Document number

Heat sources
A chapter in the course Ampacity and engineering aspects

Frank de Wild
7 & 8 June 2012

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Contents
ƒ Maximum allowable temperature
ƒ Heat source 1: conductor
ƒ Heat source 2: insulation
ƒ Heat source 3: earthing sheath
ƒ Heat source 4: armor
ƒ Heat source 5: external

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Maximum allowable temperature

ƒ MV: PILC
- Tmax = 50 °C

ƒ MV / HV: XLPE
- Tmax = 90 °C

ƒ HV: SCFF
- Tmax = 85 °C

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Heat sources
1. Conductor
2. Insulation
3. Earthing sheath
4. Armour
5. External

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Source 1: conductor
ƒ Conductor losses: I2·Rc
- Where Rc = ρ/A
- ρ thermal resistivity [Ωm]
- A conductor cross section [m2]

ƒ Example: 3 cores, 400 mm2 copper, I = 400 A,

ρ copper = 1.724*10-8 [Ωm]
- Rc = 0,04 mΩ
- I2⋅Rc = 6,4 W / m (per phase)

ƒ Example: single core, 2000 mm2, I = 2 kA

- Rc = 0,008 mΩ
- I2⋅Rc = 32 W / m (per phase)

ƒ But..

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Source 1: conductor
ƒ But …conductor losses depend on
- Temperature
- Magnetic field produced by its own current and nearby conductors

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Source 1: conductor – temperature
ƒ Rc_dc = Rc_dc_20 ° C ⋅ (1 + α20°C ⋅ (Tc - 20))
where
- α = temp. coefficient of conductor material
- Tc = conductor temperature in °C

ƒ At 90 °C the resistance of copper and aluminium is about 30 % higher than at 20 °C

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Source 1: conductor
ƒ And …conductor losses depend on
- Temperature
- Magnetic field produced by its own current and the currents in nearby conductors

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Source 1: conductor – magnetic fields
ƒ Two effects:
- Skin effect
- Proximity effect

Rac=Rdc*(1+ys+yp)

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Skin effect

ƒ Current flows on the outside of wires, when conducting an alternating current

ƒ Current flows equally distributed over the wires, when conducting a direct current

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Skin effect
Skin effect factor for a copper conductor (not segmented)
0.8

0.7

0.6
Skin effect factor

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Cross section [mm2]

ƒ The skin effect is a function of: frequency, resistance and conductor type

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Skin effect
ƒ Options to minimize the skin effect:
- Use stranded conductors (more skin)
- Use different material (copper has lower DC resistance, but higher skin effect compared to
aluminum)

- Use Milliken conductors

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Proximity effect

ƒ Current flows on a single side of the wire, due to the field of a nearby wire, when
conducting an alternating current
ƒ Note: contrary to the above, we often use a 3 phase system
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Proximity effect
Proximity effect factor for a circuit in flat formation with copper
conductors (not segmented)
0.5

spacing = 0.15 m
spacing = 0.30 m
0.4 spacing = 0.45 m
Proximity effect factor

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Cross section [mm2]

ƒ Proximity effect is a function of: frequency, resistance, spacing, conductor diameter

and conductor type
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Proximity effect
ƒ Options to minimize the proximity effect:
- Use large cable spacing
- Use different material (copper has lower DC resistance, but higher proximity effect compared
to aluminum)

- Use Milliken conductors

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Recent developments
ƒ Cigre technical brochure 272 (2005)
- Large sectionalised, stranded conductors show different skin and proximity effect factors
when measured
- This has been modeled, and guidelines have been issued, depending on the type of
conductor strands/stranding

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Recent developments

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Source 2: insulation
ƒ Diëlectric losses
- Conduction of material
- Partial discharges in cavities in PILC cable
- Rotating dipoles

ƒ Wd = U02 ω C tg δ
- tg δ = loss angle U U
(can be measured)
C R i δ
iR
iC iR iC

iC = UωC (a)
iR = U / R (b)
tg δ = iR / iC = 1 / ωRC (c)

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Source 2: insulation
ƒ MV cable: 10 kV, 120 mm2 XLPE cable
U0 = 6 kV; C = 0.31 μF / km; tg δ = 4 ⋅ 10-4
Wd = 1.4 mW / m (per phase)
- conclusion: dielectric losses in MV cables can be neglected!

ƒ EHV cable: 400 kV 2000 mm2 XLPE cable:

U0 = 220 kV; C = 0.19 μF / km; tg δ = 4 ⋅ 10-4
Wd = 3 W / m (per phase)
ƒ EHV cable: 400 kV 2000 mm2 oil-pressure cable:
U0 = 220 kV; C = 0.38 μF / km; tg δ = 20 ⋅ 10-4
Wd = 30 W / m (per phase)

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in whatever way of the contents of this course is not allowed unless permission has been explicitly given by previous letter.
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Conductor + insulation losses
ƒ Comparing losses of
- 10 kV 400 mm2 XLPE, 400 A
- 400 kV 2000 mm2 XLPE, no Milliken conductor, 2000 A
- 400 kV 2000 mm2 oil pressure (SCOF) , no Milliken conductor, 2000 A

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Source 3: earthing sheath
ƒ Circulating current in earthing sheath
- Due to transformer effect

ƒ Eddy currents

Bonding type
ƒ Both depend on the type
of bonding of the cable
sheaths

Earth sheath

Conductor

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Source 3: sheath – circulating current
ƒ Alternating magnetic field due to conductor currents
for example I1 and I2

i1

B1
a i1

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Single end bonding
ƒ If cable is bonded at one end: only induced voltage Ui at other side

b i1

Ui

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Single end bonding

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Both ends bonding
ƒ If a cable is bonded at both ends: no induced voltage Ui, but an induced current ii in
the earthing sheath. The amplitude of ii depends on:
- amplitude and phase-shift of currents in conductors: i1, i2, and i3
- spacing between cables

c i1

ii
ii

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Both ends bonding

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Cross bonding
ƒ Special situation of both ends bonding
- Cross connections of sheaths suppress circulating currents
- No circulating currents if cross-bonding lengths are equal

d i1

ii1 i2

ii2
i3

ii3

itot = ii1+ ii2+ ii3 = 0 A

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Cross bonding

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Source 3: sheath – eddy-currents
ƒ Eddy-currents in the metal earthing sheath
- An alternating magnetic field (especially due to conductor currents) causes eddy-currents in
metal
- Note the similarity between this and the skin/proximity effects

i1

B1

29

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in whatever way of the contents of this course is not allowed unless permission has been explicitly given by previous letter.
Source 3: sheath – eddy-currents
ƒ If the short circuit current rating is high, there is need for a large sheath cross
section
ƒ With increasing sheath thickness, the eddy currents will rise
ƒ This can lead to 10-30% of losses due to sheath eddy currents, which can not be
mitigated, as long as a continuous metal sheath is used
ƒ For this reason, composite screens have been developed, consisting of a wire
screen and a sheath

ƒ When a composite screen is applied (wire screen + foil or sheath):

- Eddy currents of wire screen are neglicible for single point bonding / cross bonding
- Only eddy current losses in the screen / foil / reinforcing tapes are appliccable
- This is contrary to IEC 60287 (but will be updated). Cigre TB272 provides details

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Source 3: earth sheath
ƒ Earthing sheath losses are taken into account with loss factor:

2
I sheath Rsheath
λsheath = 2
I conductor Rconductor

ƒ Loss factor = (heat produced in sheath) / (heat produced in conductor)

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Source 4: armor
ƒ Circulating currents in armor
ƒ Eddy-currents in armor
ƒ Hysteris losses in ferromagnetic metals
- Iron (armor) is a good “conductor” for magnetic fields. Energy is “lost”
during magnetization and demagnetization due to an alternating
magnetic field.
= energy used to = energy releases by
flux density establish field collapse of field
flux density

field strength field strength

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Source 4: armor
ƒ Reduce losses by material choice:
- Use non-magnetic metal
(e.g. bronze or aluminium instead of steel)

ƒ Armor losses are taken into account with a loss factor:

2
I armor Rarmor
λarmor = 2
I conductor Rconductor

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Source 5: external heat sources

ƒ Nearby cables and pipes

ƒ Crossing cables and pipes
ƒ Even the sewer system
ƒ City heating
ƒ Etc…

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