces. The total charge enclosed in the box is 6A. Equating the flux to the charge inside, we have EA+EA=oAe, EA+EA-ocAG, from which ‘a simple but important result. |A sphere of charge; a spherical shell We have already used Gauss’ law to find the field outside a uniformly charged spherical region. The same method can also give us the field at points snside the sphere. For example, the computation can be used to} obtain a good approximation to the field inside an atomic nucleus. In spite} of the fact that the protons in a nucleus repel each other, they are, because of the strong nuclear forces, spread nearly uniformly throughout the body of the nucleus. Guus sutace Chae shia halThe Electric Field Due to a Thin Spherical Shell + The area vector is parallel to the electric field vector at the surface of the spherical Gaussian surface. The angle between the area vector and the electric field vector is zero. = fEedA=E-fdA =E-A-cos0 cosO=1 sphereA=4-a-r D=E-4-n-1° =4-72-k-q,, 4-n-k-q,, =E-4-a-9 4-m-k-qin _ _k-Q Bibliography References that I used for my proj www.google.in pradeep publications www.ncertnicin learncbse.com I am highly grateful for the information that I got from. this project.