English SAQ Techniques

Literary device: A specific aspect of literature, or a particular work, which we can recognize, identify,
interpret and/or analyze. Both literary elements and literary techniques can rightly be called literary
devices.

Literary techniques: Specific, deliberate constructions of language which an author uses to convey
meaning. Unlike literary elements, literary techniques are not necessarily present in every text.

Literary elements: Aspects or characteristics of a whole text.

Literary Device or Definition

Technique

Alliteration The repetition of consonant sounds within close proximity, usually in

consecutive words within the same sentence or line.

Anthropomorphism Where animals or inanimate objects are portrayed in a story as people, such
as by walking, talking, or being given arms, legs and/or facial features.

Allusion A subtle or passing reference to an event, person, place, other text, etc. that is
intended to be noticed by readers (though isn’t always picked up on).

Analogy Uses two similar concepts or ideas to create a relationship or draw

comparisons between the two.

Antithesis Using two sentences with contradictory or contrasting meanings close to one
another, sometimes even in immediate succession.

Assonance Similar to alliteration, however in this case it is vowel sounds that are
repeated. E.g. “A long song.”

Anecdote

Blank verse Non-rhyming poetry, usually written in iambic pentameter.

Creative license Exaggeration or alteration of objective facts or reality for the purpose of
enhancing meaning in a fictional context.

Dialogue Where characters speak to one another; may often be used to substitute for
exposition.

Dramatic irony Where the audience or reader is aware of something important, of which the
characters in the story are not aware.

Exposition Where an author interrupts a story in order to explain something, usually to

provide important background information.

Euphemism A mild or ‘proper’ expression used to replace one that is harsh, blunt or
otherwise offensive in order to not cause trouble or appear vulgar. E.g. “I have
to see a man about a dog.” is often said euphemistically when leaving a room
 or conversation to go to the toilet.

Figurative language Any use of language where the intended meaning differs from the actual
literal meaning of the words themselves. There are many techniques which
can rightly be called figurative language, including metaphor, simile,
hyperbole, personification, onomatopoeia, verbal irony, and oxymoron.
(Related: figure of speech).

Foreshadowing Where future events in a story, or perhaps the outcome, are suggested by the
author before they happen.

Hyperbole A description which exaggerates.

Juxtaposition Placing one character, idea, theme, object, setting, etc. parallel to another in
order to compare and contrast the two.

Iambic pentameter Poetry written with each line containing ten syllables, in five repetitions of a
two-syllable pattern wherein the pronunciation emphasis is on the second
syllable.

Imagery Language which describes something in detail, using words to substitute for
and create sensory stimulation. Types of imagery: sound, visual, olfactory
(smell), sensory, gustatory (taste), tactile (touch).

Irony Where an event occurs which is unexpected, and which is in absurd or

mocking opposition to what is expected or appropriate.

Intertextuality This occurs when one text makes reference to another text, either obviously
or in a more subtle way (e.g. allusions) in order to make a point or draw links
between the two.

Metaphor A direct relationship where one thing or idea substitutes for another.

Onomatopoeia Where sounds are spelled out as words; or, when words describing sounds
actually sound like the sounds they describe.

Oxymoron A contradiction in terms.

Paradox Where a situation is created which cannot possibly exist, because different
elements of it cancels each other out.

Parallelism Use of similar or identical language, structures, events, or ideas in different

parts of a text.

Pathetic fallacy This involves giving any non-human object or nature some kind of human
feelings or senses.

Personification (I) Where inanimate objects or abstract concepts are seemingly endowed with
human self-awareness; where human thoughts, actions and perceptions are
directly attributed to inanimate objects or abstract ideas. (Not to be confused
with anthropomorphism.)

Personification (II) Where an abstract concept, such as a particular human behavior or a force of
 nature, is represented as a person.

Repetition Where a specific word, phrase, or structure is repeated several times, to

emphasize a particular idea.

Rhetorical question A question that is asked without the intent of receiving an answer because
the answer itself is obvious.

Simile An indirect relationship where one thing or idea is described as being similar
to another.

Sibilance A specific form of alliteration involving the repetition of ‘s’ within a phrase or
sentence. E.g. “Susie sells seashells by the seashore.”

Symbolism The use of specific objects or images to represent abstract ideas. This term is
commonly misused, describing any and all representational relationships,
which in fact are more often metaphorical than symbolic. A symbol must be
something tangible or visible, while the idea it symbolizes must be something
abstract or universal.

Synecdoche A part of something is substituted for the whole. E.g as hired hand for
"worker".

Verbal irony Where the meaning is intended to be the exact opposite of what the words
actually mean. (Sarcasm is a tone of voice that often accompanies verbal
irony, but they are not the same thing.)

Literary Elements Definition

Allegory Where every aspect of a story is representative, usually symbolic, of

something else, usually a larger abstract concept or important
historical/geopolitical event.

Antagonist Counterpart to the main character and source of a story’s main conflict. The
person may not be “bad” or “evil” by any conventional moral standard, but
he/she opposes the protagonist in a significant way.

Characterization The author’s means of conveying to the reader a character’s personality, life
history, values, physical attributes, etc. Also refers directly to a description
thereof.

Climax The turning point in a story, at which the end result becomes inevitable,
usually where something suddenly goes terribly wrong; the “dramatic high
point” of a story.

Conflict A struggle between opposing forces which is the driving force of a story. The
outcome of any story provides a resolution of the conflict(s); this is what
keeps the reader reading. Conflicts can exist between individual characters,
between groups of characters, between a character and society, etc., and can
also be purely abstract (conflicting ideas).
Context Facts and conditions surrounding a given situation.

Foil A foil is another character in a story that specifically contrasts the main
character in order to emphasise the main character’s attributes and values or
compare the values of the two characters.

Mood The atmosphere or emotional condition created by the piece, within the
setting.

Motif A recurring important idea or image. A motif differs from a theme in that it
can be expressed as a single word or fragmentary phrase, while a theme
usually must be expressed as a complete sentence.

Plot Sequence of events in a story. Most literary essay tasks will instruct the writer
to “avoid plot summary;” the term is therefore rarely useful for response or
critical analysis. When discussing plot, it is generally more useful to consider
its structure, rather than simply “what happens.”

Point-of-view The identity of the narrative voice; the person or entity through whom the
reader experiences the story. May be third-person (no narrator; omniscient or
limited) or first-person (narrated by a character in the story who either merely
observes or directly participates). Point-of-view is a commonly misused term;
it does not refer to the author’s (or characters’) feelings, opinions,
perspectives, biases, etc.

Protagonist The main character in a story, the one with whom the reader is meant to
identify. The person is not necessarily “good” by any conventional moral
standard, but he/she is the person in whose plight the reader is most
invested.

Setting The time and place where a story occurs. The setting can be specific (e.g. New
York City in 1930) or ambiguous (e.g., a large urban city during economic hard
times). Also refers directly to a description thereof.

Speaker The “voice” of a poem; not to be confused with the poet him/herself.
Analogous to the narrator in prose fiction.

Structure The manner in which the various elements of a story are assembled.

Syntax The way a sentence is constructed – short, long, fragmented, compound,

complex, etc.

Theme The main idea or message conveyed by the piece. A theme is generally stated
as a complete sentence; an idea expressed as a single word or fragmentary
phrase is a motif.

Tone The apparent emotional state of the speaker/narrator/narrative voice, as

conveyed through the language of the piece. e.g. amused, angry, humorous.

Tragedy Where a story ends with a negative or unfortunate outcome that was
essentially avoidable, usually caused by a flaw in the central character’s
personality. Tragedy is really more of a dramatic genre than a literary element;
a play can be referred to as a tragedy, but tragic events in a story are
 essentially part of the plot, rather than a literary device in themselves.

Tragic hero/figure A protagonist who comes to a bad end as a result of his own behavior, usually
caused by a specific personality disorder or character flaw.

Tragic flaw The single characteristic (usually negative) or personality disorder that causes
the downfall of the protagonist.

Visual Techniques Definition

Body language and Facial expressions, gestures, stance or position – can convey the attitude,
gaze feelings or personality of the individual shown. Take note of the direction of
the subject’s eyes.

Colour, hue and In black & white images examine the use of contrast, light and darkness. In a
tone colour image, colours are used to signify feelings and evoke a response. E.g.
Red = passion, anger, hell, vitality, etc. blue = peace, harmony or coldness.

Composition What is included is deliberately placed (also applies to what is omitted).

Consider all inclusions and omissions e.g. surroundings, objects, clothing.

Contrast The arrangement of opposite elements (light and dark, large and small, rough
and smooth) to create interest, excitement or drama.

Framing The same camera shots and angles relevant to film. Close ups, extreme close
ups, medium shots, long shots, tilted up or down shots etc.

Juxtaposition The placing of two images side by side to create a certain effect – this effect
may be a contrast.

Omissions What has been deliberately left out.

Orientation or POV Relates to framing and angle: is the responder positioned above the image
(looking down), below or at eye level?

Positioning Consider which objects have been placed in the foreground, middle ground or
background.

Rule of thirds Divide an image into thirds from the top and sides and look at the placement
of people and/or objects. An object in the top third is usually empowered
whereas anything in the bottom third is disempowered.

Salience The dominant element – the part that your eyes are first drawn to. Colour,
image and layout determine what the salient image is.

Symbolism The use of an image to represent one or more (often complex) ideas.

Vectors Lines in images that direct the viewer’s reading path to encourage them to
focus on particular elements of the image.