CHAPTER 3

SYSTEM PRACTICES FOR

AMMONIA REFRIGERANT
Si>.s/(?iii Ssleciioii ........................................................................ 3.1 Coticleiiser aiicl Receiver Piping ..... 3.15
Eyllipfltl!ff/ ................................................................................. 3.2 Ei~aporativeCotrdeiisers ........................................... 3.17
Coii1rol.y .................................................................................... 3.6 Eiiuporutor Pipitig ................................................................... 3.19
Rrciproccitiiig G~iiiprmsors.................................................... 3.10 Mulri.sruge sy.srem.s ..............................................
L ~, ~~ ~~ ~c,
R , ~ v ~~ ~~ , ~, - ~...................................
s ~~ ~~ ~~ 3.12 ~ ~ ~ ~Liyirid ~Recirculaiioii
~ ?SysIeI1i.v
~ ..................
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
S c r i w C:'oiitprc:ssor.v ................................................................. 3.13 Sofery Coiisiclercitioiis ............................................................. 3.27

C USTOM-ENGINEERED ammonia (R-7 17) refrigeration sys-

tems often have design conditions that span a wide range of
evupor;iting m t l condensing teniperatures. Examples are ( I ) :i food
I

I 4
SuCTloN
freezing plnnt operating at temperatures from 10 to - 4 5 ° C (2) a
cantly storage requiring 1S"C dry bulb with precise humidity con- II f
U
r
COMPRESSOR

trol; (3) a beef chill rooni at -2 to - 1"C with high humidity; (4) a
distribution warehouse requiring multiple temperatures for storage
of ice creain. frozen food, meat. and produce and for docks: or (S)
:I c1ieiiiic:il process requiring multiple temperatures ranging from 15
to - S0"C:. Aninionia is the refrigerant ofchoice for many industrial
refrigeration systems.
For safety and ~ninimumdesign criteria for ammonia systenis.
refer to ASHRAE Siuiiclarcl IS. Safety Code for Mechanical
Refrigeration; IIAR Bulle/iii 109. Minimum Safety Criteria for a
Safe Ammonia Refrigeration System; IIAR S/uiidurd 2. Equip-
ment, Design and Installation of Ammonia Mechanical Refrigera-
tion Systems; and applicable state and local codes.
See Chipter I2 for information on refrigeration load calculations.
Amniunia Refrigerant for HVAC Systems
The use of anunonia for HVAC systems has received renewed
interest. cluc in piln to the schetltiled phaseout and increasing costs of
chlorofluorocnrbon (CFC) :ind hytlrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC)
rcfriger:inu. Aninioni:i secondary systems that circulate chilled
water or other secondary refrigerant are a viable alternative to halo-
carbon system, although ammonia is inappropriate for direct refrig-
eration systems (animonia in the air unit coils) for HVAC
applications. Ammonia packaged chilling units are available for
HVAC applications. As with the installation of any air-conditioning
unit. all applicable codes. standards. and insurance requirements
iiiust be followed.
SYSTEM SELECTION
In selecting an engineered amnionin refrigeration system. several
design decisions must be considered. including whether to use ( I )
single-stage compression. (2) economized compression. (3) multi-
stage coiiipression. (4) direct-expansion feed. (5) flooded feed, (6)
liquid recirculation feed. and (7) secondary coolants.
Single-Stage Systems
The basic single-stage system consists of evaporator(s), a com-
pressor, a condenser, a refrigerant receiver (if used), and a refriger-
ant control device (expansion valve. float. etc.). Chapter 1 of the
ASHRAE Hciiitlhoo~-F~rritlciiit~~iiicil,sdiscusses the compression
rc frigeration cycle.
The preparation of this chapter is nssigoed to TC 10.3, Refrigerant Piping,
Coiitrols.:ind Accessories
I 2
I DISCHARGE
SuacooLEoH I G H
PRESS. Liauto
TO EVAPORATOR
Fig. 1 Shell-and-Coil Economizer Arrangement
Economized Systems
Economized systems are frequently used with rotary screw com-
pressors. Figure 1 shows an arrangement of the basic components.
Subcooling the liquid refrigerant before it reaches the evaporator
reduces its enthalpy. resulting in a higher net refiigerating effect.
Economizing is beneficial since the vapor generated during the sub-
cooling is in.iected into the compressor part way through its com-
pression cycle and must be compressed only from the economizer
port pressure (which is higher than suction pressure) to the dis-
charge pressure. This produces additional refrigerating capacity
with less increase in unit energy input. Economizing is most bene-
ficial at high pressure ratios. Under most conditions, economizing
can provide operating efficiencies that approach that of two-stage
systems, but with much less complexity and simpler maintenance.
Economized systenis for variable loads should be selected care-
fiilly. At approximately 75% capacity, most screw compressors
revert to single-stage performance as the slide valve moves such
that the economizer port is open to the compressor suction area.
A flash-type economizer, which is somewhat more efficient,
may often be used instead of the shell-and-coil economizer (Fig-
ure I). However, ammonia liquid delivery pressure is reduced to
economizer pressure.
Multistage Systems
Multistage systems compress the gas from the evaporator to the
condenser in several stages. They are used to produce temperatures
of -25°C and below. This is not economical with single-stage
compression.
Single-stage reciprocating compression systems are generally
limited to between 35 and 70 kPa (gage) suction pressure. With
lubricant-in.iected econoniized rotary screw compressors, where the
discharge temperatures are lower because of the lubricant cooling,
3.2
HIGH STAGE
TEMPERATURE “LGAS AND UOUD
EVAPORATOR INTERSTAGE COOLEE
s -
U
RECEIVER
Fig. 2 Two-Stage System with High- and
Low-Temperiture Loads
the low-suction temperature h i t is about -40°C. but efficiency is
very low. Two-stage systems are used down to about -60°C evap-
orator temperatures. Below this temperature, three-stage systems
should be considered.
Two-stage systems consist of one or more compressors that oper-
ate at low suction pressure and discharge at intermediate pressure
and have one or more compressors that operate at intermediate pres-
sure and discharge to the condenser (Figure 2).
Where either single- or two-stage compression systems can be
used, two-stage systems require less power and have lower operat-
ing costs, but they can have a higher initial equipment cost.
EQUIP ME NT
Compressors
Compressors available for single- and multistage applications
include the following:
Reciprocating
Single-stage (low-stage or high-stage)
Internally compounded
Rotary vane
Rotary screw (low-stage or high-stage, with or without
economizing)
The reciprocating compressor is the most common compressor
used in small, 75 kW or less, single-stage or multistage systems.
The screw compressor is the predominant compressor above 75 kW,
both in single- and multistage systems. Various combinations of
compressors may be used in multistage systems. Rotary vane and
screw compressors are frequently used for the low-pressure stage,
where large volumes of gas must be moved. The high-pressure stage
may be a reciprocating or screw compressor.
Factors to be considered in selecting a compressor include the
following:
-
*
System size and capacity requirements.
Location, such as indoor or outdoor installation at ground level or
on the roof.
- Equipment noise.
Part-or full-load operation.
Winter and summer operation.
* Pulldown time required to reduce the temperature to desired con-
ditions for either initial or normal operation. The temperature
must be pulled down frequently for some applications for a pro-
cess load, while a large cold storage warehouse may require pull-
down only once in its lifetime.
Lubricant Cooling. When a reciprocating compressor requires
lubricant cooling, an external heat exchanger using a refrigerant or
secondary cooling is usually added. Screw compressor lubricant
cooling is covered in detail in the section on Screw Compressors.
1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)
Compressor Drives. The correct electric motor size(s) for :I
multistage system is determined by the pulldown load. When the
final low-stage operating level is -75°C. the pulldown lo:d call be
three tunes the operating load. Positive displacement reciprocating
compressor motors ;ire usually selected for about 150% of oper:iting
power requirements for 100%, load. The compressor’s unlo:iding
mechanism can be used to prevent motor overload. Electric motors
should not be overloaded, even when :I service fnctor is intlic:itetl.
For screw compressor applications. motors should be sized by ;itltl-
ing 10%) to the operating power. Screw compressors hive built-in
unloading mechanisms to prevent motor overload. The motor
should not be oversized because :in oversized motor has :I lower
power factor and lower efficiency :it design and reduced 1o:ids.
Steam turbines or gasoline. natural gas, propane, or diesel inter-
nal combustion engines are used when electricity is un:iv:iil:ible, or
ifthe selected energy source is che:iper. Sometimes they :ire used in
combinntion with electricity to reduce peak deiniinds. The power
output ofa given engine size can vary :is much :IS 15% depentling on
the fuel selected.
Steam turbine drives for refrigerant compressors are usually liin-
ited to very large installations where s t e m is already :ivail:ible :it
moderate to high pressure. In all cases. torsional analysis is required
to detemiine what coupling must be used to dampen out :my puls:i-
tions transmitted from the conipressor. For optiniuin efficiency. a
turbine should operate at a high speed that must be geared down for
reciprocating and possibly screw compressors. Neither the gear
reducer nor the turbine can tolerate a pulsating backhsh from the
driven end, so torsion:il analysis and special couplings :ire essenti:ll.
Advantages of turbines include v:iri;ible speed for cnpxity con-
trol and low operating and ni:iinten:ince costs. Dis:itlvantages
include higher initial costs :ind possible high noise levels. The tur-
bine must be started manually to bring the turbine housing up to
temper;iture slowly and to prevent excess condensate from entering
the turbine.
The standard power rating ofan engine is the absolute m:iximum.
not the recommended power available for continuous use. Also,
torque characteristics of internal combustion engines antl electric
motors differ greatly. The proper engine selection is at 7S% of its
maximum power rating. For longer life, the full-load speed should
be at least 10% below m:iximuin engine speed.
Internal combustion engines. in some cases. c:in reduce operat-
ing cost below that for electric motors. Disadvantages incltiile ( I )
higher initial cost of the engine, (2) additional safety antl starting
controls, (3) higher noise levels, (4) larger space requirements. (S)
air pollution, (6) requirement for heat dissipation, (7) higher main-
tenance costs, and (8) higher levels of vibration than with electric
motors. A torsional analysis must be made to determine the proper
coupling if engine drives are chosen.
Condensers
Condensers should be selected on the basis of totnl heat rejection
at maximuin load. Often the heat rqjected at the start of pulldown is
several tunes the amount rejected :it nonnal. low-temper:iture oper-
ating conditions. Some means, such as coppressor unloading. c:in
be used to limit the maximum amount of heat rejected tluring pull-
down. If the condenser is not sized for pulldown conditions. ;ind
compressor capacity cannot be limited during this period. condens-
ing pressure might increase enough to shut down the system.
Evaporators
Several types of evaporators are used in ammonia refrigeration
systems. Fan-coil. direct-expansion evaporators can be used. but
they are not generally reconunendetl unless the suction teniperature
is - 18°C or higher. This is due in part to the relative inefficiency of
the direct-expansion coil, but more iinportantly. the low i n
rate of ammonia is difficult to feed uniformly as a liquid to the coil.
System Practices for Ammonia Refrigerant
Instead. :immonia fan-coil units designed for recirculation (over-
feed) systems are preferred. Typically in this type of system, high-
pressure ;innnonin from the system high stage flashes into a large
vessel at the evaporator pressure from which it is pumped to the
evaporators :it an overfeed rate of 2.5 to 1 to 4 to 1. This type of sys-
tem is st:intl:irtl :ind very eflicient. See Chapter 1 for more details.
Flootletl shell-and-tube ev:iporators are often used in iininionia
systems in which indirect or seconkiry cooling fluids such as water.
brine, or glycol must be Fooled.
Some problems that can become inore acute :it low temperatures
include chnnges in lubricant transport properties, loss of capacity
c:iusetl by static pressure from the depth of the pool of liquid refrig-
erant in the evaporator. deterioration of refrigerant boiling heat
tr:insfer coefficients due to lubricant logging, and higher specific
vc~lumesfor the vapor.
The effect of pressure losses in the evaporator :inn suction piping
i s niore : i c m in low-tenipernture systems because of the large
ch:inge in s:iturntion temper:itures and specific volume in relation to
pressure ch:inges at these conditions. Systems that operate near zero
:ibsolute pressure are particularly affected by pressure loss.
The depth of the pool of boiling refrigerant in a flooded evapo-
rator c:iuses :I liquid pressure that is exerted on the lower part of the
heit tr:insfer surface. Therefore. the saturation temperature at this
surface is higher than the saturated teiiiperature in the suction line,
which is not affected by the liquid pressure. This temperature gra-
tlient must be considered when designing the evaporator.
Spray-type shell-:ind-tube evaporators, while not commonly
used. offer certain advantages. In this design. the liquid depth pen-
alty for the evaporator ciin be eliminated since the pool of liquid is
below the heat transfer surface. A refrigerant pump sprays the liquid
over the surfxe. The pump energy is an adtlitionnl heat 1o:id to the
system. :ind more refrigerant must be used to provide the net posi-
tive suction pressure required by the pump. The pump is also an
ntltlitional item that must be maintainetl. This evaporator design
also reduces the refrigerant charge requirement compared to a
flooded design (see Chapter 1).
Vessels
1-1iph-Pressure Receivers. Intlustrial systems generally Lncorpo-
rate ;I centr:il high-pressure refrigerant receiver. which serves a s the
primary refrigerant storage 1oc:ition in the system. It handles the
refrigecint volume variations between the condenser antl the sys-
tem's low side (luring operation :ind pumpdowns for repairs or
defrost. 1tle:illy. the receiver should be large enough to hold the
entire system charge. but this is not generally economical. An anal-
ysis of the system should be made to determine the optimum
receiver size. Receivers are conunonly equalized to the condenser
inlet :ind operate at the same pressure as the condenser. In some sys-
tems. the receiver is operated at n pressure between the condensing
pressure and the highest suction pressure to allow for variations in
condensing pressure without affecting the system's feed pressure.
If :~tltlitionalreceiver capacity is needed for normal operation.
extreme caution should he exercised in the design. Designers usu-
ally remove the in:itlequate receiver and replace it with a larger one
r d i e r th:in install an ntltlitional receiver in piirallel. This procedure
is best bec:iuse even slight differences in piping pressure or temper-
mire ciin cause the refrigerant to migrate to one receiver and not to
the other.
Sm:iller auxiliary receivers can be incorporated to serve as
sources of high-pressure liquid for compressor injection or thenno-
siphon, lubricant cooling. high-teniper;iture evaporators, and so
forth.
Intercoolers ( C a s and Liquid). An intercooler (subcooler/
tlesuperhe:iter) is the intennetlinte vessel between the high stage antl
low stage in a multistage system. One purpose of the intercooler is
to cool the tlischarge gas of the low-stage compressor to prevent
overhe:iting the high-qtage coinpressor. This can be done by
3.3
Hian STAGE
SUCTION GAS
t
SUPERHEATED
BOOSTER
OISCHARGE GAS
- + MIST ELINNATOR
TO SHUT DOWN CZ=-
H.S. COMPRESSOR
FLOAT SWITCH
LOW PRESSURE
PERFORATED
TO PROTECT
VIOLENT SURGING
PERFORATED PIPE
DISTRIBUTE DISCH.
LIOUID REVRIGERAN
I
H, P. LIQUID
WARM
SUBCOOLED
LIQUID
.C
LlQUlO SUBCOOLING~ L l O U l REFRIGERANT
D
COIL
Fig. 3 Intercooler
bubbling the discharge gas from the low-stage compressor through
a bath of liquid refrigerant or by mixing liquid normally entering the
intermediate vessel with the discharge gas as it enters above the liq-
uid level. The heat removed from the discharge gas is absorbed by
the evaporation of part of the liquid and eventually passes through
the high-stage compressor to the condenser. Disbursing the dis-
charge gas below a level of liquid refrigerant separates out any
lubricant carryover from the low-stage compressor. If the volume of
liquid in the intercooler is to be used for other purposes, such as liq-
uid makeup or feed to the low stage, periodic lubricant removal is
important.
Another purpose of the intercooler is to lower the temperature of
the liquid being used in the system low stage. Lowering the refrig-
erant tenipenture increases the refrigeration effect and reduces the
low-stage compressor's required displacement, thus reducing its
operating cost.
Two types of intercoolers for two-stage compression systems are
shell-and-coil and flash-type intercoolers. Figure 3 depicts a shell-
and-coil intercooler incorporating an internal pipe coil for subcool-
ing the high-pressure liquid before it is fed to the low stage of the
system. Typically, the coil subcools the liquid to within 6 K of the
intennediate temperature.
Vertical shell-and-coil intercoolers with float valve feed per-
fonn well in many applications using ammonia r e k i g e m t systems.
The vessel must be sized properly to separate the liquid fiom the
vapor that is returning to the high-stage compressor. The super-
heated gas inlet pipe should extend below the liquid level and have
perforations or slots to distribute the gas evenly in small bubbles.
The addition of a perforated baffle across the area of the vessel
slightly below the liquid level protects against violent surging. A
float switch that shuts down the high-stage compressor when the
liquid level gets too high should always be used with this type of
intercooler in case the feed valve fails to control properly.
The flash-type intercuder is similar in design to the shell-and-
coil intercooler with the exception ofthe coil. The high-pressure liq-
uid is flash cooled to the intennediate temperature. Caution should
be exercised in selecting a flash-type intercooler because all the
high-pressure liquid is flashed to intennediate pressure. While
colder tlnn that of the shell-and-coil intercooler, the liquid in the
flash-type intercooler is not subcooled and is susceptible to flashing
due to system pressure drop. Two-phase liquid feed to control
3.4 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

W I R E 0 IN WITH HIGH STAGE

COMPRESSOR STARTER A N 0
MIOOLE FLOAT SWITCH\
,--*-----;=-TO H I G H TEMPERATURE
EVAPORATORS

LOW PRESS
AMMONIA
PUMP
S-IN CIRCUIT WITH ROTARY BOOSTER
STARTER A N D HIGHLEVEL FLOAT
SWITCH ON SUCTION T R A P

valves may cause premature failure due to the wire drawing effect of
the liquidvapor mixture.
Figure 4 shows a vertical shell-and-coil intercooler as piped into
the system. The liquid level is maintained in the intercooler by a
float that controls the solenoid valve feeding liquid into the shell
side of the intercooler. Gas from the fust-stage compressor enters
the lower section of the intercooler, is distributed by a perforated
; -
Fig. 4 Arrangement for Compound System with \'ertIcal Intercooler and Suction Trap

W A R M LIQUID
FROM RECEIVER
SUCTION
GAS TO
COYP. 4

plate, and is then cooled to the saturation temperature correspond-

ing to intermediate pressure.
GAS FROM
When sizing any intercooler, the designer must consider (1) the EVAP.
low-stage compressor capacity; (2) the vapor desuperheating, liquid
makeup requirements for the subcooling coil load, or vapor cooling
load associated with the flash-type intercooler; and (3) any high-
stage side loading. The volume required for normal liquid levels,
liquid surging from high-stage evaporators, feed valve malfunc-
tions, and liquidhapor must also be analyzed.
Accessories necessary are the liquid level control device and the
high-level float switch. While not absolutely necessary, an auxiliary
oil pot should also be considered.
Suction Accumulator. A suction accumulator (also known as a
knockout drum, suction trap, pump receiver, recirculator, etc.) pre-
vents liquid from entering the suction of the compressor, whether on
the high stage or low stage of the system. Both vertical and horizon- Fig. 5 Suction Accumulator with Warm Liquid Coil
tal vessels can be incorporated. BaMing and mist eliminator pads
can enhance liquid separation. Vertical Suction Trap and Pump. Figure 8 shows the piping of
Suction accumulators, especially those not intentionally main- a vertical suction trap that uses ii high-pressure ainnionia puinp to
taining a level of liquid, should have a means of removing any transfer liquid from the system's low-pressure side to the high-pres-
buildup of ammonia liquid. Gas boil-out coils or electric heating sure receiver. Float switches piped on a float column on the side of
elements are costly and ineficient. the trap can start and stop the liquid ammonia punip, sound :in aliin11
Although it is one of the more common and simplest means of in case of excess liquid, and sometimes stop the compressors.
liquid removal, a liquid boil-out coil (Figure 5 ) has some draw- When the liquid level in the suction trap reaches the setting ofthe
backs. Generally, the warm liquid flowing through the coil is the middle float switch, the liquid ammonia pump starts and reduces the
source of liquid being boiled off. Liquid transfer pumps, gas-pow- liquid level to the setting of the lower float switch. which stops the
ered transfer systems, or basic pressure differentials are a more pos- liquid ammonia pump. A check valve in the discharge line of the
itive means of removing the liquid (Figures 6 and 7). ammonia ptunp prevents gas and liquid froin flowing backw:irtl
Accessories should include a high-level float switch for com- through the pump when it is not in operation. Depending on the type
pressor protection along with additional pump or transfer system of check valve used, some installations have two valves in :I series
controls. as an extra precaution against pump "backspin."
Systeni Practices for Ammonia Refrigerant 3.5

KNOCKOUT
EOUALlZlNG SOL.VALVES I RELIEF
VALVE A - OUALRELIEP
VALVE ASSEMBLY
SUCTION FRO
EVAPORATOR

DRUM

PUMPOUT 6 ALARM
EOUALIZING FLOAT
//
LINE

Hion PRESSURE
LIOUIO RECEIVER

VALVE

RELIEF
CHECKVALVE Fo/Lo,
PUMP MFG
RECOMMEN
OATIONS

Fig. 6 Equalized Pressure Pump Transfer System

Fig. 8 Piping fur Vertical Suction Trap and .
High-pressure Pump

EQUALIZING SOL.VALVES n

SUCTION GAS

VENT
FLOAT
SWITCH

TRAP D R A I N /
S O L . VALVE

REC. DRAIN
SOL.VALVE T z 1
HIGH PRESSURE

LIQUID RECEIVER

~
-4-
Fig. 7 Gravity Transfer System

Compressor controls ;idequately designed for starting. stopping,

;itid c:ip;icity reduction result in minuiial agitation, which ;lids in sep-
:ir:ituig the v:ipor and liquid in the suction trap. Increasing the com-
pressor capacity slowly and in small increments reduces the boiling
of liquid in the trap, which is c:iused by the refrigeration load of cool-
ing the refrigerant antl metal inass of the trap. Ifanother compressor
is started when plant suction pressure increases, it should he brought
on line slowly to prevent a s u t l h pressure change in thc suction trap.
A high level of liquid in :I suction trap should activate an ;il:inn
or stop the coinpressors. Although eliminating the ciiuse is the most
effective way to reduce a high level of excess surging liquid. a niore
inuiietli:ite solution is to stop p:irt of the compression system antl
r:iise the phnt suction pressure slightly. Continuing high levels indi-
cate insufficient pump capacity or suction trap volume.
Liquid Level Indicaturs. Liquid level can be indicated by visual
intlic;itors. electronic sensors, or a combination of the two. Visual
indicators include indivitlual circular reflex level indicators (bull’s-
eyes) mountetl on a pipe column or stmd-alone linear reflex glass
assemblies (Figure 9). For operation at tetnperatures below the frost
Fig. 9 Gage Glass Assembly for Ammonia
point. transparent plastic frost shields covering the reflex surfaces
are necessary. Also, the pipe column must be insulated, especially
when control devices ;ire attached.
Electronic level sensors can continuously monitor the liquid
level. Digital or graphic displays ofthe liquid level can be locally or
remotely monitored (Figure 10).
Adequate isolation valves for the level indicators should be
employed. High-temperature glass tube indicators should incorpo-
rate stop check or excess flow valves for isolation and safety.
Purge Units. A noncondensable gas separator (purge unit) is
useful in niost plants. especially when suction pressure is below
atmospheric pressure. Purge units on ammonia systems are piped to
3.6
COMPUTER INDEPENDENT
CONTROLLER
Fig. 10 Electronic Liquid Level Control
TO HIGH
++
TO SUCTION----I
OR AN
EVAPORATOR
Fig. 11 Purge Unit and Piping for Noncondensable Gas
carry noncondensables (air) from the receiver and condenser to the
purger, as shown in Figure 11. High-pressure liquid expands
through a coil in the purge unit, providing a cold spot in the purge
drum. The suction from the coil should be taken to one of the low-
temperature suction mains. Ammonia vapor and noncondensable
gas are drawn into the purge drum, and the ammonia condenses on
the cold surface. When the drum fills with air and other noncon-
densables, a float valve within the purger opens and permits them to
leave the drum and pass into the open water bottle. Purge units are
available for automatic operation.
Lubricant Management
Most lubricants are immiscible in ammonia and separate out of
the liquid easily when flow velocity is low or when temperatures are
lowered. Normally, lubricants can be easily drained from the sys-
tem. However, ifthe temperature is very low and the lubricant is not
properly selected, it becomes a gummy mass that prevents refriger-
ant controls from functioning, blocks flow passages, and fouls the
heat transfer surfaces. Proper lubricant selection ‘and management is
often the key to a properly functioning system.
In two-stage systems, proper design usually calls for lubricant
separators on both the high- and low-stage compressors. A properly
designed coalescing separator can remove almost all the lubricant
1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (Sl)
that is in droplet or aerosol form. Lubricant that reaches its satura-
tion vapor pressure antl becomes :I vapor cannot be removed by :I
separator. Separators equipped with some means of cooling the tlis-
charge gas will condense much of the vapor for consequent separa-
tion. Selection of lubricants that have very low vapor pressures
below 80°C can minimize carryover to 2 or 3 ntgkg. Care must be
exercised. however, to ensure that refrigerant is not condensed and
fed back into the compressor or separator, where it can lower lubric-
ity and cause compressor damage.
In general, direct-expinsion antl liquid overfeed system evapo-
rntors have fewer lubricant return problems than do flooded system
evaporators because refrigerant flows continuously :it good veloci-
ties to sweep lubricant froin the evaporator. Low-temperature sys-
tems using hot-gas defrost can also be designed to sweep lubricant
out of the circuit each time the system defrosts. This reduces the
possibility of coating the ev:ipor:itor surface and hindering heat
transfer.
Flooded evaporators can promote lubricant buildup in the evap-
orator charge because they may only return refrigerant v:ipor back
to the system. In ammonia systems, the lubricant is simply drained
from the surge drum. At low temperatures. this procedure is difficult
ifthe lubricant selected has a pour point above the evaporator tem-
perature.
Lubricant Removal from Aninionin Systems. Most lubricants
are miscible with liquid ammonia only in very sm:ill proportions.
The proportion decreases with the temperature, c:iusing lubricxnt to
separate. The evaporation of ammonia increases the 1ubric:int ratio,
causing more lubricant to separate. Increased density causes the
lubricant (saturated with ammonia at the existing pressure) to form
a separate layer below the ammonia liquid.
Unless lubricant is removed periotlically or continuously from
the point where it collects. it can cover the heat transfer surface in
the evaporator, reducing performance. If gage lines or branches to
level controls are taken from low points (or lubricant is :illowetl to
accumulate). these lines will contain 1ubric:int. The higher lubric:int
density will be at a lower level than the ammonia liquid. Draining
lubricant from a properly located collection point is not difficult
unless the temperature is so low that the lubricant does not flow
readily. In this case, maintaining the lubricant receiver :it a higher
temperature may be beneficial. Alternatively. a lubricant with a
lower pour point can be selected.
Lubricant in the system is saturated with ammonia at the existing
pressure. When the pressure is reducetl. the ammonia v:ipor sep:i-
rates, causing foaming.
Draining lubricant from amnionia systems requires specid care.
Ammonia in the lubricant foam normally starts to evaporxe :ind
produces :I smell. Operators should be made :iware of this. On sys-
tems where lubricant is drained from a still, :I spring-loaded drain
valve should be inst:illed. This type of valve will close if the valve
handle is released.
CONTROLS
Refrigerant flow controls are discussed in Chapter 45.The fol-
lowing precautions are necessary in the application of certain con-
trols in low-temperature systems.
Liquid Feed Control
iMany controls available for single-stage. high-temper:iture sys-
tems may be used with some discretion on low-temperature systems.
If the liquid level is controlled by :I low-side float valve (with the
float in the chamber where the level is controlled). low pressure :ind
temperature have no appreciable effect on operation. External float
chambers, however, must be thoroughly insulated to prevent heat
influx that might cause boiling and an unstable level. affecting the
float response. Equalizing lines to external float chambers. p:irticu-
larly the upper line, must be sized generously so that liquid can reach
System Practices for Ammonia Refrigerant
the float chamber. and gas resulting from any evaporation may be
retunietl to the vessel wi;hout :ippreci:ible pressure loss.
The superheat-controllet1 (thennostatic) expansion valve is gen-
erally used in direct-espansion evaporators. This valve operates on
the difference between the bulb pressure. which is responsive to the
suction teinperature. ;ind the pressure below the diaphragnt, which
is the :ictu:il suction pressure.
The thennostatic expansion valve is designed to maintain a pre-
set superheat in the suction gas. Although the pressure-sensing part
of the system responds almost unmediately to a change in condi-
tions. the teniperature-sensing bulb must overcome themial inertia
before its effect is felt on the power element ofthe valve. Thus when
compressor capacity decreases sudtlenly, the expansion valve may
overfeetl before the bulb senses the presence of liquid in the suction
line : i n d reduces the feed. Therefore. :I suction accumulator should
be inst:il led on direct-expansion low-temperature systems with niul-
tiple esp:insion valves.
C o n t r o l l i n g L o a d D u r i n g Pulldoivn
System transients during pulldown can be managed by control-
ling coinpressor capacity. Proper load control reduces the compres-
sor c:ip;icity so that the energy requirements stay within the
c:ipncities of the niotor and the condenser. On larger systems using
screw cotnpressors. :I current-sensing device reads motor amperage
and :icIjusts the capacity control device appropriately. Cylinders on
reciprocxuig compressors can be unloaded for similar control.
Alterniitively. a tlownstre;itii. outlet. or crankcase pressure regu-
lator c:in be inst;illed in the suction line to throttle the suction flow
should the pressure exceed :I preset luiiit. This regulator limits the
coinpressor’s suction pressure during pulldown. The disadvantaFe
of this device is the extra pressure drop it causes when the system is
:it the desired operating tonditions. To overcome some of this pres-
sure drop. the designer can use external forces to drive the valve,
c:itising it to be held fully open when the pressure is below the max-
iitiuni nllowable. Systems incorporating tlownstreatn pressure reg-
uhtors :incl compressor unlo:iding must be carefully designed so
th:it the two controls complement each other.
O p e r a t i o n a t V a r y i n g L o a d s and T e m p e r a t u r e s
Coinpressor and evapor:itor czipacity controls are similar for
niulti- and single-stage systems. Control methods include compres-
sor capacity control. hot-gas byp:iss. or ev:iporator pressure regula-
tors. Low pressure can affect control systems by significantly
increasing the specific volume of the refrigerant gas and the pres-
sure drop. A small pressure reduction can cause a large percentage
capacity reduction.
System load tIStIiilly cannot be retluced to near zero, since this
would result in little or no flow of gas through the compressor :ind
consequent overhe:iting. Atltlitionally. high pressure ratios would
be tletritiientiil to the compressor if it were required to run at very
low lo:itls. If the compressor cmnot be allowed to cycle off (luring
low lo:itl. :in acceptable alternative is a hut-gas bypass. The high-
pressure gas is fed into the low-pressure side ofthe system through
a downstream pressure regulator. The gas should be desuperheated
by injecting it at a point in the system where it will be in contact with
exp:intluig liquid, such as immediately downstream of the liquid
feed to the evaporator. Otherwise. extremely high compressor dis-
charge teniperatures can result. The :irtificial load supplied by the
high-pressure gas can f i l l the gap between the actual load and the
lowest stable conipressoy operating cnpacity. Figure 12 shows such
:in :irrangeinent.
Electronic C o n t r o l
Microprocessor and coinputer-b:isetl control systems are becorn-
ing the nonit for control systems on individual compressors as well
:is for entire system control. Ahnost :ill screw compressors use
3.7
LOW STAGE
COMP,RES~OR= ,
HOT GAS LINE
Fig. 12 Hut-Cas Iiijectiuit Evaporator for Operations
at Low Load
microprocessor control systems to monitor all safety functions and
operating conditions. These machines are frequently linked together
with a programmable controller or computer for sequencing multi-
ple compressors so that they load and unload in response to system
fluctuations in the most economical manner. Programmable con-
trollers are also used to replace multiple defrost time clocks on
larger systems for more accurate and economical defrosting. Com-
munications and data logging pennit systems to operate at optimum
conditions under transient load conditions even when operators are
not in attendance.
PIPING
The following recommendations are given for ammonia piping.
Local codes or ordinances governing ammonia mains should also be
complied with.
Recommended Material
Because copper and copper-bearing materials are attacked by
amnionia, they are not used in ammonia piping systems. Steel pip-
ing, fittings. and valves of the proper pressure rating are suitable for
attinionin gas and liquid.
Ammonia plppg should conform to ASME Sfandard B3 1.5,
Refrigeration Ptpmg. and IlAR Sfatidard 2, which states the follow-
ing:
1. Liquid lines 40 m m and smaller shall be not less than Schedule
80 carbon steel pipe.
2. Liquid lines SO through 150 m m shall be not less than Schedule
40 carbon steel pipe.
3. Liquid lines 200 through 300 mm shall be not less than Schedule
20 carbon steel pipe.
4. Vapor lines 150 mm and smaller shall be not less than Schedule
40 carbon steel pipe.
5. Vaipor lines 200 through 300 mm shall be not less than Schedule
20 carbon steel pipe.
6. Vapor lines 350 m m and larger shall be not less than Schedule 10
carbon steel pipe.
7. All threaded pipe shall be Schedule 80.
8. Carbon steel pipe shall be ASTM Sfandard A 53 Grade A or B,
Type E (electric resistance welded) or Type S (seamless); or
ASTM Sradard A 106 (seamless), except where temperature-
pressure criteria mandate a higher specification material. Stun-
(lard A 53 Type F is not permitted for ammonia piping.
Fittings
Couplings, elbows, and tees for threaded pipe are for a minimum
of 21 MPa design pressure and constructed of forged steel. Fittings
for welded pipe should match the type of pipe used (i.e., standard
3.8 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

Table 1 Suction Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Ammonia with Pressure Drops of 0.005 and 0.01 K/m Equivalent
Saturated Suction Temperature, OC
~~ ~~

-50 -40 -30

Steel Nominal Line

Size, mm
Af
Ap -
= 0.005 Klm
12.1 Palm
Ar = 0.01 K/m
Ap = 24.2 Palm
A f = 0.005 K/m
Ap = 19.2 Palm
A f = 0.01 Klm
Ap = 38.4 Pa/m
At = 0.005 K/m
Ap = 29.1 Palm
A f = 0.11 I Wm
Ap = 58.2 Pa/m
10 0.19 0.29 0.35 0,s 1 0.58 0.85
15 0.37 0.55 0.65 0.97 1 .nc) 1.60
20 n.80 1.18 1.41 2.08 2.34 3.4 1
25 1.55 2.28 2.72 3.97 4.48 6.5 I
32 3.27 4.80 5.71 8.32 9.36 13.58
40 4.97 7.27 8.64 12.57 14.15 20.45,
50 9.74 14.22 16.89 24.50 27.57 3Y.82
65 15.67 22.83 27.13 39.27 44. I7 63.77
80 28.08 40.81 48.36 69.99 78.68 I1l.30
1no 57.95 84.10 99.m 143.84 161.77 232.26
125 ins.71 I 53 .os 181.16 261.22 293.12 420.83
I 50 172.28 248.9 1 294.74 424.51 476.47 683.18
200 356.67 514.55 60~.2n 874.62 981.85 I 402.03
250 649.99 937.58 I I 07.64 1589.51 I 782.31 2 545.46
3 00 I 045.27 1504.96 1777.96 2 550.49 2 859.98 4 081.54
Saturated Suction Temaerature. O C
-20 -5 +I

Steel Nominal Line

Size, mm
--
At 0.005 Wm
Ap 42.2 Palm
Af = 0.01 Wm
Ap * 138.3 Palm Ap -
Af = 0.005 Wni
92.6 Palm
-
At 0.ol Wni
Ap = 185.3 Palm
10 0.91 2.41 2.37 3.42
15 1.72 2.50 3.11 4.50 4.42 6.31
20 3.66 5.31 6.61 9.53 9.38 13.46
25 6.98 10.10 12.58 I 8.09 17.79 25.48
32 1438 2 I .04 26.17 37.56 36.94 52.86
40 21.99 31.73 39.40 56.39 55.53 79.38
so 42.72 61.51 76.29 109.28 107.61 153.hti
65 68.42 98.23 122.06 I 74.30 171.62 245.00
80 121.52 174.28 216.15 308.91 304.12 433.7')
I00 249.45 356.87 442.76 631.24 62 1.94 885.8 1
I25 452.08 646.25 xnn. I Y 1139.74 1124.47 1 598.3 I
I50 733.59 I 046.77 I 296.07 1846.63 I819.59 2 s9n.21
200 1 506.11 2 149.60 2 662.02 3 784.58 3 735.65 5 303.12
250 2731.90 3 895.57 4 818.22 6 851.91 6 759.98 9 S89.56
300 4 378.87 6 237.23 7 714.93 i n 973.55 10 810.65 IS 360.20
Note: Cupcities ure in kilowetts I efrigerution iesulting
per unit length ( A f in Wrn).

fittings for standard pipe and extra heavy fittings for extra heavy
pipe).
Tongue and groove or ANSI flanges should be used in ammonia
piping. Welded flanges for low-side piping can have a minimum 1
MPa design pressure rating. On systems located in high ambients,
low-side piping and vessels should be designed for 1.4 to 1.G MPa.
The high side should be 1.7 MPa ifthe system uses water-cooled or
evaporative cooled condensing. Use 2.1 MPa minimum for air-
cooled designs.
Pipe Joints
Joints between lengths of pipe or between pipe and fittings can
be threaded if the pipe size is 32 m m or smaller. Pipe 40 inm or
larger should be welded. An all-welded piping system is superior.
Threaded Joints. Many sealants 'and compounds are available
for sealing threaded joints. The manufacturer's instructions cover
compatibility and application method. Do not use excessive
amounts or apply on female threads because any excess can contam-
inate the system.
Welded Joints. Pipe should be cut and beveled before welding.
Use pipe alignment guides to align the pipe and provide a proper
gap between pipe ends so that a full penetration weld is obtained.
The weld should be made by a qualified welder. using proper pro-
cedures such as the Welding Procedure Specifications. prepared by
the National Certified Pipe Welding Bureau (NCPWB).
Gasketed Joints. A conip:itible fiber gasket should be used with
flanges. Before tightening flange bolts to valves. controls, or flange
unions, properly align the pipe and bolt holes. When flanges are
used to straighten pipe. they put stress on adjacent valves. conipres-
son. and controls. causing the operating mechanism to bind. To pre-
vent leaks, flange bolts are drawn up evenly when connecting the
flanges. Flanges at compressors and other system components must
not move or indicate stress when a11 bolts are loosened.
lJnion Joints. Steel (21 MPa) ground joint unions are used for
gage and pressure control lines with screwed valves and for joints
up to 20 mm. When tightening this type of joint, the two pipes
must be axially aligned. To be effective, the two parts of the union
must match perfectly. Ground joint unions should be avoided if :it
a11 possible.
Pipe Location
Piping should be at least 2.3 in above the floor. Locate pipes wre-
fully in relation to other piping and structural members. especi:illy
when the lines are to be insulated. The distance between insulated
lines should be at least three tunes the thickness ofthe insulation for
screwed fittings, and four tunes for flange fittings. The space
between the pipe and dincent surfaces should be three-fourths of
these aniounts.
Hangers located close to the venic:il risers to and froin conipres-
sors keep the piping weight offthe compressor. Pipe hangers should
be placed no more than 2.5 to 3 in apart and within 0.6 i n of:i change
System Practices for Ammonia Refrigerant 3.9

Table 2 Suction, Discharge Line, and Liquid Capacities in Kilowatts for Aniinonia (Single- or High-Stage Applications)

Steel
Suction Lines (AY= 0.02 Wm) - Discharge Lines
-
AY 0.02 Wm, Ap 6R4.0 Palm
Steel
Liquid Lines
qaturatetl Suctiun Temperature, "C Saturated Suction Temp., O C
Nominal
Line Size,
ni ni
-40
I p = 76.9 Ap
-30
0
-20 -5 +5
116.3 Ap = 168.8 Ap = 276.6 Ap = 370.5 -40 -20 +5
Yuminal
h e Size,
mm
Velocity
0.5 mls
- - Ap 450.0
in 0.8 I .2 1 .Y 3.5 4.9 8.0 R.3 8.5 in 3.9 63.8
I5 1.4 2.3 3.6 6.5 9. I 14.9 15.3 15.7 15 63.2 118.4
20 3.0 4.9 7.7 13.7 19.3 31.4 32.3 33.2 20 I 10.9 250.2

25 5.8 9.4 14.6 25.9 36.4 59.4 61.0 62.6 25 179.4 473.4
32 12.1 19.6 30.2 53.7 75.4 122.7 126.0 129.4 32 311.0 9713.0
40 18.2 29.5 45.5 80.6 113.3 184.4 189.4 194.5 40 423.4 1469.4

35.4 57.2 88.1 155.7 218.6 355.2 364.9 374.7 so 697.8 21340.5
6.5 56.7 91.6 140.6 248.6 348.9 565.9 581.4 597.0 65 994.8 4524.8
8n 1ni.n 162.4 249.0 439.8 616.9 I nni.9 I 029.3 I 056.9 xn I 536.3 8 nnx.8
I no 206.9 332.6 509.2 897.8 1258.6 2 n42.2 2 098.2 2 154.3 -
125 375.2 601.8 902.6 I 622.0 2271.4 3 682.1 3 783.0 3 884.2 -
1 .so 608.7 975.6 1491.4 2625.4 3672.5 5954.2 6117.4 6281.0 -
2nn I 252.3 2003.3 3 056.0 5 382.5 7m . 4 12 195.3 12529.7 12864.8 -
250 2271.0 3625.9 s53y.9 9733.7 13619.6 22028.2 22632.2 23 237.5 -
3on 3640.5 5813.5 8873.4 15568.9 21787.1 35239.7 36206.0 37 174.3 -
A',,/cv: Vdues i t i the riible iiie h s e d uti 3fl"C condensing tenipeluNre. Multiply tublc cupuci-
1. Table ciipiicities me iii kilowatts ufietiigel.;itiuii. ties by the followiiig fiictuIs fuI urlier cuiiilemiiig temperatures:
A[) = piessiiie d q i due tu line Rictiuii. I'diii
A/ = curieslwiidiiip cli:liige iii s:itiiiiitiuii teiiiperatiiie. K/m Cuiidciising Siictiun Discharge
2. Liiir capacity t'ur utlier siiiiiiiifiuii teiii1ier:itiiies A r i d eqiiivaleiit leiigtlis L, Tciiipcmtiirc, OC Lincs Lincs
20 I.(U 0.86
30 I,no 1.00
4f1 0.96 1.24
3. Siifiiiiitiuii teiiipeintuie Ar fui utliei ciipiicities iiiid equivalent leiiglis Le
50 0.9 I 1.43

Table 3 Liquid Aninionia L i n e Capacities i n Kilowatts

High-pressure Thermosiphon Lubricant

Lines Gravity FlowcCooling
Punipecl Liquid Overfeetl Ratio
Nominal Liquid Hot-Cas Equalizer
Size, nini 3: I 4: 1 5:1 at 21 kPa' Defrust" High Side" Supplv Return Vent
40 513 387 308 I544 I 06 79 I 59 35 60
50 1175 879 703 3 573 I76 I 05.5 138 88 106
65 I 875 1407 I 125 5 683 3 24 1759 249 I55 187
xn 2700 2026 1620 in i s n 5 70 3517 385 255 323
1 no 413nn 36nn 2x80 - 1154 7 034 663 413 586
I25 - - - - 2 0x9 - In41 649 I062
1 >n - - - - 3411 - I 504 938 i 869
znn - - - - - - 7m n I677 I Ann

in direction ofthe piping. Hangers should be designed to bear on the
outside of insulated lines. Sheet metal sleeves on the lower half of
the insulation ;ire usually sufficient. Where piping penetrates a wall,
a sleeve should be installed; and where the pipe penetrating the wall
is insul:itetl, it inust be adequately sealed.
Piping to and froin c in ressors and to other coinponents must
? P
provide for expansion and contraction. Sufficient flange or union
,joints should be located in the piping that components can be
nssenibletl easily during initid installation and also disassembled
for servicing.
Pipe Sizing
Table 1 presents practical suction line sizing data based on
0.005 K and 0.01 K differential pressure drop equivalent per metre
total equivalent length of pipe. For data on equivalent lengths of
valves and fittings. refer to Tables 10.11, and 12 in Chapter 2. Table
2 lists data for sizing suction and discharge l i e s at 0.02 K differen-
tial pressure drop equivalent per metre equivalent length of pipe,
and for sizing liquid lines at 0.Sd s . Charts prepared by Wile (1977)
present pressure drops in saturation temperature equivalents. For a
 3.10 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (Sl)

complete discussion of the basis of these line sizing charts, see

Tmm (1991). Table 3 presents line sizing information for pumped
liquid lines, high-pressure liquid lines, hot-gas defrost lines, equal-
izing lines, and thermosiphon lubricant cooling ammonia lines.

Valves
Stop Valves. These valves should be placed in the inlet and out-
let lines to all condensers, vessels, evaporators, and long lengths of
pipe so that they can be isolated in case of leaks and to facilitate
“pumping out” by evacuation. Sections of liquid piping that can be
valved off and isolated must be protected with a relief device.
Installing globe-type stop valves with the valve stems horizontal
lessens the chance (1) for dirt or scale to lodge on the valve seat or
disk and cause it to leak or (2) for liquid or lubricant to pocket in the
area below the seat. Wet suction return lines (recirculation system)
should employ angle valves to reduce the possibility of liquid pock-
ets and to reduce pressure drop.
Welded flanged or weld-in-line valves are desirable for all line
sizes: however, screwed valves may be used for 32 nun and smaller
lines. Ammonia globe and angle valves should have the following
features:
- Soft seating surfaces for positive shutoff (no copper or copper
alloy)
Back seating to permit repacking the valve stem while in service Note: Proper position of valve during operation is not in the middle.
Arrangement that allows packing to be tightened easily

- All-steel construction (preferable)

Bolted bonnets above 25 mm, threaded bonnets for 25 mm and
smaller
Fig. 13 Dual Relief Valve Fitting fur Animonia

Consider seal cap valves in rehgerated areas and for all amtno-
nia piping. To keep pressure drop to a minimum, consider angle
valves (as opposed to globe valves).
Control Valves. Pressure regulators, solenoid valves, and ther-
mostatic expansion valves should be flanged for easy assembly and
removal. Valves 40 mm and larger should have welded companion
flanges. Smaller valves can have threaded companion flanges.
A strainer should be used in front of self-contained control
valves to protect them from pipe construction material and dirt. A
ceramic filter installed in the pilot line to the power piston protects
the close tolerances from foreign material when pilot-operated con-
trol valves are used.
Solenoid Valves. Solenoid valve stems should be upright with
their coils protected from moisture. They should have flexible con-
duit connections, where allowed by codes, and an electric pilot light
wired in parallel to indicate when the coil is energized. A manual
opening stem is useful for emergencies.
Solenoid valves for high-pressure liquid feed to evaporators
should have soft seats for positive shutoff. Solenoid valves for other
applications, such as in suction lines, hot-gas lines, or gravity feed
lines, should be selected for the pressure and temperature of the
fluid flowing and for the pressure drop available.
Relief Valves. Safety valves must be provided in conformance
with ASHRAE Standard 15 and Section VIII, Division 1, of the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Ve.wel Code. For ammonia systems,
IIAR Bulletin 109 also addresses the subject of safety valves.
Dual relief valve arrangements enable testing of the relief valves
(Figure 13). The three-way stop valve is constructed so that it is
always open to one of the relief valves if the other is removed to be
checked or repaired.
Isolated Line Sections
Sections of piping that can he isolated between hand valves or
check valves can hesuhjected to e.utreme hydrnulic pressures ifcold
liquid refrigerant is trapped in them nnd suhseqtient1.v warmed.
Additional safety valves for such piping must he provided.
Insulation and Vapor Retarders
Chapter 32 covers insulation and vapor retarders. Insulation and
effective vapor retarders on low-temperature systems are very
important. At low teniperatures. the smallest leak in the vapor
retarder can allow ice to fomi inside the insulation. which ciin
totally destroy the integrity of the entird insulation system The
result can cause a significant increase in load mtl power usage.
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
Piping
Figure 14 shows a typical piping arrangement for two compres-
sors operating in parallel off the same suction main. Suction mains
should be laid out with the objective ofretuming only clean. dry gas
to the compressor. This usually requires a suction trap sized atle-
quately for gravity gas and liquid separation based on peniiissible
gas velocities for specific temperatures. A dead-end trap c:in usually
trap only scale and lubricant. As an alternative to the dexl-end trap,
a shell-and-coil accumulator with :I warm liquid coil miiy be con-
sidered. Suctionniains running to and from the suction trap or :iccu-
mulator should be pitched toward the trap at 10 inin per metre for
liquid drainage.
In sizing the suction iiiains and the takeoffs from the m:iins to the
compressors, consider how the pressure drop in the selected piping
affects the compressor size required. First costs and operating costs
for compressor and piping selections should be optiniized.
Good suction line systems have a total friction drop of 0.5 to
1.S K pressure drop equivalent. Practical suction line friction losses
should not exceed 0.01 K equivalent per metre equivalent length.
A well-designed discharge main has a total friction loss of 7 to
1S kPa. Generally, a slightly oversized discharge line is tlesir:ible to
hold down discharge pressure and, consequently, discharge temper-
ature and energy costs. Where possible, djscharge mains should be
pitched (10 mm/m) toward the condenser. without creating :I liquid
trap: otherwise, pitch should be toward the discharge line sepxitor.
Systeni Practices for Ammonia Refrigerant
SUCTION
A PIPING SCHEMAT Ic FROM EVAPORATORS
DE1AIL"A"
LUBR.
NOT RECOMMENDED
ALTERNATE
DETAIL "A"
COMPRESSOR
Fig. 14 Sclieiiiatic uf Reciprocating Cuinpressurs Operating in Parallel
I-ligh- and low-pressure cutoilis :ind gages ant1 lubricant pressure
f:iilure cutout are installed on the coinpressor side of the stop valves
to protect the compressor.
Lubricant Separnturs. Lubricant separators are located in the
disch;irge line of each compressor (Figure 14A). A high-pressure
float valve drains the lubricant back into the compressor crankcase
or lubricnnt receiver. The separator should be placed as far from the
coinpressor iis possible, so that the extra pipe length can be used to
cool the discharge gas before it enters the separator. This reduces the
teniperature of the aninioni;i v:ipor and makes the separator more
effective.
Liquid ;ininionin i n u s not reach the crankcase. Often, a valve
(preferably automatic) is installed in the drain froin the lubricant
separator. open only when the teniperature at the bottom of the sep-
m t o r is higher than the condensing teniperature. Sonie manufiictur-
ers install a small electric heater ;it the bonoin of a vertical lubricant
trap histead. The heater is actuated when the compressor is not oper-
ating. Separators installed in cold conditions must be insulated to
prevent ammonia condensation.
A filter is reconnnentled in the drain line on the downsneani side
of thc high-pressure float valve.
Lubricant Receivers. Figure 14B illustrates two cotiipressors
on the s:ittie suction line with one discharge line lubricant separator.
The sep;ir:itor float drains into :I lubricant receiver, which maintains
:I reserve supply of lubricant for the compressors. Compressors
3.11
D - DIAMETER OF SUCTION MAIN
B CO- SEPARATOR SYSTEM
E
DR
HIGH PRESSURE
LUBR. FLOAT VALVE
RELIEFVALVE
LUBR. RECEIVER
R. DRAIN VALVE
COMPRESSOR
should be equipped with crankcase floats to regulate the lubricant
flow to the crankcase.
Discharge Check Valves and Discharge Lines. Discharge
check valves on the downstream side of each lubricant separator
prevent high-pressure gas from flowing into an inactive compressor
and causing condensation (Figure 14A).
The discharge line from each compressor should enter the dis-
charge main at a 45" maxunum angle in the horizontal plane so that
the gas flows smoothly.
Unloaded Starting. Unloaded starting is frequently needed to
stay within the torque or current limitations ofthe motor. Most com-
pressors are unloaded either by holding the suction valve open or by
external bypassing. Control can be manual or automatic.
Suctiun Gas Cunditioning. Suction main piping should be insu-
lated, complete with vapor retarder to minimize thermal losses, to
prevent sweating and/or ice buildup on the piping, and to limit
superheat at the compressor. Additional superheat results in
increased discharge temperatures and reduces compressor capacity.
Low discharge temperatures in ammonia plants are important to
reduce lubricant carryover and because the compressor lubricant
can carbonize at higher temperatures, which can cause cylinder wall
scoring and lubricant sludge throughout the system. Discharge tem-
peratures above 120°C should be avoided at all times. Lubricants
should have flash point temperatures above the maximum expected
compressor discharge teniperature.
3.12
Cooling
Generally, ammonia compressors are constructed with internally
cast cooling passages along the cylinders and/or in the top heads.
These passages provide space for circulating a heat transfer
medium, which minimizes heat conduction from the hot discharge
gas to the incoming suction gas and lubricant in the compressor's
crankcase. An external lubricant cooler is supplied on most recipro-
cating ammonia compressors. Water is usually the medium circu-
lated through these passages (water jackets), and the lubricant
cooler at a rate of about 2 mL/s per kilowatt of refrigeration. The
lubricant in the crankcase (depending on type of construction) is
about 50°C. Temperatures above this level reduce the lubricant's
lubricating properties.
For compressors operating in ambients above 0"C, water flow is
sometimes controlled entirely by hand valves, although a solenoid
valve in the inlet line is desirable to make the system automatic.
When the compressor stops, water flow must be stopped to keep the
residual gas from condensing and to conserve water. A water-regu-
lating valve, installed in the water supply line with the sensing bulb
in the water return line, is also recommended. This type of cooling
is shown in Figure 15.
The thermostat in the water line leaving the jacket serves as a
safety cutout to stop the compressor ifthe temperature becomes too
high
THERMOSTAT
WATER
REGU LATl NG
VALVE
LUBRICANT
COOLER
Fig. 15 Jacket Water Cooling for Ambient
Temperatures above Freezing
N O R M A L L Y OPEN
-7
U 7 5 SEWEC
Fig. 16 Jacket Water Cooling for Ambient
Temperatures below Freezing
1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)
For compressors installed where ambient teniperatures below
0°C inay exist, a means for t1r:iining the jacket on shutdown to pre-
vent freeze-up must be provided. One inethod is shown in Figure 16.
Water flow is through the nomially closed solenoid valve. which is
energized when the compressor starts. The water then circulates
through the lubricant cooler and the jacket. and out through the
water return line. When the compressor stops, the solenoid valve i n
the water inlet line is &energized antl stops the water flow to the
compressor. At the same time. the solenoid valve opens to drain the
water out of the low point to w:istewater treatment. The check
valves in the air vent lines open when pressure is relieved : i n d :illow
the jacket and cooler to be drained. Each flapper check v:llve is
installed so that water pressure closes it. but absence of water pres-
sure allows it to swing open.
When compressors are inst:illetl in spaces below 0°C: or where
water quality is very poor, cooling is best handled by using :in inhib-
ited glycol solution or other suitable fluid in the ,jackets :incl lubri-
cant cooler and cooling with :I secondary heat exch:mger. This
method for cooling reciprocating :immonia compressors eliinin:ites
the fouling of the lubricant cooler and jaCket normally
with city water or cooling tower water.
ROTARY VANE, LOW-STAGE
COMPRESSORS
Piping
Rotary vane coinpressors have been used extensively :IS low-
stage compressors in ammonia refrigeration systems. Now. how-
ever, the screw compressor has largely replaced the rotmy vane
compressor for ammonia low-stage compressor app1ic:itions. Pip-
ing requirements for rotary v:me conipressors are the same :is for
reciprocating compressors. Most rotary vane compressors :ire
lubricated by injectors since they have no crankcase. In sonie
designs. a lubricant separator, 1ubric:int receiver. and cooler itre
required on the discharge of these compressors: a pump recircu-
lares the lubricant to the coinpressor for both cooling antl 1ubric:i-
tion. In other rotary vane compressor designs. :i discharge
lubricant separator is not used. and the lubricant collects in the
high-stage suction accumulator or intercooler. from which it inay
be drained. Lubricant for the injectors must periodically be :iddetl
to a reservoir.
EXPANSION
AND FILL TANK
Fig. 17 Rotary Vane Booster Compressor Cooling
with Lubricant
System Practices for Ammonia Refrigerant
Cooling
The compressor jacket is cooled by circulating a cooling fluid,
such :is water or lubricant. Lubricant is recommended because it
will not freeze and can be the same lubricant used for lubrication
(Figure 17).
SCREW COMPRESSORS
Piping
Helic:il screw compressors :ire the choice for niost industrial
refrigeration systems. All helic;tl screw conipressors have a con-
stmt voluine (displacenient) design. The volume index ( y ) refers to
the internal volume ratio ofthe compressor. There are three types of
screw compressors:
1. Fixed 5 with slide valve
2. V:iri:ibie 5 with slide valve and slide stop
3. Fixed 5with bypass ports in lieu of slide valve
When I/, is fixed. the coinpressor fiinctions most efficiently :it a
certain iibsolute conipression ratio (CR). In selecting a fixed 5coni-
pressor. the a v e r y e CR rather than the iiiaximuin CR should be
considered. A guide to proper compressor selection is based on the
equation = CR, where k = 1.4 for ;imtnonia.
For exatnple, for a screw compressor at - 12 "C (268 kPa) and
36°C (1390 kPa) with CR = S.19. Vi = 5.19 and Vi = 3.24. Thus.
ii coinpressor with 5 = 3.6 might be the best choice. If the ambient
conditions are such that the average condensing temperature is 24°C
(973 kP:i). then the CR is 3.63 and the ideal 5 is 2.5 1. Thus. a com-
pressor with 5 = 2.4 is the proper selection to opthnize efficiency.
Fixed 5conipressors with bypass ports in lieu of a slide valve ;ire
often applied as booster conipressors, which nonnally have :i 6
requireinent of less than 2.9.
U R E STRAINER
LUBE F
Fig. I8 Fixed Screw Coiiipressur Fluw Dingrniii with Indirect Lubricant Cooling
3.13
A variable 4compressor makes compressor selection shnpler
because it can vary its volume index from 2.0 to 5.0; thus, it can
automatically match the internal pressure ratio within the compres-
sor with the external pressure ratio.
Typical flow diagrams for screw compressor packages are shown
in Figures 18 and 19. Figure I8 is for indirect cooling, and Figure 19
is for direct cooling with refrigerant liquid injection. Figure 20 illus-
trates a variable 5 compressor that does not require a fhll-time luhe
pump but rather a punip to prelube the bearings. Full-time lube
pumps are required when fixed or variable compressors are used
as low-stage compressors. Lubrication systems require at least a
500 kPa pressure differential for proper operation.
Lubricant Cooling
The lubricant in screw compressors may be cooled three ways:
1. Liquid refrigerant injection
2. Indirect cooling with glycol or water in a heat exchanger
3. Indirect cooling with boiling high-pressure refrigerant used as
the coolant in a thennosiphon process
Refrigerant injection cooling is shown schematically in Figures
19 and 2 I . Depending on the application, this cooling method usually
decreases compressor efficiency and capacity but lowers equipment
cost. Most screw compressor iiianufacturerspublish a derating curve
for this type ofcooling. Injection cooling for low-stage compression
has little or no penalty on compressor efficiency or capacity. How-
ever, the system efficiency can be increased by using an indirectly
cooled lubricant cooler. With this configuration, the heat from the
lubricant cooler is removed by the evaporative condenser or cooling
tower and is not transmitted to the high-stage compressors.
The refrigerant liquid for liquid injection oil cooling must come
from a dedicated supply source. The source may be the system
receiver or a separate receiver: a 5 niin uninterrupted supply of
refrigerant liquid is usually adequate.
JLUBE PUMP
FULL TIME
3.14 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

COMPRESSOR SUCTION STRAINER

" X " NOTE: FOR

BOOSTER OR LOW
STAGC OPFRATION
THIS GAS SUPPLY

Fig. 19 Fixed 5 Screw Compressor Flow Diagram with Liquid Injection Cooling

Fig. 20 Flow Diagram for Variable Screw Compressor High-Stage Only

Indirect or thennosiphon lubricant cooling for low-stage screw
compressors rejects the lubricant cooling load to the condenser or
auxiliary cooling system-this load is not transferred to the high-
stage compressor, which improves the system efficiency. Indirect
lubricant cooling systems using glycol or water reject the lubricant
cooling load to a section of an evaporative condenser, a separate
evaporative cooler, or a cooling tower. A three-way lubricant con-
trol valve should be used to control lubricant temperature.
Thennosiphon lubricmt cooling is the industry smnd:iril. In this
system, high-pressure refrigerant liquid from the condenser. which
boils at condensing tempernttire/pressure (usually 32 to ?.SLY:tle-
sign). cools the lubricant in a tubular heat exchanger. Typical ther-
mosiphon lubricant cooling arrangements are shown in Figures I N.
20, 22, 23, and 24. Note on all figures that the refrigerant liquid
supply to the lubricant cooler receives priority over the feed to the
system low side. It is important that the gas equalizing line (vent) off
System Practices for Aninionia Refrigerant 3.15

OUTLET PRESSURE REGULATOR

LUBE SEPARATOR

NOTES:
1 . FOR LOW-STAGE COMPRESSORS, GAS SUPPLY TO PCV MUST
BE SUPPLIED FROM HIGH-STAGE COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE.
2. THERMAL EXPANSION VALVE TO BE'ADJUSTED TO MAINTAIN
5OoC IN COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE LINE.

Fig. 21 Flow Diagrdlii fur Screw Cumpressurs with Refrigerant Injection Cooling

SYSTEM COMPRESSOR
CONDENSER CONOENIR .-
-
[ = ~___:_

1
STATIC PmEssuaE S).FETV
TOOVERCOME
CDHDENSEA
PRESSURE OAOP VMVE' b. <@
LlOUlD OVERFLOW
DRAIN TORECEIVER
!
1.8 m

Y-l
uauio MIN.

TO SYSTEM
EVAPORATOR

Fig. 22 Typical Therniusipliun Lubricant Cooling Systeni

with Therniusiphun Accuiiiulator
the top ofthe thennosiphon receiver be adequately sized toniatch the
lubric;int cooler load to prevent the thennosiphon receiver from be-
coming g : bound.
~ is varied by adjusting the slide stop on the discharge end ofthe com-
Figure 25 shows a tyhical capacity control system for a fixed 5
screw coinpressor. The four-way valve controls the slide valve posi-
tion :ind thus the compressor capacity from typically 100 to 10%
with a signal froin an electric. electronic, or microprocessor control-
ler. The slide valve unlonds the compressor by bypassing v;ipor
back to the suction of the compressor.
Figure 26 shows a typical capacity and volume index control sys-
tem in which two four-way control valves take their signals from a
computer controller. One four-way valve controls the capacity by
positioning the slide valve in accordance with the load, and the other
positions the slide stop to adjust the compressor internal pressure
ratio to ni:itch the system suction and discharge pressure. The slide
villve works the same as that on fixed V; compressors. Volume index
Fig. 23 Thermosiphon Lubricant Cuoling System with
Receiver Muunted above Thermusiphon Lubricant Cooler
pressor.
Screw compressor piping should generally be installed in the
same manner as for reciprocating compressors. Although screw
compressors can ingest some liquid refrigerant, they should be pro-
tected against liquid carryover. Screw compressors are furnished
with both suction and discharge check valves.
CONDENSER AND RECENER PIPING
Properly designed piping around the condensers and receivers
keeps the condensing surface at its highest efficiency by draining
liquid ammonia out of the condenser as soon as it condenses and
keeping air and other noncondensables purged.
3.16 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

CONDENSER
COMPRESSOR
DISCHARGE

EQUALIZE TO NOTES:
SYSTEM RECEIVER
1.) Shutofl valves to be added
as required for Isolation.
2.) Complete Isolation of Oil Cooler
I requires liquid side Safely Valve.
HEIGHT TO
OVERCOME

1 ....I
CONDENSER
PRESSURE DROP

..- - ~ - . ~ - - ~ - ~ ~ - ~ ~ --- T O~ SYSTEM

~ ~ - - - Typical Thermosiphon arrangement,
RECEIVER Other component layouts may be
1.Bm better suited to a specific installation.
MIN.

I I VI--,
t
1 ii

Fig. 24 Typical Thermosiphon System with Multiple Oil Coolers

SUCTION COVER

HYDRAULIC CnlNOER

- (&-
FLOW FROM 011 TO COMP’H~SOR
CONTROL MANlFOlU PORT
3f-+
II c
I
MOUNTLNC BLOCK

/-OIL RETURN OIL SUPPLY

\ TO SUCTION
DISCHARGE

Fig. 25 Typical Hydraulic System for Slide Valve Capacity

Control for Screw Compressor with Fixed 5 LUBL SUPPLY

Horizontal Shell-and-Tube Condenser and
Through-Type Receiver
Figure 27 shows a horizontal water-cooled condenser draining
into a through-type (top inlet). receiver. Ammonia plants do not
always require controlled water flow to maintain pressure. Usually.
pressure is adequate to force the ammonia to the various evaporators
without water regulation. Each situation should be evaluated by
comparing water costs with input power cost savings at lower con-
denser pressures.
Water piping should be arranged so that condenser tubes are
always filled with water. Air vents should be provided on condenser
heads and should have hand valves for manual purging.
Fig. 26 Typical Positioning System for Slide Valve and
Slide Stop for Variable F$ Screw Conipressor
Receivers must be below the condenser so that the condensing
surface is not flooded with ammonia. The piping should provide (1)
free drainage from the condenser and (2) static height of ammonia
above the fust valve out of the condenser greater than the pressure
drop through the valve.
The drain line from condenser to receiver is designed on the basis
of maximum velocity to allow gas equalization between condenser
and receiver. Refer to Table 2 for sizing criteria.
System Practices for Ammonia Refrigerant
Fig. 27 Horizontal Condenser and Top Inlet Receiver Piping
Fig. 28 Parallel Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver
Parallel Horizontal Shell-and-Tube Condensers
Figure 28 shows two condensers operating in parallel with one
through-type (top inlet) receiver. The length of horizontal liquid
drain lines to the receiver should be mininiized, with no traps per-
niitted. Equalization between the shells is achieved by keeping the
liquid velocity in the drain line less than 0.5 rids. The drain line can
be sized from Table 2.
3.17
EVAPORATIVE CONDENSERS
Evaporative condensers are selected based on the wet-bulb tem-
perature in which they operate. The 1% design wet bulb is that wet-
bulb temperature that will be equalled or exceeded 1% ofthemonths
of June through September, or 29.3 h. Thus, forthe majority of indus-
trial plants that operate at least at part load all year, the wet-bulb tem-
perature will be below design YY.6%1 of the operating time. The
resultant condensing pressure will only equal or exceed the design
condition during 0.4%) ofthe time ifthe design wet-bulb temperature
and peak design refrigeration load occur coincidentally. This peak
condition is more a function of how the load is calculated, what load
diversity factor exists or is used in the calculation, and what safety
factor is used in the calculations. than of the size of the condenser.
Location
If an evaporative condenser is located with insufficient space for
air movement, the effect is the same as that imposed by an inlet
damper. and the fnn may not deliver enough air. In addition, evap-
orative condenser discharge air may recirculate, which adds to the
problem. The high inlet velocity causes a low-pressure region to
develop around the fan inlet, inducing flow of discharge air into that
region. If the obstruction is from a second condenser, the problem
can be even more severe because discharge air from the second con-
denser flows into the air intake of the fust.
Prevailing winds can also contribute to recirculation. In many
areas, the winds shift with the seasons; wind direction during the
peak high-humidity season is the most important consideration.
The tops of the condensers should always be higher than any
adjacent structure to eliminate downdrafts that might induce recir-
culation. Where this is impractical. discharge hoods can be used to
discharge air fnr enough away from the f'an intakes to avoid recircu-
Iation. However, the additional static pressure imposed by a dis-
charge hood must be added to the fan system. The fan speed can be
increased slightly to obtain proper air volume.
Installation
A single evaporative condenser used with a through-type (top
inlet) receiver can be connected as shown in Figure 29. The
receiver must always be at a lower pressure than the condensing
pressure. Design ensures that the receiver is cooler than the con-
densing temperature.
Installation in Freezing Areas. In areas having ambient temper-
atures helow 0"C, the water in the evaporative condenser drain pan
and water circuit m u ~ be t kept from Freezing at light plant loads.
When the temperature is at freezing, the evaporative condenser can
operate as a dry-coil unit, and the water puinp(s) and piping can be
drained and secured for the season.
Another inethod of preventing the water from freezing is to place
the water tank inside and install it as illustrated in Figure 30. When
the outdoor temperature drops, the condensing pressure drops, and
a pressure switch with its sensing element in the discharge pressure
line stops the water pump; the water is then drained into the tank. An
alternative is to use a thermostat that senses the watertemperature or
outdoor ambient temperature and stops the pump at low tempera-
tures. The exposed piping and any trapped water headers in the evap-
orative condenser should be drained into the indoor water tank.
Air volume capacity control methods include inlet, outlet, or
bypass dampers; two-speed fan motors: or fan cycling in response to
pressure controls.
Liquid Traps. Because all evaporative condensers have a sub-
stantial pressure drop in the ammonia circuit, liquid traps are needed
at the outlets when two or more condensers or condenser coils are
installed (Figure 31). Also, an equalizer line.is necessary to main-
tain a stable pressure in the receiver to ensure free drainage froin the
condenser;. For example, assume a 10 kPa pressure drop in the
operating condenser in Figure 31, which is producing a lower
1.18 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

pressure (1290 kPa) at its outlet conip:irkl to the idle condenser

(1300 kPa) and the receiver (1300 kP:i). The trap creates :I liquid
seal so that a liquid height h of 1700 nun (equiv:ilent to 10 kPa)
builds up in the vertical drop leg and not in the condenser coil.
The trap must have enough height above the vertical liquid leg to
accommodate a liquid height equal to the maxhnum pressure drop
that will be encountered in the condenser. The example illustr;ites
the extreme case of one unit on and one ORhowever, the same phe-
nomenon occurs to a lesser degree with two condensers of differing
pressure drops when both are in full operation. Substnntinl tliffer-
ences in pressure drop can also occur between two different brands
ofthe same size condenser or even different models produced by the
siinie manufacturer.
The mininium recommended height ofthe vertical leg is 1SO0 nun
for ammonia. This vertical diinension h is shown in all evnporative
condenser piping diagrams. This height is satisfactory for operation
within reasonable ranges around nonnal design conditions ;ind is
based on the maximum condensing pressure drop of the coil. If ser-
vice valves are installed at the coil inlets :md/or outlets, the pressure
drops imposed by these valves must be 'accounted for by increasing
the ininimum IS00 mm drop-leg height by an amount equal to the
valve pressure drop in height of liquid refrigerant (Figure 31)

Fig. 29 Single Evaporative Condenser with DISCHARGE F R O M

COMPRESSOR
-cx
- --r1300hPa
Top Inlet Receiver

OPERATING
CONDENSER CONDENSER

COLUMN
h = 1700 m m

NOTE' GAGE PRESSURES SnOWN

I
RECEIVkR-

TO S Y S T E M

Fig. 31 Two EvdpWdtive Condensers with Trapped

Piping to Receiver

PURGE
FULL-SIZE

1. Evaporative condenser 10. Tank drain

2. Spray header connection 11. Pump H MINIMUM

3. Pan overflow 12. Strainer with blowoff

4. Pandrain valve
5. Roof 13. Todrain
6. Tank 14. Floor
7. Makeup water inlet 15. Bleed off & drain line
8. Float 16. Return from evaporative LINE SIZING
9. Tank overflow condenser 0.50 nrlr M A X . V N T R A P P E D VELOCITY
0.75 mlr M A X . T R A P P E D VELOCITY

Fig. 30 Evaporative Condenser with Inside Water Tank Fig. 32 Method of Reducing Condenser Outlet Sizes
System Practices for Ammonia Refrigerant
Fig. 33 Piping fur Shell-and-Tube and Evapurative
Cundeiiscrs with Top Islet Receiver
Figures 33. 34. ant1 35 illustr:ite v:irious piping nrrangenients for
evapor:itive condensers.
EVAPORATOR PIPING
Proper evaporator piping antl control are necessary to keep the
cooled sp:ice at the desired temperature and also to adequately pro-
tect the compressor froni surges of liquid ammonia out of the evap-
or;itor. The evaporators illustrated in this section show some
neth hods u s e d to acconiplish these objectives. In sonie cases. c o ~ n -
biniiticins of tletails shown on several illustrations have been used.
When using hot g:is or electric hear for defrosting, the drain pan
:ind tlr:iui line niust be he:itetl to prevent the condensate froni
refreczing. With hot gas. a heating coil is enibetlded in the drain pan.
The licit g:is flows first through this coil and then into the evaporator
coil. With electric heat. an electric heating coil is used under the
tlciin pan. Wraparound or intenid electric heating cables are used
on the condensate drain line when the room temperature is below
0°C.
Figure 36 illustrates a thennostatic expansion valve on a unit
cooler using hot gas for autoni:itic defrosting. Because this is an
;iutoni;itic defrosting arriingeinent. hot gas must always be available
at the hot-gas solenoid valve near the unit. The system must contain
niultiple evaporators so that the compressor will be running when
the evapor:itor to be defrosted is shut down. The hot-gas header
iiiust be kept in a space where ;iinmoni:i will not condense in the
pipe. Otherwise, the coil receives liquid iininionia at the start of
defrosting and is unable to take full advantage of the latent heat of
hot-gas condensation entering the coil. This can also lead to severe
3.19
Fig. 34 Piping fur Parallel Condensers with
Surge-Type Receiver
hytlraulic shock loads. If the header must be in a cold space, the
insulated hot-gas main must be drained to the suction line by a high-
pressure float.
The liquid line and suction line solenoid valves are open during
nonnal operation only antl are closed during the defrost cycle.
When the defiost cycle starts, the hot-gas solenoid valve is opened.
Refer to IlAR Bulletin 116 for information on possible hydraulic
shock when the hot-gas defrost valve is opened after a defrost.
A defrost pressure regulator maintains a gage pressure of about
480 to SS0 kPa in the coil.
Unit Cooler-Flooded Operation
Figure 37 illustrates a flooded evaporator with a close coupled
low-pressure vessel for feeding aimnonia into the coil and auto-
niatic water defrost.
The lower float switch on the float column at the vessel controls
the opening and closing of the liquid line solenoid valve, regulating
animonia feed into the unit to maintain a liquid level. The hand
expnnsion valve downstream of the solenoid valve should be
adpsted so that it will not feed aininonia into the vessel at a rate
higher than the vessel can acconiinodate while raising the suction
pressure of gas froin the vessel no more than 6 to 14 kPa.
The static height of liquid in the vessel should be sufficient to
flood the coil with liquid undernonnal loads. The higher float switch
should be wired into analanii circuit and possibly a compressor shut-
down circuit for when the liquid level in the vessel is too high. With
flooded coils having horizontal headers, distribution between the
niultiple circuits is accomplished without distributing orifices.
3.20
Fig. 35 Piping for Parallel Condensers with
Top Inlet Receiver
Fig. 36 Piping for Thermostatic Expansion Valve
Application for Automatic Defrost on Unit Cooler
A combination evaporator pressure regulator and stop valve is
used in the suction line from the vessel. During operation, the reg-
ulator maintains a nearly constant back pressure in the vessel. A
solenoid coil in the regulator mechanism closes it during the defrost
cycle. The liquid solenoid valve should also be closed at this time.
1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (Sl)
RELIEF VILVE
TOATMOSPHERE 1 ,\
,,. WAIERHEADEA
SEE DETAIl "W
Fig. 37 Arrangement for Automatic Defrost of
Air Blower with Flooded Coil
One of the best means of controlling room temperature is :i room
thermostat that controls the effective setting of the evapor:itor pres-
sure regulator.
A spring-loaded relief valve is used around the suction pressure
regulator and is set so that the vessel is kept below 860 kP:i (gage).
A solenoid v:ilve unaffected by downstream pressure is used U1
the water line to the defrost hexler. The defrost he:ider is con-
structed so that it drains :it the end ofthe defrost cycle and the down-
stream side of the solenoid valve drains through a fixed orifice.
Unless the room is maintained above 0°C. the drain line from the
unit should be wrapped with a heater cable or provided with tinother
heat source and then insulated to prevent the defrost water from
refreezing in the line.
The length of the water line within the space leading up to the
header and the length of the drain line in the cooled space should he
kept to a minimum. A flapper or pipe trap on the end ofthe c h i n line
prevents wami air from flowing up the drain pipe and into the unit.
An air outlet damper may be closed during defrosting to prevent
themial circulation of air through the unit. which would :iffect the
temperature of the cooled space. The fan is stopped during defrosr.
This type ofdefrosting requires :i drain pan float switch for safety
control. If the drain pan fills with water. the switch ovemdes the
time clock to stop the flow into the unit by closing the wxer sole-
noid valve.
There should be a 5 min delay at the edd of the water spray part
of the defrosting cycle so that the water can drain from the coil cind
pan. This limits the ice buildup in the drain pan and on the coils after
the cycle is completed.
On completion ofthe cycle, the pressure in the low-pressure ves-
sel may be about 500 kPa (gage). When the unit is opened to the
much lower pressure suction maui. sonie liquid surges out into the
main; therefore, it may be necessary to gradually bleed off this pres-
sure before fully opening the suction valve in order to prevent ther-
mal shock. Generally, a suction trap in the engine room removes this
liquid before the gas streain enters the compressors.
The type ofrefrigerant control shown in Figure 37 can be used on
brine spray-type units where brine is sprayed over the coil :it :ill
tunes to pick up the condensed water vapor from the airstreani. The
brine is reconcentrated continually to remove the water :ibsorbed
from the airstream.
High-Side Float Control
When a system has only one evaporator, a high-pressure float
control can be used to keep the condenser drained and to provide :I
System Practices for Ammonia Refrigerant
SUCTION T R I P 7
PURGE --9
VaLVE
FLUID OUT b detennine the actual level and with front extensions as required.
4 A OIL LEG
Fig. 38 Arrangement fur Hurizuntal Liquid Cuoler
and High-Side Fluat
SOLENOID VALVE
I I
Fig. 39 Piping fur Evapulator nncl Low-Side Float with
I-lurjzontal Liquid Cooler
liquid seal between the high side and the low side. Figure 38 illus-
trates :I brine or water cooler with this type of control. The high-side
float should be located near the evaporator to avoid insulating the
liquid line.
The ;~nioiintof ammonia in this type of system is critical because
the charge must be limited so that liquid will not surge into the suc-
tion line under the highest loading in the evaporator. Some type of
suction trap should be used. One method is to place a horizontal
shell :ibnve the cooler, with the suction gas piped into the bottom
:rnd nut of the top. The reduction of gas velocity in this shell causes
the liquid tn separate froin the gas and draw back into the chiller.
Coolers should include :I liquid indicator. A reflex glass lens with
;I I:irgc liquid chantber and vapor connections for boiling liquids and
with :I plastic frost shield to tletennine the actual level should be
used. A refrigeration thennostat measuring the temperature of the
chilled fluid as it exits the cooler should be wired into the compres-
sor starting circuit tn prevent freezing.
A flow switch or differential pressure switch should prove flow
before the coinpressor starts. The fluid to be cooled should be piped
into the lower portion of the tube buntlle and out of the top portion.
3.21
Low-Side Float Control
For multiple evaporator systems, low-side float valves are used
to control the refrigerant level in flooded evaporators. The low-
pressure float shown in Figure 39 has an equalizer line from the top
of the float chamber to the space above the tube bundle and an
equalizer line nut of the lower side of the float chamber to the lower
side of the tube bundle.
For positive shutoff of liquid feed when the system stops, a sole-
noid valve in the liquid line is wired so that it is only energized when
the brine or water pump motnr is operating and the compressor is
running.
A reflex glass lens with large liquid chamber and vapor connec-
tions for boiling liquids should be used with a plastic frost shield to
Usually a high-level float switch is installed above the operating
level of the float to shut the liquid solenoid valve if the float should
overfeed.
MULTISTAGE SYSTEMS
As pressure ratios increase, single-stage ammonia systems
encounter problems including (1) high discharge temperatures on
reciprocating compressors causing the lubricant to deteriorate, (2)
loss of volumetric efficiency as high pressure leaks back to the low-
pressure side through compressor clearances, and (3) excessive
stresses on compressor moving parts. Thus, manufacturers usually
limit the maximum pressure ratios for multicylinder reciprocating
machines to approximately 7 to 9. For screw compressors, which
incorporate cooling, compression ratio is not a limitation, but effi-
ciency deteriorates at high ratios.
When the overall system pressure ratio (absolute discharge
pressure divided by absolute suction pressure) begins to exceed
these limits, the pressure ratio across the compressor must be
reduced. This is usually accomplished by employing a multistage
system. A properly designed two-stage system exposes each of the
two compressors to a pressure ratio approximately equal to the
square root of the overall pressure ratio. In a three-stage system,
each compressor is exposed to a pressure ratio approximately
equal to the cube root of the overall ratio. When screw compres-
sors are used, this calculation does not always guarantee the most
efficient system.
Another advantage to multistaging is that successively subcool-
ing the liquid at each stage of compression increases the overall sys-
tem operating efficiency. Additionally, multistaging can be used to
iiccoinmodate multiple loads at different suction pressures and tem-
peratures in the same refrigeration system. In some cases, two
stages of compression can be contained in a single compressor, such
as an internally compounded reciprocating compressor. In these
units. one or more cylinders are isolated from the others so that they
can iict as independent stages of compression. Internally com-
pounded compressors are economical for small systems that require
low temperature.
Two-Stage Screw Compressor System
A typical two-stage, two-temperature system using screw com-
pressors provides refrigeration for high- and low-temperature loads
(Figure 40). For example. the high-temperature stage will supply
refrigerant to all process areas operating between -2 and 10°C. A
- 8°C intennediate suction temperature is selected. The low-tem-
perattire stage requires a -37°C suction temperature for blast freez-
ers and continuous or spiral freezers.
The system employs a flash-type intercooler that doubles as a
recirculator for the - 8°C load. It is the most efficient system avail-
able if the screw compressor uses indirect lubricant cooling. If
refrigerant injection cooling is used, system efficiency is decreased.
This system is efficient for several reasons:
3.22
1 EVAPORATIVE
LOAD LOW TEMPERATURE
-37°C RECIRCULATOR
. -
qt
OIL SEPARATOR OIL SEPARATOR
BOOSTER COMPRESSOR HIGH STAGE COMPRESSOR
Fig. 40 Compound Ammonia System with Screw Compressor Thermosiphon Cooled
1. Approximately 50% of the booster (low-stage) motor heat is
removed from the high-stage compressor load by the thennosi-
phon lubricant cooler.
Note: In any system, thermosiphon lubricant cooling for booster
and high-stage compressors is about 10%)more efficient than
injection cooling. Also, plants with a piggyback, two-stage
screw compressor system without intercooling or injection cool-
ing can be converted to amultistage system with indirect cooling
to increase system efficiency approximately 15%.
2. Flash-type intercoolers are more efficient than shell-and-coil
intercoolers by several percent.
3. Thermosiphon lubricant cooling of the high-stage screw com-
pressor provides the highest efficiency available. Installing indi-
rect cooling in plants with liquid injection cooling of screw
compressors can increase the compressor efficiency by 3 to 4%.
4. Thermosiphon cooling saves 20 to 30% in electric energy during
the low-temperature months. When outside air temperature is
low, the condensing pressure can be decreased to 600 to 700 kPa
(gage) in most ammonia systems. With liquid injection cooling,
the condensing pressure can only be reduced to approximately
850 to 900 kPa (gage).
5. Variable compressors with microprocessor control require less
total energy when employed as high-stage compressors. The
controller tracks the compressor operating conditions to take
advantage of ambient conditions as well as variations in load.
Converting Single-Stage into Two-Stage Systems
When plant refrigeration capacity must be increased and the sys-
tem is operating below about 70 kPa (gage) suction pressure, it is
usually more economical to increase capacity by adding a compres-
sor to operate as the low-stage compressor of a two-stage system
than to implement a general capacity increase. The existing single-
stage compressor then becomes the high-stage compressor of the
two-stage system. The following are some items to consider when
converting:
1998 ASHFUE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)
INTERMEDIATE
TEMPERATURE
RECIRCULATOR
I'
-
*
I_ PUMP
The motor on the existing single-stage compressormay have to be
increased in size when used at a higher suction pressure.
The suction trap should be checked for sizing :it the incre:isetl gas
- flow rate.
An intercooler should be added to cool the low-stage compressor
discharge gas and to cool high-pressure liquid.
* A condenser may have to be adtled to handle the increased con-
densing load.
A means ofpurging nu should be added ifplant suction gage pres-
sure is below zero.
* A means of automatically reducing compressor capacity should
be added so that the system will operate satisfactorily at reduced
system capacity points.
LIQUID RECIRCULATION SYSTEMS
The following discussion gives an overview of liquid recircula-
tion (liquid overfeed) systems. See Chipter 1 for more coniplete
information. For additional engineering details on liquid overfeed
systems, refer to Stoecker (1YX8).
In a liquid ammonia recirculntion system, a pump circdites the
ammonia from a low-pressure receiver to the evaporators. The low-
pressure receiver is a shell for storing refrigerant at low pressure :ind
is used to supply evaporators with refrigefant, either by gravity or
by a low-pressure pump. It also takes the suction from the evapora-
tors and separates the gas from the liquid. Because the :imotint of
liquid fed into the evaporator is usu:illy several times the :inioiint
that actually evaporates there, liquid is always present in the suction
return to the low-pressure receiver. Frequently, three times the ev:ip-
orated amount is circulated through the evaporator (see C h q t e r I).
Generally, the liquid ammonia pump is sized by the flow rate
required and a pressure differential of about 170 kPa. This is satis-
factory for most single-story installations. If there is a static lift on
the putrip discharge, the differential is increased accordingly.
The low-pressure receiver should be sized by the cross-sectional
area required to separate liquid and gas and by the volume between
System Practices for Aninionia Refrigerant
Fig. 41 Piping fur Single-Stage Systeni with Luwr-Pressure
Receiver and Liquid Aniniunia Recirculatiun
the nonii:il :incl danii liquitl levels in the low-pressure receiver. This
volume should be sufficient to cont:iin the maxhnum fluctuation in
liquid from the vnrious lo:itl conditions (see Chapter I).
The liquid at the pump discharge is in the subcooled region. A
total pressure drop of about 3.5 kPa in the piping can be tolerated.
The remaining pressure is expended though the control valve
and coil. The pressure drop and heat pickup in the liquid supply line
should be low enough to prevent flashing in the liquid supply line.
Provisions for liquid relief froin the liquid innin back to the low-
pressure receiver are required. so that when the liquid line solenoid
v:ilves :it the various evaporators iire closed. either for defrosting or
for teiiiperauire control. the excess liquid can be relieved back to the
receiver. Generally. relief valves used for this purpose ;ire set at
about 275 kPa differential when positive displacement pumps are
used. When centrifugal pumps :ire used. a hand expansion valve or
a niininiutn flow orifice is acceptable to ensure that the pump is not
deatl-he:idetl.
The suction header between the evaporators and the low-pres-
sure receiver should be pitched 1% to pennit' excess liquid flow
back to the low-pressure receiver. The header should be designed to
avoid tr:ips.
Liquid Recirculatiun in Single-Stage System. Figure 41 shows
the piping of a typical single-stage system with a low-pressure
receiver antl liquid ammonia recircul:ition feed.
HOt-Cas DdrOst
This section was taken from a technical paper by Briley and
Lyons (1 992). Several methotls ;ire used for defrosting coils in areas
below 2°C room temperature. These include
* Hot refrigerant gas (the predominant method)
* Witer
- Air
* C:onibin:itions of hot gas. water. ;ind air
The evaporator (air unit) in :I liquid recirculation system is cir-
cuitetl s o that the refrigerant flow provides maxhnum cooling effi-
ciency. The ewporator can nlso work as n condenser if the necessary
piping and flow InodifiCntions :ire made. When the evaporator is
operated ns :I condenser antl the fans are shut down. the hot refrig-
erant v:ipor raises the surface temperature of the coil enough to melt
any ice ;ind/or frost on the surfnce so that it drains off. Although this
method is effective. it can be troublesome and inefficient if the pip-
ing system is not properly designed.
Even when the fans are not operating. up to SO% or more of the
heat given up by the refrigerant vapor is lost to the space. Because
the rate of heat transfer varies with the temperature difference
between the coil surface antl the room air. the temperature/pressure
of the refrigerant during defrost should be minimized.
3.23
Another reason to maintain the lowest possible defrost tempera-
ttue/pressure, particularly in freezers, is to keep the coil from steam-
ing, Steam increases the refrigeration load, and the resulting icicle
or frost formation must be dealt with. Icicles increase maintenance
during cleanup: ice fonned during defrost tends to collect at the fan
rings. which sometunes restricts fan operation.
Defrosting takes slightly longer at lower defrost pressures. The
shorter the tune heat is added to the space, the more efficient is the
defrost. However, with slightly extended defrost times at lower tem-
perature. the overall defrosting efficiency is much greater than at
higher temperature/pressure because refrigeration requirements are
reduced.
Another loss during defrost canoccur when hot, or uncondensed,
gas blows through the coil and the relief regulator and vents back to
the compressor. Some of this gas load cannot be contained andmust
be vented to the compressor through the wet return line. It is most
energy-efficient to vent this hot gas to the highest suction possible;
:in evaporator defrost relief should be vented to the intermediate or
high-stage compressor if the system is two-stage. See Figure 42 for
a conventional hot-gas defrost system for evaporator coils of 50 kW
of refrigeration and below. Note that the wet return is above the
evaporator and that a single riser is employed.
Defrost Cuntrul. Because the efficiency of defrosting is IOW,
frequency and duration of defrosting should be kept to the minimum
necessary to keep the coils cle'an. Less defrosting is required during
the winter than during hotter, more humid periods. An effective
energy-saving measure is to reset defrost schedules in the winter.
Several methods are used to initiate the defrost cycle. Demand
defrost, actuated by a pressure device that measures the a u pressure
drop across the coil, is a good way of minimizing total daily defrost
time. The coil is defrosted automatically only when necessary.
Demand initiation, together with a float drainer to dump the liquid
fonned during defrost to an intermediate vessel, is the most efficient
defrost system available. See Figure 43 for details.
The most common defrost control method, however, is time-
initiated, time-terminated; it includes adjustable defrost duration
and an adjustable number of defrost cycles per 24 h period. This
control is coinnionly provided by a defrost timer.
Estimates indicate that the load placed on a refrigeration system
by a coil during defrost is up to three times the operating design load.
Thus. it is important to properly engineer hot-gas defrost systems.
Designing Hut-Cas Defrost Systems. Several approaches are
followed in designing hot-gas defrost systems. Figure 43 shows a
typical demnnd defrost system for both upfeed and downfeed coils.
This design returns the defrost liquid to the system's intermediate
pressure. An alternative is to direct the defrost liquid into the wet
suction. A float drainer or thennostatic trap with a hot-gas regulator
installed at the hot-gas inlet to the coil is much better than the relief
regulator (see Figure 43).
Most defrost systems installed today (Figure 42) use a time clock
to initiate defrost: the demand defrost system shown in Figure 43
uses a low differential pressure switch to sense the air pressure drop
across the coil and actuate the defrost. A thermostat terminates the
defrost cycle. A timer is used as a backup to make sure the defrost
tenninates.
Sizing and Designing Hut-Cas Piping. Hot gas is supplied to
the evaporators in two ways:
1. The preferred method is to install a pressure regulator set at
approxiniately 700 kPa (gage) in the equipment room at the hot-
gas takeoff and size the piping accordingly.
2. The alternative is to i n s d l a pressure regulator at each evaporator
or group of evaporators and size the piping for minimum design
condensing pressure, which should be 500 to 600 kPa (gage).
A maximutn of one-third of the coils in a system should be
defrosted at one tune. If a system has 900 kW of refrigeration capac-
ity. the main hot-gas supply pipe could be sized for 300 kW of
 i

3.24 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

"ig
E

LTRL
LTRS
HGD
DPR
SV-LTRL
UPFEED COILS
L€.G€NQ
Low-Temperature Recirculated Liquid
Low-Temperature Recirculated Suction
Hot-Gas Defrost Supply 11300 t o 700 kPa (gage)]
Differential Pressure Regulator (set at * 6 0 0 kPal
Solenoid Valve, Low-Temperature Recirculated
Liquid
-
DOWNFEED OR CROSSFEED COILS
DEFROST CYCLE ACTUATED BY TIME CLOCK

A. Deenergize SV.LTRL and stop fans.

Delay 2 to 3 min. for downfeed and crossfeed coils and
4 t o 8 min. for upfeed coils.
Energize SV-HGD. which closes valve A.
TL Thermostat-Operates SV-LTRL on Demand B. Coil defrost period terminated by Time Clock.
TC Time Clock IKeep defrost time t o a minimum-just enough to clean
DHC Defrost Heater Cable coil and drain pan.)
SV-HGD Hot-Gas Defrost Solenoid Valve TC deenergizes SV-HGO, which opens valve A.
A Gas-Powered Automatic Shut-off Valve C. Energize SV-LTRL.
G 0-1000 kPa, 90 mm Gage with Valve Delay 2 minutes to freeze any remaining water on coil.
TSL Room Thermostat-Operates SV.LTRL on Demand D. Start fans.

Fig. 42 Conventional Hot Cas Defrost Cycle

(For coils w i t h SO kW refrigeration capacity or helow)

It DOWNFEED OR CROSSFEED COILS Oll

1

UPFEED COILS
W W
DEFROST CYCLE ACTUATED BY PRESSURE SWITCH AT
PREDETERMINEDSETTING (approx. 250 Pa) SEQUENCE OF OPERATION
A Deenergize SV-LTRL and stop fans.
LEGEND Delay energize SV-HGD closing A. Coil will defrost.
DCD Defrost Condensate Return Drainer B. Coil defrost period terminated by TS set at 4.5"C.
LTRL Low-Temperature Recirculated Liquid Use override timer after 30 min. to force SV-HGD to
LTRS Low-TemperatureRecirculated Suction deenergize if TS malfunctions.
HGD Hot-Gas Defrost Supply C Deenergize SV-HGD via ttierinustat TS opening valve A.
TS Thermostat-Terminates Hot-Gas Defrost Cycle D. Energize SV-LTRL
PS Air Side Pressure Switch Delay 2 to 4 min
TSL Room Thermostat-Operates SV-LTRL on Demand E Start fans.
SV-LTRL Recirculated Liquid Line Solenoid Valve F. To save energy, return liquid to intercooier of intermediate
SV-HGD Hot Gas Defrost Solenoid Valve temperature recirculator.
A Gas-PoweredAutomatic Shut-off Valve Alternate: Return liquid to wet suction downstrearn of stop valve
G 0-1000 kPa. 90 mm Gage with Valve Note' This defrost control method assumes a hot-gas outlet
DHC Defrost Heater Cable pressure regulator is in the equipment room. If high-pressure hot
DC Return Liquid Defrost Condensate gas is used. an outlet pressure regulator with electric shut-off
HGR Hot-Gas Regulator Valve should be substituted for SV-HGO and set at 500 to 600 kPa (gage)

Fig. 43 Demand Defrost Cycle

(For coils w i t h SO kW refrigeration capacity or helow)
System Practices for Aninionia Refrigerant 3.25

rcfrigcr:ition. The outlet pressure-regulating valve should be sized

i n :iccortl:inccwith the iii:inufacturer's tl:itn.
Reducing the defrost hot-gas pressure in the equipnient rooin has
atlv;int;iges, notably that less liquid will condense in the hot-gas line
:is the condensing teinperature is reduced to 11 to 18°C. A typical
HOT GAS DEFROST TO tioi GAS
cquipnient rootii hot-gas pressure control system is shown in Figure 1400 TO DEFROST SYSTEM
44. If hot-gas lines in the system are trapped, a condensate drainer 700 kPa loaoal 550 TO 700 kPs (gage1
must be installed at each trap antl at the low point in the hot-gas line
(Figure 4.5). Defrost contlens:ite liquid return piping froin coils
where ii float or thennosfatic valve is used should be one size larger
than the liquid feed piping to the coil.
Dent;intl Defrost. The following are advantages antl features of Fig. 44 Equipnient Ruuin Hot-Cas Pressure Control System
tlem;ind defrost:
1 . It uses the le:ist energy for defrost.
2. It increases total system efficiency because coils are off-line for
ii ininitnuiii aitiount of tinie.
3. It iniposes less stress on the piping system because there are
fewer defrost cycles.
4. Regulating the hot gas to approximately 700 kPa (gage) in the
equipment room gives the gas less chance of condensing in the
supply piping. Liquid in hot-gas system ni:y cause problems
clue to the hydr:iulic shock created when the liquid is forced into
an ev:iporator (coil). Coils in hot-gas pans may rupture as aresult.
5. Dr:iinuig the liquid fonned during defrost with a float or thenno-
A
st:iric drniner eliniin:ites hot-gas blowby noniially associated
with pressure-regulatiiig vdves installed iirountl the wet suction
retiirn line pilot check valve. RETURN DEFROST CONDENSATE TO
6. Returning the aninionin liquid to the intercooler or high-stage INTERCflfll f R CR
recirculator saves considerable energy in a system. A 70 kW HIGH FMPFRATURE
refrigeration coil defrosting for 12 niin can condense up to 11
kg/itiui of ammonia, or 132 kg total. The enthalpy differencc
between returning to the low-stage recirculator (-40°C) and the TC EVAPORATORS
intcnnetliate recirculator (- 7°C) is 148 kJkg or 19.5MJ total or
27 kW of refrigeration removed from the -40°C booster for 12
niin. This assunies that only liquid is drained and is the saving
when liquid is drained to the intennetliate point. not the total cost
10 defrost. If :I pressure-reducing valve is used around the pilot
check valve. this rate could double or triple because hot gas
flows through these h v e s in untneasurable quantities.
Soft Hut-Gas Defrost System. The soft hot-gas defrost systeni
is p:irticularly well suited to large ev:iporators and should be used 011
Fig. 45 Hut-Cas Condensate Return Drainer
all coils of 50 kW of refrigeration or over. The system eliminates the
valve clatter. pipe nioveinents, and noise associated with large coils
during hot-gas defrost. Soft hot-gas defrost can be used for upfeed If the velocity in the riser is high enough, it will carry over a certain
or down feed coils: however. the piping systems differ (Figure 46). amount of liquid, thus reducing the penalty. For example, at -40°C
Coils oper:ited in the 1iorizont:il plane must be orificed. Vertical arninonia has a density of 689.9 kg/m3, which is equivalent to a
coils that usu;illy are cross-fed :ire also orificed. pressure of 689.9(9.807 m/s2)/1000= 6.77 kPa per metre of depth.
The soft hot-gas defrost system is tlcsignetl to increase coil pres- Thus, a S 111 riser has a colunin of liquid that exerts 5 6.77 = 33.8
sure gr:idually :is defrost is initiated. This is accomplished by a kPa. At -4O"C, ammonia has a saturation pressure of 71.7 kPa. At
sm:ill hot-gas feed having a capxity of about 2.5 to 30% ofthe esti- the bottom ofthe riser then. the pressure is 33.8 + 71.7= 105.5 Ha.
niatetl duty with a solenoid and a hand expansion valve adjusted to which is the saturation pressure of rulunonia at -33°C. This 7 K dif-
bring the pressure up to about 275 kP:i (gage) in 3 to S inin. (Refer ference aniounts to a 1.4 K penalty per metre of riser. If a riser were
to Sequcnce of Operiition in Figure 46.) After defrost, a small suc- oversized to the point that the vapor did not carry the liquid to the
tion line solenoid is opened so that the coil can be brought down to wet return, the evaporator would be at -33°C instead of-40°C. This
operation pressure gadually before liquid is introduced and the fnns probleni can be solved in several ways:
st:irtetl. The systeni c:in be initiated by a pressure switch; however,
for large coils in spiral or individual quick freezing system. manual 1. Install the low-temperature recirculated suction (LTRS) line
initi:ition is preferred. below the evaporator. This inethod is very effective for down-
The soft hot-gas defrost system eliniinates check valve chatter and feed evaporators. The suction from the coil should not be
most. ifnot all. liquid hmiinier (i.e.. hydraulic problems in the piping). trapped. This piping arrangement also ensures lubricant return to
I n atltlition. features 4. S, and 6 listed in the section on Deni:ind the recirculator.
Defrost apply to the soft hot-gas defrost system. 2. Where the LTRS is above the evaporator: install a liquid return
system below the evaporator (Figure 47). This arrangeinent
Double Kiser Designs i o r L a r g e E v a p o r a t o r Coils eliminates static penalty, which is particularly advantageous for
Stutic pressure penalty is the pressure/teniperature loss associ- plate, individual quick freeze, and spiral freezers.
ated with a refrigerant vapor stream bubbling through a liquid bath. 3. Use double risers from the evaporator to the LTRS (Figure 48).
1.26 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

UPFEED COILS (SINGLE RISER) DOWNFEED OR CROSSFEED COILS (SINGLE RISER)

HOT-GAS DEFROST CYCLE ACTUATED BY AIRSIDE SEQUENCE OF OPERATION

PRESSURE SWITCH (PSI A T PREDETERMINED SETTING A. Deenergize SV-LTRL and stop fans.
(approximately 2 5 0 Pa) Energize SV-HGD3, which closes valve A.
B. After 60 s. energize SV-HGD2 to gradually increase cui1
LEGEhlp internal pressure.
LTRL Low-Temperature Recirculated Liquid C. When coil pressure reaches about 280 kPa (gage), pressure
LTRS Low-Temperature Recirculated Suction switch PS2 energizes SV-HGDl and defrost continues.
HGD Hot-Gas Defrost Supply at 500 t o 600 kPa (gage) D. When liquid reaches 4.5'C, temperature switch TS closes
TS Thermostat-Terminates Hot-Gas Defrost Cycle SV-HGD1 and SV-HGDP.
PS Air Side Pressure Switch E. Wait one minute and open small solenoid valve SV-LTRS.
TSL Thermostat-Operates SV-LTRL on Demand Then wait 2 to 4 min.
SV-LTRL Liquid Line Solenoid Valve F. Deenergize SV-HGD3, which opens valve A and closes
SV-HGDl Hot-Gas Solenoid Valve (Main Hot-Gas Defrost SV-LTRS.
SUPPlYI G. Energize SV-LTRL and wait 2 to 4 min.
SV-HGDZ Hot-Gas Solenoid Valve ( 2 5 % Hot-Gas Defrost H. Start fans.
SUPPlYl 1. To save energy. return defrost condensate (DC) t o
SV-HGD3 Hot-Gas Solenoid Valve (To operate Valve A) intercooler or intermediate temperature recirculator.
PS2 Pressure Switch to Operate SV-HGDl Alrernare: Return liquid t o LTRS downstream of stop valve.
SVLTRS Solenoid Valve Bypass t o LTRS
A Gas-Powered Automatic Shut-off Valve LTRS Nore 1 : This defrost method assumes the outlet pressure
G 0-1000 kPa, 90 mm Gage w i t h Valve regulator is in the equipment room. If high-pressure hot gas is
DHC Drain Heater Cable used, an outlet pressure regulator is installed at the HGD inlet.
DC Defrost Condensate Return Liquid Note 2: The soft hot-gas defrost system may be manually
D Defrost Condensate Drainer initiated also.

Fig. 46 Suft H u t - G a s D e f r u s t C y c l e
(For coils with SO kW refrigeration cnpncity or nhovr)

PLATE
FREEZER
- RE-URN -E4DER
* LTRS

U
V = VERTICAL RISE
LOUlD IEADEH A = EVAPORATOR
UNIT OUTLET

-
B = W E T SUCTION
C = SMALL RISER

-
D LARGE RISER
E = LARGE TRAP
F SMALLTRAP

Fig. 47 R e c i r c u l a t e d Liquid R e t u r n System Fig. 48 D o u b l e L u w - T e m p e r a t u r e S u c t i u n Risers

System Practices for Ammonia Refrigerant
If ;I single riser is sized for niinunum pressure drop at full load,
the stntic pressure penalty is excessive at part load, and lubricant
return could be ii problein. If the single riser is sized for minimum
lo:itl. then the pressure drop in the riser is excessive antl counter-
productive.
Double risers solve these problenls (Miller 1979). Figure 4 8
shows that when iniixiiiiuni load occurs, both risers return vapor antl
liquid to the wet suction. At muiiiiiuni load, the large riser is sealed
by the liquid anunonia in the Inrge trap. and the refrigerant vapor
flows through the sinall riser. A siiiall trap on the sinall riser ensures
that soine lubricmt and liquid return to the wet suction.
The risers should be sized so th:it the pressure drop. calculated on
ii dry gas basis. is at least 70 P;i/ni. The larger riser is designed for
:\pproxiin:itely 65 to 75'% of the flow :ind the sinall one for the
remaintler. This design results in ;I velocity of approxunately 25 nds
or higher. Sonie coils may require three risers (large, mediuni. and
sn1:~ll).
Over thc years, freezers have continued to grow in capiicity. As
they became larger. so did the evaporators (coils). Where these
freezers are in line antl the product to be frozen is wet. the defrost
cycle c:in be every 4 or 8 h. Many production lines Iuiiit defrost
duration to 30 min. If the coils are large (soine coils have a refrig-
eration capacity of 700 to 1000 kW), it is difficult to design :i hot-
gas defrost system that can coniplete a safe defrost in 30 inin.
Sequential defrost systeins. where the coils are defrosted altern:itely
(luring production. are feasible but require special treatment.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Anuiionia is an econoinical choice for industrial systems. While
amnionia has superior themiotlynamic properties, it is considered
toxic :it low concentration levels of35 to SO ing/kg. Large quantities
ofanunoni:i should not be vented to enclosed areas near open flanies
or heavy sparks. Anuiionia at I6 to 25% by volume burns and can
explode in air in the presence of :in open flanie.
The unport:ince of nnuiioni:i piping is soiiietuiies ininunized
when the miin einphasis is on selecting m:ijor equipment pieces.
Mains should be sized carefiilly to provide low pressure drop and
avoid capacity or power penalties caused by inadequate piping.
Rusting pipes and vessels in older systems containing anunonia
c:ui create a safety hnzard. Oblique X-ray photographs of welded
pipe joints and ultrasonic inspection of vessels inay be used to dis-
close defects. Only vendor-certified parts for pipe. valving. and
pressure-containing components according to designated assembly
dr:iwings should be used to reduce hazards. Cold liquid refrigerant
should not be confined between closed valves in a pipe where the
liquid can wami and expand to burst piping components. Rapid
niultiple pulsations of anunonia liquid in pipuig coinponents (e.g.,
those developed by cavitation forces or hydrnulic haniinering froni
compressor pulsations with inxsive slugs of liquid carryover to the
coinpressor) niiist be :ivoitled to prevent equipment and piping tlain-
.
_ . , to Dersonnel.
:ize :intl uiiurv
Most service problems are caused by inadeq~~te(pr,rk'c';rZrti~~s
tlurhK design, construction. and installation (IIAR Srurrdurd 2.
A S l - J b E ~irr,rc/o,z/ IS). Aninionin is a powerful solvent that
rellloves clin, scale, santl, or moistL,re remain,ng,in the p,ipes,,valves.
:ind finings during installation. These substances 'are swept along
\vith the suction gas to the compressor. where they are a menace to
the bearings. pistons, cylinder walls, valves. and lubricant. Most
conipressors are equipped with suction strainers :ind/or additional
disposable strainer liners for the large quantity of debris that can be
present at initial start-up.
Moving parts are often scored when a compressor is run for the
first tune. Damage starts with minor scratches. which increase pro-
gressively until they seriously affect the operation of the compres-
sor or render it inoperative.
A systeiii that has been carefully and properly installed with no
foreign matter or liquid entering the coinpressor will operate satis-
factorily for a long tune. As piping is installed, it should be power
rotary wire brushed and blown out with compressed air. The piping
system should be blown out again with compressed air or nitrogen
before evacuation and charging. See ASHRAE Stundurd 15 for sys-
tem piping test pressure.
REFERENCES
ASHKAE. 1994. Safety code for mechanical refrigeration.ANSVASHRAE
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ASME. 1992. Refrigeration piping. ANWASME Stundud 8 3 1.5-92.
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ASME. 1995. RUIKSfor construction of power boilers. Boiler undpressrrre
vessel code, Section VIII, Division 1-95.
ASTM. 1995. Specificationfor seamless carbon steel pipe for high-temper-
atnre service. ANSIlASTM Strmdurcl A 106-95. American Society for
Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM. 1996. Specification for pipe, steel, black and hot-dipped, zinc-
coated, welded and seamless. ANWASTM Stundurd A 53-96.
Briley, G.C. and T.A. Lyons. 1992. Hot gas defrost systems for large evap-
orators i n ammonia liquid overfeed systems. IIAR TechniculPuper 163.
Frick Co. 1995. Tliermosyplion oil cooling. Bulletin E70-9002 (August).
Frick Company, Wayneshoro, PA.
IIAR. 1988. Minimum safety criteria for a safe ammonia refrigeration sys-
tem. Bnllctirr 109. International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration,
Washington, DC.
IIAR. 1992. Eqnipment, design, and installation of ammonia mechanical
refrigeration systems. ANSllIIAR Slundurd 2- 1992.
IIAR. 1992. Guitlelhies for avoitlhig component failure in industrial refrig-
eration systems caused hy ahnormal pressure or shock. Bulletin 116.
Miller. D.K. 1979. Sizing dual-suction risers in liquid overfeed refrigeration
systems. Cheniicul Engineering (Septemher 24).
NCPWB. Welding procedure specifications.National Certified Pipe Weld-
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Stoecker, W.F. 1988. Chapters 8 and 9 in fndustriul refrigerution. Business
News Puhlishiiig Company, Troy, MI.
Timm. M.L. I99 1. An improved method for calculatingrefrigerant line pres-
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ns
Wile, D.D. 1977. Rcfiigerunl line .sizing. ASHRAE RP 1x5.
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" .
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A,P, 1984,Hot gas tlefrost-A-one-a-more-a-time. IIAR Technical
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