ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
plays a role in reproduction,
The endocrine system and the nervous system
are the main coordinating and controlling
systems of the body. The nervous system uses
chemical and electrical stimuli to control very
rapid short- term responses. The endocrine uses
specific chemicals called hormones to induce
short-term or long-term changes in the
reproduction, development and function of
specific cells.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- Endocrine means internal secretions
- Secretes substances into the internal
environment
- Secreted substances are called
hormones
- Substance diffuse from the interstitial
fluid---blood stream---act on the target
cells
Exocrine glands- secretions are released
externally. It enters the ducts that leads to the
surface of the body. Ex. Sweat glands, tear
glands
- Endocrine system releases hormones
into the blood stream . The hormones
carries messenger molecules
everywhere
- The nervous system releases
neurotransmitter molecules into the
synapses
Functions of the endocrine glands and their
hormones
1. regulate metabolic processes- Ex.
Growth process
2. control rates of chemical reactions
3. aid in transporting substances through
membranes
4. help regulate water balance, electrolyte
balance and blood pressure
5.
development and growth
Chemistry of Hormones
- hormones are organic compounds.
There are 2 types
A. steroids
B. non-steroids
- Hormones can stimulate target cells even in an
extremely low concentrations
- Steroid hormones– are lipids that include
complex carbon and hydrogen atoms
- all steroid hormones are derived from
cholesterol
steroid hormones include:
a. sex hormone—testosterone and
estrogen
b. aldosterone and corticol– secretions of
the outer portion of the adrenal cortex
Vitamin D – a modified steroid– when
converted into active form in the kidneys and
liver becomes a hormone called parathyroid
hormone.
Non- steroid hormones– called amines including
norepinephrine and epinephrine derived from
amino acid tyroxine
these are synthesized in the adrenal medulla (
inner portion )
Protein hormones– long chains of amino acids
include hormones secreted by the parathyroid
gland and anterior pituitary gland
anterior pituitary secretes hormones that are
glycoprotein( CHO + protein
peptide hormones– short chains of amino
acids
 - associated with posterior pituitary
gland and some are produced in the
hypothalamus
- prostaglandins– regulate neighboring
cells
- are lipids in a 20 chain of fatty acids and
5 carbon rings
- produced in a variety of cells– liver,
kidneys, heart, lungs, thymus, pancreas,
brain and reproductive organs.
Actions of Hormones
- A hormone deliver its message to a cell
by uniting with the binding site of its
receptor.
- The more receptor the hormones binds
on the target cell, the greater the
response
- Number of receptors on target cells
may increase–Upregulation
- This occurs as a response to a
prolonged decrease in the level of
hormone
- A decrease in the number of receptors
in response to a prolonged increase in
hormone level—Down regulation
- Steroid hormones are poorly soluble in
water. They are carried in the blood
stream and are bound to plasma
protein
- Steroid hormones are soluble in lipids,
can diffuse into cells easily and
- can enter any cells in the body– but
only target cells will respond.
- Steroid hormones and thyroid
hormones
- thyroid hormones like steroid
hormones are also poorly soluble in
water and are transported in the blood
bound to plasma proteins.
- Once inside the target cells – steroid
and thyroid hormone combine in the
nucleus ---they bind to particular DNA --
-activate genes—genes are
transcribed into messenger RNA molecules
- mRNA enters the cytoplasm---direct the
synthesis of specific proteins (enzymes,
transport proteins and hormone
receptors )
Ex. Clinical Application
Steroid hormone Aldosterone secreted from the
adrenal gland—stimulates the kidneys to retain
sodium– cells begin to synthesize more sodium
and potassium---ions are actively transported
across the cell membrane, thus returning
sodium to the bloodstream .
Control of Hormonal Secretions
- Body turns processes on and off
- Control of hormones secretions is
essential to maintain internal
environment
- Hormone secretion is controlled in
three ways (all employ a negative
feedback)
1. Hypothalamus – constantly receives
information about the internal
environment, controls the anterior
pituitary glands release of hormones,
anterior pituitary hormones affect the
activity of other glands (trophic
hormones)
2. Nervous system – directly stimulate
some glands. Adrenal medulla secrets
hormones epinephrine and
norepinephrine
3. Other group of glands – responds
directly to changes in the composition
of the internal environment
4. Ex. Blood glucose level rises– pancreas
secretes insulin, blood glucose level
decreases—glucagon is secreted
The Negative Feedback mechanism makes
hormone levels in the bloodstream relatively
stable

Hormone level rise in the blood, and the
hormone exerts its effect, negative feedback
inhibits the system, hormone secretion
decreases.
When hormone levels decreases, hormonal
effects lessen, inhibition of the system ceases,
secretion of hormone increases again.
Pituitary Gland (Master Gland)
- Located at the base of the brain
- Have two portion
a. anterior lobe (adenohypophysis)
b. posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)
Anterior lobe – growth hormone, thyroid
stimulating hormones (TSH),
adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone
(LH), prolactin (PRL)
Posterior lobe – antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
and oxytocin (OT)
- The brain controls most of the pituitary
glands’ activities. The anterior pituitary
consists of glandular cells. Axon
terminals of hypothalamic neurons
release chemicals called releasing
hormones. This releasing hormones are
carried in the blood.
anterior pituitary hormone
- Anterior lobe is largely consist of
epithelial tissues
- The epithelial tissues have 5 types of
secretory cells
a. Somatotrophs – G.H.
b. Mamotrophs – PRL
c. Thyrotropes – TSH
d. Corticotropes – ACTH
e. Gonadotrophs – FSH and LH
Growth hormone – secretion varies during the
day and peaks during sleep.
a. Growth hormone – releasing hormone
(GHRH) stimulates secretion of growth
hormone.
b. Somatostatin – inhibits secretion
c. Prolactin – promotes milk production
d. Prolactin release – inhibiting hormone
Thyroid – stimulating hormone – (Thyrothropin)
a glycoprotein
Hypothalamus regulate TSH secretion by
producing thyrotrophin – releasing hormone
Abnormal level of TSH can lead to enlarged
thyroid gland (Goiter)
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (Corticotrophin)
– controls secretion of the outer layer of the
adrenal gland.
Secretion of ACTH stimulated by corticotropin –
releasing hormone.
Follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing
hormone (Gonadotropins)
- Glycoprotein
- Acts on the gonads or reproductive
organs
- FSH controls growth and development
of egg cells in the ovaries
- Stimulate follicular cells to secret
female sex hormone estrogen
- In males, FSH stimulates the production
of sperm cells in the testes
- LH promotes secretion of sex hormone
- Gonadotropin secretion is under the
control of the gonadotropin – releasing
hormone
- Increase in the blood level of
gonadotropin mark the onset of
puberty
Pituitary gland is largely made of neuroglia and
axons of the hypothalamic neurons
These specialized neurons produce 2 hormones
a. antidiuretic hormone ( vasopressin)
b. oxytocin
ADH and Oxytocin are polypeptides
a. antidiuretic—decreases urine
production
b. diuretic--- increases urine production
ADH –reduces the volume of water the kidneys
excrete regulates concentration of body fluids
Sufficient concentration of ADH contracts
certain smooth muscles in the walls of blood
vessels. Vascular resistance and blood pressure
increase– reason why ADH is also known as
vasopressor
Secretion of ADH increases following severe
blood loss. ADH vasoconstrictor effect help
minimize the drop in blood pressure and help
elevate BP to normal
Aside from vasoconstriction, it also retains
water
Hormone ADH have 2 target receptors.
binds with V1 receptors---increases intracellular
calcium ion concentration in smooth muscles of
the blood vessel walls leading to
vasoconstriction
binds with V2 receptors in the kidney’s tubules
containing collecting ducts. Collecting duct cells
reabsorb water and retain it back to the
circulation instead of being excreted as urine
Hypothalamus regulates the ADH secretion
Osmoreceptors in the brain can sense changes
in the concentration of body fluids diminished
body fluids ---solute in the blood becomes
concentrated—osmotic pressure is increased---
osmoreceptors senses it---signal is send to the
posterior pituitary gland to release ADH---
kidneys retain water
If a person is overhydrated---body fluids
become diluted---osmotic pressure decreases---
osmoreceptors senses it– send signal to the
posterior pituitary gland to inhibit release of
ADH---kidney excrete none diluted urine
Oxytocin
- contracts smooth muscle in the uterine
wall ( during childbirth )
- also called as the “ cuddle hormone “–
studies shows higher level of
- oxytocin during pregnancy correlate to
more maternal bonding behavior with
the infant– eye contact, touching, and
singing.
- Oxytocin also contracts certain cells in
the milk producing glands . This action
forces milk into the ducts and ejects the
milk
Thyroid Gland
- lies below the larynx ( voice box ), on
either side, anterior to the trachea
- has 2 large lateral lobe connected by
the isthmus
- covered by a capsule of connective
tissues which contains secretory parts
called follicles
- produces 3 hormones
a. thyroxine– T4
b. triiodothyronine—T3
c. calcitonin
- T3 and T4 increase the rate of energy
release from CHO, enhance the rate of
protein synthesis , and stimulate
breakdown of lipids
- Both are essential for normal growth
and development and maturation of
nervous system
- TSH controls the level of thyroid
hormone
- The follicular cells require iodine salts to
produce T3 and T4– iodine salts are
normally obtained from foods---when
 absorbed from the intestines---carried
by the blood in the form of iodide to the
thyroid gland
Calcitonin
- plays a role in the control of blood
calcium and phosphate concentration
- decreasing the rate at which they leave
the bone and controls the bone
destroying activity of the osteoclasts
- Increase the rate at which they are
deposited in bone matrix by stimulating
activity of the osteoblasts
- Increases the excretion of calcium ions
and phosphate ions by the kidneys
- High blood calcium ion concentration
stimulates calcitonin secretion
Adrenal Glands ( Suprarenal glands )
- located at the top of the kidney
- consists of 2 parts– adrenal medulla (
central portion ), adrenal cortex ( outer
portion )
- secretes 2 hormones--- epinephrine and
norepinephrine
- both hormones are classified as
catecholamine
- both are synthesize from thyroxine
- thyroxine is converted into a substance
Dopa– Dopa is further synthesize into
Dopamine--- then this is further
synthesize into norepinephrine--- then
norepinephrine is converted into
epinephrine
- Effects of the 2 hormones ( sympathetic
effects )
- heart rate increases
- forceful muscle contraction
- elevated BP
- increase breathing
- decreased digestive activity
- Both hormones function together with
the sympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system
- Both prepares the body for energy
expanding action called “ fight or flight “
response.
ADRENAL CORTEX
- produce different steroids and several
hormones called Corticosteroids
- most important adrenal corticosteroid
hormones are Aldosterone, corticol,
and certain sex hormone
Aldosterone
- also called mineralocorticoid
- regulate concentration of mineral
electrolytes--- sodium and potassium
ions
- aldosterone causes the kidneys to
conserve sodium ions and to excrete
potassium ions
- cells that secrete aldosterone respond
to changes in the composition of blood
plasma
- control of aldosterone secretion is
linked to plasma sodium level by the
renin– angiotensin system
- Specialized kidney cells (
Juxtoglomerular cells ) responds to
changes in the blood pressure and
plasma sodium ion concentration
- If BP goes down or sodium ion
concentration goes down–renin is
released by the Juxtoglomerular cells
- Renin will react with a blood protein
called Angiotensinogen
- Angiotensinogen will be converted into
Angiotensin I
- Another enzyme –Angiotensin
converting enzyme ( ACE ) found in the
lung’s blood vessels will convert
Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II
- Angiotensin II will be carried by the
blood stream--- reaches the Adrenal
cortex--- stimulates the Adrenal cortex
to release Aldosterone
Important actions of cortisol convert Amino Acids into glucose (
gluconeogenesis)
a. it increases the blood concentration of
- It also stimulate breakdown of fats into
Amino Acids
fatty acids
b. stimulates liver cells to synthesize
- Insulin– stimulate the liver to form
glucose
glycogen from glucose will also facilitate
c. promotes the release of fatty acids from
movements of glucose to the cells
adipose tissues
containing insulin receptors
d. Cortisol help keep blood glucose
- Insulin will decrease concentration of
concentration with in normal range
blood glucose, promote transport of
between meals
glucose and amino acids into the cells
e. Few hours without food can exhaust
- When glucose concentration is high
liver glycogen– which is another source
such as after meals---beta cells release
of glucose
insulin. This will prevent excessive rise
Sex Hormones in blood glucose level (hyperglycemia )
- When glucose concentration is low–
- cells in the inner zone of the Adrenal between meals or during the night–
cortex mostly produce sex hormones insulin secretion decreases
- Androgen—male
- Estrogen--- female Somatostatin
- Amount is very small compared to the
- release by Delta cells
supply from the gonads
- helps regulate glucose metabolism
- Adrenal androgens play a role in the sex
- from spinal cord impulse goes back to
drive
the sympathetic nerve fibers – back to
PANCREAS the brain---Pineal gland – Melatonin
secretion decreases
- consist of 2 major types of secretory
cells Thymus
- dual function– exocrine and endocrine
- lies in the mediastinum, large in
- exocrine– secretes digestive juices
children, then shrinks with age
- endocrine--- releases a hormone
- secretes group of hormone called
- Located posterior to the stomach
Thymosines
- A duct attaches the pancreas to the first
- this affect the production of T-
section of the small intestine–
Lymphocytes
(duodenum) where digestive juices
- play a role in immunity
passes
- Pancreas consists of cells called Isle’s of Gonads—Testosterone from the testes
Langerhans. estrogen and progesterone from the ovaries
- 3 types of hormone
Placenta– estrogen, progesterone and
- Secretory cell Alpha---glucagon
gonadotropin
- Beta– insulin
- Delta– somatostatin Effects of Stress
- Glucagon– stimulates liver to break
down glycogen ( glycogenolysis) and to - sensory receptors can detect changes in
our internal and external environment
- these changes can trigger impulses that
can reach the hypothalamus
- increased activity of the autonomic
nervous system
- secretion of adrenal hormones
increases

Life changes – production of hormones

decreases.