WAVE OPTICS

Huygens principle
1. Every point on the given wave front (called primary wave
front) acts as a source of secondary wavelets, which travel in
all directions with the velocity of light in the medium.
2. A surface touching these secondary wavelets, tangentially in
the forward direction at any instant gives the new wavefront at
that instant. This is called secondary wave front.

Wavefront
It is the locus of all points in phase at a distance from a light source.
Wavefronts can be classified into
(i) Spherical wavefront
For a point source of light, at small distances the wavefront is said to be spherical.
(ii) Cylindrical wavefront
For a linear source, at small distances the wavefront is said to be cylindrical.
(iii) Plane wavefront
For a point source or linear source, at large distances any wavefront is considered to be plane.
Figures (a), (b) and (c) represent wave front and rays of light corresponding to plane wave from, diverging
spherical wave front and converging spherical wave front respectively.

Reflection on the basis of wave theory

In the figure, AB is a plane wave front incident on a reflector MN at an angle i. Let the secondary wavelets
from B strike MN at C in t seconds.
 BC = v × t  (1)
where v  velocity of light in the medium.
The secondary wavelets form A will travel the same distance
(v × t) in the same time. Therefore, with A as centre and (v × t) as
radius, draw an arc at E, so that AE = (v× t)

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CE is the secondary wavefront propagating after t seconds.
Angle of incidence, i = BAC and angle of reflection, r  ECA
In ACE and ACB, AC is common, BC = AE = (v × t) and B  E  900
 are congruent
 BAC  ECA
 i  r
This proves the first law of reflection.

Refraction on the basis of wave theory

XY  is a plane surface that separates a denser medium of
refractive index n from a rarer medium
V1 & V2  are the velocity of light in rarer and denser medium

v1
n  refractive index
v2

AB is a plane wave front incident on XY at BAC  i .

Let the secondary wavelets from B strike XY at C in t seconds.
 B C =  V1  t 

The secondary wavelets from A travel in the denser medium with a velocity V2 and would cover a distance

 V2  t  in t seconds. Therefore, with A as centre and radius equal to  V2  t  , draw an arc at E to obtain the
secondary wavefront EC.
Let ACE  r , angle of refraction.
BC v1  t
In ACB, sin i  
AC AC
AE v2  t
In ACE, sin r  
AC AC

sin i v1
  n
sin r v 2

This proves Snell’s law of refraction.

INTERFERENCE
Interference: The phenomenon of modification in the distribution of light energy when two or more light
waves superpose on one another is called interference.
Eg: Coloured pattern on a soap bubble, coloured patch on wet roads due to oil spill etc.

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Coherent sources: The two sources emit light waves of same frequency, same wavelength and same phase
or constant phase difference are said to be coherent sources. Interference can occur only with coherent
sources.
Condition for sustained interference
Well defined and observable interference pattern can be obtained if the following conditions are satisfied:
1. The two superposing waves must be in phase or must have constant phase difference.
2. The two light waves must have same wavelength.
3. The amplitude of the waves must be equal or almost equal.
4. The two sources producing the waves must be very narrow.
5. The two sources producing the waves must be very close to each other.

Theory of interference
Consider two light waves of same wavelength travelling in the same direction. Let a1 and a2 be their
amplitudes. Their displacements at any instant of time t is given by
y1  a1 sin t and y2  a 2 sin  t  

where   is the phase difference between the two waves

  2f  angular frequency f  is frequency of the waves.
According to the principle of superposition of waves, the resultant displacement of the waves is
y  y1  y 2  a1 sin t  a 2 sin  t   
y  a1 sin t  a 2 sin  t  cos   cos  t  sin 
y  a1 sin t  a 2 sin  t  cos   a 2 cos  t  sin 
y   a1  a 2 cos  sin  t   a 2 cos  t  sin 
Take R cos   a1  a 2 cos   1 and R sin   a 2 sin    2 
the aboveequation becomes
y  R cos  sin  t   R sin  cos  t 
y  R cos  sin  t   sin  cos  t  
y  R sin  t   

Where R  the amplitude of the resultant wave

Expression for the amplitude of the resultant wave

Squaring and adding equations (1) and (2), we get
R2cos2 θ + R2sin2 θ = (a1+ a2cos  )2 + (a2sin  )2
R2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) = a12 + a22 cos2  + 2 a1 a2cos  + a22 sin2 
i.e., R2 = a12 + a22 + 2 a1 a 2 cos 

or R= a12 +a 2 2 +2a1a 2cos resultant amplitude

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Dividing equation (2) by (1), we get

a 2 sin
tanθ =
a1 + a 2cos

where θ  is the phase difference between the resultant wave and the first wave.
Note: The relationship between intensity I and amplitude A is given by
I  A2
i) Condition for constructive interference
When crest of one wave superpose on crest of another wave constructive interference takes place. Hence in
constructive interference amplitude of the resultant wave is maximum.

From R= a12 +a 2 2 +2a1a 2cos

R is maximum when cos  = +1, or  = 0, 2, 4, 6…….2n.

Phase difference   2n where n = 0, 1, 2, 3………

Path difference x  n
The maximum amplitude is given by
R max = a12 +a 2 2 +2a1a 2
R max  a1 +a 2

ii) Condition for destructive interference

Amplitude of the resultant wave is minimum during destructive interference. This occurs when crest of a
wave superpose on trough of another wave.

From R= a12 +a 2 2 +2a1a 2cos

R is minimum when cos  = -1, i.e.  = , 3, 5…….

Phase difference    2n  1  where n = 0, 1, 2, 3………


Path difference x   2n  1
2

The minimum amplitude is given by

R min = a12 +a 2 2 -2a1a 2
R min  a1 -a 2

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Young’s double slit experiment
It consists of a narrow slit S which is illuminated by a
monochromatic light. Two narrow slits A and B are placed
equidistant from S. Screen S is placed at a certain distance from the
slits as shown. The wave front sent by S reaches the slits A and B
simultaneously. The two slits act as coherent sources. These waves
superpose gives rise to interference pattern on the screen. When crest
of one wave superpose on crest of another produces a bright fringe.
crest
S1
When crest of one wave superpose on trough of another or vice- trough
versa, produces a dark fringe on the screen. Thus the interference pattern consists of alternate dark and
bright fringes of equal thickness.
The condition for constructive interference is path difference = n
λ
The condition for destructive interference is path difference = (2n + 1)
2
Intensity distribution curve maxima.

Imax.

2  0  2

minima

Fringe width: The distance of separation between two consecutive bright or dark fringes is called fringe
width.
Expression for fringe width
Distance of nth bright fringe form the central bright fringe

nλD
xn 
d

D
 This is the expression for width of bright fringe
d

Distance of nth dark fringe form the central bright fringe

(2n+1)λD
xn 
2d

λD
β= This is the expression for width of dark fringe
d

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 From the above equations it is clear that the bright and dark fringes are equally spaced.
Note:
1. The expression for the resultant intensity when two waves of intensities I1 and I2 superpose on one
another is I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I 2 cos 

2. Imax = ( I1 + I 2 )2

3. Imin = ( I1 - I 2 )2
2
w 1 I1 a 1
4. The ratio of width of two slits is given by = =
w 2 I 2 a 22
5. In Young’s double slit experiment, for a nth bright fringe, the order of the fringe is n [eg., for a 2 nd
fringe, n= 2] whereas for nth dark fringe, the order of the fringe is (n-1) [ eg. for a 2nd fringe, n = 1]
6. Coherent sources are realized in practice are using i) Lloyd’s mirror ii) Fresnel’s biprism
β λ
7. Angular width of a fringe, θ = =
D d

DIFFRACTION
The phenomenon of bending of light around small obstacles and hence its spreading into the geometrical
shadow region is called diffraction.

Diffraction at a single slit P

The experimental set up to obtain A
diffraction at a single slit is as
S O
shown. A monochromatic source
L1 B
S is placed at the principal focus
of the convex lens L1. The rays
L2
from the source are made to fall Slit Screen
on the lens and the emergent plane wavefront is made to incident on the slit AB. When the wavefront arrives
at AB, secondary wavelets emerging from it move towards the lens L2. Due to superposition of these waves,
diffraction pattern is obtained on the screen which is placed at the focal plane of the converging lens L2.
The diffraction pattern consists of a central bright band called central maximum. Alternate dark and bright
bands are formed on both sides of the central maximum. The dark bands are called minima and the less
bright bands are called secondary maxima. The brightness of the bright bands is not uniform. The intensity
of the bright bands goes on decreasing on both the sides of the central maximum. Hence at O always a bright
band is produced. At P band formed can be either bright or dark that depends on the path difference. If the

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 
path difference between AP and BP is (2n + 1) , a bright band is formed. If the path difference between
2
AP and BP is nλ dark band is formed.
The intensity distribution curve of the diffraction pattern
I
Principal maximum
Secondary maxima
minima

o P Q R

Note:
1) Condition for diffraction minima
Path difference, d Sinθ = n λ
Where n = 0, 1,2,3…… d  is the width of the slit
θ  is the angular position of the point
2) Condition for diffraction maxima

Path difference, d Sinθ = (2n + 1)
2
2 D
3) Width of central maximum =
d
2
4) Angular width of central maximum,  = 2θ =
d
Difference between interference and diffraction
Interference Diffraction
1. It is the phenomenon in which the modification 1. It is the phenomenon of bending of light around
in the distribution of light energy due to the small obstacles and hence its encroachment into the
superposition of two or more waves. geometrical shadow region
2. Interference is due to the superposition of two 2. Diffraction is due to the superposition of
waves emerging from two coherent sources. secondary wavelets emerging from different parts
of same wavefront.
3. Interference fringes are of equal width. 3. Diffraction bands are of unequal width.
4. Intensity of all bright fringes is uniform. 4. Intensity of each bright band varies.
5. Condition for bright fringe is path difference 5.Condition for bright band is
 
= n λ, for a dark fringe, path difference =  2n  1 path difference =  2n  1 and for a dark fringe,
2 2
path difference = nλ

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 POLARISATION
The phenomenon of restricting the electric field vibrations of light in a single plane is called polarization.
Light being an electromagnetic radiation, is transverse in nature.

Experiment to demonstrate transverse nature of light

Experimental arrangement as shown. Consider two tourmaline crystals A and B cut parallel to their
crystallographic axes and placed parallel to each other. Unpolarised light from the monochromatic source is
made to fall normally on the crystal A. The following observations are made.
1. No change in the intensity of light transmitted from A when it is rotated about the direction of propagation
of light.
2. No change in the intensity of light transmitted from B when both A and B is rotated together about the
direction of propagation of light.
3. Keeping A fixed when B is rotated, the intensity is maximum only when both A and B are parallel to each
other. When B is perpendicular to A the intensity becomes zero. In between the intensity varies from zero to
a maximum.
If the light is longitudinal in nature, there would have been no change in the intensity of the emergent light
when B was rotated. The above observations confirm that light is transverse in nature.

Unpolarised light A B Plane polarised light

polarizer analyser
Unpolarised light A B

No light

polarizer analyser

Representation of unpolarised and plane polarised light

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Fig (i) and (ii) represent unpolarised light
Fig (iii) represents plane polarised light with its vibrations in the plane of paper
Fig (iv) represents plane polarised light with its vibrations perpendicular to the plane of paper

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Malus’ law
A beam of plane polarized light is incident on the analyzer, the intensity of light transmitted from the
analyzer is directly proportional to the square of the cosine of the angle between the planes of transmission
of the polarizer and analyzer.
According to Malus’ law
Intensity of light transmitted from the analyzer I  Io cos2 
where Io  is the intensity of the light entering the analyzer
  angle between the planes of polarizer and analyser

Uses of polaroids
1. Polaroids are used to produce and analyse plane polarised light.
2. They are used in sunglasses.
3. They are used to view the three dimensional pictures.
4. They are used in headlights of vehicles to reduce glare.
5. They are used in the window panes of trains and aeroplanes to control the intensity of light.
6. They are used to cut off the dazzling light of the approaching vehicles.
7. Used in the study of optical properties of certain metals.
8. They are used to increase the colour contrast in old paintings.
******************

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 NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON WAVE OPTICS
Problems on Young's double slit experiment (fringe width and distance of nth fringe)

1] Two slits are made one millimetre apart and the screen is placed one metre away. What is the
fringe separation when blue-green light of wavelength 500 nm is used? [NCERT] Ans: 0.5mm

2] In a Young’s double-slit experiment, the slits are separated by 0.28 mm and the screen is placed 1.4
m away. The distance between the central bright fringe and the fourth bright fringe is measured to be
1.2 cm. Determine the wavelength of light used in the experiment. [NCERT] Ans: 600nm

3] A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths, 650 nm and 520 nm, is used to obtain interference
fringes in a Young’s double-slit experiment. (a) Find the distance of the third bright fringe on the
screen from the central maximum for wavelength 650 nm. (b) What is the least distance from the
central maximum where the bright fringes due to both the wavelengths coincide?
[NCERT] Ans: 1950 (D/d)nm, 2600(D/d) nm

4] In a double-slit experiment the angular width of a fringe is found to be 0.2° on a screen placed 1 m
away. The wavelength of light used is 600 nm. What will be the angular width of the fringe if the entire
experimental apparatus is immersed in water? Take refractive index of water to be 4/3.
[NCERT] Ans: 0.150

5] In double-slit experiment using light of wavelength 600 nm, the angular width of a fringe formed on
a distant screen is 0.10. What is the spacing between the two slits? [NCERT] Ans: 0.344mm

6] A parallel beam of light of wavelength 500 nm falls on a narrow slit and the resulting diffraction
pattern is observed on a screen 1 m away. It is observed that the first minimum is at a distance of 2.5
mm from the centre of the screen. Find the width of the slit. [NCERT] Ans: 0.2mm

7] In Young’s double-slit experiment using monochromatic light of wavelength λ, the intensity of light
at a point on the screen where path difference is λ, is K units. What is the intensity of light at a point
where path difference is λ/3 ? [NCERT] Ans: K/4

8] In a young’s double slit experiment the distance between the slits is 1mm. the fringe width is found
to be 0.6mm. When the screen is moved through a distance of 0.25m away from the plane of the slit,
the fringe width becomes 0.75mm. Find the wavelength of the light used. [M-15]

9] A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 420 nm and 560 nm is used to obtain interference
fringes in Young’s double slit experiment. The distance between the slits is 0.3 mm and the distance
between the slits and the screen is 1.5 m. Compute the least distance of the point from the central
maximum, where the bright fringes due to both the wavelengths coincide. [J-15]

10] In young’s double slit experiment, fringes of certain width are produced on the screen kept at a
distance from the slits. When the screen is moved away from the slits by 0.1m, fringes width increases
by 6 x 10-5 m. The separation between the slits is 1mm. calculate the wavelength of the light used.
[M-16]

11] In the young’s double slit experiment by using a source of light of wavelength 4500 Å, the fringe
width is 5mm. If the distance between the screen and plane of the slits is reduced to half, what should
be the wavelength of light to get the fringe width of 4mm? [J-16]

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12] Light of wavelength 6000Å is used to obtain interference fringes of width 6mm in Young’s double
slit experiment. Calculate the wavelength of light required to obtain fringe width of 4mm when the
distance between the screen and slits is reduced to half of its initial value. [M-17]

13] In young’s double slit experiment distance between the slits is 0.5mm, when the screen is kept at a
distance of 100cm from the slits, the distance of the 9th bright fringe from the centre of the fringe
system is 8.835mm. Find the wavelength of light used. [J-17]

14] In young’s double slit experiment the slits are separated by 0.28mm and the screen is placed at a
distance of 1.4m away from the slits. A distance between the central bright fringe and 5th dark fringe
is measure to be 1.35cm. Calculate the wavelength of light used. Also find the fringe width if the screen
is moved 0.4m towards the slit, for the same experimental setup. [M-18]

15] In a Young’s double slit experiment wave length of light used in 5000 Å and distance between the
slits is 2mm, distance of screen from the slits is 1m. Find fringe width and also calculate the distance
of 7th dark fringe from central bright fringe. [M-19]

16] Two slits separated by 1 mm in Young’s double slit experiment are illuminated by the violet
light of the wavelength 400 nm. The interference fringes are obtained on the screen placed at
1 m from the slits. Find the fringe width. If the violet light is replaced by the red light of the
wavelength 700 nm, find the percentage change in fringe width . [M-22]

17] A rigid beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 500nm and 400nm is used to obtain
interference fringes in young’s double slit experiment. The distance between the slits is 0.3mm and
the distance between the slits and screen is 1.5m. Compute the least distance of the point from the
central maximum, where the bright fringes due to both the wavelengths coincide.

18] In young’s double slit experiment, the distance between the slits is 1.2mm and the screen is 0.75m
from the slits. If the distance of the 5th fringe from the central fringe on the screen is 1.8mm. Calculate
the wavelength of light used. What will be the distance of the 5th dark fringe from the centre of the
screen?

19] In Young’s double slit experiment the distance of the screen from the slits is 0.5m and the distance
between the slits is 1.5mm. If the distance of the fourth bright fringe from the center of the screen is
0.8 mm. Calculate the wavelength of light used. What will be the distance of the fifth dark fringe from
the central point on the fringe?

20] In a Young’s double slit experiment light of wavelength 620nm is used to Illuminate slits of width
0.3mm. A screen is placed at a distance of 0.9m. Calculate fringe width (b) distance between 5th and
9th bright fringe on screen.

21] In Young’s double slit experiment the screen is at distance of 1.25m from the slit. When the slits
are illuminated by a light of wavelength 546nm, the width of 20 fringes is 8mm. Find the separation
between the slits. Find also the width of 20 fringes if yellow light of wavelength 594nm is used.

22] In Young’s double -slit experiment the slit separation is 0.3mm and wavelength of light used is
6500 A0. A screen is placed 1m away from the slits. Calculate (a) Distance of the 3rd bright fringe and
(b) Distance of the 2nd dark fringe from the central bright fringe.

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