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Journal information: :'()*+ !"#"$%&

Journal of Language Testing MT(=* U*45PV,#* M(W%
A peer-reviewed bi-annual journal issued by $X 4.Y3 MR'Z% MQR(X M(W%
King Salman Global Academy for Arabic Language MPQ-G/=* MT(= [=5/=* \5R(7 ](S* ^RW%
Riyadh- Saudi Arabia MNO+/0=* MPQ-G/=* M'(RS* -F5>G=*
ISBN paper version: 9491-1658 ١٦٥٨-٩٤٩١ :M‫ـــ‬Qb4+=* Mcd0e=* .%O4
ISBN Electronic version: 9505-1658 ١٦٥٨-٩٥٠٥ :;8<'=:* Md0e=* .%O4
‫محتويات العدد‬
‫يراتها ال رقية‬ ‫بة بن ا‬ ‫الم‬ ‫اال بارا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫م ار ة‬

‫ية‬ ‫ال‬ ‫اال بارا‬
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‫ال ة العربية‬ ‫الرابع ل‬ ‫ال بار المس‬ ‫عرا‬ ‫ا‬

‫من‬ ‫ال ينية‪ :‬واقع والم م‬ ‫الجامعا‬
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‫لعي‬ ‫ا مري‬ ‫المج‬ ‫يها‬ ‫را ة م ار ة بين ت‬

‫ل ا‬ ‫المش ر‬ ‫المر ع‬ ‫ار ا ورب‬ ‫نبية وا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ال ا‬
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‫يا‬ ‫داما والمس‬

‫ً‬ ‫را‬ ‫ية ا‬ ‫الم‬ ‫بارا‬ ‫اال‬
‫تس هد ها‬ ‫والن ات ال‬
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‫ايا‬ ‫ل يا‬ ‫بار معيار‬ ‫لبناء ا‬ ‫ر‬ ‫رم‬ ‫ت‬

‫ة العربية ل ة ا ية‬ ‫ال‬ ‫مع م‬
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‫‪How Different Are Test-Taking Strategies with‬‬

‫?‪Computer-Based and Paper-Based Reading‬‬
‫‪The Case of Saudi EFL Learners‬‬
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‫هذه الطبعة إهـــداء من المجمــع‬
ً‫وال ُيسمح بنشرها ورقياً أو تداولها تجاريا‬
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‫ية‬ ‫الل‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ال ت‬ ‫ة‬ ‫ال‬ ‫را‬ ‫ة ت‬ ‫المح‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ال ت‬ ‫ة ت‬
‫مقارنة نتائج الاختبارات المحوسبة بنتائج‬

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‫( أستاذ االختبارات في جامعة الملك سعود‬١)

‫( باحثة دكتوراة في جامعة الملك سعود‬٢)
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Abstract
The current study aimed to compare two types of tests, which differed
in content. The study presumed that the measured attribute would show
similar results. The study examined to what extent the results of the digital
language tests are equivalent to their counterparts of the paper-based ones.
To find answers to the study questions, the required tools were applied to
the target population of female learners of Arabic as a second language in
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The study sample consisted of (64) individuals.
In its core question, the study aimed to examine to what extent the results
of the language computer-based tests correspond to their paper-based
counterparts.
Furthermore, the study shed light on the coefficient correlation between

the study population performance on the language computer-based tests
and their backgrounds in using computers. It is noteworthy that the study
utilized a variety of research tools to achieve its objectives.
The study showed a number of results, particularly with regard to the main
theme of the study which demonstrated that the results of the language
computer-based tests and the results of their paper-based counterparts
were well-matched.
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Eventually, the study showed that there was no statistically significant

correlation between the cognitive backgrounds of the study population in
using computer and their results on the language computer-based tests.
Key words:
Tests, digital, computer-based, paper-based, second language, Arabic, results.
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F Sig. T
Equal variances assumed
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‫المراجع‬
:‫العربية‬ ‫المرا ع‬-‫أوال‬

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:‫نبية‬ ‫ المرا ع ا‬-‫ا ًيا‬

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٥١
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٥٣
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‫ة‬ ‫ال‬ ‫ال‬ ‫الل ة ال ر ة‬ ‫لت‬ ‫الرا‬ ‫الم ت‬ ‫ل ت‬ ‫ا ت را‬
‫اســتعراض لاختبار المســتوى الرابع لتخصص‬

:‫اللغــة العربيــة في الجامعــات الصينية‬
‫واقعه والمأمول منه‬
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Abstract
Test for Arabic Majors Grade Four (TAM-4) in Chinese universities is the only
unified exam organized by the Steering Board for Teaching Arabic in Chinese
Universities and Higher Institutes of the Ministry of Education in China, and the aim
of its establishment is to measure students’ linguistic and skill competencies and their
ability to apply integrated Arabic language, which gives it an irreplaceable position in
controlling the educational process, measuring the teaching effectiveness and testing
its quality. This paper briefly presents the form of the test and the mechanism of its
operation, discusses its importance and social impact, and also addresses how to
improve the effectiveness of the test and enhance its compliance with the language
ability requirements stipulated in the “National Standard for Teaching Arabic in Chinese
Universities and Higher Institutes”, so that this test plays a catalytic role for teaching
Arabic at the state level.
Keywords:
TAM-4, Mechanism of employment, Social impact, Ways to improve
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‫ال ــة‬ ‫ــ‬ ‫الرابــع ل‬ ‫ شــ ا بــار المســ‬-

‫العربيــة بالجامعــا ال ينيــة‬
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- Alderson J C & Wall D. (1993). Does washback exist?Applied Linguistics.
- Hughes A. (2003). Testing for Language Teachers. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.
٨٣
ِ
‫توجيهات المجلس‬ ٌ
‫دراسة مقارنة بين‬
‫الأمريكي لتعليم اللغات الأجنبية‬
ُّ ‫والإطار الأوربي المرجعي المشترك‬
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٨٥
Abstract:
The frameworks of foreign language proficiency emerged in the United States
in the mid-twentieth century with the aim of relying on an objective evaluation of
language levels among foreign language learners who are relevant to the American
administration. Since then, frameworks have begun to emerge and develop
according to audiences and their needs. Some are directed towards evaluating
government employees, some evaluate military personnel, some are suitable for
academic fields, some for young learners, and others evaluate the languages
of immigrants and for specific purposes, etc. With the spread of Arabic teacher-
training programs for non-native speakers around the world, a question is constantly
raised: Which framework is better? Some even tend to favor one framework over
another without clear scientific evidence. In various scientific events, the researcher
noticed that there is a lot of missing information about frameworks among many
people, which makes the overall picture of these frameworks inaccurate. Therefore,
there is no logic to favor a particular framework. There are also different aspects
of frameworks that need to be considered when judging their suitability for a
specific context beyond the number of levels and descriptors. Therefore, this study
attempted to answer the question: What are the areas of similarities and differences
between the American Council on Teaching Foreign Languages guidelines (ACTFL)
and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR)?
The study yielded several important findings, including agreement between the
two frameworks on key areas, such as reliance on previous frameworks, testing
prior to final release, two versions of publication until now, and agreement on their
use in assessment and support for users. However, they differed in terms of the
European framework’s broader range of uses compared with the American Council’s
guidelines. The latter was characterized by its smaller size compared to CEFR and
its inclusion of Arabic language-specific additions to its descriptors. In addition, it
provides certified proficiency tests according to the guidelines. The sections and
descriptors of CEFR were broader than those of ACTFL, with newer sections,
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such as online interactions, being included. This comparison is expected to assist

language teachers in selecting an appropriate framework for their audiences and
linguistic needs based on their working environment. It will also aid those interested
in developing an Arabic reference framework for planning this project and making
decisions based on previous experiences.
Keywords:
Language proficiency, reference frameworks, ACTFL guidelines, CEFR
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English:
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١١٧
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!"#$ %&''''''''''()$ - *''')"#$ +'''''''','''-)$

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common-european-framework-reference-languages/the-cefr-descriptors#
- Herzog, Martha.(n.d).An overview of the history of the ILR Language

proficiency skill level descriptions and scale. HOW DID THE LANGUAGE
PROFICIENCY SCALE GET STARTED?. Retrieved on 15/01/2021 from
http://www.govtilr.org/Skills/IRL%20Scale%20History.htm
- Language Testing International. (n.d). About LTI/ Who we are. https://

www.languagetesting.com/lti-information
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Abstract
Commonly used objective tests and the levels and outcomes they target.
This is an analytical and evaluative study of the most common objective test
items, as well as the cognitive levels most used in those tests, and the educational
outcomes that they should achieve, in addition to the inherent defects in them, and
the shortcomings that characterize the various types of objective tests.
The study concluded that the most used types are multiple-choice item formats,
and that these tests are limited to measuring cognitive goals at the lowest level of
the cognitive domain in Bloom’s Taxonomy, however, it has never measured the
higher, more complex cognitive levels that need the implementation of thought, and
deduction, such as analysis, evaluation, and creativity.
The study ascribes and attributes the shortcomings and defects to the non-
compliance of those who prepared these tests with the scientific standards set by
experts and educational and measurement scholars.
Most of the test item formats, under study, do not achieve the learning outcomes
that they are supposed to measure.
In its conclusion, the study presents the results and some recommendations that
may benefit those interested in these types of tests.
key words:
Objective tests , Teaching Arabic to speakers of other languages , Language

assessment , Educational series , Cognitive levels, Educational outcomes.
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https://life.aun.edu.eg .à1'##=p 0##2(&d .Ó##L7:C4, 0##'9`
- Addamigh, Khalid & Phil Scholfield. (2005). Test Item format in EFL Tests
at Secondary Schools and University Levels in Saudi Arabia”. TESOL
Arabia. 91-111.
- Aitkin, K. )1979(. Techniques of Assessing Listening Comprehension in

Second Languages. Audio-Visual Language Journal, 17 (3) 119-125.
- Gronlund, N. (1990). Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching (7th ed).

New Macmillan Publishing Co.
- Osterlind, Steven. (1992). Constructing Test Items (2nd ed.). Publishers,

Norwell, MA.24
- Stiggins, Student. (2001). Involved Classroom Assessment (3rd ed.).

Upper Saddle River.
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‫تصور مقترح لبناء اختبار معياري لقياس‬

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Abstract:
The aim of this research is to present a proposal for building a standard test to
measure the competencies of teachers of Arabic as a second language, and to
prepare a list of the professional, linguistic and cultural competencies necessary
for these teachers. To reach the results of this research, the researcher used the
descriptive analytical approach for preparing a list of the necessary competencies
and reaching a list of a number of competencies, they are:
1. Professional competencies from which (4) sub-competencies emanated,

from these sub- competencies emanated (64) procedural competencies.
2. Linguistic competencies from which (4) sub-competencies emanated, and

(64) procedural competencies.
3. Cultural competencies from which (4) sub-competencies emanated, and

(52) procedural competencies.
The total of procedural competencies are (180). The researcher presented a

proposed concept to build a test to measure these competencies, and based on the
results he reached, he presented a number of recommendations and proposals.
Keywords:
competencies of teachers of the Arabic language, standardized tests, linguistic
competence, cultural competence, professional competence.
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Mandarin speaker test performance. Language Learning, 56(4), 633–670.
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administration mode matter? [Proceedings paper]. Meeting of the British
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language problem? In J. Alderson & A. Urquhart (Eds.), Reading in a foreign
language (pp. 1–24). Longman.
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Reading comprehension in digital and printed texts. L1-Educational Studies
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٢٣٠
appropriate bottom-up test-taking strategies in the case of the second question

– refute that argument. Participants would not have used more strategies and
mobilized proper strategy types with screen reading if they had been under stress or
experienced difficulties reading. In line with this, Noyes et al.’s (2004) observation
that more effort and higher workload are involved with CBT in contrast to PBT may
partially explain the significant application of more test-taking strategies with CBR
than with PBR.
In conclusion, and as stated by Yeom and Jun (2020), “only a limited picture
can be acquired by simply comparing scores on the two modes” (p. 282). In other
words, a comprehensive understanding of the comparability of CBR and PBR
cannot be gained by simply measuring students’ performance with the two reading
modes. In-depth examination of the processes involved in comprehending and
answering questions, the effect of question type, and the affective orientation of
test takers should top the agenda for future research. Such mechanisms must be
thoroughly examined to define reading comprehension within this emerging and
increasingly dominant context. In addition, test creators should be aware that the
test design may encourage or discourage the use of specific test-taking strategies
and that those strategies may have an effect on test-takers’ performance, which in
turn could affect the construct that the test is meant to measure. Overall, one cannot
maximize the potential advantages of digital reading without in-depth knowledge,
which can only be gained through extensive and focused research. Further studies
are needed regarding some of the significant, yet under-researched, variables
involved, such as processing speed, proficiency level, and test-wiseness strategies.
The current investigation is hopefully a step in the right direction.
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& Garland, 2003, 2008; Sawaki, 2001; Yeom & Jun 2020). The study outcomes
support the assumption that a distinctive method of engaging in screen reading is
required due to the accompanying new textual boundaries, linearity, and navigation
style (Anderson, 2002; Chen, 2009; Coiro and Dobler, 2007; Solak, 2014). The
significant difference in the mobilization of test-taking strategies across the two
reading mediums supports Singer and Alexander’s (2017) account that “such
digital texts may place unique demands on readers’ skilful and strategic processing
not typically associated with the processing of printed text” (p. 155). McEneaney
(2003) suggests that ‘‘hypertext materials may be more cognitively demanding or
require a greater degree of higher-level relational processing (Wenger and Payne,
1996) than traditional print’’ (p. 2).
The study findings may also explain the results obtained by previous research
(Abanomey, 2012; Duran & Alevli, 2014; Ross, et al., 2017) indicating that
students show better performance with CBR than with PBR. The fact that the CB
group, in a statistically significant manner, used more test-taking strategies may
explain why some previous studies indicated that CB perform better. Compared
with PBR, CB reading involves not only more strategies but also the proper use of
the appropriate types of strategies based on the question and what it measures.
The use of bottom-up strategies for the second question proves this. Screen
reading seems to encourage test takers to look at and interact with the text more
frequently in comparison to paper reading. This finding is consistent with Noyes
and Garland’s (2008) observation in their meta-analytic study that as technology
advances, reading on screens becomes more natural. Recent studies tend to show
a greater equivalence between CBR and PBR tests.
In addition, some researchers (Baym, 2015; Dudeney & Hockly, 2016; Güneş,
2009; Ziefle, 1998; Wästlund et al., 2005) suggest that reading from a screen
is stressful, more difficult, and causes greater levels of tiredness and weariness
than reading on paper. However, the study findings that statistically significantly
more test-taking strategies were used with computer-based reading – and more
٢٢٨
PB group and 52 test takers in the CB group used a combination of two strategies.
For Question 4 (Table 12), however, test takers showed a somewhat different,
though not statistically significant, manner. The question asked test takers to use a
single strategy to guess the meaning of a word on the basis of the context in which
it appeared. In comparison to 99 test takers from the CB group, 114 test takers
from the PB group used one strategy. The table indicates that, in contrast to PB
test takers, more CB test takers used three or more strategies to answer Question
4. The question of whether CB test takers face a difficulty with the screen size
that forces them to use more than one strategy at one time should be addressed
in future studies. Overall, the four tables show that there were no statistically
significant differences between the two groups in terms of how they used their
test-taking strategies. Two important variables to explore in the future are whether
certain test-taking strategies are associated with correct answers and with which of
the two reading formats, screen or paper, such test-taking strategies are used more.
Discussion
The use of CBR in EFL classes implies that new challenges will greatly impact
L2 learners’ ability to comprehend what they read, because of new dynamics and
literacies that are assumed to emerge with this new format of reading (Chifari et
al., 2010; Coiro 2003). Previous research has produced mixed results regarding
the relationship between reading medium (print versus digital text) and reading
comprehension, with some studies favouring the print format. The major goal of this
study was to examine the possible variation in test-taking strategies that may result
from the use of two reading formats, namely computer-based and paper-based.
A statistically significant finding is that the CB group mobilized more test-

taking strategies than the PB group did. Moreover, compared with the PB group,
participants in the CB group used statistically significantly more bottom-up test-
taking strategies. The former finding lends support to the argument that interacting
with CBR texts may involve particular skills, abilities, and cognitive processes that
are somewhat different from those required in PBR reading (Dillon,1992; Noyes
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Table 11. Chi-Square Test for the Difference Between the PB and CB
Groups in the Number of Strategies Used to Answer Question 3
PB CB Total
Number of Strategies
No. % No. % No. %
1 88 50.6 88 50.6 176 50.6
2 50 28.7 46 26.4 96 27.6
3 or more 36 20.7 40 23.0 76 21.8
Total 174 100.0 174 100.0 348 100.0
Chi-square (χ2) 0.377
P-Value 0.828 (N.S.)
PB CB Total
No. % No. % No. %
1 114 65.5 99 56.9 213 61.2
2 35 20.1 39 22.4 74 21.3
3 or more 25 14.4 36 20.7 61 17.5
Total 174 100.0 174 100.0 348 100.0
P-Value 0.196 (N.S.)
Tables 9–12 indicate that test takers across the two groups tended to mobilize
one strategy with each of the four questions in an almost identical fashion. For
example, an equal number of test takers in the two groups (88) used only one
strategy to answer Question 3. Similarly, to answer Question 2, 51 test takers in the
٢٢٦
Tables 3–8 document the number of strategies used by the two groups with
the different questions, either collectively or individually. Next, Tables 9–12 break
down the test takers according to the number of strategies they used with each of
the four questions: one, two, or three or more strategies.

PB CB Total
No. % No. % No. %
1 84 48.3 76 43.7 160 46.0
2 64 36.8 58 33.3 122 35.1
3 or more 26 14.9 40 23.0 66 19.0
Total 174 100.0 174 100.0 348 100.0
p-Value 0.160 (N.S.)
PB CB Total
No. % No. % No. %
1 90 51.7 88 50.6 178 51.1
2 51 29.3 52 29.9 103 29.6
3 or more 33 19.0 34 19.5 67 19.3
Total 174 100.0 174 100.0 348 100.0
p-Value 0.977 (N.S.)
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Table 7. Z-Test for the Differences in the Means of Test-Taking

Strategies Between the PB and CB Groups with Question 3
PB CB Z-Test
Strategies Type
No % No % Z value Sig.
Top-down 161 50.2 160 49.8 0.079 (N.S.)
Bottom-up 155 49.5 158 50.5 0.240 (N.S.)
Total 316 49.8 318 50.2 0.112 (N.S.)

PB CB Z-Test
Strategies Type
Top-down 114 49.1 118 50.9 0.371 (N.S.)
Bottom-up 166 46.8 189 53.2 1.726 (N.S.)
Total 280 47.7 307 52.3 1.576 (N.S.)
Tables 5, 7, and 8 show the similarities in participants’ use of test-taking strategies with
Questions 1, 3, and 4, respectively. There were no statistically significant differences across
the two groups in their use of both top-down and bottom-up test-taking strategies with the
three aforementioned questions. Table 6, however, shows a noteworthy result. The CB
group, with a Z value of 2.03 at a 0.05 level, used significantly more bottom-up test-taking
strategies with Question 2 in contrast to the PB group. This question was presumed to be
answered using bottom-up strategies, as it involved referring to a specific part of the text to
identify referents of a pronoun. This finding may indicate that CBR encourages test takers
to refer to the passage more frequently than PBR does. Ackerman, & Lauterman (2012)
argued that there is more self-monitoring with reading texts digitally especially if the reading
time is limited. This may also explain why some studies show that test takers perform better
with CBT than with PBT.
٢٢٤
Regarding the third question, which measured students’ ability to scan the text
for specific information, the two groups of participants used almost equal numbers
of bottom-up and top-down test-taking strategies. Finally, with the fourth question,
which asked students to guess the meaning of a vocabulary item, Table 4 indicates
that the CB group tended to use more bottom-up test-taking strategies in comparison
to the PB group. The two groups’ use of top-down test-taking strategies is almost
identical. In total, the CB group mobilized more overall test-taking strategies, with a
marginal difference of 27 strategies. Tables 5–8 indicate whether the differences in
the number of test-taking strategies with each of the four questions are statistically
significant or not.

PB CB Z-Test
Strategies Type
Top-down 120 46.5 138 53.5 1.585 (N.S.)
Bottom-up 185 49.3 190 50.7 0.365 (N.S.)
Total 305 48.2 328 51.8 1.293 (N.S.)

PB CB Z-Test
Strategies Type
Top-down 193 52.4 175 47.6 1.327 (N.S.)
Bottom-up 116 45.5 139 54.5 2.037 0.05
Total 309 49.6 314 50.4 0.283 (N.S.)
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PB CB Total
Question Number Strategies Type
No % No % No %
Top-down 161 50.9 160 50.3 321 50.6
Question 3 Bottom-up 155 49.1 158 49.7 313 49.4
Total 316 100.0 318 100.0 634 100.0
Top-down 114 40.7 118 38.4 232 39.5
Total 280 100.0 307 100.0 587 100.0
Table 4 details the number of test-taking strategies applied with each of the
four questions. It reveals that, overall, participants across the two groups tended
to use more bottom-up test-taking strategies with the first question. This questions
measured their ability to determine the main idea of the passage. Participants were
expected to use more top-down test-taking strategies because of the demand of
the question itself; however, they mobilized 258 top-down strategies in contrast to
375 bottom-up test-taking strategies. Top-down strategies are usually associated
with questions that require higher thinking skills, namely inferring, self-monitoring,
evaluation and making judgments.
Similarly, for the second question, the participants used more top-down than
the bottom-up test-taking strategies. Question 2 asked the students to identify
the referent of a pronoun, and in such case it is expected that more bottom-
up test-taking strategies be utilized. A significant feature of bottom-up reading
comprehension test-taking strategies is the focus on words and grammatical
structure identification. However, the two groups of students deployed a total of
368 top-down strategies and only 255 bottom-up strategies. Table 4 also indicates
that the PB group was the source of the observable tendency to mobilize more
top-down strategies (193 in comparison to 175 by the CB group). On the other
hand, The CB group used more bottom-up test-taking strategies than the PB group
did. This observation has considerable implications, as will be shown in Table 6.
٢٢٢
Table 3. A Z-test of the Differences in the Means of Test-Taking

Strategies between the PB and CB Groups with all Questions
PB CB Z-Test
Strategies Type
Top-down 588 49.9 591 50.1 0.124 (N.S.)
Bottom-up 995 47.8 1,086 52.2 2.821 0.01
Total 1,583 48.6 1,677 51.4 2.328 0.05
Table 3 indicates that both groups showed statistically significant differences in

their overall use of test-taking strategies. At the 0.05 level, the CB group employed
significantly more test taking strategies in comparison to the PB group. Furthermore,
the table shows that, with a Z value of 2.821 at the 0.01 level, the CB group was
statistically significantly different from the PB group in the use of more bottom-up test-
taking strategies. However, both groups showed no statically significant difference in
their mobilization of top-down test-taking strategies. An important question that arises
is whether such differences in the overall use of test-taking strategies are present in
the test-taking strategies used with each of the four questions. The answer to this
inquiry is presented next in Table 4.
Table 4. Total Number of Strategies with Each of the Four Questions
PB CB Total
Question Number Strategies Type
No % No % No %
Top-down 120 39.3 138 42.1 258 40.8
Total 305 100.0 328 100.0 633 100.0
Top-down 193 62.5 175 55.7 368 59.1
Total 309 100.0 314 100.0 623 100.0
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Results
In line with study’s overall goal of determining whether a change in the medium
of reading presentation has any effect on the test-taking strategies used in a reading
test, I present the results related to three major questions: (1) Does the medium
of reading (PB and CB) affect the number of test-taking strategies? (2) Does the
medium of reading (PB and CB) affect the manner in which Saudi EFL learners
use reading comprehension test-taking strategies? (3) Does the medium of reading
(PB and CB) affect the type of reading comprehension test-taking strategies used
(top-down and bottom-up)?
Table 2. Total Number of Strategies Used in Answering the

Questions with Both Formats
PB CB Total
Strategies Type
No % No % No %
Top-down 588 37.1 591 35.2 1,179 36.2
Bottom-up 995 62.9 1,086 64.8 2,081 63.8
Total 1,583 100.0 1,677 100.0 3,260 100.0
Table 2 indicates that the participants used a total of 3,260 strategies, with
both CB and PB reading formats. The table also shows that there was similarity
in the total number of overall strategies used by the CB and PB groups: The CB
group used 1,677 strategies to answer the four questions, while the PB group used
1,583 strategies. This similarity in number is also applicable to the two categories
of strategies used (top-down and bottom-up): The PB group used 588 top-down
and 995 bottom-up strategies, and the CB group used 591 top-down and 1,086
bottom-up strategies. In addition, Table 2 indicates that, overall, participants used
more bottom-up than top-down strategies to answer the four questions, regardless of
the presentation medium. The CB group, specifically, tended to use this type of test
taking strategies more than the PB group. Whether these numbers are statistically
significant or not is shown in Table 3 below.
٢٢٠
with the same text but in a linear traditional paper-based format and then asked
to answer the test questions on the same page. This procedure took place over
five semesters, which aided me in collecting data from a large group of subjects.
Upon the completion of the first stage, the researcher utilized a design that
encompassed a four-question reading comprehension test as well as a questionnaire
on the test-taking strategies. In such a design, the reading passages were shown
on the first page. The first question regarding the passage appeared on the second
page, followed by a question about the strategies participants used to answer that
question. The same list of inquiries regarding the test-taking strategies accompanied
the second, third, and fourth comprehension questions on the third, fourth, and
fifth pages, respectively. Such a design, which Abanomey (2002), Nevo (1989),
and Tsagari (1994) proved to be a valid, rapid, and effective tool in collecting the
valuable data, allowed for immediate feedback from test takers (Chadwick et al.,
1989; Chamot, 2001; Forcese & Richer, 1973). In addition, no coaching occurred
within the present research on test-taking strategies. In other words, participants
were not given any instructions on test-taking strategies, as it may have raised their
awareness and influenced them to utilize strategies that they would not otherwise
have employed.
Lastly, all questions asking participants about their strategies in answering the
reading test were written in the Arabic language. The list of strategies from which
they could choose was also written in Arabic. This decision was made because it
might be difficult for participants to write about their strategies in their L2. Cohen
(1994) addresses the importance of using the test takers’ native language “in
order to eliminate the problem of the nonnatives’ proficiency in the target language
interfering with the reporting process” (p. 125).
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ability to identify referents of pronouns as a means of examining the grammatical ability

of test takers participating in this study. These higher-level and lower-level processes
were examined simultaneously and within the same test. Four multiple-choice questions
were included: The first question assessed the test takers’ ability to skim the text to
deduce the main idea. The second question was intended to investigate participants’
grammatical ability in EFL. While the third question asked participants to scan the text
to search for pieces of information, the fourth question tested participants’ vocabulary
knowledge.
The researcher prepared a test-taking strategies questionnaire for use with

both test presentation modes. In accordance with the purpose of the current
investigation, it was necessary to utilize a design that would incorporate both a test
and an elicitation tool that could examine and report the test-taking strategies used
by the participants in the study. The author employed a questionnaire consisting of
a checklist of test-taking strategies as guided by findings and recommendations of
previous studies (Abanomey, 2002; Cohen, 1984, 1994; Nevo, 1989; Tsagari,
1994). The list included two types of test-taking strategies: Bottom-up and Top-
down. Bottom-up strategies are the lower-level reading processes used to construct
meaning from the most basic units of language, including letters, letter clusters,
and words. According to Gough (1972), in bottom-up model, the reading process
proceeds in serial fashion, from letter to sound, to words, to grammatical structure
identification to meaning. Bottom-up reading strategies begin with letter-sound
correspondences (the bottom) to achieve comprehension (the top). Top-down
strategies, on the other hand, are holistic and proceed from the whole to the parts.
Students create meaning by using background knowledge, making predictions, and
searching texts to confirm or deny predictions made.
The researcher presented the four abovementioned questions and the

questionnaire to both the CB group (on computer screen) and the PB group (on
separate sheets of paper). The CB group was asked to read a passage that
appeared on computer screens in a language lab, while the PB group was presented
٢١٨
Materials and Procedures

The purpose of this study was to determine which, if any, variations in test-taking
strategy occurred in a reading test when the text was presented in the CB format
as opposed to the traditional PB mode of reading. The research question guiding
the study was as follows: Do EFL test takers use different test-taking strategies
when the text is presented on a computer screen than when the text is presented
on paper?
Writing the multiple-choice reading questions for the current study could not
have been done without first deciding on a general reading comprehension test
framework. Another important consideration was ensuring that various questions
tap into different sub-reading skills.
Writing test items also involved deciding on a theory upon which the test
constructor based the test. In the current study, it was adhered to Bernhardt’s (1986,
1990) second-language reading model as the main source of test specifications.
In addition to assigning significant importance to both higher-level and lower-level
processes, Bernhardt’s (1986, 1990) model considers L2 vocabulary knowledge
and L2 grammatical skills to be critical in facilitating second-language reading
comprehension. Most significantly, the model allows for the interaction between text-
based elements, such as phonemic/graphemic features, syntactic feature recognition,
and word recognition, and extra text-based elements, such as textual perceptions, prior
knowledge, and metacognition. The model “focuses on the connected interactions
between various textual features and influences external to the text” (Aweiss, 1993,
p. 18). As a result—and based on the theory underlying Bernhardt’s (1986, 1990)
second-language reading model and following Hughes’s (1989) and Cohen’s (1994)
recommendations—it was essential to tap into two kinds of reading skills: macro
and micro skills. On the one hand, macro skills included scanning the passage to
locate specific pieces of information and skimming the passage to infer the main idea
conveyed by the writer. Micro skills, on the other hand, included the ability to identify
the meaning of unknown vocabulary items based on the surrounding context and the
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Method
Research Questions
The main objective of this study was to determine whether a change in the medium
through which a reading text is presented has any effect on the number and type of
reading comprehension test-taking strategies used by Saudi EFL learners in reading
comprehension tests. This inquiry could be answered by addressing the following
three questions: (1) Does the medium of reading (PB and CB) affect the number of
test-taking strategies? (2) Does the medium of reading (PB and CB) affect the manner
in which Saudi EFL learners use reading comprehension test-taking strategies? (3)
Does the medium of reading (PB and CB) affect the type of reading comprehension
test-taking strategies used (top-down and bottom-up)?
Participants
A total of 348 undergraduate male students at Riyadh College of Technology participated
in this study. At the time of the study, the students were enrolled in a scientific reading
course as one of the requirements to complete their bachelor’s degree. I chose the
participants based on their proficiency level as determined by their scores after finishing
a one-semester intensive English course: a score between 70 and 80, which the majority
of students achieved. It should be noted that students who fail to score 70 are required
to retake the intensive English course. I divided students into two groups: PBR and CBR.
Table 1 shows the distribution of subjects in the present study.
Table 1. The Distribution of Students in this Study
Medium of Reading No. of Students Percentage
PB 174 50%
CB 174 50%
Total 348 100%
٢١٦
authors, the increased cognitive demands of the digital format may explain this
affective orientation. Duran and Alevli (2014) included the variable of gender when
examining the effect of screen reading on the comprehension of Turkish eighth
grade students. The researchers found that after reading on screen, participants’
reading comprehension scores were significantly higher than after reading on
printed materials. They also found a significant difference caused by gender:
Female students’ reading comprehension scores were superior to those of male
students on both reading formats.
The divergent results highlight the importance of carefully examining the various
factors involved in reading on both formats within testing situations, with the most
crucial factor being EFL learners’ actual processes when engaging in paper and
screen reading (Haddock et al., 2020; Kerr & Symons, 2006; Noyes & Garland,
2003; Reinking, 1988; Sawaki, 2001). Yeom and Jun (2020) accurately state that
“few studies investigated the extent to which students engage in similar processes
of reading in the two test-presentation modes” (p. 284). In line with this, there
have been calls for further studies that examine the comparability of paper- and
computer-based tests from various perspectives, including those that focus on “the
process rather than product of reading” (Sawaki, 2001, p. 51).
Given the paucity of studies comparing the strategies EFL students apply to
answer comprehension questions on reading texts that are presented in paper- and
computer-based forms (Fulcher & Davidson, 2007; Higgins, et al., 2005; Hosseini
& Toroujeni, 2017; Yeom & Jun, 2020), the purpose of this study is to determine
whether any differences exist in the reading comprehension test-taking strategies
mobilized with the two formats. To my knowledge, the available research comparing
CBR to PBR does not control the two variables of reading format and test items
format. That is, it is unclear whether the reported discrepancy in performance can be
attributed to the reading presentation format (paper or screen) or to the test question
format (printed paper-based test questions or computer-based test questions).
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processes when responding to reading comprehension questions presented to them

in paper and computer test-presentation modes. They found not only no statistically
significant difference between the strategies used on the reading tests delivered in
both formats but also “very few statistically significant differences in strategy use
between the two modes” (Yeom and Jun, 2020, p. 282). Another significant finding
is the reported preference among most participants to take the test on paper despite
observed similarities in test performance and strategy use between the two formats.
Such a finding can be attributed to the reported difficulties with the computer mode
and participants’ lack of familiarity with reading on a computer screen.
Examining the mode of presentation effect on cognitive workload with a group

of undergraduate students at the University of Bristol, Noyes et al. (2004) found
that “although there were no significant differences in the comprehension scores
or the overall workload scores for paper and computer” (p.112), more effort and
higher workload was involved with CBT than with PBT, especially with lower-
performing test takers. In a study that compared information retention with printed
and electronic texts, Gable and Thompson (2011) found no significant difference
in the time needed to read the information. In addition, although reading electronic
texts improved short-term memory retention, the authors observed no significant
difference between the two forms in terms of their effect on long-term retention.
Another noteworthy finding was the positive effect that familiarity with computers
had on the speed of reading.
Wästlund et al. (2005) investigated the effect of CBR on Swedish readers’

perceptions of written texts. In their study, the authors asked participants to
read text in either a printed format or PDF format (on a computer) and assessed
comprehension thereafter. In addition to the finding that participants who read
the printed text achieved greater levels of comprehension than those who read
the digital text, Wästlund et al. (2005) reported that participants found the digital
format to be particularly stressful when compared to the paper format. To the
٢١٤
assessments than on computer-based tests,” whereas Abanomey (2012) found

that “students who were assigned the internet-based reading test showed a better
capacity to answer the questions correctly in comparison to those who were asked
to take the same test in a traditional print-based format” (p. 9). In their assessment
of related works, Yeom and Jun (2020) elaborate on the difficulty of making “a
direct comparison between these studies because of the variation in age of the
participants, target language, instruments, and contexts” (P. 283). Çınar et al.
(2021) concur with this argument and state that “the lack of homogeneity of the
test groups used in experimental settings of those studies” (p. 258) leads to
discrepancies across literature on the effect of reading format on performance.
Some research on CBR comprehension, albeit limited, assesses language

learners’ reading comprehension strategies and compares conventional PBR to
CBR. Researchers propose a set of differences that distinguishes the two reading
formats from each other (Anderson, 2002; Coiro and Dobler, 2007; Solak, 2014).
Some of these differences “relate to textual boundaries, linearity, and navigation”
(Chen, 2009, p. 34). While paper-based texts are usually linear, computer-based
texts are often nonlinear or multilinear (Chen, 2009), which affects the reading path.
In contrast to reading traditional PB texts, which often involves a predetermined and
predictable path, reading a CB text involves a random and unpredictable route. Coiro
(2003) argues that reading from computer screens makes comprehension more
challenging in comparison to conventional PBR, in part due to the limited space on
the computer screen through which the reader interacts with the text. Ziefle (1998)
and Wästlund et al. (2005) indicate that computer screen reading causes greater
levels of tiredness and is more stressful than PBR. Given that such disparities may
affect reading comprehension in general and reading comprehension assessment
in particular, studies examining the comparability of the two modes have emerged
within the last 20 years.
Yeom and Jun (2020) examined whether young Korean EFL learners use similar
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Available research on the use of CBR in comparison to PBR in reading

comprehension assessment focuses mainly on whether the presentation format of
reading texts influences students’ performance, mostly in L1 reading. Investigations
into the effect of paper- versus computer-based presentation modes on learners’
performance have produced a range of somewhat inconsistent findings (Yeom &
Jun, 2020; Solak, 2014; Genc 2011). Variation in the comprehension assessment
measures and the use of different study designs could be part of the reason for
such disparity in research findings (Alisaari et al., 2018). On the one hand, several
studies report that PBR, in contrast to CBR, leads to better learners’ performance,
represented by test score (Alamri, 2007; Ebrahimi, 2020; Choi et al., 2003; Creed
et al., 1987; Haddock et al., 2020; Hosseini & Toroujeni, 2017; Kerr & Symons,
2006; Kim & Huynh, 2008; Lauren et al., 2019; Mangen et al., 2013; Muter et
al., 1982). Jeong (2012) found that the reading comprehension scores of the 56
participants were significantly better when reading printed texts compared to digital
texts. In addition, students reported preferring printed texts over digital texts.
On the other hand, some studies report that digital reading leads to enhanced
comprehension and better understanding than PBR (Abanomey, 2012; Aeschliman,
& Chase, 2017; Duran and Alevli, 2014; Ross, Pechenkina; 0Singer & Alexander,
2017). Kerr and Symon (2006) found, for instance, that when the participants
in their study (60 fifth grade students) read the digital texts, they had better
comprehension scores in contrast to when they read the printed texts. Much
research within this area, however, reports no significant difference between the
two presentation formats (Alisaari et al., 2018; Higgins et al., 2005; Pommerich,
2004; Reinking, 1988; Srivastava & Gray, 2012).
However, few studies have compared the actual reading comprehension

test-taking strategies used with both reading formats (Yeom & Jun, 2020). The
observation of inconsistent findings is even reported within the same local context.
According to Alamri (2007), Saudi students “tend to score better on paper-based
٢١٢
● opportunities” (p. 381). New methods of interaction with widely used

electronic documents and
● hypertexts on computer screens add to the difficulties that computer-based

readers face (Baym,
● 2015; Dudeney & Hockly, 2016; Güneş, 2009). For example, “moving
between texts, pages, and
● sites puts a strain on cognitive resources” (Brun-Mercer, 2019, p. 2). In

addition, eye-tracking
● research has indicated that other types of texts on the same page being
read causes distractions
● and eye fatigue (Nielsen and Pernice 2010). Alisaari et al. (2018) state
that “reading digital texts
● is speculated to be cognitively more challenging than reading printed texts

because a backlit
● computer screen causes eye fatigue and possibly interferes with memory
retrieval” p.5. To make
● a valid interpretation of computer based test scores, Yeom & Jun, 2020
call for conducting more
● research on the comparability between computer-based and paper-based

reading to examine
● whether “a difference in the presentation mode could result in changes in

the constructs that are measured through the test” (p. 282).
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. ٢٠٢٣ 23-4% - '5 ١٤٤٥ !"#$ 9%:3; ٢١١
learners, and test users alike” (Sawaki, 2001, p. 38). However, “despite this increased
use of information and communication technologies in school and at home, little is
known about the reading patterns and cognitive processes readers use in nonlinear
digital texts” (Coiro and Dobler, 2007, p. 217). The major objective of this paper is
to examine whether variation exists in the test-taking strategies that Saudi EFL
learners use with computer-based reading (CBR) and paper-based reading (PBR).
Few studies have examined whether the presentation format of the passages used
in reading comprehension tests (screen and paper) have any effect on the number
and type of test-taking strategies and the manner in which such strategies are used.
Literature Review
● The increasingly frequent application and integration of computer-based
technologies,
● multimedia tools, and Internet applications for educational purposes has

led to the emergence of
● a new literacy context in which specific cognitive processes are required

for effective reading
● comprehension (Anderson, 2001; Chun & Plass, 1997; Coiro & Dobler,
2007; Spiro, Klautke,
● and Johnson 2015; Trackman et al., 2019). Coiro (2003) observes that
using electronic texts
● means that new supports as well as new challenges will have a great impact
on the L2 learners’
● ability to comprehend what they read. According to Park & and Kim (2016),
CBR “requires
● readers to adapt their text-based reading strategies, and it brings both

challenges and
٢١٠
Introduction
In recent decades, increased attention on the processes used in learning English
as a foreign language (EFL) has triggered interest in examining EFL testing practices
from the perspective of the test takers themselves (Cheng & DeLuca, 2011; Cohen
& Upton, 2007; Huang, 2016; O’Malley & Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990; Xie, 2015;
Gu, et al., 2015). The examination of L2 learners’ test-taking strategies is directly
connected to the test validity framework, within which both the processes that
test takers adopt and the outcomes are assigned equal importance (Bachman,
1990; Cohen, 1996; Cohen & Upton, 2007; Hirano, 2009). Test-taking strategies
are the cognitive language learning processes that L2 students have selected
and consciously used, at least to some degree, to answer specific language test
questions (Anderson et al., 1991; Cohen, 1998’; Waiprakhon and Jaturapitakkul,
2018). A crucial part of test validation involves gathering precise information on test
takers’ behaviours and their specific approach when responding to test questions
(Bvuma & Adika, 2017; Cohen, 2006; Hirano, 2009; Weir, 2005). Weir (2005)
believes that “what a task actually tests is what is central to establishing validity” (p.
243). Research on test-taking strategies aims to determine the correlation between
thought processes and assessment tools. There exists a “growing recognition of
the importance of gaining a better understanding of how … test-taking strategies
are used on tests as part of the process of construct validation” (Cohen & Upton,
2007, p. 209).
A major goal of language testing specialists is to gain a comprehensive

understanding of the cognitive processes EFL learners use, part of which is better
understanding of the processes that occur during test-taking situations (Anderson,
2001; Bachman, 2000). Moreover, with the advent of computer-based testing (CBT),
which differs from the conventional paper-based testing (PBT) format in terms of
the constructs to be measured, the significance of examining such strategies has
become crucial (Yeom & Jun, 2020; Sawaki, 2001). Reading from a screen is a
key component of CBT that has attracted “the attention of researchers, language
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٢٠٨
How Different Are Test-Taking Strategies

with Computer-Based and Paper-Based Reading?
The Case of Saudi EFL Learners
./$01 2*#3-(456 20 7879-(456.:

(١)
Abstract
The cognitive strategies used in test-taking situations have received significant
attention within the past 40 years. Considerable literature is available on many of
the variables related to test-taking strategies; however, finer-grained analyses of
the test-taking strategies that specific student populations employ in relation to
the format in which test materials are presented is still under-researched. More
in-depth investigation would be helpful to researchers and educators, especially
given the increased reliance on computer-mediated teaching and assessment. This
paper presents the results of a study exploring the effect of variation of reading
presentation format (screen and paper-based reading) on the test-taking strategies
of Saudi Arabian English-as-a-foreign-language learners when answering multiple-
choice reading comprehension questions. The study indicates that significantly
more test-taking strategies, particularly bottom-up strategies, were mobilized with
computer-based than with paper-based reading. Such findings may explain why
some previous studies have found better performance among computer-based test
takers since reading from a screen seems to encourage test takers to refer more
to the reading texts in contrast to paper reading.
Keywords:
test-taking strategies, paper-based reading, computer-based reading, reading

comprehension
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