Hormones and The Female Voice

HORMONES AND THE FEMALE VOICE:
AN EXPLORATION OF THE FEMALE HORMONAL CYCLE

FROM PUBERTY TO MENOPAUSE AND HOW IT AFFECTS
THE VOCAL APPARATUS
A Dissertation
Submitted to
the Temple University Graduate Board
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
by
Patricia Vigil
July 2015
Examining Committee Members:
Dr. Christine Anderson, Advisory Chair, Department of Voice and Opera

Dr. Rollo Dilworth, Department of Music Education and Therapy
Dr. Lawrence Indik, Department of Voice and Opera
Dr. Joyce Lindorff, Department of Keyboard Studies
©
Copyright
2015
by
Patricia Vigil
All Rights Reserved

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to examine the female hormonal cycle throughout a
woman’s life and its effects on the singing voice. Dealing with vocal issues brought on
by hormonal fluctuations can be extremely frustrating for the professional singer, as these
issues can wreak havoc on performance and practice schedules. The best weapon of
defense against its unpredictability is information. Unfortunately, data on the female
hormonal cycle and its effects on the voice is not covered in most standard vocal
pedagogy books. Information on the subject is often relegated to a small section of a
chapter, and even then usually describes only the symptoms: edema, hoarseness, and loss
of high notes and power. The question as to why these symptoms happen every month
and during menopause, and whether there is anything that can be done to alleviate them,
remains largely unanswered.
A candid discourse on the subject of hormones and the female voice has begun,
but now must brought into the open. It is a subject that needs to be broached in voice
studios everywhere. Can the effects of hormonal fluctuations on the voice be managed?
What treatments are there for the symptoms; are they safe; are they effective? How can
we further the dissemination of information on this subject? This paper will attempt to
answer these questions by compiling data from the studies and research of esteemed
doctors and scientists on this subject into one document, making it easy for young
students and interested voice teachers to access this important information. It is my goal
with this monograph to help and inform my readers.
The human larynx is directly influenced by lifelong cyclical hormonal
fluctuations. A woman’s monthly cycle, which lasts from puberty to menopause, causes
ii
changes in hormone concentrations. These changes can affect a woman’s physical and
emotional states, causing bloating, and temporary abnormalities in sleep, mood,
concentration levels, and energy. These effects are also seen in the vocal tract, where
edema, vocal fatigue, decreased range, and lowering of the fundamental frequency can
occur. The monthly symptoms of hormonal change are called premenstrual syndrome, or
PMS. Similarly, the symptoms manifested in the larynx are called premenstrual vocal
syndrome, or PMVS. This paper is an examination and exploration of the effects of PMS
and PMVS on the singing voice. To do so, it provides a brief overview of the steroid
hormones: estrogen, progestogen, and androgen. These three hormones are responsible
for the development and maturation of primary and secondary sexual characteristics. It is
only through studying the specific functions of each of the steroid hormones that it is
made clear why some women suffer so profoundly each month from PMS and PMVS.
Additionally, this paper provides information regarding the benefits and
drawbacks of oral contraceptives, or OCPs. OCPs contain synthetic hormones that mimic
the body’s own natural hormones, and they regulate the body’s levels of estrogen and
progesterone, which prevents ovulation. In addition to their contraceptive use, OCPs are
used to treat endometriosis, acne, and irregular periods. By preventing the body’s
hormonal levels from fluctuating, OCPs have proven highly effective as a treatment of
PMS and PMVS.
Further, the changes to the voice during pregnancy will be examined. The
increased hormonal concentrations associated with pregnancy act upon the reproductive
organs, muscles, bone, cerebral cortex, and mucosa, as well as the larynx. This paper
also explores what happens to the voice throughout the stages of menopause, the
iii
symptoms of which can range from moderate to quite severe. Treatment options are
discussed, including both hormone replacement therapy and alternative methods. Lastly,
this paper shares information gathered from a survey of singers regarding their own
experiences with PMS and PMVS, OCPs, pregnancy, and menopause.

iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To my advisor, Dr. Christine Anderson: Thank you so much for your encouragement and
mentoring. Thank you for the opportunity to pursue my dream.
To the members of my brilliant doctoral committee, Dr. Lawrence Indik and Dr. Rollo
Dilworth: Thank you so much for insight, support and guidance.
To Dr. Joyce Lindorff, external reader on my doctoral committee: Thank you for
bringing a fresh and different perspective to the table, and for taking time from your busy
schedule to help me in this endeavor.
To the participants of the survey: Thank you so much for taking the time to share your
experiences. Your input and comments are invaluable. There are no words to express
my gratitude; thank you from the bottom of my heart.
To Julia Madden Gerhard: Thank you so much for being my guardian angel and pointing
me in the right direction.
To Kristi Morgridge: Thank you for always having the answers to my questions.
To David Arnold: Thank you for your knowledge, inspiration, and encouragement.
To Dean Edward Flanagan: Thank you for all of your assistance.
To Dean David Brown: Thank you for everything.
To my wonderful husband, Daniel Lickteig: Thank you so much for all your love,
patience, support, and assistance. None of this would have been possible without you. I
love you.
To my family and friends: Thank you for all your encouragement.

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... vi
CHAPTER
1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1
2. SEX HORMONES AND HOW THEY AFFECT THE FEMALE VOICE ................ 19
3. ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON THE VOICE .................. 39
4. THE IMPACT OF PREGNANCY ON THE VOICE ................................................. 60
5. THE EFFECTS OF MENOPAUSE AND THE VOICE ............................................. 68
6. HORMONES AND THE FEMALE VOICE SURVEY ............................................. 81
7. SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 93
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................. 96
APPENDICES
A. IMAGES OF THE LARYNX .................................................................................... 108
B. GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................... 111
C. THE SURVEY QUESTIONS .................................................................................... 113
D. PARTICIPANTS’ COMMENTS FROM THE SURVEY ........................................ 118
E. PROTOCOL SUBMITTED TO THE IRB ................................................................ 134
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 6.1: Percentage of Women Suffering from PMVS by Voice Type ....................... 83
Figure 6.2: The Effects of Pregnancy on Women’s Voices.............................................. 85
Figure 6.3: Vocal Issues Caused by Peri-Menopause or Menopause ............................... 87
Figure 6.4: Treatment of Menopause Symptoms .............................................................. 88
1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Dealing with vocal issues brought on by hormonal fluctuations can be extremely
frustrating for the professional singer. The female hormonal cycle and its fluctuations
can wreak havoc on performance and practice schedules. Unfortunately, data on the
female hormonal cycle and its effects on the voice is not yet covered in most standard
vocal pedagogy books. Information on the subject is often relegated to a small section of
a chapter, and even then usually describes only the symptoms: edema, hoarseness, and
loss of high notes and power. The question as to why these symptoms happen every
month and during menopause, and whether there is anything that can be done to alleviate
them, remains largely unanswered. For instance, in his book The Structure of Singing,
Richard Miller devotes a paragraph in a subsection of a chapter to the effects of oral
contraceptives, and two sentences to pregnancy. Miller questions whether pregnancy is
the right option for a career-minded singer, and he merely advises singers to consult with
their laryngologist before deciding on oral contraceptives. In his later book, Solutions for
Singers: Tools for Performers and Teachers, Miller states that hormonal changes may
compromise the longevity of a female’s singing career. He goes on further to suggest
that the voice categories which mature first, coloraturas and soubrettes, may be the first to
experience vocal decline. Miller advises against giving up singing, however; suggesting
a change in repertoire instead. Finally, Miller suggests reading Robert Sataloff’s Vocal
Health and Pedagogy. Barbara Doscher, in her book, The Functional Unity of the
Singing Voice, provides substantially more information. In the subsection “Hormonal
Changes” of the chapter “Vocal Abuse and Misuse,” Doscher discusses menstruation.
She gives a paragraph-long overview of the hormonal fluctuations, and describes the
2
possible variances in phonation: hoarseness, breathiness, and loss of range. Doscher even
cites the research of leading otorhinolaryngologist, Dr. Jean Abitbol, who showed the
correlation between the hoarseness and fatigue with the fluctuations in hormonal levels.
Additionally, in the same chapter, Doscher discusses the aging voice, stressing the
importance of staying not only in good vocal shape as we age, but good physical shape as
well. Scott McCoy, in his book Your Voice: An Inside View, devotes a small section of
his chapter on health to the subject of hormones and hormonal medications, and he cites
Dr. Abitbol’s research. Also citing Jean Abitbol is Sue Ellen Linville, in her book Vocal
Aging. Vocal Aging is a very informative book, exploring in detail the aging of the
singing and speaking voice: the aging of the respiratory, laryngeal, supralaryngeal
systems, as well as aging and vocal fold function, articulation, and acoustical changes are
examined. Hormonal changes for both sexes are discussed in a chapter entitled “The
Aging Voice: Endocrine Effects.” Linville’s book is an invaluable resource filled with
enlightening information. In his book, Principles of Voice Production, Ingo Titze briefly
describes the changes in the speaking fundamental frequency (Fₒ) of both male and
female singers as they age. Titze theorizes that the male Fₒ rises with the diminishment
of testosterone. Similarly, the female Fₒ lowers with the decrease in estrogen levels.
Robert Caldwell and Joan Wall wrote a five-volume set, Excellence in Singing: multilevel
learning and multilevel teaching. In volume five, “Managing Vocal Health,” Caldwell
and Wall devote a small, yet concise section to female health conditions; menstruation,
pregnancy, and menopause are clearly discussed. In his book, Basics of Vocal Pedagogy:
The Foundation and Process of Singing, Clifton Ware dedicates a small section of a
chapter to hormonal effects and aging.

3
Even more difficult than finding information regarding hormonal changes in
pedagogy books is finding any commentary by famous opera singers on the subject.
There are almost no singers who discuss it outright, although some imply that hormonal
changes might have contributed to their changes in repertoire. Artists such as Diana
Damrau and Lucia Popp have stated that as their voices have changed, so has their
repertoire. Only Christa Ludwig (1928- ) has openly admitted she had vocal problems
during menopause. She advocates hormonal replacement therapy as well as a change in
repertoire. In Helena Matheopoulos’s book, Diva: Great Sopranos and Mezzos Discuss
Their Art by, Ludwig explains that after menopause and hormone replacement therapy,
she returned to singing only mezzo-soprano roles. Ludwig also stayed away from
dramatic roles, such as Ortrud in Lohengrin and roles that were no longer age
appropriate, like Octavian in Der Rosenkavalier. She cut down on her operatic
engagements per year, although she still sang plenty of concerts and lieder recitals.
Christa Ludwig retired in the 1993-1994 season with recitals and farewell appearances at
opera houses all over the world. Her final performances at the Metropolitan opera were
as Fricka in Die Walküre; her final European operatic appearances were as Klymenestra
in Elektra at the Vienna State Opera in 1994.
Dramatic soprano Ghena Dimitrova (1941-2005), on the other hand, was much
more fatalistic in her approach. In Theopoulos’ book, she stated that enduring
menopause without any assistance ‘from outside’ was the way God intended it to be.
Dimitrova was completely against hormone replacement therapy and believed that a
woman should simply ride it out and hope for the best. If the voice was still there after
menopause, it was a good thing; if it was not, ‘so be it.’ Dimitrova retired in 2001 at age
4
60; and while she sang some of her signature roles, such as Turandot, Abigaille, and
Gioconda until the end of her career, she also made changes in her repertoire, most
notably switching from Aida to Amneris in 1993. There is no way to know for certain if
the reason for these repertoire changes was hormonal, it does seem like the logical
conclusion.
For many years it has been suggested that the vocal problems of Maria Callas
(1923-1977) were hormone related. In his book, Greek Fire: The Story of Maria Callas
and Aristotle Onassis, Nicholas Gage offers evidence that Callas was being treated for
early menopause. Gage claims that Callas’ gynecologist Carlo Palmieri prescribed
injections in 1957, when Callas was just 34. Callas’ husband Giovanni Meneghini also
states that Callas suffered from early menopause in his book My Wife Maria Callas. It is
impossible to know if Callas’ vocal difficulties were truly due to hormonal changes, a
faulty technique, her drastic weight loss, or a combination of all three.
Not surprisingly, the most detailed information on the female hormonal
cycle and its effect on the voice is found in books written by medical professionals. In
the Care of the Professional Voice, by Drs. D. Garfield Davies and Anthony F. Jahn,
there is a detailed and illuminating subsection of a chapter that discusses “Hormonal
changes and voice.” Drs. Davies and Jahn clearly describe the phases and symptoms of
the menstrual cycle, as well as what happens during and after menopause. Changes in the
voice due to pregnancy are also examined briefly. They also talk about the effect of oral
contraceptives on the voice. Additionally, the efficacy of hormonal replacement therapy
to combat the vocal changes brought on by the cessation of estrogen production is

5
discussed. Good vocal hygiene and exercise are recommended. Finally, vocal
difficulties and changes brought on by thyroid problems are mentioned. Even more
informative is Vocal Health and Pedagogy, by Dr. Robert Sataloff. Sataloff examines
many aspects of the hormonal cycle throughout several different chapters: “Patient
History,” “The Effects of Age on the Voice,” and “Endocrine Dysfunction.” He gives a
concise and clear overview of the lifetime development of the larynx. Sataloff also
identifies the problems associated with the fluctuations of the hormonal cycle and offers
solutions. Sataloff puts forth uncomplicated and coherent explanations for what happens
to the body and vocal tract during the monthly menstrual cycle, pregnancy, menopause,
and during the aging process. Sataloff also gives clear, objective information regarding
hormone replacement therapy and oral contraceptives, as well as nutrition and
supplements.
It should be noted that well-known pedagogues and voice scientists, such as
Vennard, Coffin, Sundberg, and Appelman do not mention hormonal fluctuations and
their effect on the singing voice. There is substantial research on this subject found in
journal articles, however. Dr. Jean Abitbol established the concept of a hormonal vocal
cycle with his discovery of the similarity between vocal fold and cervical epithelium.1
Dr. Filipa Lã has done extensive research on OCPs, as well as pregnancy, and their
effects on the singing voice. The significant research of these doctors can be found in
journal articles; many of which have been compiled into this document as one easily
accessible document for singers.
1
Jean Abitbol, Patrick Abitbol, and Béatrice Abitbol. “Sex Hormones and the Female Voice.” Journal of
Voice, Vol. 13, no. 3 (September 1999), 435.
6
Anatomy Overview
The human body is an amazing thing. Ideally, it functions like a well-constructed
machine. Its intricate design, with infinite small parts that fit together to form larger parts
which in turn form the human body, could be considered miraculous. The human body
has eleven major systems: integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine,
circulatory, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive. These systems
work together, as well as independently. The larynx is part of the respiratory system,
along with the nose, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. This chapter will provide an
overview of the anatomy of the vocal tract and discuss the differences between the male
and female vocal tracts. It will also describe the laryngeal development and decline
during the lifespan of a healthy human being and the specific role of the sex hormones.
The Larynx
The larynx is an extraordinary and sophisticated structure. It is composed of
bone, cartilage, muscles, ligaments, and membranes, and capable of a wide range of
movement. The laryngeal cartilage is attached to adjoining structures and each other by
ligaments, membranes, and muscles. There are two types of muscles associated with the
larynx: intrinsic and extrinsic. The intrinsic muscles of the larynx are the muscles within
the larynx; both their origin and insertion are inside the larynx. They move the parts of
the larynx. Extrinsic muscles attach the larynx to the structures outside the larynx, and
are largely responsible for its position and stability. Extrinsic muscles raise and lower the
larynx, and assist in swallowing. These are the muscles of the tongue, jaw, palate, and
pharynx.
7
The main function of the larynx is to prevent foreign bodies from entering the
lungs; it is a valve between the trachea and the root of the tongue. It also allows for the
increase of pressure in the abdomen, which aids in childbirth and the lifting of heavy
weights. All mammals have larynges; but only humans possess one so well suited to
speech and song.2 There are nine cartilages in the larynx: three unpaired, larger
cartilages, and three paired, smaller cartilages. There is also a single bone in the larynx,
the hyoid bone.
The hyoid is a small, horseshoe-shaped bone located below the jawbone. The
hyoid bone differs from other bones in the body; it is not directly articulated to any other
bones. It is held in place by muscles and ligaments, which allows the hyoid great variety
of movement, as well as making the hyoid essential in laryngeal positioning. The base of
the tongue attaches to the hyoid bone, as well as many of the muscles involved in
swallowing. The hyoid is also connected to the thyroid cartilage; the hypothyroid
membrane connects the cornu of the hyoid bone to the upper cornu of the thyroid
cartilage.
The first large, unpaired cartilage is the epiglottis. The epiglottis is leaf- or petal-
shaped and is located at the top of the airway. It is composed of a very elastic yellow
cartilaginous material.3 The epiglottis attaches to the inner front of the thyroid cartilage
by ligaments and to the arytenoid cartilages by the aryepiglottic folds. During
swallowing, the epiglottis tips forward, closing off the larynx, diverting the food to the
esophagus. The thyroid cartilage is the largest cartilage in the larynx. It is shield-shaped,
2
Richard Miller. The Structure of Singing: System and Art in Vocal Technique. (New York: Schirmer Books,
1986), 241.
3
Barbara M. Doscher. The Functional Unity of the Singing Voice, 2nd ed. (MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
1994), 34.
8
with its two plates fused together anteriorly to form the thyroid notch, also known as the
Adam’s apple. The plates of the thyroid flare apart posteriorly to form a V. The
hyothyroid ligament attaches the superior horns (superior cornu) of the thyroid cartilage
to the hyoid bone. The inferior cornu attach to the cricoid cartilage by means of synovial
joints, which allow the thyroid and cricoid cartilages to both pivot and slide.4 The cricoid
cartilage is narrow in front and broad in the back, and resembles a signet ring. The
thyroid and cricoid cartilages together provide the basic structure of the larynx. The
cricoid cartilage is ring-shaped and attached to the top ring of the trachea by the
cricotracheal ligament. Attached posteriorly on either side of the cricoid cartilage are the
arytenoid cartilages. These two small cartilages are pyramid-shaped. Sitting atop the
arytenoids are the corniculate cartilages, which are very small and conical in shape. The
arytenoid cartilages have three processes, or tips: the corniculates; the vocal processes, to
which the vocal folds are attached; and the muscular processes, where the muscles that
open and close the vocal folds are attached. The thyroid, cricoid, and main portions of
the arytenoid cartilages are made up of hyaline cartilage, which is an extremely firm,
strong, elastic cartilage that is translucent and bluish-white in appearance. The wedge-
shaped cuneiform cartilages are small, paired cartilages that provide support for the
aryepiglottic fold and form the entryway of the larynx.5 William Vennard states that the
4
Scott McCoy. Your Voice: An Inside View, 2nd ed. (OH: Inside View Press, 2012), 109.
5
Richard Miller. The Structure of Singing: System and Art in Vocal Technique. (New York: Schirmer Books,
1986), 245.
9
6
cuneiform cartilages are vestigial and serve no function in the human larynx, while
Barbara Doscher argues that it is the corniculate cartilages which are vestigial.7
As stated before, the intrinsic muscles connect the parts of the larynx to each
other; the names of the muscles indicate their point of origin and their point of insertion.
The thyroepiglottic muscle connects the thyroid cartilage to the epiglottis. It is this
muscle that pulls the epiglottis over the airway. The aryepiglottic muscle connects the
arytenoids to the epiglottis, and also assists the epiglottis in protecting the airway. The
cricothyroid muscle originates on the front and side of the cricoid cartilage and inserts on
the front of the inferior cornu thyroid. The main function of the cricothyroid is to stretch
the vocal folds by tilting the thyroid forward; this action lengthens and tenses the folds.
The posterior cricoarytenoid muscles attach the cricoid to the arytenoids and are
responsible for the abduction of the vocal folds. The two interarytenoid muscles, the
transverse and the oblique, attach the arytenoids to each other. They adduct the vocal
folds, specifically the posterior of the glottis. The lateral cricoarytenoid muscle also
adducts the vocal folds; they are responsible for closing the vocal processes. Lastly, there
is the thyroarytenoid muscle, which is also known as the vocalis muscle: it is the body of
the vocal folds and capable of contracting and expanding. The point of origin of the
thyroarytenoids is on the inner surface of the thyroid notch; they attach to the arytenoids
posteriorly.
The vocal folds are remarkable. They are wedge-shaped muscles with
ligamentous edges covered with a mucous membrane. The membrane fits loosely, which
6
William Vennard. Singing, the Mechanism and the Technic, 5th ed. (NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1968), 53.
7
1994), 33.
10
facilitates the vibration of the edges of the vocal folds independent from the muscle mass
underneath. The top layer of the vocal folds is called the epithelium. Between the
epithelium and the thyroarytenoid muscle is a transitional layer called the lamina propria.
The lamina propria is divided into three distinct layers each unique in their distribution of
elastin and collagen fibers.8 The superficial layer of the lamina propria is joined to the
epithelial layer by a basement ligament. This top superficial layer is the thinnest of the
three layers and has the lowest viscosity. The middle, or intermediate, layer of the lamina
propria is larger and denser than the previous layer, and also higher in viscosity.
According to Scott McCoy, there is a vocal ligament within the intermediate lamina
propria.9 The highest in density and viscosity of the three layers, however, is the deep
lamina propria; it has a firm, gelatinous texture. This complex construction allows the
vocal folds to vibrate efficiently. The vocal folds are capable of tensing and relaxing,
shortening, contracting laterally, varying the length and thickness of a vibrating segment,
and tensing a segment of the vocal folds while the balance of the folds is relaxed.
Directly above the vocal folds are laryngeal ventricles, which are sometimes
referred to as the ventricles of Morgagni.10 Above the ventricles are the false vocal folds,
also called the ventricular or vestibular folds. They cannot be fully adducted or abducted.
Their function is not phonatory, but valvular; along with the vocal folds, they prevent air
from escaping the lungs.11 McCoy calls the false cords ‘evolutionary vestiges’.12
8
9
Ibid.
10
1994), 37.
11
Ibid.
12
11
13
Sataloff suggests the false vocal folds play a part in vocal tract resonance. The
ventricles and vestibular folds contain cells that produce mucous and secretions which
protect the vocal folds and aid in phonation.
There are two very important nerves in the larynx. Two branches of the vagus
nerve (also known as the 10th cranial nerve) innervate the larynx: the superior laryngeal
nerve and the recurrent laryngeal nerve.
The superior laryngeal nerve branches off from the vagus nerve just above the
larynx. It in turn branches off into two separate nerves, the internal superior and the
external superior laryngeal nerves. The internal superior nerve is a sensory nerve that
innervates the laryngeal mucosa. It also detects foreign bodies in the larynx, and
according to Scott McCoy, is responsible for the ticklish sensation before a cough.14 The
external superior laryngeal nerve is a motor nerve that serves the cricothyroid muscle and
aids in raising pitch.
The recurrent laryngeal nerve branches off from the vagus nerve below the
larynx. The recurrent laryngeal nerve innervates all the other intrinsic muscles of the
larynx. It is also an integral part of the adduction and abduction of the vocal folds.15
The extrinsic muscles of the larynx, as previously stated, attach to structures
outside the larynx. The extrinsic muscles are responsible for swallowing, the constriction
of the pharynx, the protrusion of the tongue, and the elevation and depression of the
larynx. Raising and lowering the larynx affects the tension and length of the vocal folds,
13
Robert Sataloff. Vocal Health and Pedagogy. (San Diego: Singular Publishing Group, Inc., 1998), 10.
14
15
Daniel R. Boone and Stephen C. McFarlane. The Voice and Voice Therapy. (Boston: Allyn and Bacon,
2000), 102.
12
16
as well as the angle of the laryngeal cartilages. The extrinsic muscles can be
categorized by their location or by their function. If the muscles are above the hyoid
bone, they are suprahyoid; if they are below the hyoid bone, they are infrahyoid. When
classified by their function, the extrinsic muscles are called elevator and depressor
muscles, raising and lowering the larynx, respectively.
An elevated larynx is not the optimum position for singing; neither is an
excessively depressed larynx. The ideal position for the larynx is relaxed and stable. To
achieve this, the elevator and depressor muscles must work together through muscular
antagonism. When the muscles work in this way, proper and efficient phonation and
resonance can be achieved. For example, the sternothyroid, a depressor muscle, works in
antagonism with the thyrohyoid, an elevator muscle, and the cricothyroid, an intrinsic
muscle that stretches the vocal folds. The sternohyoid and omohyoid muscles work in
antagonism to the suprahyoid muscles.
A more thorough description of the larynx can be found in the vocal pedagogy
book by Scott McCoy, “Your Voice: An Inside View.” Detailed images of the laryngeal
cartilage, intrinsic muscles of the larynx, and cervical vertebrae can be found in
Appendix A.
Changes within the Vocal Tract as it Matures
The human body as a whole is constantly evolving from conception and infancy
through adulthood and old age. It grows to maturity, and eventually goes into a decline
as it ages. There are many theories on aging: Wear and Tear, Programmed Aging,
16
13
17
Neuroendocrine, Rate of Living, Free Radical, or Cross-Linking. Whichever one you
subscribe to, however, the fact remains that aging is unavoidable.
According to Robert Sataloff, the larynx develops most of its characteristics by
the third month after conception,18 although Edmund Crelin states parts of the vocal tract
begin developing as early as the fourth week in the womb.19 The hyoid bone and the
thyroid cartilage are attached to each other at birth, and begin separating shortly
thereafter. The infant larynx differs from the adult larynx in its pharyngeal position, size,
shape, and tissue maturity. The position of the larynx is high in the neck at birth; it is
situated around the second and third cervical vertebrae (C2 and C3). The infant epiglottis
is able to attach to the soft palate, which enables the infant to breathe while nursing.20
The larynx continues to descend throughout our lifespan. It sits around C6 by the age of
five and reaches C7 between the ages of fifteen and twenty.21 Edmund Crelin, in his
book The Human Vocal Tract, places the position of adult vocal folds between the fifth
and sixth cervical vertebrae (C5 and C6).22 The descent of the larynx affects voice pitch,
causing it to lower. Also affected are the membranous versus cartilaginous ratios within
the vocal tract. Infants have an equal ratio of both; by adulthood, three fifths of the vocal
fold length is membranous.23
17
Sue Ellen Linville. Vocal Aging. (San Diego: Singular Thomson Learning, Inc., 2001), 4.
18
19
Edmund S. Crelin. The Human Vocal Tract: Anatomy, Function, Development, and Evolution. (New York:
Vantage Press, Inc., 1987), 42.
20
Joel C. Kahane. “Postnatal Development and Aging of the Human Larynx.” Seminars in Speech and
Language, Vol. 4, No. 3, (August 1983), 189.
21
Edmund S. Crelin. The Human Vocal Tract: Anatomy, Function, Development, and Evolution. (New York:
Vantage Press, Inc., 1987), 42.
22
Ibid 77.
23
14
In Sataloff’s book, Vocal Health and Pedagogy, he gives a clear and concise
description of the development of the larynx. In Chapter 10, entitled “The Effects of Age
on the Voice,” he explains that the process of ossification begins after conception. The
hyoid bone starts ossifying in the womb and is completely ossified by the age of two.
The thyroid and cricoid cartilages ossify when we are in our early twenties and the
arytenoids, by our late thirties. The entire larynx is ossified by the age of sixty-five, with
the exception of the cuneiform and corniculate cartilages.24
The body reaches full maturity by young adulthood, approximately age 25 for
men and age 20 for women. Ironically, it is not long after the body reaches maturation
that it begins its progressive decline.
Respiratory System
In the respiratory system, this decreased function includes decreased lung
elasticity, decreased strength of respiratory muscles, and increased stiffness of the
thoracic cage.25 Vital capacity (VC) decreases with age. Residual volume (RV increases
with age.26 The lungs themselves go through changes as we age; they are smaller, they
weigh less, and they are less elastic.27 The tissue within the lungs changes as well; there
is widening of the bronchioles and alveolar ducts, and thickening of the blood vessel
walls. These changes result in increased vascular resistance, which in turn causes
resistance in the diffusion of gas through the walls of the capillaries.28 There is a
decrease in respiratory surface of the lung caused by the flattening of the alveoli. There
24
25
26
Ibid, 26
27
Ibid, 20.
28
Ibid.
15
is weakening with aging of the respiratory muscles, including the diaphragm. The
decline in strength is more pronounced in men than in women29; by the age of 65, the rate
of decline is larger in men than in women.
The Larynx
Within the larynx, the cartilage, tissues, and glands all undergo changes due to the
aging process. There are significant gender differences in the onset and scope of the
changes. The changes occur earlier in the male larynx, and are more pronounced.
Changes to tissues in the male larynx start by the third decade, becoming very apparent
by the fifth and sixth decades. In the female larynx, age-related tissue changes begin
after the fifth decade.30 Each laryngeal cartilage has its own pattern of ossification; rarely
does an entire cartilage turn to bone.31 Male laryngeal cartilage ossification can start as
early as the third decade; the thyroid and cricoid showing signs before the arytenoids.
Laryngeal cartilage ossification in females begins in the fourth decade; the progression is
slower and less severe than in males. The cricoarytenoid joint shows signs of
deterioration—thinning of the articular surfaces, breakdown of the collagen fibers,
changes in the synovial membrane—again only in the male larynx.32
The fundamental frequency of speech lowers from birth through
adulthood. The frequency is 500 Hz at birth; that number lowers to 275 Hz by eight
years old. At puberty, the female fundamental frequency drops to 220-225 Hz, while the
29
30
Ibid, 37.
31
Joel C. Kahane. “Postnatal Development and Aging of the Human Larynx.” Seminars in Speech and
Language, Vol. 4, No. 3, (August 1983), 196.
32
16
33
fundamental frequency for males drops all the way down to 130 Hz. At menopause the
fundamental speech frequency of women drops another 10-15 Hz. The fundamental
speaking frequency for males drops 10 Hz from young adulthood to middle age, after
which time it rises by 35Hz. At the age of eighty-five, the fundamental frequency of the
male speaking voice is at its highest level.34 These changes to the vocal tract are
representative of healthy voices as they age; Sataloff observes, however, that many of
these changes do not appear in trained voice professionals.35
Laryngeal Innervation
Research on the aging of the laryngeal nerves is limited. There have been studies
conducted on animals as well as human cadavers.36 Innervation of the larynx is affected
by the reduction of myelin fiber and axons, as well as changes in the blood supply to the
larynx.
Conclusion
In conclusion, deterioration of bodily functions causes decreases in speed,
stamina, accuracy, strength, coordination, endurance, and stability. Muscles and
ligaments atrophy, and joints deteriorate. The vocal folds thin and lose elasticity.
Trained professional singers are more resistant to aging effects because of their optimal
laryngeal functioning and vocal hygiene.37 They sing with less tension and, because of
their training and technique, tend to know how to better preserve their voices. By
33
34
Sue Ellen Linville. Vocal Aging. (San Diego: Singular Thomson Learning, Inc., 2001), 170-172.
35
36
Romualdo Tiago, MD, PhD, Paulo Pontes, MD, PhD, and Osiris Camponês do Brasil, MD, PhD. “Age-
related changes in human laryngeal nerves.” Otolaryngology-Neck and Head Surgery, Vol. 136, No. 5
(May 2007), http://oto.sagepub.com.libproxy.temple.edu/content/136/5/747, (accessed August 20,
2014.)
37
17
safeguarding their voices they retain a more youthful sound. Misuse of their voices
through over-singing, singing while ill, or singing the wrong repertoire, can result in a
more rapid deterioration. This decline brings about the appearance of the stereotypical
characteristics of an aging singer-breathiness, wobbly vibrato, diminished breath control,
loss of range, and lack of stamina.38
The changes of the vocal organ attributed to aging happen to everyone, however,
regardless of whether they are trained or untrained. The more we learn about the aging
process, however, the better-equipped we are to stave it off. The improvements in
medicine and preventive care have made maintaining some of the qualities of a youthful
voice at an advanced age a viable option. Exercise helps maintain muscle coordination
and function, and it improves cardiovascular and respiratory function, as well.
Maximizing lung capacity and core abdominal strength is crucial to maintaining the
stamina and strength required for singing.
Differences between Male and Female Vocal Tracts
The length of the vocal folds changes drastically from birth to adulthood. An
infant’s vocal folds are 6 to 8 mm in length. The male and female larynges grow at the
same rate until puberty.39 At this time, the differences between the genders become
apparent. By adulthood, the vocal fold length is 17 to 23 mm for a male and 12 to 17 mm
for a female.40 The increase in size for men is 60% and 34% for the female.41 In addition
to the different rate of growth between genders, the direction of the growth differs. The
male larynx grows primarily in the anterior-posterior direction, while the female larynx
38
39
40
Ibid.
41
Ibid., 124.
18
42
grows more in height than length. The epiglottis also has significant growth in both
sexes. It is bulky and omega shaped until puberty, when it flattens and ascends.43
Another interesting but logical difference in the male and female larynges is the angle of
the thyroid cartilage. The angle of the female thyroid cartilage remains at a constant 120°
angle for her lifetime. The male thyroid cartilage does not; its angle at birth is 110°, and
that angle decreases to 90° during puberty,44 which explains the prominence of the
‘Adam’s Apple’. Additionally, the neck lengthens and the chest cavity enlarges,
especially in the male. Growth of the larynx is more substantial in males than females, as
is evidenced by the differences in their singing and speaking voices.
Much is written regarding the transformation of the male voice during puberty,
but relatively little has been written about the changes in the adolescent female voice.
Pubertal symptoms for the female include a breathy voice quality, difficulty with onset,
decreased range, and passaggio fluctuations.45 The human voice is a secondary sex
characteristic; sex hormones are responsible for its changes, that is, estrogen and
progesterone for a woman and testosterone for a man. Fundamental frequency for a
woman’s voice is a third lower than a child’s voice; for a man, it is an octave lower.46
42
Christopher D. White and Dona K. White. “Commonsense Training for Changing Male Voices,” Music
Educators Journal 87, no. 6 (May, 2001), http://www.jstor.org/stable/3399691 (accessed May 22, 2011).
43
Ibid.
44
45
Gackle, Lynn. “Finding Ophelia’s Voice: The Female Voice During Adolescence.” The Choral Journal,
Vol. 47, No. 5 (November 2006), 29.
46
Voice, Vol. 13, no. 3 (September 1999)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0892199799800484. (accessed October 25, 2011).
19
CHAPTER 2: SEX HORMONES AND HOW THEY AFFECT THE FEMALE VOICE
Steroid Hormones
Steroid hormones are synthesized from cholesterol in the gonads and adrenal
glands and diffuse easily across the cell membrane and bind to hormone receptors. These
steroids act as hormones and are grouped into five groups by the receptors they bind to:
Glucocorticoid
Mineralcorticoid
Androgen
Estrogen
Progestogen
The three main steroid hormones responsible for the development and maturation
of primary and secondary sexual characteristics are androgen, estrogen and progesterone.
Each of these sexual hormones performs a designated action on specific receptors located
in target organs. The larynx is a hormonal target organ;47 there are thought to be estrogen
receptor sites on the membranes of the epithelial cells in the larynx. Receptor sites for
androgen are located in the pharyngolaryngeal mucosa and epithelium.48 Sex hormone
receptors are proteins that bind with specific hormones in the fluid component of the
cell.49
Androgen
Androgen is considered a male hormone, but it is present in both males and
females in differing amounts. In fact, in women, the main function of androgen is to
47
J. Abitbol, J. de Brux, G. Millot, M. Masson, O.L. Monoun, B. Abitbol “Does a Hormonal Vocal Cord Cycle
Exist in Women? Study of Vocal Premenstrual Syndrome in Voice Performers by Videostroboscopy-
Glottography and Cytology in 38 Women.” Journal of Voice Vol. 3, no. 2 (1989)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0892199789801420 (accessed October 23, 2011).
48
Ibid.
49
Ibid.
20
convert itself into estrogen. The two main androgens are testosterone and
androstenedione. Androgen controls male sexual traits and development and also
influences female sexual behavior. It is produced in the male testes, the female ovaries,
and the adrenal glands of both sexes. In females, androgen stimulates hair growth and
regulates the function of many organs, including the reproductive tract, the kidneys and
liver. Androgen also helps maintain bones and muscle and prevents bone loss. It
regulates body function before, during and after menopause.50 Androgen imbalance is
one of the more common hormonal imbalances in women. Excessive amounts of
androgens (hyperandrogenism) can cause virilizing side effects, such as hirsutism,
thinning hair, acne, and skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Androgen also has an irreversible
masculinizing effect on the voice: the irreversible deepening of a woman’s voice.
Evidence of this can be seen in the voices of female athletes of Eastern European
countries who were given anabolic steroids in the 1980s. Anabolic steroids are a
synthetic substance related to male sex hormones.51
Estrogen
Estrogen is produced in the ovaries, and the corpus luteum; it is also produced in
the adrenal glands and fat cells. The corpus luteum produces large quantities of
progesterone and also small amounts of estrogen. As with androgen, estrogen is
produced by both men and women, although the amount produced in men is extremely
small.
50
Healthy Women. “Androgen: Overview.” http://www.healthywomen.org/condition/androgen (accessed
November 27, 2011).
51
Healthy Women. “Androgen: Overview.” http://www.healthywomen.org/condition/androgen (accessed
November 27, 2011).
21
52
There are three main types of estrogen:
Estrone (E1): produced by the adrenal gland and adipose (fat) tissue, estrone is
found in both men and women; the primary estrogen in
postmenopausal women.
Estradiol (E2): the primary form of estrogen in women from menarche to
menopause; produced by the ovaries in women and the adrenal
glands and testes in men.
Estriol (E3): the estrogen of pregnancy is produced in large amounts by the
placenta.
Estrogen has a major effect on the female body; in addition to its role in sexual
development and reproduction, its benefits are seen and felt throughout the body. Similar
to LH and FSH, estrogen circulates through the bloodstream and binds onto the receptors
of cells in targeted tissues and organs.53 Its effects are felt not only in the sexual organs,
but also in the brain, heart, liver, muscle, and bones. Estrogen prevents bone loss and
works with calcium and vitamin D to build bone. It also reduces cholesterol and
triglyceride levels, and there is evidence it reduces the risk of Alzheimer’s and
cardiovascular diseases.54 Estrogen improves cognition,55 and increases capillary
permeability.56 In the vocal tract, estrogen causes the production of a thin, clear, and
52
Healthy Women. “Estrogen: Overview.” http://www.healthywomen.org/condition/estrogen (accessed
November 27, 2011).
53
Ibid.
54
Voice, Vol. 13, no. 3 (September 1999).
55
Ofer Amir and Tal Biron-Shental, “The impact of hormonal fluctuations on female vocal folds” Current
Opinion in Otolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery Vol. 12, no. 3 (2004),
http://search.proquest.com/docview/71960232? (accessed October 25, 2011).
56
Ibid.
22
57
stretchable mucous. During menopause, when the ovaries stop producing estrogen, the
estrogen produced by the adrenal glands and fat tissue becomes extremely important.58
Progestogen
Progesterone, which is a type of progestogen, is produced in the ovaries, the
adrenal gland, and the placenta of pregnant women. It is also stored in fat tissue. One of
the most important functions of progesterone is to stimulate the endometrium to secrete a
protein during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, which will nourish the implanted
egg. Progesterone regulates the monthly menstrual cycle and plays a role in libido.59
Progesterone produces thick mucous.60 It encourages growth of the milk-producing
glands in the breasts. Progesterone acts as an anti-inflammatory agent and regulates the
immune system response. It decreases and inhibits capillary permeability, which traps
extracellular fluid out of the capillaries and causes cellular congestion or edema.61 High
progesterone levels are thought to be responsible for the symptoms of premenstrual
syndrome, such as bloating, breast tenderness and premenstrual dysphonia.62
Additionally, progesterone causes hyperthermia in the cerebrum and hypothalamus,
raising basal temperature from 98.6° to 98.78°.63
57
Ibid.
58
Voice, Vol. 13, no. 3 (September 1999).
59
Healthy Women. “Progesterone: Overview.” http://www.healthywomen.org/condition/progesterone
(accessed November 27, 2011).
60
Ibid.
61
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0892199799800484. (accessed October 25, 2011).
62
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0892199799800484. (accessed October 25, 2011)..
63
Ibid.
23
Puberty
Puberty is when a child’s body develops and matures into adulthood. Females
typically begin puberty at age 10 or 11 and complete it by age 15-17; males enter puberty
at age 12 or 13 and are finished by ages 16-18. The age at which puberty occurs has
dropped significantly since the 19th century; nutritional and environmental factors are
thought to be the cause. 64 Puberty is initiated by hormonal signals from the brain to the
sexual organs: the ovaries in a female and the testes in a male. More specifically, the
hypothalmus secretes gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the
pituitary gland to secrete luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH). LH and FSH are responsible for sexual development. In females, estrogen and
progesterone are responsible for breast development, hair growth under the arms and in
the pubic region, growth of the ovaries, follicles of the ovaries and uterus, and, finally,
menstruation along with changes in body shape and fat distribution. In males,
testosterone is responsible for testicular and scrotal enlargement, hair growth on the face,
body and pubic area, male musculature and body shape. The levels of fatty acid
composition in perspiration are changed by a rising androgen level. This causes body
odor, and increases oil secretion in the skin, which causes acne. Androgen is also
responsible for the growth of the larynx in both sexes.
64
Denise Grady. “The First Signs of Puberty Seen in Younger Girls.” The New York Times, (August 9,
2010), http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/09/health/research/09puberty.html?_r=0 accessed November
23, 2011).
24
The Menstrual Cycle
The onset of menstruation, or menarche, occurs at puberty. The average age for
menarche in humans is 12-13, although anywhere between the ages of 8 and 16 is
considered normal. During the menstrual cycle, gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH, also known as LHRH, luteinizing releasing hormone) stimulates the pituitary
gland to secrete a luteinizing hormone (LH) and a follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
LH and FSH travel from the pituitary gland to the ovaries by way of the circulatory
system. The length of the monthly hormonal cycle varies among women, ranging
between 21 and 35 days. 28 days is considered the normal or typical length. It has five
phases: menstrual, follicular (proliferative), ovulatory, and luteal (secretory), and
premenstrual.65 The menstrual phase (days 1-5) is when menstruation occurs. The
follicular phase (days 6-12), sees a rise in the level of follicle stimulating hormone (FHS).
FHS stimulates a number of ovarian follicles, although only one follicle reaches maturity.
FSH also progressively increases estrogen secretion. Estradiol suppresses the production
of the luteinizing hormone (LH). During the ovulatory phase (days 13-15), estrogen is at
its highest level; the rising level of estrogen stimulates a surge in the luteinizing hormone
(LH). LH matures the egg and it is released. Fertilized eggs implant into the
endometrium; unfertilized eggs dissolve. During the luteal phase (days 16-23) the
remains of the follicle create a new endocrine gland, the corpeus luteum. The function of
the corpus luteum is to secrete large amounts of progesterone. As a result of the
progesterone, the endometrium alters to prepare for possible egg implantation. The
65
Anoop Raj, Bulbul Gupta, Anindita Chowdhury, and Shelly Chadha. “A Study of Voice Changes in
Various Phases of Menstrual Cycle and in Postmenopausal Women.” Journal of Voice, Vol. 24, No, 3 (May
2010), http://search.proquest.com/docview/753822017? (accessed October 15, 2011).
25
premenstrual phase (days 24-28) begins with progesterone at its highest level. However,
if there is no egg implantation, the corpus luteum ceases producing progesterone and
decays. Progesterone levels lower; estrogen levels also drop; the uterus sloughs off its
lining with the egg. This is menstruation. It is estimated that the release of one mature
follicle every 28 days occurs approximately 400 times in a woman’s reproductive life.66
Premenstrual Syndrome
Prior to menstruation it is common for a woman to experience symptoms that we
now commonly call Premenstrual Syndrome, or PMS. Premenstrual syndrome is the
result of the changes in hormonal concentrations that occur before the onset of
menstruation. Its effects are far-reaching and, in some instances, quite debilitating.
Severe premenstrual syndrome is called premenstrual dysphoria disorder (PMDD).
Typical symptoms appear during the luteal and premenstrual phases, and include
irritability, fatigue, bloating, weight gain, and mastalgia.67
What causes premenstrual syndrome? Possible theories point to: 1) too much
progesterone; 2) a progesterone deficiency; 3) a decrease in serum estrogen levels; 4) an
increase of serum progesterone levels; 5) ovarian hormonal imbalance; 6) vitamin and
mineral deficiencies; 7) pituitary gland disturbances; 8) excess prolactin secretion; 9)
glucose metabolism; or 10) biochemical abnormalities.
66
N. Chabbert-Buffet and P. Bouchard. (2002), “The Normal Human Menstrual Cycle.” Reviews in
Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders, Vol. 3, No. 3, (January 2002)
http://link.springer.com.libproxy.temple.edu/article/10.1023%2FA%3A1020027124001# (accessed
November 8, 2011).
67
26
According to Jean Abitbol, estrogen and progesterone have a synergistic effect on
the muscular and mucosal elements of the vocal tract; together, they have rheological,
vascular, and secretory effects.68 Progesterone decreases estrogen responsiveness by
depressing estrogen receptor function.69 Recent studies have suggested that PMS
symptoms to do not occur in anovulatory cycles when the corpus luteum does not form.70
Evidence has also shown that calcium and vitamin D deficiencies exist during the luteal
and premenstrual phases of the menstrual cycle.71 It is speculated that the effect of
progesterone on altered calciotropic hormones changes estrogen’s role at the cellular
level, which in turn intensifies neuromuscular irritability and vascular response.72 PMS
symptoms respond favorably to vitamin D and calcium therapy.73 Calcium is required to
maintain normal nervous system function. The synthesis of serotonin, acetylcholine, and
norepinephrine, all neurotransmitters, are dependent on intracellular calcium
concentrations.74 SSRI’s, or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, are sometimes used
to treat the symptoms of PMS.75
68
Voice, Vol. 13, no. 3 (September 1999),
69
Susan Thys-Jacobs. “Premenstrual Syndrome.” Chapter 23 in Calcium and Human Health, ed. C.M.
Weaver and R.P. Heaney. (New Jersey: Human Press, Inc., 2006), 359.
70
Torbjörn Bäckström, Lotta Andreen, Vita Birzniece, Inger Björn, Inga-Maj Johansson, Maud
Nordenstam-Haghjo, Sigrid Nyberg, Inger Sundström-Poromaa, Göran Wahlström, Mingde Wang, and Di
Zhu. “The Role of Hormones and Hormonal Treatments in Premenstrual Syndrome.” CNS Drugs 2003, Vol,
17, No. 5, 331.
71
Susan Thys-Jacobs. “Premenstrual Syndrome.” Chapter 23 in Calcium and Human Health, ed. C.M.
Weaver and R.P. Heaney. (New Jersey: Human Press, Inc., 2006), 358.
72
Ibid., 359.
73
Ibid., 357.
74
Ibid., 362.
75
17, No. 5, 331.
27
In 1931, Dr. Robert Frank discovered a correlation between hormones, tension,
and the onset of the menstrual cycle. Dr. Frank treated premenstrual tension with
calcium lactate, a white chrystalline salt used in medicine as a source of calcium, and
theobromine sodium salicylate, which is an alkaloid similar to caffeine that is used as a
diuretic and vasodilator, and muscle relaxant. When neither therapy worked, Frank
would prescribe an increase in coffee consumption. In extreme cases, Frank would treat
patients with roentgen, or x-ray, therapy.76
The term “Premenstrual Syndrome” was coined in 1953 by Katharina Dalton, a
British gynecologist. A pregnant medical student, Dalton was studying the connection
between the menstrual cycle and mood swings, when she noticed her monthly migraines
had subsided.77 Dr. Dalton concluded that that PMS was not a psychological condition,
but a physical one. According to Dalton, there were over 150 cyclically recurring
symptoms; these symptoms are often seemingly unrelated and range from behavioral to
laryngeal.78 The symptoms often varied monthly in their severity and number, depending
on the following factors: stress, diet, age, and overall health. Dalton’s treatment for PMS
included a reduction in stress and a ‘3 hourly starch diet’. If neither of these worked,
Dalton would prescribe symptomatic treatment or progesterone therapy.79.
76
Robert T. Frank. “The Hormonal Causes of Premenstrual Tension.” Archives of Neurological Psychology,
Vol. 26, No. 5 (November 1931), http://archneurpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=645067
(accessed September 3, 2014).
77
Melissa August, Elizabeth L. Bland, Sean Gregory, Julie Rawe, and Elizabeth Sampson. “Milestones.
Katharina Dalton.” Time Magazine, Volume 164, No. 15., (October 2004), 27.
78
Clarissa Behr Davis and Michael Lee Davis. “The Effects of Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS) on the
Female Singer.” Journal of Voice, Volume 7, No. 4, (December 1993),
http://www.sciencedirect.com.libproxy.temple.edu/science/article/pii/S0892199705802577 (accessed
November 22, 2012).
79
Katharina Dalton. “Premenstrual Syndrome.” The Disorders: Specialty Articles from the Encyclopedia of
Mental Health. (London: Academic Press, 2001), 354.
28
The period of time a woman is affected by the symptoms can vary. To establish a
diagnosis of PMS, a woman must be symptom-free during the days between the end of
the period and ovulation, days 6 through 15 of the cycle. The worst symptoms appear 5
days before and the first 4 days of a menstrual period known as the “paramenstruum.”
Approximately 30%-40% of women suffer from premenstrual symptoms; 10% of women
have severe symptoms.80 Since symptoms can occur at ovulation and during
menstruation, it has been suggested by specialists including Dalton, that the term
premenstrual syndrome is inappropriate.
Predisposition among families has been detected, suggesting that premenstrual
syndrome may be genetic.81 PMS has been introduced as a legal defense in courts across
the country. Insurance companies have begun to reimburse for the treatment of
premenstrual syndrome.
Symptoms of PMS
As previously stated, Dalton identified over 150 symptoms of PMS. In fact, she
defines PMS as a recurrence of the same symptoms at the same phase of the cycle for at
least two menstrual periods.82 The combination of symptoms varies from woman to
woman. Symptoms can even affect girls who have not had their first period and can also
develop in someone who has not been previously affected by premenstrual syndrome,
with symptoms appearing: 1) at the beginning of puberty; 2) after pregnancy; 3) upon
stopping oral contraceptives; 4) after a period of amenorrhea (the absence of a menstrual
80
Maree Ryan and Dianna T. Kenny. “Perceived Effects of the Menstrual Cycle on Young Female Singers in
the Western Classical Tradition.” Journal of Voice, Volume 23, No. 1, (January 2009),
http://search.proquest.com/docview/85707297?accountid=14270 (accessed November 27, 2012).
81
Ibid.
82
Katharina Dalton. “Premenstrual Syndrome.” The Disorders: Specialty Articles from the Encyclopedia of
Mental Health. (London: Academic Press, 2001), 350.
29
period in a woman of reproductive age) due to anorexia, hysterectomy, or menopause; or
5) after tubal ligation.83 Symptoms typically end at menopause, which can occur
anywhere between the ages of 45 and 55. For some women, however, the symptoms
continue after menopause.84
Symptoms of premenstrual syndrome can be physical, psychological, and
behavioral. For singers, they can also be vocal. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) has set up criteria and symptoms to determine if
a woman has PMS or PMDD. Other medical issues, such as pelvic inflammatory disease
and anemia, can affect a diagnosis.85 Premenstrual syndrome symptoms don’t meet the
criteria of any psychiatric disorders, and premenstrual syndrome sufferers demonstrate
normal responses in psychological evaluations during the follicular stage of the menstrual
cycle.86 Further proof to substantiate premenstrual syndrome as a biological event: 1)
premenstrual syndrome seldom occurs in women prior to menarche, or after menopause;
2) premenstrual syndrome occurs in the luteal stage in premenopausal women after
hysterectomy if the ovaries are still functioning; 3) premenstrual syndrome can be
brought on in some women by administering ovarian hormones; 4) PMS ceases with the
83
November 22, 2012).
84
Ibid.
85
Ibid.
86
November 22, 2012).
30
elimination of ovulation and menstruation through the application of GnRH antagonists;
or 5) by surgical removal of the ovaries.87
The myriad of symptoms described by Dalton include changes in sleep patterns,
appetite, and mood, as well as increased cravings and urges. Irritation of the eyes,
sinuses, and skin can also occur. Visual dysfunction is widely reported during PMS.
Symptoms from changes in intraocular pressure include pain, redness, and dryness.
Other common symptoms include heightened light sensitivity, conjunctivitis, corneal
edema, sties, and retinal hemorrhages.88 Sufferers of these symptoms may find it difficult
to wear contact lenses at this time, which can be a serious logistical problem for singers.
Impaired vision makes it virtually impossible to see the conductor or the music. Having
to wear modern eyewear is problematic to costuming. Wearing eyeglasses can be both
uncomfortable and distracting as a singer attempts to “sing in the mask,” breathe through
her nose, or access her head voice.
PMS affects energy metabolism and appetite. It has been reported that some
women consume and metabolize as much as 500 extra calories during premenstruum.89
Weight gain from these extra calories, as well as premenstrual fluid retention and
hormonal shifts, is very common. Studies have shown an influence of ovarian function in
glucose metabolism which can cause hypoglycemic symptoms. Hypoglycemic
symptoms include hunger, nervousness, sweating, and fatigue.90 An increase in appetite
87
Ibid.
88
Ibid.
89
November 22, 2012).
90
Ibid.
31
and cravings for sweet or salty foods and chocolate is common, as is increased alcohol
consumption. The increased binge eating of unhealthy foods can lead to weight gain,
which can affect a woman both physically and psychologically. Unfortunately, how a
singer looks has become much more important in today’s opera world; thin, fit singers
are especially preferable in certain fachs. If binge eating is accompanied by purging, it
can be extremely harmful to the vocal cords. Frequent vomiting often causes vocal
edema, mucosal disruption, nodules, or hemorrhage.91 Likewise, increased and/or
excessive alcohol consumption can also be problematic. Alcohol is a depressant and it
dehydrates the mucosal membranes and impairs muscle coordination.92
Singing, a very physical activity requiring energy, endurance, and concentration,
can be severely affected by premenstrual fatigue. Premenstrual fatigue can be caused by
insomnia or anemia, or stress. The larynx is very delicate and susceptible to fatigue;
likewise, muscle tone and endurance suffer. Vocal damage is more likely to occur when
the singer attempts to compensate for weakness caused by fatigue.93
PMS can affect the entire body. It has countless symptoms, including urinary and
gastrointestinal problems. Acid reflux can be exacerbated by the relaxation of the cardiac
muscles constituting the angle of Hiss.94 The angle of Hiss is the acute angle created by
the cardia at the entrance to the stomach, and the esophagus. It forms a valve; preventing
reflux of bile, enzymes and acid from entering the esophagus. Acid reflux can lead to
91
Ibid.
92
November 22, 2012).
93
Ibid.
94
32
laryngitis with edema. Other possible symptoms of PMS include joint stiffness and
swelling, muscular weakness, abdominal bloating and cramping, mouth sores, edema and
numbness in the extremities, mastalgia, and changes in libido95 Increased oil production
causes acne and oily hair.
It is widely acknowledged that a healthy mental state is beneficial to singing. The
emotional, psychological, and neurological symptoms of PMS can be extremely
debilitating. Feelings of paranoia, loneliness, and pessimism can affect the confidence
needed to be a successful performer. Difficulty concentrating, dizziness, memory lapses,
clumsiness, and tension headaches make learning, studying, and performing difficult.
Changes in EEG results during the premenstrual phase have been reported.96 Edema and
hormonal fluctuations have been theorized to cause brain swelling, as well as affect brain
chemistry.97
PMS has been shown to affect the upper and lower respiratory systems. Potential
PMS conditions include nasal congestion, sinus headaches, bronchitis, nose bleeds,
vulnerability to allergies, and even asthma. These conditions are unpleasant and
uncomfortable for anyone, but they can be extremely detrimental for a singer. Postnasal
drip, sneezing, and excessive coughing cause irritation and inflammation of the vocal
cords. Nasal and sinus congestion have an adverse effect on singing; placement and
resonance can feel dull and muffled, facial pain and headache can occur while singing.
95
November 22, 2012).
96
November 22, 2012).
97
Ibid.
33
The respiratory system is the power source of the vocal apparatus; chest and head
congestion result in diminished function.98 Medications taken to alleviate the symptoms
can cause drying of the vocal apparatus, as well as drowsiness or irritability.
PMS can also cause auditory dysfunctions, such as: decreased and increased
hearing perception, volume hypersensitivity, dizziness, ringing in the ear, and changes in
middle and inner ear response.99 One study reported some PMS sufferers with perfect
pitch lost their ability during the premenstrual phase.100 It cited premenstrual brain
swelling as the cause, which points to a cerebral malfunction, not an auditory one.
Treatment
The most effective way to deal with PMS is to be vigilantly self-aware. Keeping
a daily diary of symptoms can establish the cyclicity of symptoms, thereby making them
easier to identify, treat and tolerate. Changes in diet and exercise—vitamin supplements,
getting plenty of rest and exercise—can greatly diminish the symptoms of PMS. As
previously stated, treatment with vitamin D and calcium can alleviate PMS symptoms, as
can SSRIs. Side effects of SSRIs, however, include insomnia, nervousness, nausea, and
headaches.101
In serious cases, GnRH agonist therapy can be prescribed. This therapy, however,
is not without controversy. The premise of GnRH agonist therapy is to desensitize the
98
Ibid.
99
Ibid.
100
V.T. Wynn. “Absolute Pitch-A Bimensual Rhythm.” Nature, Volume 230, (April 1971),
http://www.nature.com.libproxy.temple.edu/nature/journal/v230/n5292/abs/230337a0.html (accessed
December 4, 2012).
101
Lori M. Dickerson, Pamela J. Mazyck, and Melissa H. Hunter. “Premenstrual Syndrome.” American
Family Physician, Vol. 67, No. 8 (April 2003), 1748.
34
pituitary gland to GnRH, reducing the secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH). This in turn interrupts normal sex steroid production, and
anovulation occurs.102 Estrogen and progesterone levels become very low. Side effects
include hot flashes, irritability, insomnia, and hypoestrogenism. In fact, this treatment is
not recommended for more than 6 to 9 months, as the hypoestrogenism can cause
problems with bone mass.103
Any type of exercise is recommended to reduce the severity of PMS symptoms.
The exercise can be as vigorous as running, or as simple as moderate exercise to
strengthen core muscle tone; the result is increased stamina and improved cardiovascular
health—something to which every singer aspires. Yoga and meditation are also great for
relieving the anxiety and stress associated with PMS. While most vitamins are
potentially harmful in large doses, such as vitamins A, D, and B6, there are many
vitamins and minerals that are beneficial to the treatment of PMS: vitamin B6 helps
nervousness; magnesium, calcium, potassium, and vitamin D alleviate leg cramps; and
iron treats anemia; vitamin E is a proven treatment for mastalgia.104 Diuretics are also
often prescribed to reduce edema, although they can cause high levels of potassium in the
blood.105
102
17, No. 5, 331.
103
Ibid.
104 Lori M. Dickerson, Pamela J. Mazyck, and Melissa H. Hunter. “Premenstrual Syndrome.” American
Family Physician, Vol. 67, No. 8 (April 2003), 1747.

105
Ibid, 1751.
35
Premenstrual Vocal Syndrome
Voice professionals are especially sensitive to the symptoms of premenstrual
syndrome. Vocal symptoms include hoarseness, loss of high notes, edema, reduced vocal
power and flexibility, uncertainty of pitch, fatigue, and lack of stamina. Edema of the
vocal cords is thought to lower the fundamental frequency and increase jitter value.106
Estrogen and progesterone act in a synergistic manner on the vocal muscular mucosal
apparatus and have rheological, vascular, hydration, secretory and energetic effects on
it.107 In his research, Jean Abitbol observed a loss of tone in all striated muscles.108
These muscles include the vocal, abdominal, and intercostal muscles, and result in
reduced pulmonary strength. He also observed edema in the interstitial tissues and
Reinke’s space.109 Venous dilation was observed as well.110 As previously stated, the
larynx is a hormonal target organ, which would suggest that there are hormone receptors
in the vocal folds. There are conflicting opinions, however, as to whether they exist.
Scott-Robert Newman identified androgen, estrogen, progesterone receptors in the vocal
folds.111 Berrylin Ferguson et al. also found estrogen and progesterone receptors in the
106
Sung Won Chae, Geon Choi, Hee Joon Kang, Jong Ouck Choi and Sung Min Jin. “Clinical Analysis of
Voice Change as a Parameter of Premenstrual Syndrome.” Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, no. 2 (2001),
http://www.sciencedirect.com.libproxy.temple.edu/science/article/pi/S089219970100 (accessed October
25, 2011).
107
Ibid.
108
109
Ibid.
110
111
Scott-Robert Newman, John Butler, Elizabeth H. Hammond, and Steven D. Gray. “Preliminary Report
on Hormone Receptors in the Human Vocal Fold” Journal of Voice, Vol. 14, No. 1, (2001) pp.72-81.
36
112 113 114
larynx, while the studies of Berit Schneider et al. and Andrea Nacci et al. showed
no evidence of sex hormone receptors at all. Dr. Jean Abitbol based his findings
regarding the correlation between cervical and laryngeal cytology smears and the effect
of hormonal fluctuation on the vocal folds on the presence of hormone receptors in the
larynx. The histology of the vocal folds is subject to the dominant hormone at any given
time in the cycle. Estrogen, for example, produces a thickened superficial epithelium on
the vocal fold; progesterone works deeper, on the intermediate layer.115 Estrogen causes
a thickening of the endometrial mucosa and an increase in the secretions of the
endocervical glandular cells; this eerily resembles the thickening of the laryngeal mucosa
and the increased secretion of the glandular cells above and below the vocal folds.
Similarly, progesterone increases the viscosity and acidity of the secretions of the
glandular cells, but decreases their volume, which causes dryness. This dryness and
increased acidity resembles the state of the vocal folds during premenstrual syndrome. In
fact, in 1986 Jean Abitbol discovered a startling similarity between cervical and vocal
112
Berrylin Ferguson, William Hudson, and Kenneth S. McCarthy. “Sex Steroid Receptor Distribution in
the Human Larynx and Laryngeal Carcinoma.” Archives of Otolarygology-Head & Neck Surgery, Volume
113, No. 12 (December 1987), DOI:10.1001/archotol.1987.01860120057008. (accessed November 29,
2012).
113
Berit Schneider, Eleonore Cohen, Josefini Stani, Andrea Kolbus, Margarethe Rudas, Reinheard Horvat,
and Michael van Trotsenburg. “Towards an Expression of Sex Hormone Receptors in the Human Vocal
Fold.” Journal of Voice, Vol. 21, No. 4 (July 2004), pp.502-507.
114
Andrea Nacci, Bruno Fattori, Fabio Basolo, Maria E. Filice, Katia De Jeso, Luca Giovannini, Luca
Muscatello, Fabio Matteucci, Francesco Ursino. “Sex Hormone Receptors in Vocal Fold Tissue: A Theory
about the Influence of Sex Hormones in the Larynx.” Folia Phoniatrica at Logopaedica, Vol. 63, No. 2
(February 2011), 82.
115
37
116
fold cytological smears. Treatment for premenstrual vocal syndrome includes vocal
rest, hydration, and multivitamins containing B5, B6, and C. Additional treatment may
include anti-reflux and anti-allergic therapy, as reflux and allergies have been shown to
flare up during premenstrual syndrome.117 Until recently, European opera houses
excused female singers from performances during premenstrual and beginning menstrual
days. These days were known as “grace days.”118 American opera houses do not extend
the same courtesy.
Laryngeal Symptoms of PMS
For a singer, the symptoms of PMS that affect the vocal tract are the most
problematic. PMS’s effect on the vocal folds can be mucosal, vascular, muscular, and
inflammatory.119 Again, not all women’s symptoms are the same, but some of the
problems that may occur during PMS are listed below:120
1. Mucosal
a. Hyposecretion of mucus
b. Edema of the vocal mucosa (mucous membranes)
116
Voice, Vol. 13, no. 3(September 1999),
117
Ibid.
118
Robert Thayer Sataloff. “Laryngocope: The effects of Menopause on the Singing Voice.” Journal of
Singing, Vol. 52, no. 4, (March-April 1996), http://search.proquest.com/docview/1400537? (accessed
October 22, 2011).
119
120
Ibid.
38
c. Thickened and diminished glandular secretion; reduced supraglottic and
subglottic secretions results in dryness of the larynx and impairment of
amplitude
2. Vascular
a. Dilation of microvarices, resulting in edema
b. Vocal fatigue
3. Muscular
a. Decreased muscle tone
b. Diminished power of contraction of the vocal muscle
c. Decreased range
4. Inflammatory
a. Inflammation of nasopharyngeal mucosa
b. Allergic-type tracheitis with bronchospasm
In extreme and infrequent cases, more severe problems arise. Vocal fold nodules,
submucosal vocal fold hematomas, and a posterior glottic chink can occur.121
121
39
CHAPTER 3: ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON THE VOICE
History of Contraception
People have long been devising methods of contraception from whatever they had
available. There is documentation that birth control existed in Mesopotamia and Ancient
Egypt.122 Ground pomegranate seeds mixed with wax and contraceptive pessaries made
of acacia gum were used in Ancient Egypt. Breast-feeding for extended periods of years
was considered a form of birth-control. Female barrier methods were used that were
made from animal sheaths, fruit, and fabric. Condoms for men were made of from a
variety of things in the 16th and 17th centuries, including animal intestine, fish skin, and
linen. Casanova was reputed to have worn condoms made of animal intestine and tied
with a ribbon.123 In the 18th century, condoms were made from fabric dipped in
chemicals or animal bladder or intestine. In 1839, the process of vulcanizing rubber was
perfected by Charles Goodyear, who patented the process in 1944. This development
was a boon for the condom industry; condoms made from rubber were less likely to tear
or break and could be produced on a larger scale. Condoms became cheaper and more
readily available. The diaphragm was invented in the 19th century; Marie Stopes
invented the cervical cap in the 1920’s; both are still used today.124 Stopes also opened
the first birth control clinic in the United Kingdom in 1921.
122
Carol A. Quarini. “History of Contraception.” Women’s Health Magazine, Volume 2, Issue 5 (2005)
November 22, 2012).
123
Ibid.
124
November 22, 2012).
40
Margaret Sanger was a pioneer of the birth control movement. As a young nurse
in New York City in the early 20th C, Sanger became frustrated by the poor conditions
she encountered. She noticed a correlation between poverty and overpopulation; women
forced by societal and religious views into unwanted pregnancies. Unable to engage in
family planning, families were having babies they could not provide for, resulting in high
rates of infant and mother mortality. Self-induced abortions were a deadly last resort for
women in desperate situations. Angered by what she saw, Sanger sought to educate
women on birth control. She believed that family planning would greatly improve the
quality of life for women and their families. Unfortunately, policies concerning birth
control were very strict in the United States at this time. Undeterred, Sanger began
publishing a newsletter called The Women Rebel, which not only promoted contraception
but also described methods of birth control. Sanger was indicted for violating postal
obscenity laws, and she fled the United States for Europe, where she learned of additional
methods of birth control. Sanger returned to the United States in 1916 and opened the
first birth control clinic in this country; she was arrested within days. Throughout her life
Sanger was arrested numerous times, but her legal battles only succeeded in bringing
attention and support for her cause; in 1918, the federal courts ruled that doctors could
prescribe contraception. Sanger founded the American Birth Control League in 1921,
organized the World Population Conference in 1928, and in 1937 founded the Birth
Control Council of America, which became the Planned Parenthood Federation of
America. In the 1950s, Sanger joined forces with philanthropist Katherine McCormick
and endocrinologist Gregory Pincus to develop and distribute a physiological
contraceptive, an oral contraceptive pill.

41
History of Oral Contraceptive Pills
Oral contraceptive pills were approved in the United States by the FDA in 1960.
The discoveries and research that led to that historical event span back almost a hundred
years prior. At the end of the 19th C., Viennese gynecologist Emu Knauer discovered that
the ovaries secreted a substance responsible for female sexual characteristics.125 At
around the same time, scientist John Beard speculated that the corpus luteum inhibited
ovulation.126 At the time of these findings, however, the secretions had no name. The
term “hormone” came in 1905, when Ernest Starling and William Bayliss discovered that
there were secretions that functioned as chemical messengers, traveling through the
bloodstream to specific target organs. They named these secretions “hormones,” from
the Greek word meaning “to excite.”127
Austrian physiologist Ludwig Haberlandt began experimenting on the effects of
sex hormones on ovulation. Around 1919, Haberlandt was conducting experiments on
animals, creating a “hormonal temporary sterilization” by transplanting the ovaries of
pregnant guinea pigs into non-pregnant guinea pigs, rendering them temporarily sterile.
His findings opened the door to further studies on the effect of progesterone on
ovulation.128 In 1928, two scientists, George W. Corner and Willard M. Allen named the
hormone found in the corpus luteum: progesterone, from the Latin words “pro” (in favor
125
Kenneth S. Davis. “The Story of the Pill.” American Heritage Magazine, Volume 29, Issue 5
(August/September 1978) http://www.americanheritage.com/content/story-pill (accessed November 17,
2104).
126
M.F. Smith, E.W. McIntush, and G.W. Smith. “Mechanisms Associated with Corpus Luteum
Development.” American Society of Animal Science, Volume 72, Issue 7 (July 1994), 1858.
127
(August/September 1978) http://www.americanheritage.com/content/story-pill (accessed November 17,
2104).
128
Marc Dhont. “History of oral contraception.” The European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive
Health Care, Volume 15, Issue S2 (December 2010), Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed
November 17, 2014).
42
of) and “gestare” (to bear). 129
The following year, Edward Doisy isolated and named the
secretion he was studying in female rats: estrogen, from the Greek words “oistros”
(frenzy) and “gennein” (to beget).130
One of the biggest names in the field of sex hormone research is Gregory Pincus.
Born in 1903, Pincus began his studies in agriculture at Cornell University. He quickly
became interested in plant genetics, animal genetics, and finally, mammalian genetics,
which he studied at Harvard after the completion of his BS at Cornell.131 Pincus also
studied reproductive physiology at Cambridge University and genetics at the Keiser
Wilhelm Institute in Berlin. Pincus studied the effects of hormones on the reproductive
process in mammals.132 In 1934, Pincus achieved in-vitro fertilization of rabbit ovum via
parthenogenesis (fertilization of an egg without sperm). In 1944, he founded the
Worcester Foundation for Experimental Biology. Pincus surrounded himself with
equally brilliant scientists; they experimented with hormones and steroids to determine
their role in reproduction, aging, cancer, heart disease, and mental diseases.133 Pincus
continued to study the relationship of hormones and infertility; he surmised that fertility
could be physiologically inhibited.134
129
(August/September 1978) http://www.americanheritage.com/content/story-pill, (accessed November 17,
2104).
130
Ibid.
131
Ibid.
132
Charles W. Carey, Jr. “Pincus, Gregory Goodwin.” American National Biography Online (February
2000), http://www.anb.org.libproxy.temple.edu/articles/13/13-01310.html (accessed November 10,
2014).
133
Ibid.
134
Charles W. Carey, Jr. “Pincus, Gregory Goodwin.” American National Biography Online (February
2000), http://www.anb.org.libproxy.temple.edu/articles/13/13-01310.html (accessed November 10,
2014).
43
Another notable pioneer in the oral contraceptive field is John Rock. Born in
1890, Rock attended Harvard’s Medical School. Upon completion, he became an
Assistant Professor of Obstetrics at Harvard in 1922. In 1924, he opened the Fertility and
Endocrine Clinic in Boston, which was one of the first infertility facilities in the
country.135 In 1944, John Rock along with Miriam Menkin achieved the first fertilization
of a human egg outside the body; his experiments lead to the birth of the first “test tube
baby” in 1978.136 In the 1950s, Rock treated infertile women with large doses of
estrogen and progesterone in an attempt to increase their fertility. Rock’s theory was that
infertility was caused by subnormal uterine and Fallopian tube development which could
be stimulated by increased estrogen and progesterone levels; he also found that this
treatment suppressed ovulation. At the time, his experiments appeared somewhat
successful; 13 of the 80 women in Rock’s study became pregnant when they stopped
their treatment.137
John Rock was a devout Catholic, but that did not stop him from advocating
family planning. The Catholic Church at that time forbade all forms of birth control
except “the rhythm method,” a natural method that did not kill, inhibit, or mutilate the
process of procreation. Rock argued that the Pill was also natural, as it was made from
natural hormones, and extended the time period in which a woman was infertile.138
135
Diane K. Hawkins. “John Rock.” Science and Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer. Vol. 7: 1950 to
Present. Detroit: Gale, 2001. 367-368. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. (accessed November 10,
2014).
136
Ibid.
137
(August/September 1978) http://www.americanheritage.com/content/story-pill, (accessed November 17,
2104).
138
Diane K. Hawkins. “John Rock.” Science and Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer. Vol. 7: 1950 to
Present. Detroit: Gale, 2001. 367-368. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. (accessed November 10,
2014).
44
Although the Catholic Church approved the Pill in 1958 for use as treatment of
dysmenorrhea and pathologies of the uterus,139 in 1968, Pope Paul VI outlawed oral
contraceptives, as well as all other “artificial” forms of birth control.140
The study of mammalian reproduction was gaining momentum, necessitating the
need for large quantities of both estrogen and progesterone. Both hormones were being
manufactured; however, the process was time-consuming and expensive. Researchers
were forced to use animal tissue and hormone-like substances from plants to simulate the
hormones. Soon after, they began work on synthetic forms of these hormones.
In 1938, a synthetic form of estrogen, ethinylestradiol, was created; it is still used
today. In the 1950’s, a synthetic form of progesterone was developed; it was called
progestin. Norethindrone, a progestin, was synthesized in 1951 by Carl Djerassi. A year
later in 1952, another progestin, norethynodrel, was developed by Frank Colton.
Pincus and Rock collaborated on the development of an oral contraceptive. From
his research, John Rock knew that progesterone inhibited ovulation. Rock continued to
induce a pseudo-pregnancy in infertile women, suppressing ovulation, with a daily dose
of norethynodrel. This prompted a clinical trial of a norethynodrel-only contraceptive
pill. Unfortunately, the more purified version of norethynodrel used caused spotting and
bleeding between menstrual cycles. It was discovered that the original version of
norethynodrel used was inadvertently contaminated with a small amount of mestranol, a
139
Malcolm Gladwell. “John Rock’s Error” The New Yorker, Volume 76, Issue 3 (March 2000), 54.
140
Ibid.
45
synthetic estrogen. This discovery led to the addition of synthetic estrogen, mestranol, to
norethynodrel to create the first contraceptive pill, Enovid.141
The first drug trials for Enovid were conducted in Puerto Rico in 1956 since it
was still illegal to dispense contraception in the United States; in 1957, the FDA
approved the use of Enovid for menstrual disorders; in 1960, they were approved for
contraception as well.142 The pharmaceutical company, Searle, did not market Enovid
until 1961, with decreased levels of both mestranol and norethynodrel.143
In the 1960s, clinical trials took place in Europe: in Berlin, Belgium, and the
United Kingdom. Other developments during this time included the replacement of
mestranol with ethinylestradiol. Ethinylestradiol was first developed in 1938. The 1938
version did not absorb effectively; minor alterations were made to its formula which
greatly increased its absorption rate.144
Oral contraceptives have evolved; there is a huge difference between the original
pill and its current forms. There are now a wide variety of pills on the market; women
can better choose the pill that is right for them. Differences include: the reduction of
estrogen dosages; the development of new progestins, which are classified into four
generations; the sequence of administration, i.e. monophasic or multiphasic; the number
of active pills; and alternative routes of administration. This evolution was driven by the
desire for fewer side effects, advances in the field, and competition between
pharmaceutical companies.
141
November 17, 2014).
142
Ibid.
143
Ibid.
144
Ibid.
46
The early versions of oral contraceptive pills (OCPs) contained high levels of
estrogen and progestin. High levels of estrogen were eventually linked to a higher
incidence of blood clots and strokes. Later versions of OCPs contained a fraction of the
estrogen originally used. Similarly, early versions of OCPs contained high levels of
progestins derived from androgens, were found to cause voice virilization, lowered
fundamental frequency and increased harshness.145 Progestin only mini-pills were also
developed, as well as phasic pills that simulated the hormone levels of an actual
menstrual cycle.146 The latest generation of oral contraceptive pills contain less estrogen
in an entire monthly cycle than a single daily dose of the first generation of oral
contraceptives.147
Uses of Oral Contraceptives and Hormones
Oral contraceptives were developed as a form of birth control. They maintain
constant levels of estrogen and progesterone throughout the menstrual cycle, preventing
ovulation. OCPs are also used in the treatment of dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea,
endometriosis, polycystic ovarian syndrome, acne, hirsutism, regulating irregular
menstrual cycles, and PMS. In the previous chapter we learned that the list of symptoms
caused by PMS is a long one, ranging from mild to annoying to debilitating. Since the
etiology of PMS is due to a fluctuation of estrogen and progesterone, it stands to reason
that the most effective way to treat PMS is to stop the fluctuation
145
Filipa M.B. Lã, William L. Ledger, Jane W. Davidson, David M. Howard, and Georgina L. Jones. “The
Effects of a Third Generation Combined Oral Contraceptive Pill in the Classical Singing Voice.” Journal of
Voice, Vol. 21, no. 6, (2007), http://search.proquest.com/docview/1411887?accountid=14270 (accessed
October 25, 2011).
146
November 22, 2012).
147
Ibid.
47
There was a time when trained female singers were discouraged from taking oral
contraceptives because of their adverse effects on the voice, mainly voice virilization.
Deepening of the voice, unsteadiness in vocal timbre, and inconsistency between the
registers were some of the symptoms.148 The low-dosage oral contraceptives currently
available, however, no longer cause such side effects. In fact, there is much evidence to
suggest that taking oral contraceptives can improve voice quality,149 by keeping the
innumerable symptoms of Premenstrual Syndrome in check.
How Oral Contraceptives Work
Taken daily, oral contraceptives contain estrogen and progestin, the combination
of which works in several ways. First, they prevent pregnancy by inhibiting the release
of luteinizing hormones (LH) and follicle stimulating hormones (FSH) from the pituitary
gland. This in turn prevents the ovum from fully developing and being released. They
also cause a thickening of the mucus at the cervix, making it more difficult for the sperm
to enter the uterus. Additionally, oral contraceptives thin the lining of the uterus, creating
a hostile environment for a fertilized egg. Taken properly, without missing a day, oral
contraceptives are about 99% effective.
There are several types of combination pills. Monophasic pills contain the same
amount of estrogen and progestin in all of the active pills. Yaz, Ortho-cyclen, and
Loestrin are brand names of monophasic pills. Biphasic pills change the levels of the
148
Voice, Vol. 21, no. 6, (2007), http://search.proquest.com/docview/1411887?accountid=14270. (accessed
October 25, 2011).
149
Ibid.
48
estrogen and progestin once during the menstrual cycle. Kariva and Ortho-Novum 10/11
are biphasic pills. Triphasic pills change the levels of estrogen and progestin every seven
days during the first twenty-one days of pills. Cylcess, Ortho-Novum 7/7/7, and Ortho
Tri-Cyclen are triphasic pills. Quadraphasic pills change the levels of hormones four
times during the cycle. Natavia is the only quadraphasic pill currently available in the US.
There is no evidence that any one type of phasic pill is more effective than any other
type. The triphasic and quadraphasic pills, however, more closely and naturally mimic
the fluctuating levels of hormones found in the body.
In addition to oral contraceptives containing estrogen and progestin, there is also a
progestin-only pill. Progestin-only pills are only available in 28-day packs. This type of
OC contains a lower dose of progestin than combination pills, and it is prescribed for a
variety of reasons. They are prescribed to women breast-feeding, as estrogen interferes
with milk production; women with health problems, such as high blood pressure,
diabetes, blood clots, migraines; and heart disease, and women concerned with the side
effects of estrogen. Smokers are also often prescribed progestin-only pills, although
smoking while taking any oral contraceptives is not recommended. Progestin-only
minipills are slightly less effective than the combination pills, around 98%.
New progestins were developed to accommodate reductions in progestin dosages.
Levonorgestrel, a second generation progestin, was developed in the late 1960s and is
still prescribed today. The search for progestins with minimal androgenic and metabolic
49
effects led to the development of gestodene and desogestrel, two third-generation
progestins that are derived from Levonorgestrel.150
Oral contraceptives can be administered in a variety of packaging: 21-, 28-, and
91- day pills. The number indicated is the number of active pills per package. 21-day
pills are taken for 21 days, followed by 7 days of taking no pills. 28-day pills have 21
active pills containing estrogen and progestin, and 7 days of inactive pills. The 91-day,
or extended, pill has 84 active pills and 7 inactive pills. The 7 inactive pills, or 7 days in
which no pills are taken, allow the woman’s period to occur.
Another method of the administration of hormones is parenteral administration,
which is a method of delivery other than through the digestive tract. This method
includes the vaginal ring, implants, injectables, and transdermal patches. The suggested
advantage of this method is avoidance of the first pass effect on the liver.151 Efficacy and
side effects of the alternative administration methods are comparable to those of the
standard combined pill.152
Studies of the Effects of OCPs on the Voice
There have been many studies on the effects OCPs on the voice. Unfortunately,
many of these studies were conducted on non-singers, and discuss the effects of the OCPs
on the speaking voice. Ofer Amir, on faculty in the Communication Disorders
Department of the University of Tel Aviv, used acoustic parameters—mean fundamental
frequency, jitter, shimmer, and noise to harmonic ratio—to evaluate the effects of OCPs
150
November 17, 2014).
151
Ibid.
152
Ibid.
50
153
on the voice. Amir et al. studied 10 women (5 on OCPS, 5 natural) for 40 days,
recording them producing sustained [i] and [a] vowel sounds. He found differences in
the jitter and shimmer of the two groups; significantly higher jitter and shimmer levels in
the natural group, and lower perturbation values and smaller variance in the OCP
group.154 Lower perturbation and smaller variance are associated with a fewer hormonal
level changes and a healthier, more stable voice.
Amir also conducted a study on the effects of different progestin types contained
in OCPs on the voice, again using non-singers. 29 women were divided into 3 groups
based on the progestin contents of their OCPs: drospirenone, desogestrel, or gestodene.
Amir wanted to explore the theory that later generation OCPs containing newer
progestins have a more favorable effect on the female voice. The women were recorded
twice over a single menstrual cycle, between days 10 and 17 and the first 3 days of their
menstrual cycle, on the vowels [a], [i], and [u]; fundamental frequency, jitter, shimmer,
and noise to harmonic ratio were again the parameters. No substantial differences were
found among the three groups for the acoustic guidelines. There was, however, higher
frequency perturbation in the drospirenone group. This finding was surprising, as
drospirenone is derived from spironolactone instead of testosterone. Because of its
antimineralcorticoid and antiandrogenic properties, drospirenone is associated with
decreased water retention.155 The differences between the groups was slight, and well
153 Ofer Amir, Liat Kishon-Rabin, and Chava Muchnik. “The Effect of Oral Contraceptives on Voice:
Preliminary Observations.” Journal of Voice Volume 16, No. 2. (June 2002),
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0892199702000966 (accessed November 22, 2012).
154
Ibid.
155
Ofer Amir, Liat Kishon-Rabin, and Chava Muchnik. “The Effect of Oral Contraceptives on Voice:
Preliminary Observations.” Journal of Voice Volume 16, No. 2. (June 2002),
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0892199702000966 (accessed November 22, 2012).
51
within normal range, signifying that there is no perceptible differences among newer
progestins.
Dr. Mary Gorham-Rowan, a professor of Communication Sciences and Disorders
at Valdosta University, also conducted studies on the effects of OCPs on the voice using
non-singers as test subjects. Gorham-Rowan et al. conducted various studies, including
how OCP use affects laryngeal dynamics, voice onset time, differences in glottal airflow,
acoustic measures, and vocal pitch levels during connected speech. In 2004, Gorham-
Rowan conducted a study which used speaking fundamental frequency (SFF), speaking
fundamental frequency standard deviation (SFFsd), and sound pressure level (SPL) to
assess the voice of both women who used OCPs and those who did not. 18 women (9
using a triphasic OCP and 9 not on an OCP) were recorded reading from ‘The Rainbow
Passage’, found in Grant Fairbanks’ book, Voice and Articulation Drillbook. Gorham
felt that any effects on the voice would be more apparent during actual speech as opposed
to isolated vowel production.156 Recordings were done on day 7 of each woman’s
menstrual cycle, at the completion of menses. No significant difference was found in the
SFF of either group of women.
In 2008, Gorham-Rowan conducted an aerodynamic assessment study involving
16 women: 8 women taking a triphasic OCP and 8 women not taking an OCP. The study
sought to shed some light on the effects of menstrual cycle hormonal changes on glottal
airflow. The women were recorded on days 7 and 14 of their menstrual cycle,
performing 3 repetitions of a sustained [ɑ] vowel. Peak flow, minimum flow, alternating
156
Mary Gorham-Rowan, Amy Langford, Kelly Corrigan, and Bridget Snyder. “Vocal pitch levels during
connected speech associated with oral contraceptive use.” Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology Vol. 24,
No. 3 (April 2004): 284.
52
flow, fundamental frequency, and relative sound pressure level were measured. The
results of the study: the OCP women exhibited a significantly higher fundamental
frequency peak, as well as greater peak and alternating airflow.157
In 2009, Gorham-Rowan et al. conducted a study on the effects of oral
contraceptive use on voice onset time (VOT.) The study hypothesized that women taking
OCPs would display smaller voice onset times throughout their menstrual cycles.
Changes in voice onset time are associated with the antiproliferative effect of increased
progesterone during the premenstrual phase of the cycle; women on OCPs would not
experience as wide a shift in voice onset time as women not on OCPs.158 20 women
participated: 10 taking a triphasic OCP and 10 not. The women were recorded on day 10
(preovulation) and day 20 (premenstrual) of their cycles over 2 menstrual cycles, each
woman providing 10 repetitions of phrases that contained the syllables [bæ] and [pæ].
The results of this study found no significant voice onset time differences between the
phases of the menstrual cycle or between OCP users and non-users. The greatest
variances in the voice onset times of the participants occurred across months rather than
between phases or between users. The voice onset time stability was similar between
OCP users and non-users. OCP users had more voice onset time variability in the second
month than non-users.159
157
Mary Gorham-Rowan and Linda Fowler. “Aerodynamic Assessment of Young Women’s Voices as a
Function of Oral Contraceptive Use.” Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, Volume 60, No. 1, (2008),
158
Ibid.
159
Richard J. Morris, Mary M. Gorham-Rowan, Kaileen D. Herring. “Voice Onset Time in Women as a
Function of Oral Contraceptive Use.” Journal of Voice, Vol. 23, No.1, (January 2009), Retrieved from
53
Also in 2009, Gorham-Rowan conducted a study on the what effect initiating oral
contraceptive use has on the voice. The study was somewhat limited, however, in that it
involved only one subject. The subject was studied for 8 months; 2 months prior to OCP
use and 6 months after starting OCP use. The subject was recorded between days 9 -11
(preovulatory) and between days 20-22 (premenstrual), 3 repetitions of the vowel [æ].
The following measurements were gathered: H1-H2, the ratio of the amplitude of the first
harmonic to the amplitude of the second harmonic; H1-A1, the ratio of the first harmonic
to the amplitude of the first formant; H1-A3, the ratio of the first harmonic to the
amplitude of the of the third formant. H1-H2 relates to closed quotient duration, H1-A1
relates to glottal width, and H1-A3 relates to the speed of the vocal closure.160
Additionally, the acoustic measures of voice perturbation, jitter, shimmer, and noise to
harmonic ratio were monitored. The results of the study indicated that the subject
experienced glottal changes with the introduction of oral contraceptives. Both H1-H2
and H1-A1 ratios changed with OCP use; there was no significant change in the H1-A3
ratio. There was also an increase in jitter levels after the implementation of OCP use; no
difference occurred in the shimmer or noise to harmonic ratios. The subject did not
experience greater stability in the acoustic signal of her voice while using a triphasic
OCP; she exhibited a decreased closed quotient and an increased glottal width after
beginning OCP use.161
160
Richard J.Morris, Mary M. Gorham-Rowan, and Archie B. Harmon. “The Effect of Initiating Oral
Contraceptive Use on the Voice: A Case Study.” Journal of Voice, Volume 25, No. 2, (March 2011),
161
Richard J. Morris, Mary M. Gorham-Rowan, and Archie B. Harmon. “The Effect of Initiating Oral
Contraceptive Use on the Voice: A Case Study.” Journal of Voice, Volume 25, No. 2, (March 2011),
54
The research of Amir and Gorham-Rowan on the effects of oral contraceptives on
the speaking voice is extremely valuable. Unfortunately, since the test subjects were not
trained voice users, the exact effects of oral contraceptives on the singing voice are not
clear. For research on the effects of oral contraceptives on the singing voice we look to
Dr. Filipa Lã. She is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication and
Art at the University of Aveiro in Portugal. Her doctoral dissertation, “Investigating the
Female Western Classical Singer’s Vocal Experience over the Menstrual Cycle during
the use of a Third Generation Oral Contraception Pill: a double-blind randomized placebo
controlled trial” (2005), provided the basis for her research on this subject. Her findings
have provided invaluable insight into this important topic. Dr. Lã has studied the effects
of oral contraceptives on pitch control and performance, as well as specific types of
OCPs.
For her studies, Dr. Lã used Yasmin, a monophasic OCP. It is a combined pill
containing ethinyl estradiol and drospirenone; drospirenone is a newer fourth generation
progestin with antimineralcorticoid and antiandrogenic properties. In her research, Dr.
Lã found this OCP to have a stabilizing effect on vocal fold vibration.162 In a 6-month
double-blind randomized placebo controlled trial, blood samples, audio recordings, and
an electrolaryngograph were used to collect data. The subjects were tested during the
menstrual, luteal, and follicular phases of their cycles at month 3 and month 6; a total of 6
recordings was obtained from each subject.
162
Filipa Lã, Jane W. Davidson, William Ledger, David Howard, and Georgina Jones. “A Case-Study on the
Effects of the Menstrual Cycle and the Use of a Combined Oral Contraceptive Pill on the Performance of a
Western Classical Singer: An Objective and Subjective Overview.” Musicae Scientiae, Vol. 11, No. 2
(January 2007), http://msx.sagepub.com/content/11/2_suppl/85, (accessed January 15, 2015).
55
In her study of the effects of OCPs on a singer’s pitch control, Lã hypothesized
that a singer’s pitch is less accurate during the certain phases of the menstrual cycle, and
improved with OCP use. Lã had her subjects execute a vocal exercise on several starting
pitches—an ascending octave with a descending major triad—the pitch F5 was
analyzed.163164 Pitch accuracy was measured by vibrato rate (VbR), vibrato extent
(VbEt), and sign deviation from pure octave (SgD). Additionally, estradiol (P),
progesterone (P), testosterone (T), and the ratio between estradiol and progesterone were
monitored (E2:P). 165 The results of Lã’s study confirmed that OCP use balances out
hormonal fluctuations; there were much greater variances in the levels of estradiol,
progesterone, testosterone, and the estradiol to progesterone ratio in the subjects on
placebos. Examination of the hormone levels of the OCP users shows reduced levels of
estradiol and progesterone in the luteal phase, and well as reduced levels of testosterone
and the estradiol to progesterone levels in the follicular phase.166 Despite the reduction of
hormonal variance on OCP use, Lã’s research showed no sign of intonation inaccuracy
throughout the phases of the menstrual cycle during placebo usage. Intonation
inaccuracies occurred in the follicular phase during OCP use on F5: there was a
narrowing of the octave. In addition, vibrato rate was slower during OCP use than
163
Filipa Lã, Johan Sundberg, David M. Howard, Pedro Sa-Couto, and Adelaide Freitas. “Effects of the
Menstrual Cycle and Oral Contraception on Singers’ Pitch Control.” Journal of Speech, Language, and
Hearing Research, Volume 55, Issue 1 (February 2012),
164
Filipa Lã, Johan Sundberg, David M. Howard, Pedro Sá-Couto, Adelaide Freitas. “The Effects of Sex
Steroid Hormones on Singer’s Pitch Control.” Performa ’11 – Encontros de Investigação em Performance,
Universidade de Aveiro, (May 2011), http://performa.web.ua.pt/pdf/actas2011/FilipaL%C3%A3.pdf
(accessed January 15, 2015.
165
Ibid.
166
Ibid.
56
167
placebo use, especially during the follicular phase. While these findings are not what
Dr. Lã hypothesized, they are still of great relevance. She suggests that the deviations in
vibrato rate and pitch on F5 occur because the intricate adjustments of the thyroarytenoid
and cricothyroid muscles required in the passaggio are affected by even the slightest
disturbances. According to Lã, it is entirely possible that the hormonal influence over
pitch control results from certain combinations of concentrations of hormones not just
specific hormonal concentrations.168
During her research on the effects of the menstrual cycle and OCPs on the singing
voice, Dr. Lã found that there was a higher incidence of vocal irregularity in subjects
when not taking OCPs. There was a higher vocal fold period-to-period frequency
variability (CFx) and the vocal fold period-to-period amplitude variability (CAx) was
more pronounced throughout the phases.169 There were a higher closed quotient values
during the follicular phase,170 and a less wide DQx during the menstrual phase.171
Throughout her studies on this subject, Dr. Lã used Yasmin, a combined OCP
made of ethinyl estradiol and drospirenone. Drospirenone is a progestin derived from
167
Filipa Lã and Johan Sundberg, David M. Howard, Pedro Sá-Couto, Adelaide Freitas. “The Effects of Sex
Steroid Hormones on Singer’s Pitch Control.” Performa ’11 – Encontros de Investigação em Performance,
Universidade de Aveiro, (May 2011), http://performa.web.ua.pt/pdf/actas2011/FilipaL%C3%A3.pdf
(accessed January 15, 2015.
168
Filipa Lã and Johan Sundberg, David M. Howard, Pedro Sa-Couto, and Adelaide Freitas. “Effects of the
Menstrual Cycle and Oral Contraception on Singers’ Pitch Control.” Journal of Speech, Language, and
Hearing Research, Volume 55, Issue 1 (February 2012),
169
Filipa Lã, Jane Davidson, William Ledger, David Howard, and Georgina Jones. "The Influence of the
Menstrual Cycle and the Oral Contraceptive Pill on the Female Singing Performance." European Society for
the Cognitive Sciences of Music, (January 2005),
http://scholar.google.pt/citations?hl=en&user=CgjbWkIAAAAJ (accessed January 15, 2015).
170
Ibid.
171
Filipa Lã, Jane W. Davidson, William Ledger, David Howard, and Georgina Jones. “A Case-Study on the
Effects of the Menstrual Cycle and the Use of a Combined Oral Contraceptive Pill on the Performance of a
Western Classical Singer: An Objective and Subjective Overview.” Musicae Scientiae, Vol. 11, No. 2
(January 2007), http://msx.sagepub.com/content/11/2_suppl/85, (accessed January 15, 2015).
57
172
spironolactone, an aldosterone antagonist that promotes diuresis and sodium excretion.
The antiandrogenic and antimineralcorticoid properties in drospirenone help avoid water
retention in the vocal fold mucosa and changes in the connective tissue, resulting in a less
erratic voice. Drospirenone is a fourth generation progestin; its antiandrogenic properties
reduce side effects such as acne and hirsutism while its antimineralcorticoid properties
decrease bloating and water retention.
Dr. Lã conducted two studies on the effects of drospirenone on the voice: in 2007,
a six-month study focused on classical singers; in 2009, a two-month study focused on
the ‘professional’ voice. These professional voices consisted of musical theater singers,
jazz singers, choir members, and school teachers. These two studies were similar in their
design: both were double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trials; both took blood
samples and electrolaryngograph recordings measuring the irregularity of frequency
(CFx) and irregularity of amplitude (CAx).
The findings of these studies were very interesting: the classically trained singers
had more beneficial results than the professional voice users. For classical singers, the
CAx is lower in the menstrual and follicular phases with OCP use. Also with OCP use,
estradiol, progesterone, FSH, and testosterone levels in the menstrual phase were lower;
the levels of LH, FSH, testosterone, and FAI (free androgen index) in the follicular phase
were lower; and the levels of estradiol progesterone, LH, and FSH in the luteal phase
were lower.173 The results for the professional voice users, on the other hand, showed no
172
Merriam-Webster’s Medical Dictionary, “spironolactone.”
173
Filipa Lã, William Ledger, Jane W. Davidson, David M. Howard, and Georgina L. Jones. “The Effects of a
Third Generation Combined Oral Contraceptive Pill on the Classical Singing Voice.” Journal of Voice, Vol.
21, no. 6 (2007) http://search.proquest.com/docview/1411887?accountid=14270 (accessed October 25,
2011).
58
significant differences between the OCP and placebo groups as far as the frequency and
amplitude of vibration, suggesting that Yasmin use has a negligible effect on the pattern
of vocal fold vibration.174
Can we conclude then, from all of this information, that OCPs have a beneficial
effect on the voice? We cannot. The data compiled here does not fully substantiate the
theory that OCPs provide a healthier, more stable voice. Additionally, there are
drawbacks to OCPs: combined birth control pills with newer generation progestins have a
higher risk of venous thromboembolism (blood clots). Additionally, there is compelling
evidence that OCPs can have an adverse effect on mood. Since the development of the
oral contraceptive pill in the 60s, it has been noted that OCP users can often suffer from
emotional issues such as anxiety, depression and decreased libido. It has not been clearly
proven, however, if the emotional issues of OCP users are pharmacologically caused or
caused by something in the patient’s history.175 OCPs containing antiandrogenic
progestins such as drospirenone and desogestrel have proven more beneficial to mood
symptoms.176 Further, the ratios of progestin and ethinyl estradiol in different OCP
brands can affect the moods of women differently. For example, a lower ratio of
progestin to ethinyl estradiol is associated with increased negative mood changes in
women who have a history of premenstrual emotional issues, while a higher ratio of
174
Filipa Lã, David M. Howard, William Ledger, Jane Davidson, and Georgina Jones. “Oral Contraceptive
pill containing drospirenone and the professional voice: An electrolarynographic analysis.” Logopedics
Phoniatrics Vocology, Volume 34, Issue 1, (February 2009),
https://scholar.google.pt/citations?hl=en&user=CgjbWkIAAAAJ (accessed November 22, 2012).
175
Inger Sundström Poromaa and Birgitta Segebladh. “Adverse mood symptoms with oral
contraceptives.” Acta Obstetricaet Gynecologica Scandinavica, Vol. 91, No. 4, (April 2012),
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.libproxy.temple.edu/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0412.2011.01333.x/full (accessed
January 21, 2015).
176
Ibid
59
progestin to ethinyl estradiol is associated with increased negative mood changes in
women with no premenstrual history.177 Additionally, monophasic OCPs are more
effective at stabilizing mood symptoms than triphasic OCPs.178 All of this information
suggests that if a singer is affected by adverse mood symptoms, the answer need not be to
stop taking the pill altogether; switching to another OCP with different dosage and
administration could be a better solution.
177
Kirsten Oinonen and Dwight Mazmanian. “To what extent do oral contraceptives influence mood and
affect?” Journal of Affective Disorders, Vol. 70, No. 3, (August 2002),
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165032701003561, (accessed January 21, 2015).
178
Ibid.
60
CHAPTER 4: THE IMPACT OF PREGNANCY ON THE VOICE
The body and the voice are always affected by hormonal fluctuations, but during
pregnancy, the body and voice face additional obstacles. The concentrations of estrogen,
progesterone are much higher than usual, affecting mucosa, muscles, bone tissue,
cerebral cortex, and the larynx. Blood volume can increase by as much as 50%, bringing
about changes in the lining of the airways as well as the digestive tract. The joints and
ligaments can also be affected, loosening and becoming edematous.179 Lung function is
affected during pregnancy; physiological changes—such as anterior and posterior
increases in the diameter of the chest—occur. There are significant changes in lung
volumes: expiratory reserve volume, functional residual capacity, and vital capacity.
Pregnancy’s duration is approximately 39-40 weeks and is divided into 3 stages or
trimesters. Each trimester is roughly 13 weeks in length; important developments occur
during each one.
First Trimester
The first trimester is an important trimester; this is when embryogenesis occurs.
During embryogenesis, the basic structure of the body and the organ systems are formed.
During this trimester, swelling of the mucous membranes, morning sickness, and water
retention can occur. Since everything ingested by the mother is passed to the fetus via
the placenta it is extremely important at this time to abstain from or closely monitor all
medications; alcohol consumption should be avoided. The majority of miscarriages and
birth defects happen in the first trimester.
179
Stephanie Adrian. “The impact of pregnancy on the singing voice: A case study.” Journal of Singing,
Vol. 68, No. 3 (January 2012), http://www.readperiodicals.com/201201/2563927611.html (accessed
January 20, 2013).
61
Second Trimester
The second trimester is much more pleasant; morning sickness disappears, sleep
patterns improve, and energy levels increase. Other physical issues arise, however; back
pain, reflux, leg cramps, and constipation. The fetus grows a great deal during this
trimester; the uterus can expand up to 20 times its normal size during pregnancy.
Third Trimester
During the third trimester, the final weight gain takes place. Physical symptoms
include shortness of breath, hemorrhoids, varicose veins, urinary incontinence, and sleep
disturbances. Women often express an inability to ‘get comfortable’ during the third
trimester due to the expanded uterus and growing baby encroaching on lung space and
the digestive system.
Vocal Changes
Just as the body undergoes many changes during pregnancy, the voice can be
profoundly affected as well. Vocal fatigue, hoarseness, timbre change, lowering of the
fundamental frequency, and decreased range and agility can occur. There has been very
little research done on exactly how the voice is affected by pregnancy, which is a bit
shocking considering how many singers have given birth. There are several researchers
who have shed light on this important topic, although only three have conducted their
research using trained singers. Three of the studies focused specifically on the third
trimester of pregnancy. There is insightful information to be gleaned from all of these
studies, although more research is needed.

62
Studies on the Effects of Pregnancy on the Voice
Abdul-Latif Hamdan conducted a study in 2007, assessing 25 women as they
presented for delivery at the American University of Beirut.180 The women were
examined before delivery and 12-24 hours after delivery. He also used 21 women for a
control group. Hamdan wanted to investigate the effect of pregnancy on the speaking
voice. No perceptual evaluations or laryngeal examinations were done; acoustic
parameters such as fundamental frequency, shimmer, noise-to-harmony ratio, maximum
phonation time, and relative average perturbation were measured. 12% of the pregnant
women suffered from vocal fatigue, and 8% were experiencing hoarseness. Hamdan
concluded that pregnant women experienced more vocal fatigue and a reduced maximum
phonation time. Hamdan had theorized that since there is such an increase in fluid in the
body during pregnancy, the voice would be affected, specifically in a lowering of the
fundamental frequency.181 There was no lowering of the fundamental frequency,
however; all perturbation parameters were within normal range throughout the study.
Verónica L. Cassiraga also conducted a study on the effects of pregnancy on the
voice, specifically on the third trimester. Cassiraga examined voice quality between
pregnant women in their trimester and non-pregnant women. 44 pregnant women and 45
non-pregnant women were studied for seven months: fundamental frequency, maximum
phonation time, vocal intensity, perturbation rates, and physical acoustic qualities were
recorded. All of the participants were non-singers. Participants were recorded reading a
‘phonetically balanced’ passage, and the production of a sustained [a] vowel. No blood
180
Abdul-Latif Hamdan, Lorice Mahfoud, Abla Sibai,and Muheiddine Seoud. “Effect of Pregnancy on the
Speaking Voice.” Journal of Voice, Vol. 23, No. 4 (July 2009),
181
Ibid.
63
samples were taken to monitor hormonal levels. The results of Cassiraga’s study showed
there are changes to the voice during the third trimester of pregnancy; the pregnant
women were found to have increased voice intensity levels. Of the 44 pregnant women,
31.82% presented with breathiness, 11.96% of the women with hoarseness, 15.91%
women had both breathiness and hoarseness, and 52.27% were suffering from reflux.
This compares with 17.78%, 6.67%, 0%, and 6.67% of the non-pregnant group,
respectively.182 Maximum phonation time was lower among the pregnant women, while
their speech intensity level was increased. Both the pregnant and non-pregnant women,
however, showed no change in fundamental frequency, isolated vowel intensity, or
perturbation rates.183
In 2012, Stephanie Adrian published a study in the Journal of Singing, “The
impact of pregnancy on the singing voice: a case study.” Dr. Adrian was the subject of
her own study, and collected acoustic and aerodynamic data throughout her pregnancy at
9, 17, 27, and 35 weeks. Acoustic data included jitter, shimmer, relative average
perturbation, and physiological pitch range in Hertz and semitones; aerodynamic data
included aerodynamic efficiency or resistance and sound pressure level. The vocal folds
were imaged through videostroboscopy; no perceptual evaluation, laryngeal examination
or blood samples were done. Vocal tasks employed by Adrian included reading a
passage from “The Rainbow Passage” and repetition of an exercise (pa/pa/pa/pa/pa).
Adrian experienced no morning sickness during the pregnancy, and reflux only in the
final weeks. Results of the acoustic data collected showed minor shifts in fundamental
182
Verónica A. Cassiraga, Andrea V. Castellano, José Abasolo, Ester N. Abin, and Gustavo H. Izbizky.
“Pregnancy and Voice: Changes During the Third Trimester.” Journal of Voice, Vol. 26, No. 5 (September
2012), http://search.proquest.com/docview/1315888589?accountid=14270 (accessed January 20, 2013).
183 Ibid.
64
frequency, speaking fundamental frequency, jitter, and shimmer all remained within
normal limits.184 Adrian did discover that sound pressure level increased at 9 and 35
weeks and lowered at 17 and 27 weeks. Coincidentally, aerodynamic
efficiency/resistance increased at 9 and 35 weeks, and decreased at 17 and 27 weeks;
both reached their highest level as 35 weeks. Adrian suggests that these results could
indicate mild edema or change in vocal fold density at the beginning and end of
pregnancy.185 While the results of this case study show only slight acoustic and
aerodynamic changes, Adrian does describe experiencing effortless breath support and
ease in melismatic passages in the second trimester. By the week 36, however, her voice
felt husky and it became increasing difficult to achieve a balanced onset; breathing was
difficult since she was unable to expand her abdomen or rib cage.
Filipa Lã and Johan Sundberg also conducted a pregnancy case study in 2010 to
examine how the hormonal variations during pregnancy affect phonatory functions.
Audio, electrolaryngograph, oral pressure and airflow signals were recorded weekly
during the last 12 weeks of pregnancy, 48 hours after birth, and the first 11 weeks after
childbirth. Three blood samples were also collected at 29 weeks, 49 hours after
childbirth, and 7 weeks after childbirth.186 The performance tasks used for the study were
a performance of Widmung by Robert Schumann, and diminuendo repetitions of the
syllable /pae/ on A3, E4, B4, and F5. Lã and Sundberg hypothesized that hormonal
184
Stephanie Adrian. “The impact of pregnancy on the singing voice: A case study.” Journal of Singing,
Vol. 68, No. 3 (January 2012), (http://www.readperiodicals.com/201201/2563927611.html (accessed
January 20, 2013).
185
Ibid.
186
Filipa M.B. Lã and Johan Sundberg. “Pregnancy and the Singing Voice: Reports From a Case Study.”
Journal of Voice, Vol. 26, No. 4 (July 2012)
65
fluctuations and other associated physical changes during pregnancy affect vocal fold
motility and glottal adduction. Phonation threshold pressure (PTP), collision threshold
pressure (CTP), normalized amplitude quotient (NAQ), alpha ratio, and the dominance of
the voice source fundamental were assessed.187 Not surprisingly, Lã and Sundberg found
that there were elevated levels of estrogen and progesterone during pregnancy which
decreased after birth. Increases in estrogen and progesterone affect the vocal tract.
Estrogen increases the thickness of vocal fold epithelium and progesterone causes
dryness and increases tissue viscosity. The effects of increased progesterone are linked to
an increase in PTP. During pregnancy, PTP and CTP were high, implying a decrease in
vocal fold motility.188 Maximum phonation time (MPT) decreased in the final weeks of
pregnancy and increased after childbirth, correlating with BMI, which increases in the
last stages of pregnancy and decreases after childbirth. Lã and Sundberg also noted
changes in the NAQ and alpha ratio which imply increased glottal adduction during
pregnancy.189
Marion K. R. Dickson’s 2014 DMA dissertation at the University of Houston,
titled “Acoustic and Aerodynamic Impacts of Pregnancy on the Classically Trained
Soprano Voice,” sought to provide deeper understanding regarding the effects of
pregnancy on the voice. Dr. Dickson references the research of Hamdan, Cassiraga,
Adrian, and Lã and Sundberg, as well as the work of Jean Abitbol, and provides an
overview of the respiratory and phonatory systems, as well as a brief overview of
187
Filipa M.B. Lã and Johan Sundberg. “Pregnancy and the Singing Voice: Reports From a Case Study.”
Journal of Voice, Vol. 26, No. 4 (July 2012)
188
Ibid.
189
Ibid.
66
pregnancy. Dr. Dickson’s study was a case study using herself as the participant: a 35
year old woman in her third pregnancy. Data was collected at weeks 28, 30, 34, 36, 39,
and 10 weeks postpartum. Respiratory, acoustic, and aerodynamic data was collected:
vital capacity, oxygen saturation, agility, pitch, vibrato rate, jitter, shimmer, voicing
efficiency, laryngeal resistance, airflow, sound pressure level, and phonatory threshold
pressure. No blood samples were taken, but self-perceptual evaluations such as the Voice
Handicap Index (VHI) and the Singing Handicap Index (SHI) were used. Dickson
followed the same protocol before every data collection: a vocal warm-up at home,
completion of the VHI and SHI. At the data collection site, Dickson wore an oxygen
sensor on her fingertip to measure oxygen saturation every fifteen seconds as she sang
Nannetta’s aria “Sul fil d’un soffio etesio” from Verdi’s Falstaff. To determine vital
capacity, she inhaled as much as possible, then exhaled in the same way. To collect
aerodynamic data to determine PTP, Dickson spoke three sets of seven repetitions of the
syllable /pi/ as quietly as possible. To determine laryngeal valving efficiency, Dickson
sang the syllable /pi/ on one pitch three times loudly; the pitch was G4 at week 28, but
Eb5 the remaining weeks. Other measures—laryngeal resistance, mean airflow, mean
peak air pressure, and sound pressure level during were obtained from the same exercise.
Vibrato and perturbation were collected by Dickson singing the vowel /i/ at mf for four
seconds each on the following pitches: Ab3, Ab4, Eb5, and Ab5. To obtain agility and
pitch accuracy measurements, she performed three repetitions of a melismatic passage on
Ab3, D4, and Bb4 on the vowel /i/. Results from Dr. Dickson’s study are similar to the
studies of Lã and Sundberg, and Adrian. Vital capacity decreased during pregnancy, no
doubt due to the expansion of the uterus and displacement of the diaphragm making it
67
increasingly difficult to take a deep breath. Oxygen saturation remained within normal
levels, albeit slightly lower during pregnancy than postpartum; Dickson thought this
result might be caused by the fact that the measurement was taken as she was singing,
exemplifying how much air is used in singing.190 Pitch and agility were not affected by
pregnancy, although agility was affected postpartum; Dickson surmised that this might be
due to fatigue and dehydration in the weeks after giving birth.191 Jitter and shimmer
levels remained within normal limits, although shimmer levels were slightly higher in the
first part of the third trimester, and jitter levels were higher in the second half of the third
trimester. PTP increased during pregnancy, possibly due to edema; the highest level of
PTP, however, was recorded at 10 weeks postpartum. This again may have been caused
by postpartum fatigue and dehydration complicated by lactation. Values for laryngeal
resistance and mean peak air pressure increased in weeks 30 and 39; the mean air peak
level increase implies an increase in medial compression of the vocal folds.192 Sound
pressure level and amplitude tremor intensity index (ATRI) also increased at week 28 and
30. Dickson suggested that week 30 was an energetic week for her, possibly related to
vocal fold closure and increased laryngeal efficiency.193
All of these studies provided invaluable information on the effects of pregnancy
on the voice. The case studies of Adrien, Lã, and Dickson in particular, have given us
great insight. There needs to be more studies, however, on how the voice is affected by
the hormonal changes that occur during pregnancy.
190
Marion K. R. Dickson. “Acoustic Aerodynamic Impacts of Pregnancy on the Classically Trained Soprano
Voice.” DMA dissertation, University of Houston, May 2014.
191
Ibid.
192
Ibid.
193
Ibid
68
CHAPTER 5: THE EFFECTS OF MENOPAUSE AND THE VOICE
Life expectancy has doubled in the last 150 years in developed nations, due in
part to advances in medicine, the standard of living, and societal improvements. In
previous generations, women did not live long past menopause, which typically occurs
around the age of 50. Now, most women live a third of their lives in a postmenopausal
state; moreover, not just living, but thriving in their senior years. Menopause is defined
as the cessation of menstruation due to the loss of ovarian follicle activity and follicle
depletion.194 Menopause is the ending of the monthly menstrual cycle and fertility. More
specifically, perimenopause is the transitional period in which the ovaries gradually stop
producing eggs, estrogen and progesterone levels decrease, and FSH serum levels rise.
The primary cause of perimenopause is loss of follicles in the ovaries which results in
lowered estrogen levels. Other cause of menopause symptoms are surgical procedures,
chemotherapy, hormone therapy for breast cancer, or ovary removal surgery, which cause
a drop in estrogen levels. During perimenopause, menstrual periods become less frequent
or irregular and eventually stop. After a woman has not menstruated for a year,
menopause is complete, and she is considered to be postmenopausal.
The age range of menopause is between the ages 40-58; smoking, however, can
cause an earlier menopause.195 The signs and symptoms associated with natural
menopause are gradual, taking place over a period of years and include declining
fecundity, which starts at age 35, and declines sharply after 40. Also around the age of
194
David G. Weismiller. “Menopause.” Primary Care: Clinics in Office Practice, Vol. 36, No. 1 (2009),
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S009545430800105X (accessed February 20, 2014.)
195
PubMed Health. “Menopause.” http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001896 (accessed
December 1, 2011).
69
40, women can experience longer and heavier menstrual periods, a result of a shortened
follicular phase.196 A lengthened menstrual cycle interval, which frequently occurs 2 to 8
years before menopause, correlates to decreased serum levels of inhibin, which inhibits
FSH secretion.
Menopause Symptoms
Menopause symptoms vary from woman to woman and can last for years. They
include insomnia, hot flashes, night sweats, mood swings, genital atrophy, osteoporosis,
an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, forgetfulness, headaches, urine leakage, and
decreased libido. Vocal symptoms—which include laryngeal mucosal changes, lowering
of vocal intensity, decreased fundamental frequency, reduced range and flexibility, loss
of high notes—are similar to those of premenstrual vocal syndrome. Additionally, the
vocal folds become less supple, and there is a loss of formants in the upper range.197 As
the estrogen and progesterone levels decrease, androgen plays a more important role in a
woman’s body. Androgen causes muscular and mucosal atrophy, which is seen in
cytology smears of both vocal folds and cervical tissue. The reduced hydration in the
vocal folds causes fatigue and dysphonia.198 Lack of estrogen causes a breakdown of
connective tissues; vocal folds are made up largely of connective tissue.199 Estrogen is
still produced in the body, however. Estrogen in postmenopausal women is produced in
196
David G. Weismiller “Menopause.” Primary Care: Clinics in Office Practice, Vol. 36, No. 1 (2009),
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S009545430800105X (accessed February 20, 2014.)
197
Jean Abitbol, Patrick Abitbol and Béatrice Abitbol. “Sex Hormones and the Female Voice.” Journal of
Voice, Vol. 13, no. 3, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0892199799800484 (accessed
October 25, 2011).
198
Ibid.
199
Ofer Amir and Tal Biron-Shental. “The impact of hormonal fluctuations on female vocal folds.” Current
Opinion in Otolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery Vol. 12, no. 3 (2004),
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com.libproxy.temple.edu (accessed October 25, 2011).
70
200
the lipocytes, or fat cells. Jean Abitbol suggested that women with more adipose (fat)
tissue have an increase in estrone secretion, which makes them less dependent on
hormone replacement therapy.201 In addition to the extreme hormonal changes, women
also have to contend with the age-related changes to the voice: degeneration of muscle
tissue, vocal fold thickening, ossification of many cartilages in the larynx, change in
vibrato, stiffening of the thorax, reduction of vital capacity,202 and increasing residual
volume.203
Studies on the Effects of Hormone Replacement Therapy on the Voice
The effects of menopause on the voice are similar to the effects of premenstrual
vocal syndrome—edema, vocal fatigue, dryness, and mucosal changes—but more far-
reaching and permanent. There have been a number of studies done that examine the
effects of menopause on the voice, although the majority of them were conducted on non-
singers or voice professionals.
Evelien D’haeseleer, an Otolaryngologist on faculty at Ghent University’s
Department of Medicine and Health Sciences in Belgium, has written a number of
articles on the subject. She explores the effects of menopause on voice quality, as well as
other aspects, including the voice quality of premenopausal women, the impact of
hormone replacement therapy on the voice quality of postmenopausal women, and the
correlation between speaking fundamental frequency and body mass index (BMI) in pre-
200
Voice, Vol. 13, no. 3, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0892199799800484 . (accessed
October 25, 2011).
201
Ibid.
202
203
Ibid, 26.
71
and post-menopausal women. None of the subjects of any of her studies were
‘professional elite professional voice users (actor or singers)’; even still, her findings
were insightful and helpful. In her 2011 study on the impact of menopause on voice
quality, D’haeseleer took 38 postmenopausal women not taking hormone therapy (HT)
and studied them alongside 34 premenopausal women. She employed aerodynamic and
vocal range measurements, acoustic analysis, electroglottography, subjective assessment,
and videostropic evaluation, from which she determined there were significant
differences found in the vital capacity, phonation quotient, vocal range, fundamental
frequency during reading, variation in fundamental frequency, and fundamental
frequency tremor intensity and amplitude intensity indexes. Most notably, she found the
phonation quotient and fundamental frequency were lower among postmenopausal
women.204 In 2012, D’haeseleer studied the effects of hormone therapy on
postmenopausal women; she also examined two different types of HT—estrogen therapy
(EP) and estrogen-progestogen therapy (E-PT)—and their effects on vocal characteristics.
Again, aerodynamic and vocal range measurements, acoustic analysis, videostropic
evaluation, and subjective assessment were employed. 59 postmenopausal women with
HT (16 women on ET and 43 on E-PT) and 46 postmenopausal women without HT were
studied by D’haeseleer et al., the results being that postmenopausal women without HT
displayed a lower speaking fundamental frequency and were also able to phonate lower
204Evelien D’haeseleer, Herman Depypere, Sofie Claeys, Floris L. Wuyts, Sophia De Ley, and Kristiane M.
Van Lierde. “The impact of menopause on vocal quality.” Menopause: The Journal of the North American
Menopause Society, Vol. 18, No. 3 (2011) 271.
72
205
than the women on HT. There was no difference between the two types of HT. The
vocal characteristics of middle-aged premenopausal women were studied by D’haeseleer
in 2011; 22 premenopausal and 22 young women were studied. The measurements used
in the two previously mentioned studies were also used for this study. Not surprisingly,
the vocal characteristics of middle-aged premenopausal women differed from those of
younger women; the premenopausal women displayed a smaller frequency and intensity
range, a lower habitual fundamental frequency, and a higher soft phonation index (SPI)
than the young women.206 D’haeseleer explored the correlation between body mass
index (BMI) and speaking fundamental frequency (SFF) in pre- and postmenopausal
women. 105 women were divided into 3 groups: 41 premenopausal women; 26
postmenopausal women without HT; and 38 postmenopausal women with HT. Mean
SFF was measured, and correlation coefficients were calculated using partial correlation
between BMI and SFF.207 Results showed no correlation between BMI and SFF in the
premenopausal women and postmenopausal women with HT; there was, however, a
positive correlation found in the postmenopausal women without HT. There was an
increased SFF associated with increased BMI, perhaps due to a higher estrogen
production in the adipose tissue of the women with a higher BMI.208
205 Evelien D’haeseleer, Herman Depypere, Sofie Claeys, Nele Baudonck, and Kristiane M. Van Lierde.
“The Impact of Hormone Therapy on Vocal Quality in Postmenopausal Women.” Journal of Voice, Vol. 26,
no. 5 (2012): 671-e4.
206
Evelien D’haeseleer, Herman Depypere, Sofie Claeys, Floris L. Wuyts, Nele Baudonck, and Kristiane M.
Van Lierde. “Vocal Characteristics of Middle-Aged Premenopausal Women.” Journal of Voice, Vol. 25, no.
3 (May 2011) http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0892199709002057 (accessed October
29, 2011).
207
Evelien D’haeseleer, Herman Depypere, Sofie Claeys, and Kristiane M. Van Lierde. “The relation
between body mass index and speaking fundamental frequency and postmenopausal women.”
Menopause: The Journal of the North American Menopause Society, Vol. 18, No. 7 (July 2011): 756.
208
Ibid, 757.
73
P. Lindholm studied the effect of postmenopause and postmenopausal hormone
replacement therapy (HRT) on measured voice values and vocal symptoms in 1997.
Lindholm gathered 42 women and divided them into three groups: 13 women with no
HRT; 14 women without a uterus on estrogen-only HRT; and 15 women with an intact
uterus receiving an estrogen-progestin hormone replacement. None of the women were
professional voice users. Fundamental frequency and sound pressure level of sustained
phonation and speaking voice samples, as well as subjective vocal symptoms, were
measured before and after one year of treatment. Voice sample recordings were made of
the women reading a text, speaking spontaneously, prolonged phonation of the vowel [a],
and repetition of the word [paapa] at normal, loud and quiet volumes. The results
showed a pronounced decrease in the mean fundamental frequency and sound pressure
level of postmenopausal women with no HRT in both spontaneous speech and reading
samples. Fundamental frequency levels were also lower in both groups of women on
HRT during spontaneous speech. There was also a significant decrease in SPL in the
estrogen-only group during normal phonation and in the estrogen-progestin group during
normal phonation and the text reading.209
In her article on voice impairment and menopause, Berit Schneider sought to
prove that voice impairment was symptom of menopause. 107 women answered her
questionnaire on voice changes and vocal discomfort; Schneider also conducted an
otolaryngological examination, a videolarygoscopy, a perceptual voice evaluation, and a
voice range measurement on 24 of the women. Results were that 49 of the women felt
209
P. Lindholm, E. Vilkman, T. Raudakoski, E. Suvanto-Luukkonen, and A. Kauppila. “The effect of
postmenopause and postmenopausal HRT on measured voice values and vocal symptoms.” Maturitas:
Journal of the Climacteric & Postmenopause, Vol. 28, no. 1 (September 1997) 52.
74
they were experiencing vocal changes and 58 women had neither vocal changes nor
discomfort; of the 49 women with vocal changes, 35 experienced discomfort. Also, the
median fundamental frequency of habitual speaking was lower than that of young
women. Viscous mucus was also reported, a symptom of estrogen depletion;
additionally, roughness, hoarseness, and reduced range occurred.210
Eliséa Maria Meurer et al. conducted two studies concerning the phono-
articulatory variations and suprasegmental speech parameters of women of a reproductive
age and postmenopausal women in 2004. Suprasegmental aspects of speech include
stress, tone, intonation, and duration within the syllable. The results of her study on
phono-articulatory variations showed a slowing down of verbal diadochokinesis, the
fundamental frequency, vocal sustenance, and formant variations in postmenopausal
women.211 In her article on female suprasegmental speech parameters, Meurer found that
the postmenopausal group pause pattern during speech was longer, speed of the speech
was slower, less vocal stability, and vocal deepening without the reduction of the upper
register.212
The study of J. Mendes-Laureano et al. compared the fundamental frequency of
menopausal women and women at menacme. 45 women were divided into three groups:
women between the ages 20-40 not taking OCPs; women aged 45-60 taking HRT; and
210
Berit Schneider, Michael van Trotsenburg, Gunda Hanke, Wolfgang Bigenzahn, and Johannes Huber.
“Voice Impairment and Menopause.” Menopause: The Journal of The North American Menopause Society,
Vol. 11, No. 2 (2004):156.
211
Eliséa Maria Meurer, Maria Celeste Osório Wender, Helena von Eye Corleta, and Edison Capp. “Phono-
Articulatory Variations of Women in Reproductive Age and Postmenopausal.” Journal of Voice, Vol. 18,
No. 3 (2004): 373.
212
Eliséa Maria Meurer, Maria Celeste Osório Wender, Helena von Eye Corleta, and Edison Capp.
“Female suprasegmental speech parameters in reproductive age and postmenopause.” Mauritas, Vol. 48,
No. 1 (2004) 71.
75
women aged 45-60 not taking HRT. The fundamental frequencies for the sustained
vowels [e] and [i] were analyzed; surprisingly, there were no significant differences in the
speaking voice of the three groups.213
Monique J. Boulet and Björn J. Oddens investigated female voice changes during
and after menopause using 48 female singers and 24 male singers (as a control group).
They wanted to know whether the voice changes experienced in the fifth decade by
women were similar to those of men. Participants completed questionnaires; the results
being that the majority of women and men believed their voices changed. Huskiness,
loss of high notes, change in timbre, vocal instability, and less supple cords were among
the changes reported; these changes were more frequently noted among the female
participants. Issues with voice emission, voice control, and ease in the upper registers
were more prevalent among women than men.214
Jean Abitbol et al. believed vocal changes occurred due to the extreme hormonal
changes that happen during menopause. The dominance of androgen after menopause
affects the vocal muscles, and causes mucosal atrophy. Glandular cells in the mucosa
become rarified (thin), reducing hydration in the cords, which can lead to vocal fatigue
and dysphonia.215 Abitbol studied 100 women suffering from what he called ‘the vocal
213
J. Mendes-Laureano, M.F.S. Sá, R.A. Ferriani, R.M. Reis, L.N. Aguiar-Ricz, F.C.P. Valera, D.S. Küpper, and
G.S. Romão. “Comparison of fundamental voice frequency between menopausal women and women at
menacme.” Mauritas, Vol. 55, No. 2 (2006): 198.
214
Monica J. Boulet, Monica J., Björn Oddens. “Female voice changes around and after the menopause –
an initial investigation.” International Health Foundation (September 1995)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0378512295009477 (accessed October 29, 2011).
215
October 25, 2011).
76
syndrome of menopause.’ 216
Participants underwent laryngeal assessment, which
included laryngeal imaging, stroboscopy, and spectography; hormonal assessment,
laryngeal and cervical smears were also collected. Of the 100, 83 women did not
complain of experiencing vocal problems. Despite this, Abitbol saw loss of speed on
staccato notes, loss of notes on either end of the vocal range, and loss of formants in the
upper range. The vocal folds lost suppleness, thinner mucosa, and reduced vibratory
amplitude.217 In the 17 women who did suffer from vocal issues, Abitbol found unilateral
muscular atrophy in 8 of the women, and bilateral muscular atrophy in 9 of the women,
and thinning vocal fold mucosa with a reduction of amplitude during phonation and
asymmetry between the right and left vocal folds. Other notable findings: Abitbol also
noted that laryngeal mucosa lost its pearly white appearance, becoming dull; that there
was decreased motion in the cricoarytenoid joints after the age of 65; and weak
electrolaryngogram readings, which suggests reduced vocal fold resistance.
Menopause Treatments
As daunting as the information on the effects of menopause on the voice seems, it
is not a hopeless situation. There are many solutions to keep the peri- or postmenopausal
woman singing. First, there is hormone replacement therapy (HRT); in the mid to late
1990s, over a third of women between the ages of 50 and 79 were on HRT, which was
prescribed on a short-term basis to treat hot flashes, night sweats, urinary incontinence,
vaginal dryness and irritability. It is also prescribed to prevent osteoporosis,
216
Ibid.
217
October 25, 2011).
77
cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and to decrease the risk of colorectal cancer.
For voice professionals, HRT with estrogen only or estrogen with a low dose of
progesterone are preferred. HRT with estrogen and progesterone combined with an
anabolic steroid or HRT with estrogen and an androgen-derived progestogen will cause
voice virilization.218
HRT is not without risks, however. In 1991, The Women’s Health Initiative
(WHI) was instituted by the US National Institutes of Health as a large randomized
clinical trial to address major health issues, disease, and death in postmenopausal women.
Specifically, coronary artery disease, cancer, and osteoporosis were targeted, as they are
the leading cause of death and morbidity in older women. The clinical trial was divided
into three groups: hormone replacement therapy, dietary modification, calcium/vitamin D
supplementation. Over 27,000 women between the ages of 50-79 participated in the
hormone replacement trial to determine if long term HRT reduced coronary disease and
bone fractures without increasing the risk of breast cancer. The estrogen-progestin
portion of the HRT was halted in 2002 when it was discovered that women taking the
estrogen-progestin pill had an increased risk of breast cancer, heart attack, stroke and
blood clots in the lungs. These risks outweighed the benefits of fewer hip fractures, a
decrease in total cholesterol, and lower incidence of colon cancer.219 The fallout from the
results from the Women’s Health Initiative was the number of women in HRT dropped
218
Voice, Vol. 21, no. 6, (2007), http://search.proquest.com/docview/1411887?accountid=14270 (accessed
October 25, 2011).
219
Cleveland Clinic. “Diseases and Conditions: The Women’s Health Inititative.”
http://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases_conditions/hic-what-is-perimenopause-menopause-
postmenopause/hic_The_Womens_Health_Initiative, (accessed February, 27, 2015).
78
220
drastically; by 2009, the HRT usage reduced by 70%. New methods of administering
hormone therapy, such as lower-dosage and transdermal patches, increased significantly
during this time. The results of the dietary modification and vitamin supplementation
portions of the clinical trial showed no significant reduction in the risk of coronary heart
disease, cancer, or stroke, although the dietary modification trial showed decreased blood
lipids and diastolic blood pressure and the vitamin supplement portion of the trial showed
an improvement in hip bone density as well as an increase in the incidence in kidney
stones.221
Bioidentical hormone replacement therapy (BHRT) came to the forefront of HRT
due to the unfavorable findings of the WHI. Bioidentical hormones are hormones that
are identical in structure and function to the hormones that occur naturally in the body; 222
they are considered a safer alternative in the treatment of menopause symptoms.
Bioidentical hormones differ from conventional HR in molecular structure, metabolism,
and receptor affinity.223 BHRT are produced in a laboratory and derived from molecules
found in soy and wild yam; they are not the same as the over-the-counter products sold in
stores. The human body is unable to convert the plant molecules into hormone molecules
that resemble the endogenous hormones due to a lack of the proper enzymes. The plant
products in their natural form are not hormonally active, although they affect hormone
220 Bruce Ettinger, Sharon M. Wang, R. Scott Leslie, Bimal V. Patel, Michael J. Boulware, Mark E. Mann,
and Michael McBride. “Evolution of postmenopausal hormone therapy between 2002 and 2009.”
Menopause: The Journal of the North American Menopause Society, Vol. 19, No. 6 (2012): 612.
221
World Health Initiative. “The Women’s Health Initiative Trial of the Effect of Calcium Plus Vitamin D
Supplementation on Risk of Fractures and Colorectal Cancer.”
https://www.whi.org/participants/findings/Pages/cad_fracture.aspx (Accessed March 3, 2015).
222
Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine, S.v. “Bioidentical hormone replacement therapy.” By Diana
Quinn: 248.
223
Ibid.
79
levels. Bioidentical hormones are also not the same as the plant based products produced
by pharmaceutical companies; those products are natural compounds converted into
synthetic form for patenting purposes. They metabolize and act differently in the body
than endogenous hormones.224
The advantages of BHRT include minimal side effects, reduced breast cancer risk,
and improved cardiovascular protection; there is no evidence at this time, however, of
reduced risk of blood clots, heart attack, breast cancer, or gall bladder disease with
BHRT.225 BHRT can be administered in capsules, sublingual pellets, or transdermal
applications. Prescriptions can be individually tailored to the needs of each woman, a
process known as ‘compounding’. Compounded drugs are difficult to regulate, however;
they can be unsafe and contaminated, with ingredients that are sub-par and not approved
by the FDA. More research needs to be done to determine the efficacy and risks of these
products.
Administration methods of conventional HRT include pills, patches, sprays, gels,
vaginal creams, slow-release suppositories, and vaginal rings. Another side effect of
HRT to be considered is the continuation of the one’s menstrual cycle on some forms of
HRT. Methods of HRT where estrogen is not taken every day, or progesterone is taken
intermittently, result in bleeding similar to a light period.
The effects of menopause can also be minimized through diet, exercise, vitamins,
and a healthy lifestyle that includes not smoking and limiting alcohol intake.
224
Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine, S.v. “Bioidentical hormone replacement therapy.” By Diana
Quinn: 248.
225
Penelope M. Bosarge and Sarah Freeman. “Bioidentical Hormones, Compounding, and Evidence-Based
Medicine: What Women’s Health Practitioners Need to Know.” The Journal for Nurse Practitioners, Vol. 5,
No. 6 (2009): 424.
80
Phytoestrogens and botanical supplements have also been used to treat menopause
symptoms. Phytoestrogens, also known as “dietary estrogens,” are naturally occurring,
non-steroidal plant compounds that have estrogen-like effects. There are three primary
classes of phytoestrogens: isoflavones, lignans, and coumestans.226 Isoflavones can be
found in soybeans, soy products, legumes, yams, apples, and red clover. Lignans are
found in flax seed. Lignans are metabolized by intestinal microflora and converted into
hormone-like compound; isoflavones are hydrolyzed by the intestinal bacteria and
metabolized in the liver and intestines.227 Herbal products such as black cohosh, dong
quai, hops, wild yam, evening primrose, St. Johns’s wart, and ginkgo are also often used
to treat menopause symptoms. There is no conclusive evidence that at this time that these
alterative remedies reduce or alleviate the symptoms of menopause. In fact, black cohosh
has been shown to cause liver toxicity.228 Additionally, phytoestrogens have been shown
to have positive effects on diabetes and heart disease.229
226
Francesca Borrelli, Edzard Ernst. “Alternative and complementary therapies for the menopause.”
Maturitas, Vol. 66, No. 4 (August 2010), 334.
227
Ibid.
228
Depypere, Herman T. and Frank H. Comhaire. :Herbal preparations for the menopause: Beyond
isoflavones and black cohosh.” Maturitas, Vol 77, No. 2 (February 20140, pp. 191-194.
229
D. Garfield Davies and Anthony F. Jahn. Care of the Professional Voice: A Guide to Voice Management
for Singers, Actors and Professional Voice Users, 2nd ed. (New York: Rutledge, Inc., 2005), 18.
81
CHAPTER 6: HORMONES AND THE FEMALE VOICE SURVEY
The survey, “Hormones and the Female Voice,” was conducted in January 2014
on SurveyMonkey.com. Permission was obtained from the Institutional Review Board
(IRB) of Temple University in Philadelphia, PA to conduct a survey online. 249
participants were recruited through social media; informed consent was obtained online.
The survey consisted of 30 questions regarding: background information; PMVS; use of
OCPs; pregnancy; and menopause. Within each section, room was left for participants to
make additional comments. A copy of the survey can be found in Appendix C at the end
of this monograph; a copy of the Protocol sent to the IRB can be found in Appendix E.
Due to unforeseen circumstances, the bulk of the participants were recruited from
the social media site, Facebook. Recruitment from this site lowered the average age of
the anticipated and desired respondents, although the responses and comments were
invaluable and enlightening. A survey of perimenopausal and postmenopausal women is
an area for future expanded research.
Survey Results
Background Information
The section on background information consisted of seven questions: age; voice
type; detailed description of their voice type; whether singing was a profession or
avocation; years of formal study; whether they had ever suffered from PMS, and whether
or not they smoked.
 Age:
 22.50% between the ages of 18 and 25

82
 1.25% over the age of 65
 Voice Type:
 65.69% were sopranos
 27.62% were mezzo-sopranos
 3.77% were altos
 2.93% were contraltos
 72.34% said singing was a profession; 27.66% said it was an
avocation.
 Years of study:
 2.10%: No years of study
 1.26%: Less than a year of study
 4.62%: 1-2 years of study
 49.58%: More than 10 years of study
 74.47% suffered from PMS.
 96.23% were non-smokers.
PMVS
The section on Premenstrual Vocal Syndrome consisted of four questions:
whether or not the women suffered from PMVS; the severity of their symptoms; whether
83
or not their symptoms varied from month to month; and whether their symptoms caused
them to deviate from their singing and practice schedules.
Figure 6.1: Percentage of Women Suffering from PMVS by Voice Type
 62.34% of women suffered from PMVS
 28.37% said their symptoms were slight
 55.32% said their symptoms were moderate
 13.48% said their symptoms were severe
 2.84% said their symptoms were debilitating
 85.92% said their symptoms varied in severity from month to
month.
84
 74.47% said their symptoms caused them to deviate from their
practice schedules.
OCPs
The section on OCPs consisted of three questions: whether or not the women ever
used OCPs; if they were using them for reasons other than contraception; and were their
voices hindered or helped by OCPs. The last question was more than a yes or no
question; the women were asked to explain the effects of OCPs on their voices.
 Of the 71.75% women that used oral contraceptive pills, 41.25%
used them for reasons other than contraception.
Pregnancy
The section on pregnancy consisted of six questions: whether they had given
birth; if the pregnancy had affected their voices; how the pregnancy had affected their
voices; if their voice returned to normal after they gave birth; how long it took their
voices to return to ‘normal’; and if their voices were affected in the same manner if they
had more than one pregnancy.
 Of the 26.82% women who had given birth, 73.33% said their
voice was affected
 Checking all symptoms that applied, women said their voices
were affected in the following ways:
o Range: 29.55%
o Timbre: 52.27%
o Breathing: 93.18%
o Endurance: 56.82%
85
Figure 6.2: The Effects of Pregnancy on Women’s Voices
 77.78% of women who gave birth said their voices returned to
normal after pregnancy:
 1 month: 30.56%
 2-3 months: 19.44%
 3-6 months: 13.89%
 6 months to a year: 27.78%
 Longer than a year: 8.33%
 48.65% of the women who had more than one pregnancy said their
voices were affected in the same manner each time.

86
Menopause
The section on menopause consisted of ten questions: whether they had
gone or were currently going through menopause; were they suffering from
‘classic’ menopause symptoms; was their menopause naturally occurring; was
their menopause brought on by a surgical procedure; were they currently
perimenopausal; was their voice affected by menopause or perimenopause;
the severity of their symptoms; what their symptoms were; did their physical
symptoms correlate with their vocal symptoms as far as severity; and how did
they choose to treat their symptoms.
 Of the 21.82% of the women surveyed said they had gone through
menopause.
 58.70% of the women who had gone through menopause or were
going through perimenopause said their voices were affected.
 Checking all that applied, the women were affected in the
following ways:
o Hot flashes: 63.83%
o Weight gain: 36.17%
o Sleep disorders/Insomnia: 51.06%
o Night sweats: 61.70%
o Fatigue: 51.06%
o Mood swings: 46.81%
o Memory loss: 44.68%
o Decreased libido: 42.55%

87
o Vaginal dryness/Atrophy: 42.55%
 87.50% said their menopause was naturally occurring.
 39.58% said they were currently perimenopausal.
 Of the 58.70% that said their voices were affected:
 48.15% said their symptoms were slight
 40.74% said their symptoms were moderate
 11.11% said their symptoms were severe
Figure 6.3: Vocal Issues Caused by Peri-Menopause or Menopause
 34.09% of women said their physical symptoms correlated with
their vocal symptoms as far as severity.

88
 When asked how they were dealing with their symptoms:
Figure 6.4: Treatment of Menopause Symptoms
Survey Comments
In addition to the thirty questions, the survey left room for the participants to
elaborate on their symptoms and experiences. The comments of the participants were
insightful and sometimes unexpected, causing to me rethink and refocus my research,
particularly the comments in the OCP, pregnancy and menopause sections. I have
included some of the more interesting comments in this chapter; all of the responses can
be found in Appendix D at the end of this monograph.

89
PMVS
Question 10 in the PMVS section allowed for additional comments regarding their
symptoms; 65 women women explained in more detail. A few of these comments are
listed below:
I find that I additionally have difficulty with intonation on the day before
the start of my menstrual cycle and on the two days following.
I actually sing my very best just before my period starts! Once it begins,
my voice is thick and sluggish.
Absolutely cannot sing while menstruating! If I attempt it, I cannot sing

for an entire month. Cords swell horribly.
Ineffectual warm-ups, increased mucous on vocal folds, occasional cold

symptoms (headache, runny nose, sore/dry throat).
Vocal fatigue can be an issue and my ranges shift, so transitioning

between them becomes much harder.
Question 13 asked the women whether their PMVS symptoms caused them to deviate
from their singing and practice schedule; 40 women commented:
Could not trust myself to perform.
Had to schedule gigs carefully.
I was trained the show must go on when it comes to PMS.
It feels useless and disheartening to practice during those times because it

feels like I’m getting worse instead of improving my technique. Voice
lessons are also a nightmare because we work on problems that aren’t
normally present.
90
OCPs
Question 16 asked if usage of OCPs hindered or helped their singing; 92 women
commented. Some of their comments are included below:
I took them way back when we first got them (1967-69). Lots more
estrogen in them at that time. The very top notes (e and f above high c)
pretty much disappeared until a few months after I discontinued their use.
Without OCPs to control issues with my period, I doubt a life as a singer

would have been possible for me.
Hindered, but truly discovered that only after getting off of them. My
voice was apparently a little lowered the entire time I was on them.
Hindered massively! Lost a lot of vocal clarity. I found the voice much
harder to control. It was one of the reasons I stopped taking them.
Depended on variety. One type slightly diminished range at the top of the
voice. Others had no noticeable effect, but were advantageous in reducing
PMS interference with performances.
My initial research had led me to conclude that OCPs were largely beneficial to
the voice. After looking through the responses from the survey as well as speaking to
women at the 53rd NATS convention in Boston where I presented a poster paper on
hormones and the female voice, however, I was compelled to dig deeper to find the
correlation between OCP usage and mood deterioration.
Pregnancy
Question 22 asked women who had had more than one pregnancy if their voices were
affected in the same manner each time; 21 women commented. Several of their
comments are listed here:
The quality of the voice was affected in that I had a 'darker colour'
throughout my pregnancies. this colour never left ... and became my 'new
91
normal' my singing process was affected by both pregnancies in that
breathing was immensely difficult and never felt secure.
Great colors came into my voice and stayed after the pregnancies.
I found that being pregnant was WONDERFUL for singing. Was not a
negative change, but a positive one. Found I was able to connect to my
breath even better. Sang throughout both pregnancies very comfortably.
Affected for good! Singing was often easier and tone was better. My
guess is the hormones of pregnancy affected the voice differently from the
hormones of birth control pills.
I had severe reflux with both pregnancies so I couldn’t really sing at all
past 4 months. I was so sleep deprived when the babies came, it’s hard to
tell how my vocal recovery really went.
The findings of the data on pregnancy compiled for this monograph indicated that
changes occur to the voice during pregnancy. The majority of the comments in the
pregnancy section of the survey, however, expressed that pregnancy had a positive effect
on the timbre and breath support of the voice.
Menopause
After question 30, room was left for women to make additional comments on their
menopause symptoms; 12 women commented. I have included some of the comments
below:
I was on hormone replacement therapy until my 70's. I am now 81 and still

have my singing voice
I had more issues during perimenopause than after complete menopause.

My range has now returned, and my breath support is much improved. I
am not using any hormone replacement.
Bel canto low notes seem a little light; mixing the voice seems easier;
onset takes a tad more concentration. Overall, singing is still quite good
and very minimally changed.
92
I am currently taking Premarin and it has resolved my vocal issues,
although the loss of stamina in the high range is permanent. Once the
epithelium thickens from the loss of estrogen, those notes are gone for
good. The use of Premarin is helping me to maintain my current range.
My voice is consistently better! However, it takes longer to warm-up the

voice and I have to vocalize on a daily basis or I do have intonation,
passaggio, flexibility, agility issues. 20 minutes of basic warm-ups and 20
minutes of vocalizes before singing rep. It seems that when I take Nordic
Omega 3 fish oils the hot flashes and physical issues subside and come
back if I stop taking it.
The responses in this section were surprisingly positive. One aspect of HRT that I
left out of the survey was bioidentical HRTs. At the time the survey was conducted, I did
not yet know about them; they were brought to my attention during my poster
presentation at the NATS Convention by women who were taking them and highly
recommended them.
93
CHAPTER 7: SUMMARY
So what is the answer, you may ask? When I set about writing this monograph, I
was searching for “the answer;” that one clear cut, obvious way to deal with hormonal
fluctuations. As I delved further into my research, I began to wonder whether there were
any answers at all. As I neared the completion of this monograph, however, I realized
that there are many answers. There are many answers because every woman is different.
Anatomically and physiologically, we are the same; but how each of us reacts to outside
forces and the hormonal forces within is different. Each woman who suffers through
PMS and PMVS does so in her own way; every woman’s journey through pregnancy and
menopause is as individual as they are. Not only that, but as we age, each woman’s
symptoms and cycles can morph and evolve.
The study of hormones and their effects is an important one and much great work
has been done to bring attention to this issue. But it is only the beginning; there needs to
be further study. There are many teachers and students who already know a great deal
about this subject, but there are even more who know little to nothing at all.
What would additional studies look like? They would be large, longitudinal
studies conducted by qualified medical and vocal professionals would closely monitor the
respiratory, acoustic, and aerodynamic changes that occur in professional voice users
during the significant hormonal events in their lives. Blood samples would be taken
periodically to track the fluctuating hormone levels. The participants would keep
journals to document their practice sessions and vocal changes. The research team would
interview the participants frequently, and there would be an open line of communication
94
where questions could be freely asked and answers found. The current treatment
methods are good, but there is room for improvement. Information on how to deal with
hormonal issues needs to be readily available to students and teachers. Suggested reading
for young singers should include data regarding the effects of hormones on the voice and
vocal hygiene. One of the goals of this monograph was to compile the data from
previous studies into one document, making it easier for the information to be
disseminated. Hopefully, my efforts will help other women (and men) by putting a large
body of information into one publication. It is my sincere wish to make the process of
learning about the effects of hormones on the voice easier and less stressful for others.
There has been invaluable research done by such respected researchers as Jean Abitbol,
Filipa Lã, Ofer Amir, Evelien D’Haeseleer, and so many others. Their research has made
invaluable contributions to the field, bringing awareness and acceptance to the subject.
The effect of hormones on the voice is a legitimate medical and pedagogical issue, and
should be treated as such. Now that the door has been opened by these esteemed
scientists, hopefully the future studies and clinical trials can bring even more clarity to
the effects of hormones on the female voice.
The data obtained from the survey done for this monograph yielded some
surprising results, and serve to reinforce the argument for necessary further research. The
number of women whose voices are affected by hormonal fluctuations—whether through
PMVS, OCP use, pregnancy, or menopause—is staggering. It is shocking to realize that
almost 75% of women have to deviate from their normal practice and performance
schedules to accommodate the symptoms of PMVS. The results in the oral contraceptive
section differ from much of the existing research in that a large number of the women
95
who used OCPs stopped using them because of the adverse effects on their voices, mood,
and health. The results in the pregnancy section of the survey were in agreement with the
research I compiled; the majority of women’s voices changed for the better—fuller,
darker timbre and more grounded breath management—during pregnancy and after.
Even with the small number of respondents in the menopause section, the commentary
was encouraging; the majority of women were still singing, even if some had to change
their repertoire.
I have learned a great deal researching hormonal changes for this paper. It is
possible that I will not be affected by the myriad of symptoms. It is reassuring to know,
however, if I do fall prey to the debilitating elements of perimenopause and menopause, I
now have the knowledge and information to make the best choices for me and my voice.
96
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APPENDIX A: IMAGES OF THE LARYNX
Intrinsic Muscles of the Larynx
©2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. www.netterimages.com

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The Larynx

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Cervical Vertibrae in Relation to the Larynx

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APPENDIX B: GLOSSARY
Alveoli: the tiny sac-like clusters or sacs through which respiratory gases are exchanged
with pulmonary capillaries.
Calciotropic: calciotropic hormones are hormones that play a major role in bone growth
and remodeling.
Closed quotient: percentage of the glottal cycle in which airflow is prevented by the vocal
folds.
Collision threshold pressure: the lowest pressure producing vocal fold contact.
Corpus luteum: a temporary endocrine structure which develops during each menstrual
cycle; forming immediately after ovulation. During the follicular phase of the menstrual
cycle, the FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) brings about the development of follicles,
only one of which reaches maturity. The mature follicle ruptures, and the ovum is
propelled through the fallopian tube to the uterus. What is left of the follicle becomes the
corpus luteum.
DQx: the first order distribution of closed quotient.
Edema: swelling caused by fluid in the tissues.
Fundamental frequency: Fundamental frequency of the voice is designated as Fₒ and is

defined as the frequency of oscillation and is measured in hertz, or Hz. Fₒ denotes the
fundamental frequency, the number of cycles of vibration by the vocal folds per second.
Fundamental frequency tremor index: the average ratio of the frequency magnitude of the
most intense low-frequency-modulating component to the total frequency magnitude of
the signal.
Hydrolyzed: the chemical process of decomposition.
Hyposecretion: diminished secretion.
Jitter: variations in frequency between successive vibratory cycles, which causes a rough
sound. Can also be known as perturbation.
Mastalgia: pain in the breast.
Maximum phonation time: the longest amount of time one can sustain a pitch; a
measurement of respiratory and sound control.
Menacme: the period or time in a woman’s life during which menstruation occurs.
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Normalized amplitude quotient (NAQ): the ratio between peak-to-peak amplitude and the
product of period time and the negative peak of the differentiated flow glottogram, giving
a determination of adduction and abduction of the vocal folds.
Ossification: the process through which cartilage turns into bone.
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID): is an infection of the female reproductive organs, i.e.,
uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries, and can refer to viral, fungal, parasitic, and bacterial
infections. PID is one of the leading causes of infertility in women, and a serious
complication of sexually transmitted diseases.
Phonation quotient (PQ): the ratio of vital capacity to maximal phonation time.
Phonation collision pressure: the lowest pressure producing vocal fold vibration.
Reinke’s space: Reinke’s space is the loose layer of lubricant tissue that allows the
overlying vocal fold epithelium to slide freely during production of the mucosal wave.
Residual volume: the amount of air left in the lungs after a maximum exhalation.
SSRI: block receptors in the brain that absorb serotonin. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter
which transmits nerve impulses across a synapse, and affects the gastrointestinal tract,
pain perception, and mood.
Signed deviation from pure octave (SgD): calculated in semitones, and it represents how
sharp or flat the octave was as compared to the frequency ratio 2:1.
Shimmer: variations in amplitude between successive vibratory cycles.
Soft phonation index (SPI): tracks changes in vocal fold adduction; it is an evaluation of
the weakness of the high-frequency harmonic components that can indicate loosely
adducted vocal folds during phonation.
Vital capacity: the largest volume of air that can be expired from the lungs after
maximum inspiration.
Verbal diadochokinesis: the rapid repetition of alternating phonetic sounds in a row.
Voice onset time (VOT): is defined as the time that elapsed between the plosive release
and the onset of vocal fold vibration.
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APPENDIX C: THE SURVEY QUESTIONS
SURVEY
Age: 15-25 □ 25-35 □ 35-45 □ 45-55 □ 55-65 □ 65 and over □
Voice type: Soprano □ Mezzo-Soprano □ Contralto □
Is singing a profession for you □, or an avocation □?
Years of formal vocal study: 0 □ less than 1 □ 1-2 □ 3-5 □ 5-10 □ more than 10 □
Have you suffered from Premenstrual Syndrome? Yes □ No □
Do you smoke? Yes □ No □
PMVS
Has your voice been affected by Premenstrual Vocal Syndrome, i.e. edema, vocal fatigue,
decreased range? Yes □ No □
If there are any additional symptoms, please list:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
If yes, how would you rate your symptoms? Moderate □ Severe □ Debilitating □
Did the severity of the symptoms vary from month to month? Yes □ No □
Did your symptoms cause you to deviate from your singing schedule? Yes □ No □
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OCPS
Have you ever used oral contraceptives (OCPs)? Yes □ No □
If yes, did you use OCPs for reasons other than contraception? Yes □ No □
If yes, did you find the usage of OCPs hindered or helped your singing? Please explain:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
PREGNANCY
Have you ever given birth? Yes □ No □
If yes, did you find that pregnancy affected your voice? Yes □ No□
If yes, how did it affect your voice (check all that apply):
Range □
Timbre □
Breathing □
Endurance □
If your voice was affected, did it return to normal after the pregnancy? Yes □ No □
If yes, how long did it take for your voice to return to normal? 1 Month □ 2-3 Months □
3-6 Months □ 6 Months-1 year □ Longer than a year □

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If you had more than one pregnancy, did you find that your voice was affected the in the
same manner each time? Yes □ No □
Additional comments
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
MENOPAUSE
Have you gone through menopause? Yes □ No □
If yes, did you suffer from the ‘classic’ symptoms of menopause?:
Hot flashes □
Weight gain□
Sleep disorders/Insomnia □
Night Sweats □
Fatigue □
Mood Swings □
Memory Loss □
Decreased Libido □
Vaginal Atrophy/Dryness □
Was your menopause naturally occurring? Yes □ No □

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If no, was menopause brought on by a surgical procedure, such as chemotherapy,
hormone therapy for breast cancer, ovary removal surgery? Yes □ No □
Additional comments
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Are your currently in perimenopause, i.e. the transitional period before the cessation of
the production of estrogen and progesterone? Yes □ No □
Has perimenopause and/or menopause affected your voice? Yes □ No □
If yes, how would you rate your symptoms? Moderate □ Severe □ Debilitating □
Have you experienced the following symptoms (check all that apply):
Reduced range □
Reduced flexibility □
Vocal fatigue □
Dysphonia (impaired ability to produce sound) □
Dryness □
Intonation problems □
Edema □
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Have your physical symptoms of menopause correlated with the vocal symptoms as far
as severity? Yes □ No □
Additional comments
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
How have you chosen to treat or deal with the symptoms (check all that apply):
Nothing at all □
Treatment of the symptoms, i.e. topical creams□
Hormone Replacement Therapy□
Phytoestrogens (Dietary estrogens, naturally occurring, non-steroidal plant
compounds that have estrogen-like effects.) □
Diet □
Exercise □
Vitamin Supplements □
Healthy habits, such as not smoking □

118
APPENDIX D: PARTICIPANTS’ COMMENTS FROM THE SURVEY
(Typos in the responses were corrected by the author.)
Q10: Has your voice ever been affected by Premenstrual Vocal Syndrome?
1. My lower register became so strong that it destroyed a normally

smooth register transition.
2. I find that I additionally have difficulty with intonation on the day

before the start of my menstrual cycle and on the two days following.
3. Just fatigue when PMS'ing periodically but not always.
4. It seems like there is a thickening of the cords resulting in difficulty

singing at the range extremes. Mid-range is fine, if not more
comfortable. It is very similar to a night of drinking or being fatigued.
5. My voice usually just feels thick. I guess my cords get a little

swollen. Runs are difficult and getting through the passaggio takes
more focus & concentration.
6. Absolutely cannot sing while menstruating! If I attempt it, I cannot

sing for an entire month. Cords swell horribly.
7. My voice teacher during my master's degree would always be able to

tell during a lesson if I was premenstrual because of slight swelling of
the vocal folds. Sometimes things didn't feel as easy as they did when
I wasn't premenstrual.
8. Overall my voice sounds dried out and very tired after very little
singing the week before my period.
9. "Thick" tone - mostly from edema.
10. Vocal Fatigue.
11. My register breaks are significantly worse also!
12. Edema, Fatigue… leading to difficulty accessing the upper voice.
13. Feeling of not enough air, shortness of breath.
14. Voice feels less flexible, more muscular... feels "weightier."
15. Not to my knowledge, anyway.

119
16. Vocal fatigue, not decreased range, but heaviness in sound.
17. I think. Actually I have extra high notes (crazy queen of the night
notes) in the few days leading up to my period. I find that I am more
vocally fragile days 1 and 2 of my cycle with perhaps a slightly thinner
sound those days.
18. But not adversely. I normally find that 2-3 days before my period my
voice is richer, fuller, and singing feels better. I can generally feel
support a lot more easily and I think this contributes, but I also notice
that my larynx stays a lot more relaxed and in general it's just easier to
sing.
19. Not that I ever noticed.
20. Sometimes I get hoarse right before my period.
21. Sometimes the timbre becomes richer.
22. Mainly, I notice that just before my period will start, vocally things are
really good. But the first day of the onset of menses my voice tends to
feel a bit fatigued with a slight sense of edema. Definitely not as
responsive. Not usually a big problem unless I oversing in that good
window just before my period starts, but it is always noticeable to me.
23. Swollen cords, difficulty with the onset of phonation’.
24. When ovulating my cords are swollen and do not handle the runs as
well. As soon as I get my period, they can move comfortably.
25. Swollen vocal folds.
26. Lack of control of the voice.
27. When I have my period, it’s harder to get my voice to warm up, and I
experience and increased amount of vocal fatigue!
28. Decreased upper range, increased lower range- thick vocal cords-
much larger vibrato- vocal fatigue, warmer vocal color- larger time
needed to warm up.
29. Sometimes voice feels "huskier" and more lethargic 2 to 3 days before
monthly cycle. Before having children, my cycle was very irregular. I
would often be able to tell when my cycle was approaching by the
vocal changes alone.
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30. I used to lose my lower range. Now, it tends to lose strength/power
and needs more warm -up time.
31. Quicker fatigue (potentially due to general fatigue of my entire body.)
32. I usually lower my expectations. Sometimes breathing is more

difficult, sometimes it's not.
33. Sore throat.
34. Felt thicker and heavier, coloratura passages much more challenging,
like pushing a truck up a hill.
35. Have also had many years of hormonal treatment during cycle/to
artificially regulate cycle due to ovarian cysts etc.
36. It's hard to sing with menstrual cramps, support doesn't feel as strong.
37. General fatigue affects vocal fatigue.
38. Ineffectual warm-ups, increased mucus on vocal folds, occasional cold

symptoms (headache, runny nose, sore/dry throat).
39. Trouble reaching my upper notes.
40. Thickening of cords, fatigue which leads to wheezy chest, headaches.
41. Rapid Vocal fatigue.
42. Lack of ring in the sound.
43. Sore throat.
44. Nausea, severe cramps, belt is much more limited.
45. Scratchy voice before period.
46. Slower reflex/warm up time, swollen vocal cords.
47. Sluggish cords, feels like there is something on my cords.
48. Thickening of the cords, takes a LONG time to warm-up.
49. I actually sing my very best just before my period starts! Once it
begins, my voice is thick and sluggish.
50. Hoarseness, lack of breath control due to cramping.

121
51. Dehydration, swelling of vocal folds with excessive water retention
due to period. Mood swings affecting ability to perform. Cramps
affecting diaphragm support.
52. I have a different disorder that takes far more precedence than does
PMS, if I was indeed experiencing PMS, I do not notice it, my other
disorder overshadows PMS symptoms.
53. Decreased agility.
54. Cracking in my lower range.
55. Tone not as clear and intonation sometimes an issue.
56. Edema, fatigue.
57. Voice was affected by edema during the 2-3 days prior to onset of
period.
58. Decreased range - tend to lose the highest pitches and the rest feels
heavier (edema I suppose).
59. I perceive hoarseness.
60. Difficulty singing long passages.
61. I have always been smart about taking it easy when cycling since my
doc told me the cords can more easily be damaged at that time. So I've
never had a problem. The most I've experienced is fatigue.
62. Vocal fatigue can be an issue and my ranges shift so transitioning

between them becomes much harder.
63. I find I get more mucous in my throat when I'm PMSing, which limits
my range. I also have quite a bit of trouble with breath control when
PMSing.
64. During the days leading up to my monthly cycle, I feel a lack of ability
to support the sound. In a sense, I feel there is no power and therefore,
very little ring. I have also experienced breathiness.
65. Vocal fatigue.
Q13: Did your symptoms cause you to deviate from your singing/practice schedule?
1. Could not trust myself to perform.

122
2. I try to avoid performances and competitions that coincide with the
three days of faulty intonation.
3. I was trained "the show must go on" when it comes to PMS.
4. Probably decided to not sing in a studio class or similar decision, when

option was available and repercussions (academic or professional)
were minimal.
5. It feels useless and disheartening to practice during these times

because it feels like I'm getting worse instead of improving my
technique. Voice lessons are also a nightmare because we work on
problems that aren't normally present.
6. Cramping prevents me from practicing, as it is very uncomfortable to

release my lower abdominals.
7. Less time practicing. Feelings of inadequacy and depression because

of loss of range and not feeling as capable.
8. More careful about fatigue on day 1 and 2 (especially 2) of cycle.
9. I would get really bad cramps too and it was very uncomfortable to
sing.
10. I would have to sing a little less, or warm up more to be sure I was in
good voice.
11. Just to be aware not to oversing prior to my period starting. Not being
judicious about my vocal load during the pre-menstrual phase leads to
increased negative symptoms at onset of menses.
12. Voice easily fatigued.
13. Vocal rest for 1-2 days.
14. Slight variations only e.g. reduced range covered in warm-up.
15. I definitely don't practice as much when I'm on my period, because it’s
exhausting and strains my voice for some reason.
16. I deviate from my practice schedule by spending more time during

warm-ups when my voice feels less flexible and focusing on gentler,
well-known pieces instead of working on new repertoire. I have never
changed a performance schedule, though.
123
17. I try to avoid auditions during my period because it is so unpredictable
how my voice will react. My cords seem to be the thickest during
days 1-5 (causing LARGE vibrato not normally there, decreased
range).
18. I find hydration INCREDIBLY important in helping negotiate any

changes.
19. I have had edema that affected range and legato.
20. Extra rest.
21. When possible, I take that day off from singing. That's not always
realistic though when I have my church soloist job, voice teaching, my
own lessons/coachings, and auditions/performances.
22. I took the pill to skip my period during audition and competition
months.
23. If my schedule allowed, I would not sing at all for a couple of days. If
not (eg in rehearsals or performance) I would mark or just push
through and hope for the best.
24. I used to feel the effects of hormones much more when I was younger
and as my technique has gotten better it seems to affect me less and
less.
25. Often these symptoms make my voice insecure and feel weaker at
various pitches.
26. Have to miss out on lessons/auditions since I can barely walk when on
my period.
27. The symptoms were more pronounced in my 30's and 40's than when I
was younger.
28. The day before and first few days of my period I try to avoid any
strenuous singing, and focus on vocalising instead of on repertoire.
29. Hormonal Birth Control makes it worse, in the days preceding my

period my whole body is so exhausted - to the point that I can't find the
energy to practice.
30. I have a special warm up for days of PMS, if I can avoid singing the
first day or two of my period, I do.
31. During PMS it takes a long time to warm up.

124
32. I try to schedule gigs so that I avoid when I'm actively menstruating. It
can't always be done, of course.
33. Also attitude change, negative emotions.
34. Some days it seemed better just to leave well enough alone, rather than
continue practicing.
35. Fatigue would cause me to become frustrated and practice less.

General feeling of being physically unable to carry the voice, usually
causing some depression and feelings of inadequacy.
36. When I was in Grad School, I could barely phonate around the time
right before I was menstruating. This changed when I had to sing my
grad Recital the first day of my cycle. However, I've always had
instances of slightly decreased range and flexibility around that time.
37. Had to schedule gigs carefully.
38. It was just smarter not to practice at that time, especially when my
cycle was very heavy. When it was very heavy was the only time I
had any issue with singing.
39. I usually don't do any serious or strenuous practice while PMSing or

on the first days of my period.
40. The extreme fatigue coupled with the emotional moments associated
with PMS would cause me to have little interest in producing good
work. When the product was less than stellar, it only made matters
worse.
Q16: Did you find the usage of OCPs hindered or helped your singing?
1. I took them way back when we first got them (1967-69). Lots more
estrogen in them at that time. The very top notes (e and f above high c)
pretty much disappeared until a few months after I discontinued their
use.
2. OCP helped. One of the reasons I used OCPs was because it resulted
in not having a period at all, which was a huge relief mainly for my
singing. I was always in control of all factors affecting my voice, (rest,
hydration, diet) and hormones were the only unpredictable factor, so
OCPs really helped in that matter.
3. Neither.
125
4. In my 'old age' (40s…post baby), I use OCPs to control PMS
symptoms. Depression, cramps, and heavy periods. With a 'big girl'
OCP, it makes most symptoms go away. My cords feel better, too.
5. My overall health suffered. So I stopped after a year. I didn't notice

much change in my voice though.
6. No noticeable difference, but I started using them early in my training.
7. No, but I didn't use them very long. I didn't like how they made me
feel. To be honest, it was long ago, I can't remember what I didn't like.
8. Hindered, but truly discovered that only after getting off of them. My
voice was apparently a little lowered the entire time I was on them.
9. Unsure of effect on voice, but secondary effect - lessening of cramps

and nausea allowed easier practicing while menstruating.
10. Helped--it wasn't until I went off of the pill that I started noticing a
difference in my voice prior to my period.
11. Hindered and went off it immediately.
12. Hindered. The progesterone bothered me.
13. More consistent, less dry.
14. Hindered! More emotional instability. OCPs kept me down!
15. Shortened range very slightly on top.
16. Helped. My cramps would be so bad I couldn't stand up straight let

alone breathe to sing.
17. Helped because it kept my hormones level.
18. I don't recall a difference, actually.
19. It has helped my singing.
20. No impact. Did not take them more than 4 months due to unwanted
side effects.
21. Not sure.
22. Neither. Did not affect my singing at all.
23. Stay regular.

126
24. I never noticed.
25. I helped a ton since I was on a monophasic pill, there was no huge
hormone difference day to day and the voice was more consistent. No
PMS and very short periods!!!
26. I don't remember.
27. Neither.
28. Didn't really notice a difference.
29. I did not take OCP's for an extended period of time as I did not tolerate
them well in some respects. At the time, I was unaware of them
having any impact vocally.
30. When I first began taking them, the surge of hormones affected my
voice negatively. Swollen cords. My body had to adjust.
31. Haven't noticed a change. But just started this month.
32. Ovarian cysts.
33. It helped in that it decreased PMS symptoms.
34. Helped alleviate some symptoms of PMS, including those that were
affecting my singing.
35. Hindered massively! Lost a lot of vocal clarity. I found the voice much
harder to control. It was one if the reasons I stopped taking them.
36. Depended on variety. One type slightly diminished range at top of

voice. Others had no noticeable effect, but were advantageous in
reducing PMS-interference with performances.
37. Hormonal imbalance, meta-menageorea (sp?)
38. Not sure yet, am on first month to try to regulate hormones for singing.
39. I have not felt any difference.
40. I have been taking oral contraceptives every day since I was 14 to
alleviate severe menstrual cramps therefore I cannot comment on what
my voice might have sounded like had I not ever taken them.
41. (I'm on birth control for extreme periods) and quite honestly I've been
using them all throughout college, except my first semester, and I've
had the most growth while on them.
127
42. It was too long ago to remember.
43. I believe taking OCPs for the past 7 years has actually made my vocal
color darker (almost similar to what would happen if I ever get
pregnant-- or have been told would happen). I love the color of my
voice so I do not see it as a hindrance.
44. I used the nuva ring for years and found no effect on my singing voice.
45. Was using same pill for 6 years and did not interfere with singing.
Switched to a different drug (for other reasons) and this caused me to
lose my upper notes. I had nothing above a high c. This hadn't been a
problem before.
46. I did not notice a difference in how it affected my voice. If anything, it

probably helped me.
47. Less effect from PMS.
48. I purposely went on the pill with lowest dosage of estrogen possible.
After having children, I didn't want to go back on.
49. Not sure. It's been a while.
50. I had zero vocal side effects.
51. Helped. My reaction to my period was lessened by my use of OCPs

(for over 20 years!) and when I went off them, I experienced
substantial edema before each period.
52. Helped in that they let me control when I have my period. But a very
low hormone dose is crucial to avoid cord swelling.
53. Hindered.
54. Helped by allowing me to skip my period and avoid affiliated

symptoms. Otherwise didn't notice any differences.
55. Helped to regulate cycle and therefore anemia, so positive effect on

overall health and energy levels. Minor reduction in upper range.
56. I had a very strong reaction to the first OCP I took - mood swings,
depression, rage, the full gamut, which certainly got in the way of my
singing (and indeed most aspects of my everyday life). When I
changed to a different OCP these problems disappeared. Aside from
the emotional/mood impact, I did not perceive any change in my
singing that could be attributed specifically to the OCP.
128
57. Helped - a more regulated cycle means I know which days of the
month I am likely to be vocally compromised by hormones.
58. Neither.
59. YES. Without OCPs to control issues with my period, I doubt a life as
a singer would have been possible for me.
60. I had a tuning issue for the 10 years I was on OCP's. Not sure if they
were to blame.
61. Hindered my singing. All of my high notes were nonexistent while I

was taking it. I probably lost over a half an octave including my high
D-Ab6.
62. Both helpful and hindered my singing. When using the pill, the pill
helped lessen the severity of the symptoms - esp. the 3 month pill
(Seasonique). However, my cycle tends to be irregular, so if my body
is trying to start my period early, I have a day of PMS symptoms but
take the pill which then delays the start of my period. Without the pill,
the early onset of PMS just meant a day or two of vocal issues and an
early period (PMS came and went quickly). On the pill, and early
onset of PMS means that I can have day after day after day of PMS
impacting my voice, but my period may not start for another 7 to 14
days and I will have vocal issues for until the pill schedule allows my
period to start.
63. Hindered- YAZ decreased my range and got off of it quickly.
64. I didn't notice much difference.
65. Neither. I was young and didn't use them long enough.
66. Used for contraception - but made the vocal swelling, fatigue (also
regular fatigue) and vocal response time much worse.
67. Controlled my cycle. Tricycled.
68. Well, I said no, but you should know that the use of OCP's during my
youth affected my primo passaggio, so I quit taking them and changed
to another method of contraception.
69. Neither.
70. OCPs gave me 4 cycles a year, so I did not have to deal with as many
129
71. I seem to have similar symptoms to my friends when they are pregnant
- voice seems darker and thicker.
73. Neither.
74. Dianette had no effect. Cileste and microgynon hindered hugely.
75. The OCPs hindered everything, and actually sent me to the ER. Never
mind my singing, it almost killed me!
76. They helped decrease the effects of PMS. I felt the effects of PMS
(including the way it affected my singing) as I was taking a break from
my medication.
77. I have always been fine whilst on contraceptives.
78. Have had no side-effects that I can point to affecting my singing
79. Caused migraines, hard to sing with migraines!
80. Neither.
81. I started taking them at the age of 16, right when I started singing. So,
I never noticed if they helped or hindered my progress.
82. I had decreased symptoms of PMS, so it helped.
83. Helped, in fact - I'm on the Mini Pill and the constant levels of
hormones meant there was far less fluctuation in the effects on my
voice. I have not found the Mini Pill to have any detrimental effects on
my singing.
84. Hindered.... I found that the use of OCPs made it difficult for me to
maintain a forward placement and my usual brighter sound.
85. Helped
86. Helped -- decreased the symptoms of PMS. Hindered - when I went

on the pill in college, I lost about a minor third off the top of my range.
It has never come back. At the time I was uneducated about the
effects of OCPs on the voice. I would probably have had an easier
time finding operatic repertoire had I not lost these notes because I
would have been a lyric-coloratura instead of just a plain old light
lyric. Now I'm kind of stuck as a soubrette.
87. Helped.
130
88. I began taking OCP at age seventeen to regulate my menstrual cycle. I
have been on OCP for almost ten years. I have been on three different
types of OCP. The first was a tri-color and the others were a single
hormone level. One brand, would give me horrible vocal issues during
the premenstrual time. These issues included hazy voice and a drop in
my breath support. Thankfully, I found a better brand that works
wonderfully and does not affect my voice.
89. I don't think it made a difference.
90. No. I had other medical issues so I was not an OCP long enough to
really tell.
91. Helped; I believe that the routine balancing of the hormones was
beneficial in creating a more stable environment for the voice. I had
more of an opportunity to learn the patterns of my voice as they were
more predictable.
92. No effect.
Q22: If you had more than one pregnancy, did you find that your voice was affected
in the same manner each time?
1. The quality of the voice was affected in that I had a 'darker colour'
throughout my pregnancies. This colour never left ... and became my
'new normal' my singing process was affected by both pregnancies in
that breathing was immensely difficult and never felt secure.
2. N/A. Only one pregnancy. I did start singing again in 3 weeks after
the baby. I don't think it has affected my voice much in the long term
except that practice time is almost nonexistent, so there are issues that
come with not practicing everyday (or at all…).
3. The 2nd was much more difficult. I already had severe damage to the
abdominal musculature and pelvic floor, so all was a bit harder.
4. Affected for good! Singing was often easier and tone was better. My
guess is the hormones of pregnancy affected the voice differently from
the hormones of birth control pills.
6. Not sure on this question - it was too long ago to recall.
7. Yes, but after second child, darker colors came into play. Richer
sound now in some parts of my range.
131
8. Many women suffer from the "airy" middle voice. I found that
pregnancy "cured" mine. After my first child, my voice became fuller
and darker, never to return to "pre-child" sound. Since I had a bigger
voice, I was fine with it. With my second pregnancy, I didn't have
much change in timbre, but I had endurance issues very early in the
pregnancy. Not sure if it was the way the baby was lying or what, but
didn't have that issue with the first pregnancy.
9. Don't really remember, but never had problems doing whatever I

needed to do while pregnant.
10. Range and timbre more mezzoish. I.e., lower. Breath was actually
better.
11. Had a c-section. Not sure if this had an impact to extending the time
longer.
12. I had severe reflux with both pregnancies so I couldn't really sing at all
past 4 months. I was so sleep deprived when the babies came, it's hard
to tell how my vocal recovery really went.
13. As a mezzo, I experienced a positive change in timbre to my voice

post-partum. I definitely feel that my voice is more characteristically
"mezzo" throughout the range after having given birth. I often joke
that if I had known it earlier I would have gotten pregnant sooner!
14. Great colors came into my voice and stayed after the pregnancies.
15. Only one pregnancy.
16. I found being pregnant WONDERFUL for singing. Was not a negative
change, but a positive one. Found I was able to connect to my breath
even better. Sang throughout both pregnancies very comfortably.
17. After the second pregnancy, it took longer to return and my vocal
cords seemed thicker. This added a richness to my voice that had not
been present previously, but that I quite enjoy. If I was still singing
high F sharps, I'm not sure this would be my response.
18. No actual vocal changes, just less room to get a good breath.
19. Not yet sure how well I will recover endurance or support after
carrying twins. I am aware that even coughing is far weaker and less
productive, so I will need to go to great lengths to strengthen pelvic
floor.
132
20. If "normal" means "the same as pre-pregnancy," it has not; however,
my new normal includes a richer timbre, better low and high notes,
more ease in singing, and a better connection to breath support. I'm
happy to report that my pregnancies had a very positive effect on my
voice.
21. I had c sections so it was more a support issue due to surgery.
Q30: Have you experienced any of the following menopausal vocal symptoms?
1. I was on hormone replacement therapy until my 70's. I am now 81 and

still have my singing voice.
2. Bel canto low notes seem a little light; mixing the voice seems easier;
onset takes a tad more concentration. Overall, singing is still quite
good and very minimally changed.
3. I was trained classically [bel canto] during my early years. My vocal

range is lower - which is totally fine when singing Jazz music. My
breath support varies - but remains physically strong from training and
usage. I find that I am unable to hold certain notes as long. One factor
that you didn't mention is focus. This has been my biggest problem
during peri-menopause. I have a difficult time remembering lyrics on
occasion. Each month is different.
4. I don't know if it's menopause, or just an aging voice that because of

teaching has talked too much for so many years, but I've lost the ease
that I used to have in the top of my voice.
5. It feels more like a lack of vocal control from what I was use to before
being premenopausal.
6. Even though I don’t have the menopause symptoms, my voice quality

has changed and has been frustrating so I marked accordingly.
7. Looser, wider vibrato.
8. I have not been singing music that requires classical style singing, nor
have I been practicing much, so I am not surprised that my voice gets
tired.
9. I had more issues during peri-menopause than after complete

menopause. My range has now returned, and my breath support is
much improved. I am not using any hormone replacement.
10. I am currently taking Premarin and it has resolved my vocal issues,

although the loss of stamina in the high range is permanent. Once the
133
epithelium thickens from the loss of estrogen, those notes are gone for
good. The use of Premarin is helping me to maintain my current range.
11. I have found my stamina has increased and my lower register also...
12. My voice is consistently better! However, it takes longer to warm-up

the voice and I have to vocalize on a daily basis or I do have
intonation, passaggio, flexibility, agility issues. 20 minutes of basic
warm-ups and 20 minutes of vocalizes before singing rep. It seems that
when I take Nordic Omega 3 fish oils the hot flashes and physical
issues subside and come back if I stop taking it.
134
APPENDIX E: PROTOCOL SUBMITTED TO THE IRB
Patricia Vigil
Social and Behavioral Protocol
1) Abstract of the Study: The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of the
female hormonal cycle throughout a woman’s life and its effects on the singing voice.
The human larynx is a secondary sexual organ, and it is directly influenced by the
influenced by the lifelong cyclical hormonal fluctuations. A woman’s monthly cycle,
which lasts from puberty to menopause, causes changes in hormone concentrations.
These changes can affect a woman’s physical and emotional states, causing bloating, and
temporary abnormalities in sleep, mood, concentration, and energy. These effects are
also seen in the vocal tract, where edema, vocal fatigue, decreased range, and lowering of
the fundamental frequency can occur. The monthly symptoms of hormonal change are
called premenstrual syndrome, or PMS. Similarly, the symptoms manifested in the
larynx are called premenstrual vocal syndrome, or PMVS. This study will examine and
explore the effects of PMS and PMVS on the singing voice. To do so, the study will
provide a brief overview of the steroid hormones: estrogen, progestogen, and androgen.
These three hormones are responsible for the development and maturation of primary and
secondary sexual characteristics. Additionally, this study will provide information
regarding the benefits and drawbacks of oral contraceptives, or OCPs. OCPs contain
synthetic hormones that mimic the body’s own natural hormones, and they regulate the
body’s levels of estrogen and progesterone, which prevents ovulation. In addition to their
contraceptive use, OCPs are used to treat endometriosis, acne, and irregular periods. By
preventing the body’s hormonal levels from fluctuating, OCPs have proven highly
135
effective as a treatment of PMS and PMVS. Further, the changes to the voice during
pregnancy will be examined. The increased hormonal concentrations associated with
pregnancy act upon the reproductive organs, muscles, bone, cerebral cortex, and mucosa,
as well as the larynx. Finally, this study will explore what happens to the voice as a
result of the cessation of the monthly menstrual cycle, a stage known as pre-, peri, and
post-menopause. The symptoms of menopause can range from moderate to quite severe.
The treatment options, specifically hormone replacement therapy, or HRT, will be
discussed, as well as alternative treatment methods. At the end of the monograph, there
will be a survey, asking adult female singers how their voices have been affected by
Premenstrual Vocal Syndrome, pregnancy, oral contraceptives, and menopause.
2) Protocol Title: Hormones and the Female Voice: An Exploration of the Female
Hormonal Cycle from Puberty to Menopause, and how it affects the Vocal Apparatus.
3) Principal Investigator: Dr. Christine Anderson, Chair, Department of Voice and
Opera
Student Investigator: Patricia Vigil
4) Describe the study’s purpose, specific aims, or objectives.
The purpose of the study is to shed light on the effects of a woman’s hormonal cycle on
her singing voice. Data on the female hormonal cycle and its effects on the voice are not
extensively covered in most pedagogy books; the data provided typically describes the
symptoms. The cause of the symptoms, and what to do to avoid them, is not addressed.
It is the aim of this study to make the information on hormonal changes more readily
available to singers.
5) Rationale and Significance

136
There has been substantial research on this subject. Dr. Jean Abitbol established the
concept of a hormonal vocal cycle with his discovery of the similarity between vocal fold
and cervical epithelium. Scott-Robert Newman discovered hormone receptors in the
vocal folds. Dr. Filipa Lã has done extensive research on OCPs, and their effects on the
singing voice. The invaluable research of these doctors can be found in journal articles; it
is the goal of this study to combine all of this data into one easily accessible document for
singers.
6) Resources and Setting
There will be two people involved in this study: the Principal Investigator, and Student
Investigator, both of whom are fully informed about the protocol. The study will be
conducted online, via SurveyMonkey. The recruitment of subjects, and their subsequent
survey taking will also take place online.
7) Prior Approvals N/A
8) Study Design
a) Recruitment Methods
The ideal number of subjects would be 100; however, the study could be
conducted with a greater or smaller number of test subjects. Human subjects will
be identified and recruited from a network of singers over the internet. There will
be no advertisements used to recruit test subjects. There will be no payments
made to subjects.
b) Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Only adult, female English-speaking singers who currently have, or have had, a
monthly menstrual cycle will be asked to participate in the study. Specifically,

137
women will be asked whether they have experienced the effects of Premenstrual
Vocal Syndrome. Additionally, they will be asked if their singing voices have
been affected by pregnancy, oral contraceptives, and menopause. Male singers
will not be recruited to take part in this study.
c) Study Timelines
The duration of the subject’s participation in the study will be quite short;
essentially, the amount of time it will take them to complete the survey. They
may complete it all in one sitting, or over several sittings. There will space for
them to additional comments if they so desire, but comments are not mandatory.
It is estimated that it will take one month or less to enroll all the subjects. It is the
hope of the investigators to complete the study by the middle of February 2014.
d) Study Procedures and Data Analysis
The subjects will be recruited online, and their email addresses and survey
responses will be stored online on a secure server. All efforts will be made to
endure confidentiality. The survey will be configured to collect anonymous
responses; no email addresses will be saved in the analysis section and no IP
addresses will be collected. Only the Principal and Student Investigators will
have access to the data collected; no individual responses will be identified in this
survey. Downloaded aggregate data will be stored in the Student Investigator’s
password-protected computer, any data shared with the Principal Investigator will
also be stored in a password-protected computer.
e) Withdrawal of Subjects
138
Subjects will be withdrawn from the study without their consent if it is discovered
that they do not fit the criteria of the study, i.e. a female, adult singers who
currently have, or have had, a monthly menstrual cycle. There will be no
consequences if the subject decides to withdraw from the study.
f) Privacy & Confidentiality
This study will not use any of the subjects’ Protected Health Information (PHI).
All efforts will be made to protect the privacy of the participating subjects. The
subjects’ information will only be seen by the Principal and Students
Investigators, and stored on a password-protected computer. The subjects will be
recruited online, and their email addresses and survey responses will be stored
online on a secure server. All efforts will be made to endure confidentiality. The
survey will be configured to collect anonymous responses; no email addresses
will be saved in the analysis section and no IP addresses will be collected. Only
the Principal and Student Investigators will have access to the data collected; no
individual responses will be identified in this survey. Downloaded aggregate data
will be stored in the Student Investigator’s password-protected computer, any data
shared with the Principal Investigator will also be stored in a password-protected
computer.
9) Risks to Subjects
The risks to the subjects will be minimal. All efforts will be made to ensure that their
personal information is protected. If a subject consents to being in the study, they will
answer ‘yes’ at the end of the consent form. Only individuals answering ‘yes’ will have
access to the survey.

139
10) Multi-Site Research
The study will take place primarily online; the consent form will be sent via email, and
the data collected will be seen only by the Principal and Student Investigators on their
password-protected computers.
11) Potential Benefits to Subjects
There is no direct benefit to the individual subjects.
12) Costs to Subjects:
The subjects will not have any financial responsibilities due to their participation in the
study.
13) Informed Consent
Informed consent will be obtained by the Principal and Student Investigators via an
anonymous online survey. Since the subjects will not be signing a written document, the
Investigators request a Waiver of Written Documentation of Consent. Participation of
the subjects will be completely voluntary; there will be absolutely no coercion or undue
influence exerted on potential subjects. Risk to potential subjects will be minimal.
Potential subjects are recruited via an email, and given a link to the survey. Exactly what
will be required of the subjects is explained thoroughly in the letter of informed consent
attached to the beginning of the survey. This research involves no procedures for which
written consent is normally required outside the research context. The survey will be
conducted through SurveyMonkey, and will be configured to collect anonymous
responses. No email addresses will be saved in the analysis section and no IP addresses
will be collected. The Principal and Student Investigators will have access to aggregate
data only. Additionally, the Potential subjects will be given the phone numbers and email
140
addresses of the Principal and Student Investigators, as well as the Temple University
IRB, in case they have questions and/or concerns regarding the survey or research.
14) Vulnerable Populations:
Members of vulnerable populations, i.e. children, minors, pregnant women, prisoners,
and adults who are unable to consent will not be included in this study. Women who
have been pregnant in their lifetime (but are not currently pregnant) will be part of the
study, however; their knowledge and experiences are invaluable to the study.

Hormones and The Female Voice

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HORMONES AND THE FEMALE VOICE:

AN EXPLORATION OF THE FEMALE HORMONAL CYCLE

Examining Committee Members:

Dr. Christine Anderson, Advisory Chair, Department of Voice and Opera

All Rights Reserved

defense against its unpredictability is information. Unfortunately, data on the female

pedagogy books. Information on the subject is often relegated to a small section of a

remains largely unanswered.

with this monograph to help and inform my readers.

The human larynx is directly influenced by lifelong cyclical hormonal

emotional states, causing bloating, and temporary abnormalities in sleep, mood,

Additionally, this paper provides information regarding the benefits and

PMS and PMVS.

experiences with PMS and PMVS, OCPs, pregnancy, and menopause.

mentoring. Thank you for the opportunity to pursue my dream.

Dilworth: Thank you so much for insight, support and guidance.

schedule to help me in this endeavor.

my gratitude; thank you from the bottom of my heart.

me in the right direction.

To Dean Edward Flanagan: Thank you for all of your assistance.

To Dean David Brown: Thank you for everything.

To my family and friends: Thank you for all your encouragement.

Dealing with vocal issues brought on by hormonal fluctuations can be extremely

Richard Miller devotes a paragraph in a subsection of a chapter to the effects of oral

contraceptives, and two sentences to pregnancy. Miller questions whether pregnancy is

compromise the longevity of a female’s singing career. He goes on further to suggest

Singing Voice, provides substantially more information. In the subsection “Hormonal

chapter to hormonal effects and aging.

during menopause. She advocates hormonal replacement therapy as well as a change in

in Elektra at the Vienna State Opera in 1994.

faulty technique, her drastic weight loss, or a combination of all three.

Not surprisingly, the most detailed information on the female hormonal

there is a detailed and illuminating subsection of a chapter that discusses “Hormonal

contraceptives on the voice. Additionally, the efficacy of hormonal replacement therapy

to combat the vocal changes brought on by the cessation of estrogen production is

hormone replacement therapy and oral contraceptives, as well as nutrition and

It should be noted that well-known pedagogues and voice scientists, such as

accessible document for singers.

The human body is an amazing thing. Ideally, it functions like a well-constructed

has eleven major systems: integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine,

circulatory, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive. These systems

The larynx is an extraordinary and sophisticated structure. It is composed of

the hyoid bone.

by ligaments and to the arytenoid cartilages by the aryepiglottic folds. During

protect the vocal folds and aid in phonation.

nerve and the recurrent laryngeal nerve.

aids in raising pitch.

The extrinsic muscles of the larynx, as previously stated, attach to structures

muscles, raising and lowering the larynx, respectively.

An elevated larynx is not the optimum position for singing; neither is an

antagonism to the suprahyoid muscles.

Changes within the Vocal Tract as it Matures

subscribe to, however, the fact remains that aging is unavoidable.

According to Robert Sataloff, the larynx develops most of its characteristics by

fold length is membranous.23

the exception of the cuneiform and corniculate cartilages.24

that it begins its progressive decline.

In the respiratory system, this decreased function includes decreased lung

elasticity, decreased strength of respiratory muscles, and increased stiffness of the

of decline is larger in men than in women.

deterioration—thinning of the articular surfaces, breakdown of the collagen fibers,

changes in the synovial membrane—again only in the male larynx.32

The fundamental frequency of speech lowers from birth through