Ch.

9 Heredity and Evolution

Definitions
Genetics: Branch of science that deals with heredity and variation.
Father of Genetics: Gregor Johann Mendel
Heredity: The transmission of characters or traits from parents to their offspring
is called heredity.
Variation: The difference in traits or characters among the individuals of a species
is called variation.e.g. Tall, short, free ear lobe, attached ear lobe.
Accumulation of variation:
The variations produced in organism during successive generation get
accumulated in the organism.
E.g. Bacteria reproduce asexually and one of the offspring have a variation due to
which it can tolerate higher temperature than the other offspring. This character
will go on accumulating in the offspring of that successive generation.
Advantages:
It increases the chance of its survival in a changing environment.

Mendel’s Experiment:
1. Chromosomes: Thread like structures in the nucleus of a cell formed of DNA
which carries the genes.
2. Genes: Genes are the unit of DNA that control specific traits of an
organism.It is a unit of heredity which transfer traits from parents to
offspring.They work in pair.
3. Dominant genes: The gene which decides the appearance of an organism
when in the presence of an alternate gene is called dominant gene. It is
represented by using capital letters.
4. Recessive gene: The gene which can decide the appearance of an organism
only in the presence of identical gene is called recessive gene. It is
represented by using small letters.
5. Genotype: Genetic constitution of an organism e.g. TT,Tt etc.
6. Phenotype: Characteristics or traits which is visible in an organism.e.g. Skin
colour,Hair colour etc.
7. F1 generation: When two parents are crossed or breed to produce an
offspring , the n the offspring is called F1 or First Filial Generation.
 8. F2 generation: F1 generating breed among themselves to produce second
generation is called F2 generation.
F1 x F1 =F2

Contribution of Mendel:
Mendel did his experiment by using varieties of pea plants (sativa).
Some of the traits he selected was:
1. Height – Tall/Dwarf
2. Shape of seed – Round/ Wrinkled
3. Colour of seed – Yellow/ Green
4. Colour of Flower – White/ Violet
He chose pea plants because pea plant had a number of clear cut differences
which were easy to tell. They were self-pollinating. They had short life span.
Rules for Inheritance of traits(Mendel’s Law):
1. Law of Dominance
2. Law of Segregation
3. Law of Independent Assortment.

Hybrid: A new form of plant resulting from a cross of different varieties is

called a Hybrid.
Mendel selected pea plants with one pair of contrasting characters to obtain
new plants. Then it is called Monohybrid cross.

Experiment: Pure tall plant with pure Dwarf plants.

Phenotype: Tall Dwarf
Genotype: TT tt

T t

Tt (Tall plant) F1 generation

Self pollinated
Parent Parent
Tt Tt
Male Gamete
Female Gamete T t
T TT (Tall) Tt(Tall)
t Tt (Tall) tt (Dwarf)
Tall -3 Dwarf -1
Tall : Dwarf -- F2 Generation
3 : 1
3:1 is called as Monohybrid Ratio.
Phenotype Ratio : - 3:1
Genotype Ratio: 1 : 2 : 1
TT : Tt,Tt : tt

Dihybrid Ratio:
Mendel selected 2 pairs of contrasting characters: Round and Green
F1 x F1 =F2
RrYy x RrYy (Ratio – 9:3:3:1 )
Punnet Square:
Male Gamete
RY Ry rY ry
Female RY RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
Gamete (Round Yellow) (Round Yellow) (Round Yellow) (Round Yellow)
Ry RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy
(Round Yellow) (Round Green) (Round Yellow) (Round Green)
rY RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy
(Round Yellow) (Round Yellow) (Wrinkled Yelow) (Wrinkled Yelow)
ry RrYy Rryy rrYy Rryy
(Round Yellow) (Round Green) (Wrinkled Yelow) (Wrinkled Green)

According to Mendel’s Law of Inheritance, In the inheritance of more than one

pair of traits in a cross, the factors responsible for each pair of traits are
distributed independently to the gamete.

-How are traits transmitted to the offspring?

This process takes place through sexual reproduction.
1. Genes work in pairs
2. One gene is dominant and the other is recessive.
3. Each parent possess a pair of genes for each trait or a pair of chromosomes.
4. Male and female gametes carry one gene for each trait.
5. During fertilization, the zygote will get one full set of genes.

Transmission of Hair Colour:

Black hair: HH (or) Hh
Blonde Hair: hh
(1) Mother Father
 HH hh

H h

Hh – Black Hair offspring

(2) Mother Father

Hh hh

Hh h

(Black) H h hh( Blonde)

Blood Group Inheritance:

Four Blood Groups:: O,A,B, AB

A Group IA IA
B Group IB IB
AB Group IA IB
O Group IO IO

IA , IB , IAB are dominant genes, IO is recessive gene.

If the genotype is IA IA, the blood group is A.
If the genotype is IA IO, the blood group is A.
If the genotype is IB IO, the blood group is B.
If the genotype is IB IB, the blood group is B.
If the genotype is IA IB, the blood group is AB.
If the genotype is IO IO, the blood group is O.

A man having a blood group A marries a woman with blood group O. They
produce a child. What will be the child’s blood group?
(1) A = IA IA
O = IO I O
Child = Blood Group A
(2) A = IA IA
O = IO I O
 Child = Blood Group A (or) O.

Sex Determination of Unborn Baby:

22 pairs of Autosomes
1 pair of six chromosome

Female Sex Chromosome : - X X

Male Sex Chromosome : - X Y

Female Male
X X X Y

X X X Y

X X(Girl) X Y (Boy)

Acquired and Inheritance Trait:

A trait of an organism which is not inherited but develops in response to the
environment is called acquired trait.
E.g. Swimming, skating, cycling etc.
The acquired trait cannot be passed on to their future generation.
A trait of an organism which is caused by a change in gene or DNA is called as
inheritance trait.
E.g. Brown eyes, Curly hair, blue eyes etc.

Evolution: It is the sequence of gradual changes which takes place in the primitive
organisms over millions of years in which new species are produced. Since the
evolution of the living organisms, it is called organic evolution.
Evidences for evolution are:
1) Homologous organs 2) Analogous organs 3) Fossils.

1) Homologous organs: The organs which have the same basic structure but
different function are called Homologous organs.
e.g.Forelimb of a man,lizard,frog, birds etc.
The forelimbs of a man are used for grasping. The forelimbs of a lizard are used
for running. The forelimbs of a frog are used to prop up its front side of the body
and the forelimbs of a bird are modified for flying.
Since they have similar structure, but perform different functions, thus they are
Homologous organs.
2) Analogous organs: The organs which have different basic structure but have
similar functions are called Analogous organs.
E.g. the wings of an insect and a bird have different structure but they perform
same functions.
3)Fossils: The remains of dead plants or animals that lived in the past are known
as fossils.Branch of science which deals with the study of fossils is known as
Palaeontology.e.g. A fossil bird is called Archaeopteryx.It looks like a bird, but has
many features which are found in reptiles. It had wings like birds, but teeth and
tail like reptiles.

Fossil Formation:
When an organism die, their bodies will decompose by the action of decomposers
in the presence of oxygen, moisture etc. But sometimes in the absence of these
factors the organism does not get decomposed completely. The hard parts such
as skeleton and bones form fossils.
Types of Fossils:
1. Ammonite(Invertebrate) – 180 million years
2. Trilobite (Marine Arthropod) – 400 – 600 years ago
3. Dinosaurs - 65 million years ago.

Darwin’s theory of Evolution:

Principle: 1) Overpopulation
2) Struggle for Existence
3) Variation
4) Natural Selection
5) Origin of Species

1) Overpopulation : e.g. i) Fish lay hundreds of eggs

ii)Plants produce thousands of seeds
2) Struggle for Existence : Species produce a large number of offsprings but
the population remains constant. This is due to the struggle between
members of same species for food, space, mate.
 3) Variation: Variation is defined as difference in characters between
individuals or within any population.
4) Natural Selection: Individuals possessing favourable conditions will survive
and will produce, this is called natural selection. According to Darwin, the
organisms who are fit will survive and others will perish. This is called
survival of fittest.
5) Origin of Species: Favourable variations are passed on from generation to
generation. These variations when accumulated over a long period of time
lead to the origin of new species. This is the Darwin’s theory of evolution.
6) Speciation: A species is a population of organisms consisting of similar
individuals which can breed together and produce offspring. The process by
which new species develop from the existing species is known as
Speciation.

Barriers of speciation:
1)Geological isolation: Two populations may become separate by each other by
geological barriers such as mountains, rivers, ocean, deserts etc.
2)Reproductive isolation: Geological isolation prevents inter breeding of species
as a result no mating takes place.
3)Temporal isolation: Breeding season or flowering time may be different in the
two species.
4)Ecological isolation: Two species live in different habitats so that no mating
takes place.

Human Evolution:
Human Evolution has been studied by using various tools y tracing evolutionary
relationship like excavating(digging earth), Carbon dating(C14),studying fossils and
determining DNA sequences.
All human beings are a single species called homosapiens.It is established that
earliest members of human beings came from Africa. About hundred thousand
years ago, some of our ancestors left Africa and while some of them stayed back.

Origin of Life in Earth:

A British scientist J.B.S Haldane suggested that life must have developed from
simple inorganic molecules such as Methane, Ammonia, Hydrogen Sulphide. He
said that the conditions on earth at that time [frequent lightning, volcanic
eruption etc.] could have converted simple inorganic molecules into complex
organic molecules. This complex organic molecules must have joined together to
form the first primitive living organism. He also suggested that life originated in
sea water.
Extra Questions
Q.1] What is heredity?
A] The transmission of characteristics from one generation to another is called
heredity.

Q.2] Define variation.

A]Variation is defined as the differences in the characters or traits among the
individuals of a species.

Q.3] What is a gene?

A] Gene is a part of DNA that encodes the instructions that allow a cell to produce
specific protein or enzyme.

Q.4] What is speciation?

A] Speciation is the evolution of reproductive isolation among once interbreeding
populations. i.e. development of one or more species from an existing species.

Q.5] Why did Mendel select pea plants for conducting his experiments on
inheritance?
A] Mendel selected pea plants because (i) Many varieties of pea plants are
available with contrasting traits.
(ii) Peas are normally self-pollinating and the flower structure is also suitable for
cross pollination (iii) Short life cycle (iv)small and easy to grow.

Q.6]Name two human traits which show variation

A](i)Colours of eye (ii) Height

Q.7]What are the different ways in which individuals with a particular trait may
increase in a population?
A] The two different ways are:
1) Natural Selection 2)Genetic drift

Q.8]Distinguish between acquired and inherited traits by giving one example of

each.
A]Acquired traits: is a particular characteristic that is developed during the life
time of an individual. These are not genetically controlled and cannot be passed
onto the next generation.
e.g. Loss of weight due to starvation.
Inherited Trait: is the transmission of particular characteristics from parents to
their offsprings, generation to generation. It is genetically determined, that will
distinguish a person.
e.g. Colour of skin.

Q.9]Explain the following terms: 1]Trait of an individual 2]Genetic drift

3]Dominant trait 4]Recessive trait 5]Haploid cell 6]Diploid cell 7]Somatic cells
A] 1] Trait of an individual: A characteristic feature is called trait.
2] Genetic drift: The random change in gene frequencies in a small population
causes change providing diversity without any adaptations.
3] Dominant trait: A genetic trait is considered dominant if it is expressed in a
person who has only one copy of that gene.
4] Recessive trait: It is expressed only when two copies of gene are present.
5] Haploid cell: Cell that has only one complete set of chromosomes.
6] Diploid cell: Cell that has two sets of chromosomes, one of paternal origin and
the other of maternal origin.
7] Somatic cells: All cells forming the body of an organism, except the
reproductive cells.

Q.10] Two areas of study namely evolution and classification are interlinked.
Justify this statement
A] 1)Different forms of organisms have evolved during the course of evolution
and classification deals with grouping of these organisms into groups and
subgroups based on their similarities and differences.
2) The more characteristics any two species have in common more closely they
are related / will have a more recent ancestor.
3) Thus classification helps tracing the evolutionary relationships between the two
organisms. Hence classification and evolution are interlinked.

Q.11] What is the main reason for evolution according to Darwin?

A] According to Darwin, evolution took place due to natural selection.
Q.12] Give two uses of fossils. How does the study of fossils provide evidence in
favour of organic evolution?
A] The two uses of fossils are:
 1) Racial History of plants and animals
2) Past climatic conditions of earth.
Study of fossils provide evidence in favour of organic evolution because
(a)fossils helps to identify an evolutionary relationship between apparently
different species.
(b) the fossils present in the bottom rocks are simple while the most recent fossil
found in the upper strata are highly complex.
This agrees with the concept of evolution.

Q.13]What is monohybrid cross?

A]The cross between two individuals with one pair of contrasting characters is
called monohybrid cross.

Q.14]”The sex of the children is determined by what they inherit from their father
and not their mother.” Justify.
A]It is because a child who inherits an X chromosome from father will be a girl and
one who inherits a Y chromosome from father will be a boy. But all children will
inherit an X chromosome from their mother regardless of whether they are boys
or girls.

Q.15]State two methods of determining the age of fossils

A] 1) If we dig into the earth and start finding fossils, it can be assumed that the
fossils closer to the surface are more recent to those found in the deeper layers.
2)By detecting the ratios of different isotopes of the same element in the fossil
material.
[deeper layers- simple, upper layers or recent –highly complex]

Q.16]When organisms die, their bodies will decompose and be lost. Then how do
we get fossils? Give an example.
A] In most cases, bodies decompose and be lost. But every once in a while, the
body or at least some parts of the body may be in an environment that does not
decompose completely. It is through such preserved traces of living organisms
that we get fossils.
e.g. If a dead insect gets caught in the mud, it will not decompose quickly, the
mud will eventually harden and retain the impressions of the body parts of the
insect.
Q.17]Write the observations of Mendel when he crossed Tall pea plants and
dwarf pea plants during F1 and F2 generations.
A]Parents: Pure Tall plant X Pure dwarf plant
(TT) (tt)

T t

F1 Generation: Tt Tt Tt Tt

Self Pollination of F1: Tt X Tt

Tall Tall

F2 Generation: TT Tt Tt tt (3:1)
Tall Tall Tall Dwarf
1/4th Pure Tall 2/4th Tall breed 1/4th Pure Dwarf

Q.18] Distinguish between acquired traits and inherited traits.

A]
Acquired traits Inherited traits
1. Do not bring changes in the DNA of Bring changes in the DNA of germ cells.
germ cells.
2. Cannot undergo direct evolution Can undergo direct evolution

3. Cannot be passed on to the progeny Can be passed on to the progeny

Q.19] Explain whether traits like eye colour or height is genetically inherited. Do
weight lifting and reading French also belong to the same category?
A]Yes, eye colour and height are genetically inherited traits, as these are
expressed by Genes. No, weight lifting and reading French are acquired traits.

Q.20]We cannot pass onto our progeny the experiences and qualifications earned
during our lifetime. Justify giving reasons and examples.
A] Experiences and qualifications do not make any change in the genes of the
individual. Changes made in genes are only passed on from one generation to the
next. The qualities acquired cannot be passed onto the future generation. e.g. If a
person reads a book on birds, the knowledge he earns by reading the book does
not make any changes in his genes. Hence it will not be transmitted to the next
generation.
Q.21]How did Mendel interpret his result to show that traits may be dominant or
recessive? Describe.
A] 1)Mendel selected pure tall and dwarf plants.
2) He cross pollinated these plants.
3) In the F1 generation, he obtained only tall plants. Tallness is the dominant trait.
4) Then, he produced F2 generation by self-pollination of hybrids.
5) He found out that 3/4th of the plants were tall and 1/4th were dwarf.
6) The trait hidden in F1 generation (dwarfness) is the recessive trait.

Q.22]What are the fundamental characteristics used to classify organisms?

A]1)Presence of prokaryotic or Eukaryotic cells.
2) Whether the organism is unicellular or multicellular.
3)Ability to perform photosynthesis.
4) Presence of endoskeleton or exoskeleton in heterotrophic organisms.

Q.23]What are the practical applications of genetics?

A]1)Animal Husbandry: Improvement of domestic animals.
2) Legal application: Analysis of blood group to solve disputed parentage, baby
mix in hospital etc.
3)Agriculture: To produce superior varieties of different food crops.

Q.24]What are the barriers of speciation?

A]1)Geological isolation such as long distance, mountain, rivers, ocean, desert etc.
2)Behavioural isolation: Populations may have different courtship patterns.
3)Temporal isolation: Plants may be flowering at different times.
4)Ecological isolation: Two species live in different habitats so that no mating
takes place.
5)Mechanical isolation: The sperm and ova of different species of animals are
unable to fuse.

Q.25] Name the different kinds of fossils.

A]1) Tree trunk fossils 2)Invertebrate fossils(Ammonite, Tribolite)
3)Fish fossil (Knightia) 4)Dinosaur Skull fossils 5)Archaeopteryx

Q.26]Birds have evolved from reptiles. Explain.

A] A fossil Archaeopteryx has feathered wings and beak like those of birds, but
teeth and tail like those of reptiles. So, it is considered that birds have evolved
from reptiles.

Q.27] A cross was made between pure breeding pea plants with round and green
seeds and the other with wrinkled and yellow seeds.1)Write the phenotype of F1
progeny.2)Write the different types of F2 progeny obtained along with their ratio
when F1 progeny was self-pollinated.
A] Two traits are taken into account which is a dihybrid cross. Yellow colour and
round shape is dominant over green colour and wrinkled shape.
1)Parents: RRyy X rrYY
(Round Green) (Wrinkled yellow)

Gametes Ry Ry rY rY

F1 Generation: RrYy (Round and Yellow)

2) RrYy X RrYy
(Round Yellow) (Round Yellow)

Phenotypic Ratio: - 9: 3: 3: 1
Round Yellow – 9, Round Green -3, Wrinkled Yellow – 3, Wrinkled Green -1

Q.28]Give examples of Homologous organs and Analogous organs.

A] Homologous organs: e.g. Hand of man and Wing of Birds.
Analogous organs: e.g. Wing of insects and wing of birds.

Q.29] Give examples of artificial selection for various features of Cabbage and
different vegetables produced by human.
A]
Vegetable produced Selected feature
Broccoli Arrested Flower development
Cauliflower Sterile Flowers
Kohl rabi Swollen parts
Kale Larger Leaves

Q.30]What is carbon dating?

A] The age of the fossil can be determined by measuring the ratio of the different
isotopes of carbon element in the fossil material.

Q.31]Name few vestigial organs present in the human body.

A]Vermiform appendix, Wisdom teeth, nictitating membrane, tail bone, ear pinna
muscles, canines etc.
(organs that have been reduced or diminished in size during evolution are called
vestigial organs).

Q.32]Our teeth and an elephant’s tusks are homologous organs. Justify this
statement.
A] Our teeth and an elephant’s tusks are homologous organs as both of them
have the same basic structure, but different functions.(We chew with our teeth,
elephants use tusks to hold things).

Q.33]A woman has only daughters. Analyze the situation genetically.

A]The sex of a child depends on the sperm carrying genes from the father. The
woman has only daughters because in every fusion, the X chromosome of male
sperm cell has fertilized with the ovum.

Q.34] What is evolution? Name some of the important sources which provide
evidences for evolution.
A] Evolution is the process by which new types of organisms are developed from
the pre-existing ones through modification. Important sources which provide
evidences for evolution are:
1) Homologous organs 2) Analogous organs 3) Fossils.

Q.35] Describe Darwin’s Theory of Evolution.

A]1) Within any population, there is natural variation. Some individuals have more
favourable variations than others.
2) Even though all species produce a large number of off springs, populations
remain fairly constant naturally.
3)This is due to the struggle between members of the same species and different
species for food, space and mate.
4) The struggle for survival within populations eliminates the unfit individuals.
Individuals with favourable variations survive and reproduce. This is called natural
selection(or survival of the fittest).
5)The favourable variations pass onto their progeny from generation to
generation.
6)These variations are accumulated over a long period of time and lead to the
origin of a new species.

Q.36]Explain “Evolution by stages” by giving examples.

A]1)Evolution of Eyes: First of all the rudimentary eye like that of a Planaria was
formed ( just eye spots which can detect light).From this more and more complex
eyes were involved in various organisms.
2) Evolution of Feathers: Birds evolved feathers as a means of providing insulation
to their bodies in cold weather, but later became more useful for the purpose of
flying. Even some dinosaurs had feathers. The presence of feathers on birds tells
us that the birds are very closely related to reptiles because dinosaurs were
reptiles.
3)Evolution by artificial selection: Very dissimilar looking structures can be
evolved from a common ancestor.The farmers have been cultivating wild cabbage
as a food plant for over two thousand years and have produced entirely different
looking vegetables like cabbage ,broccoli, cauliflower, Kohl rabi and Kale by
artificial selection.

Q37)What are Homologous organs?

A)The organs which have the same basic structure but different function are
called homologous organs.eg- forelimbs of a man ,lizard,frog, birds etc.

Q38)What are analogous organs?

A)The organs which have different basic structure but have similar functions are
called analogous organs. Eg- The wings of an insect and a bird have different
structure but they perform same function.

CBSE NCERT Solutions for Class 10th Science Chapter 9 : Heredity and Evolution.

In Text Questions
Page No: 143

1. If a trait A exists in 10% of a population of an asexually reproducing species and a trait B

exists in 60% of the same population, which trait is likely to have arisen earlier?

Answer
Trait B because in asexual reproduction traits which are present in the previous generation are
carried over to next generation with minimal variations. Trait B have higher percentage so it is
likeliy to have arisen earlier.
2. How does the creation of variations in a species promote survival?

Ans )Variations occur due to sexual reproduction and also due to inaccurate copying of DNA.
Depending on the nature of variations, different individuals would have different kinds of
advantages. For example, bacteria variants which can withstand heat have better chances to
survive in a heat wave non-variant bacteria having no capacity to tolerate heat wave. Thus,
variations in a population of a species help in survival of a species.
Page No: 147

1. How do Mendel’s experiments show that traits may be dominant or recessive?

Ans)
Refer Q21 from extra questions.
2. How do Mendel’s experiments show that traits are inherited independently?
Answer
Refer Q.27 from Extra questions.
In a dihybrid cross , it was observed that when two pairs were considered , each trait expressed
itself independent of each other. Thus Mendel was able to propose the Law of independent
assortment .
3. A man with blood group A marries a woman with blood group O and their daughter has blood
group O. Is this information enough to tell you which of the traits – blood group A or O – is
dominant? Why or why not?
Answer
No. This information is not sufficient to determine which of the traits – blood group A or O – is
dominant. This is because we do not know about the blood group of all the progeny.
Blood group A can be genotypically AA or AO. Hence, the information is incomplete to draw
any such conclusion.

4. How is the sex of the child determined in human beings?

Ans) In human beings, the females have two X chromosomes and the males have one X and one
Y chromosome. Therefore, the females are XX and the males are XY.
The gametes, as we know, receive half of the chromosomes. The male gametes have 22
autosomes and either X or Y sex chromosome.
Type of male gametes: 22+X OR 22+ Y.
However, since the females have XX sex chromosomes, their gametes can only have X sex
chromosome.
Type of female gamete: 22+X
 

Thus, the mother provides only X chromosomes. The sex of the baby is determined by the type
of male gamete (X or Y) that fuses with the X chromosome of the female.

Page No: 150

1. What are the different ways in which individuals with a particular trait may increase in a
population?
Answer
Individuals with a particular trait may increase in a population as a result of the following:
→ Natural selection: When that trait offers some survival advantage.
→ Genetic drift: When some genes governing that trait become common in a population.
→ When that trait gets acquired during the individual’s lifetime.

2. Why are traits acquired during the life-time of an individual not inherited?
Answer
This happens because an acquired trait involves change in non-reproductive tissues which cannot
be passed on to germ cells or the progeny. Therefore, these traits cannot be inherited.

3. Why are the small numbers of surviving tigers a cause of worry from the point of view of
genetics?

Answer
The small number of members in a population of tigers do not allow large number of variation to
occur which are essential to survival of the species. A deadly disease or calamity may cause
death of all the tigers. The small number of tiger also indicates that existing tiger variants are not
well adopted to the existing environment and may extinct soon.

Page No: 151

1. What factors could lead to the rise of a new species?

Ans) Natural selection, genetic drift and acquisition of traits during the life time of an individual
can give rise to new species.

2. Will geographical isolation be a major factor in the speciation of a self-pollinating plant

species? Why or why not?
Ans) Geographical isolation can prevent the transfer of pollens among different plants. However,
since the plants are self-pollinating, which means that the pollens are transferred from the anther
of one flower to the stigma of the same flower or of another flower of the same plant,
geographical isolation cannot prevent speciation in this case.

3. Will geographical isolation be a major factor in the speciation of an organism that reproduces
asexually? Why or why not?

Answer
No, because geographical isolation does not affect much in asexually reproducing organisms.
Asexually reproducing organisms pass on the parent DNA to offsprings that leaves no chance of
speciation. However, geographical isolation works as a major factor in cross pollinated species.
As it would result in pollinated species. As it would result in accumulation of variation in the two
geographically separated population.

Page No: 156

1. Give an example of characteristics being used to determine how close two species are in
evolutionary terms.

Answer
Feathers in some ancient reptiles like dinosaurs, as fossils indicate, evolved to provide insulation
in cold weather. However, they cannot fly with these feathers later on birds adapted the feathers
to flight. This means that birds are very closely related to reptiles, since dinosaurs were reptile.
2. Can the wing of a butterfly and the wing of a bat be considered homologous organs? Why or
why not?

Answer
The wing of a butterfly and the wing of a bat are similar in function. They help the butterfly and
the bat in flying. Since they perform similar function, they are analogous organs and not
homologous.

3. What are fossils? What do they tell us about the process of evolution?

Answer
Fossils are the remains of organisms that once existed on earth.
They tell us about the development of the structures from simple structured to complex
structured organisms.They tell us about the phases of evolutions through which they must have
undergone in order to sustain themselves in the competetive environment.

Page No: 158

1. Why are human beings who look so different from each other in terms of size, colour and
looks said to belong to the same species?

Answer
The reasons are :- 1) DNA studies 2) Number of chromosomes is same. 3) All have a common
ancestor 4) They inter breed among themselves to produce fertile young ones of their own
kind.

2. In evolutionary terms, can we say which among bacteria, spiders, fish and chimpanzees have a
‘better’ body design? Why or why not?

Answer
Evolution cannot always be equated with progress or better body designs. Evolution simply
creates more complex body designs. However, this does not mean that the simple body designs
are inefficient. In fact, bacteria having a simple body design are still the most cosmopolitan
organisms found on earth. They can survive hot springs, deep sea, and even freezing
environment.

Therefore, bacteria, spiders, fish, and chimpanzees are all different branches of evolution.
Page No: 159

Excercise
1. A Mendelian experiment consisted of breeding tall pea plants bearing violet flowers with short
pea plants bearing white flowers. The progeny all bore violet flowers, but almost half of them
were short. This suggests that the genetic make-up of the tall parent can be depicted as
(a) TTWW
(b) TTww
(c) TtWW
(d) TtWw
► (c) TtWW

2. An example of homologous organs is

(a) our arm and a dog’s fore-leg.
(b) our teeth and an elephant’s tusks.
(c) potato and runners of grass.
(d) all of the above.
► (b) our teeth and an elephant’s tusks.

3. In evolutionary terms, we have more in common with

(a) a Chinese school-boy.
(b) a chimpanzee.
(c) a spider.
(d) a bacterium.
► (a) a Chinese school-boy.

4. A study found that children with light-coloured eyes are likely to have parents with light-
coloured eyes. On this basis, can we say anything about whether the light eye colour trait is
dominant or recessive? Why or why not?

Answer
This information is not sufficient. For considering a trait as dominant or recessive, we need data
of at least three generations. This data is about only two generations.

5. How are the areas of study – evolution and classification – interlinked?

Answer
Refer Q.10 from Extra questions.

6. Explain the terms analogous and homologous organs with examples.

Answer Homologus organs are those organs which have the same basic structural design and
origin but have different functions.
For Example: The forelimbs of humans and the wings of birds look different externally but their
skeletal structure is similar.
Analogus organs are those organs which have the different basic structural design and origin but
have similar functions.
For Example: The wings of birds and insects

7. Outline a project which aims to find the dominant coat colour in dogs.

Answer
Dogs have a variety of genes that govern coat colour. There are at least eleven identified gene
series (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, M, P, S, T) that influence coat colour in dog.
A dog inherits one gene from each of its parents. The dominant gene gets expressed in the
phenotype. For example, in the B series, a dog can be genetically black or brown.
Let us assume that one parent is homozygous black (BB), while the other parent is homozygous
brown (bb)

BB
B B
b Bb Bb
bb b Bb Bb
In this case, all the offsprings will be heterozygous (Bb).
Since black (B) is dominant, all the offsprings will be black. However, they will have both B and
b alleles.
If such heterozygous pups are crossed, they will produce 25% homozygous black (BB), 50%
heterozygous black (Bb), and 25% homozygous brown (bb) offsprings.

B b
B BB Bb
b Bb Bb
8. Explain the importance of fossils in deciding evolutionary relationships.

Answer
Fossil provide us evidence about
→ The organisms that lived long ago such as the time period during which they lived, their
structure etc.
→ Evolutionary development of species i.e., line of their development.
→ Connecting links between two groups. For example, feathers present in some dinosaurs means
that birds are very closely related to reptiles.
→ Which organisms evolved earlier and which later.
→ Development of complex body designs from the simple body designs.

9. What evidence do we have for the origin of life from inanimate matter?

Answer
The evidence for the origin of life from inanimate matter, was provided through an experiment,
conducted in 1953, by Stanley L. Miller and Harold C. Urey. In experiment, they assembled an
atmosphere containing molecules like ammonia, methane and hydrogen sulphide, but no oxygen,
over water. This was similar to atmosphere that thought to exist on early earth . This was
maintained at a temperature just below 100°C and sparks were passed through the mixture of
gases to simulate lightning. At the end of a week, 15% of the carbon from methane, had been
converted to simple compounds of carbon including amino acids which make up protein
molecules and support the life in basic form.

10. Explain how sexual reproduction gives rise to more viable variations than asexual
reproduction. How does this affect the evolution of those organisms that reproduce sexually?
Answer
Sexual reproduction causes more viable variations due to the following reasons:
→ Error in copying of DNA, which are not highly significant.
→ Random seggregation of paternal and maternal chromosome at the time of gamete formation.
→ Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during formation of
gametes.
→ Accumulation of variations occured due to sexual reproduction over generation after
generation and selection by nature created wide diversity.

In case of asexual reproduction, only the very small changes due to inaccuracies in DNA copying
pass on the progeny. Thus, offsprings of asexual reproduction are more or less genetically similar
to their parents. So, it can be concluded that evolution in sexually reproducing organisms
proceeds at a faster pace than in asexually repoducing organisms.

11. How is the equal genetic contribution of male and female parents ensured in the progeny?

Answer
In human beings, equal genetic contribution of male and female parents is ensured in the progeny
through inheritance of equal number of chromosomes from both parents. There are 23 pairs of
chromosomes All human chromosomes are not paired. Out of these 23 pairs, the first 22 pairs are
known as autosomes and the remaining one pair is known as sex chromosomes represented as X
and Y. Females have a perfect pair of two X sex chromosomes and males have a mismatched
pair of one X and one Y sex chromosome.
During the course of reproduction, as fertilization process takes place, the male gamete (haploid)
fuses with the female gamete(haploid) resulting in formation of the diploid zygote. The zygote in
the progeny receive an equal contribution of genetic material from the parents. Out of 23 pairs of
chromosomes in progeny, male parent contributes 22 autosomes and one X or Y chromosome
and female parent contributes 22 autosomes and one X chromosom

12. Only variations that confer an advantage to an individual organism will survive in a
population. Do you agree with this statement? Why or why not?

Answer

We agree with the statement that Only variations that confer an advantage to an individual
organism will survive in a population. All the variations do not have an equal chance of
surviving in the environment in which they find themselves. The chances of surviving depend on
the nature of variations. Different individual would have different kind of advantages. A bacteria
that can withstand heat will survive better in a heat wave. Selection of variants by environmental
factors forms the basis for revolutionary process.

QUESTION BANK
I. VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (1 Mark)
1. What are hereditary characteristics?
2. Are the variations created by sexual reproduction heritable or non-heritable?
3.What do you mean by the term paleontology?

4. Give an example of homologous organ from the plant kingdom.

5. In terms of evolution what is the significance of homology between a human hand and a wing
of a bird?
II. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS–I (2 Marks

1. How many chromosomes are there in the human (a) ovum (b) liver cell
2. Define variation in relation to a species. Why is variation beneficial to the species?
3. Describe briefly four ways in which individuals with a particular trait may increase in a
population.

4. A man with blood group A marries a woman with blood group O and their daughter has
blood group O. Is this information enough to tell you which of the traits — blood group A
or O is dominant? Why?

5.What are fossils? What do they tell about the process of evolution?
6. What is meant by analogous organs? Taking a suitable example, explain how they support
the theory of Organic Evolution.

III. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS–II (3 Marks)

1. Define :
(a) homologous organs (b) analogous organs (c) sex chromosome
2. Explain with the help of flow chart - “What determines the sex of a child genetically.”
3. (a) Define Heredity. (b) Differentiate between inherited and acquired traits.
4. (a) Why traits such as intelligence and knowledge cannot be passed on to the next
generation?
(b) How can we say that birds are closely related to reptiles and have evolved from them?
5. (a) Name the plant used by Mendel to carry out his experiments.
(b) Study the following cross and answer the questions that follow :
Parents Green and × Yellow and Round seed Wrinkled seed F1 Generation All Green and
Round seeds F2 Generation Green and Green and Round(9) Wrinkled(3) Yellow and Yellow and
Round(3) Wrinkled(1)
(i) List the dominant and recessive characters. (ii) Are the characters linked or independent
6. (a) What is speciation?
(b) Explain whether the traits like eye colour or height is genetically inherited or not.
Do power to life weight and reading French also belong to same category? Justify your answer.
7.What is genetic drift?
(b) Which type of organism will have more variation - sexually or asexually reproducing
organism? Justify your answer.
8. Who proposed the “Theory of Natural Selection”? What are vestigial organs? Give
some examples of human vestigial organs.

9. Define the term ‘heredity’. In which types of organisms is heredity supposed to be better
defined – in sexually reproducing or asexually reproducing kind? Why?
IV. LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 Marks)
1. Does geographical isolation of individuals of a species lead to formation of a new species?
Provide a suitable explanation
2. (i) What are ‘chromosomes’? Where are they located in the cells?
(ii) What is a sex chromosome? (iii) Explain the mechanism of sex determination in human
beings.