Journal of South American Earth Sciences 90 (2019) 181–190

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Journal of South American Earth Sciences

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Comparative evolution of clay minerals in southern Paraná Basin (Brazil): T

Implications for triassic paleoclimate
Isaque C. Rodriguesa,∗, Ana M.P. Mizusakia, Laís G. Limaa, Anderson J. Maraschinb
a
Instituto de Geociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Avenida Bento Gonçalves, 9500, 91501-970, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
b
Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 6681, Porto Alegre, RS, CEP: 90619-900, Brazil

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Paraná Basin exposes two distinct portions from Triassic deposits bearing different clay minerals content. Even if
Clay they belong to Santa Maria Supersequence, both are commonly referred as Santa Maria Formation and Arroio
Illite Moirão Graben. These sedimentary layers were deposited in Triassic and separated later because of overall
Graben spreading in southern portion of Gondwana paleocontinent during Cretaceous, forming a relict graben to the
Kaolinite
southern part of Paraná basin. This process isolated the layers of Arroio Moirão Gráben from the well-known
Santa Maria layers, even though they stratigraphically belong to the same unit. The deposits are part of
Gondwana Supersequence II when the Paraná rift basin formed. Even in genetically-related rocks, clay minerals
show different assemblages in each portion. In Santa Maria Formation rocks, clay minerals content represents
arid to semi-arid climate, e.g., I/S mixed-layers and illite, whereas in Arroio Moirão Graben, clay minerals
content is confined to kaolinite, which implies humid conditions. Differences in clay mineral assemblages for
these sedimentary units exemplify distinct diagenetic or climate conditions. SMF has more influence from the
arid conditions, while AMG has both climatic and diagenetic humid features in the clay content.

1. Introduction
Clay mineralogy is a powerful tool to understand and interpret
weathering and paleoclimate (Chamley, 1989; Velde, 1995; Meunier,
2005). Clay minerals like kaolinite, illite and illite/smectite (I/S) mixed
layers are used to describe weathering and paleoclimate conditions
such as humid vs. arid conditions (Singer, 1980; Pellenard and
Deconinck, 2006; Schnyder et al., 2006; Raucsik and Varga, 2008;
Raigemborn et al., 2014).
Nonetheless, even if clay minerals are good indicators about pa-
leoclimate, (especially because they reflect weathering processes),
other controls can affect the geological overall interpretation. As tec-
tonic and diagenesis are able to influence clay mineralogy, these aspects
also need to be well evaluated in order to understand the paleoclimatic
analysis of the studied area. Moreover, post-depositional diagenetic
alteration of clay minerals is required to be analyzed, since it can mask
or change the primary content (Ruffell et al., 2002).
Considering the studied example herein, Paraná Basin includes two
Triassic related deposits as defined by several authors considering age,
fossil content and stratigraphy (Ketzer, 1997; Zerfass et al., 2003;
Milani et al., 2007; Horn et al., 2015; Lima, 2016). Santa Maria For-
mation and Arroio Moirão Graben are placed in Triassic by fossil dating
and by this time, arid conditions are related to the paleoenvironment of
the basin and so the units (Fig. 1). However, even if arid conditions are
expected to both deposits, Arroio Moirão Graben exposes clay minerals
commonly related to humid conditions.
Therefore, the example given here relies on the integration of sev-
eral analyses of the Triassic succession of Santa Maria Formation (SMF)
and Graben Arroio Moirão (AMG) deposits (Fig. 2). SMF includes illite
and I/S mixed layers in the mineral content and contrastingly, AMG
layers have predominantly kaolinite.
Furthermore, the work herein aims to understand the reasons that
led to changes in clay mineral content in the two related areas.
Additionally, clay mineral content study gathered with stratigraphic
and laboratory analyses raises implications for paleoclimate conditions
of each area.
2. Geological Setting
Paraná Basin is mainly a sedimentary depression in South America
comprising Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina and Uruguay. This basin covers
1.7 million km2 and was generated during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic;
sedimentary rocks are 460 to 65 Ma old (Late Ordovician – Late
Cretaceous). According to Milani et al. (2007), Paraná Basin is

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: isaquerodrigues-@hotmail.com, phd.iodv@gmail.com (I.C. Rodrigues).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2018.12.012
Received 31 July 2018; Received in revised form 2 December 2018; Accepted 14 December 2018
Available online 15 December 2018
0895-9811/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
I.C. Rodrigues et al.
Fig. 1. A- Paleocontinent disposal and climate zones in Triassic (modified from Holz, 2015 and Scotese, 2000). Be Paraná Basin map in Rio Grande do Sul with the
study areas highlighted (Modified from Milani, 2004).
distinguished into 6 second-order supersequences: Rio Ivaí, Paraná,
Gondwana I, Gondwana II, Gondwana III and Bauru. Gondwana II Su-
persequence corresponds to Santa Maria Supersequence (Milani, 1997),
which includes Santa Maria Formation (SMF) and Arroio Moirão
Graben layers (AMG), both present in the studied area (Fig. 3).
Zerfass et al. (2003) detailed tectonic and sedimentary history for
the Triassic in Paraná Basin and subdivided Santa Maria Supersequence
in three third-order sequences. The first two correspond to Santa Maria
Formation and Caturrita Formation and the third is Mata Formation.
Santa Maria 1 sequence (SM1) is composed of orthoconglomerates,
conglomeratic sandstones and cross-bedded sandstones covered by
mudstones. SM1 is interpreted as fluvial deposits grading to shallow
lake deposits. Santa Maria 2 sequence (SM2) includes small to medium-
scale trough cross bedding sandstones overlain by laminated or massive
red mudstones at the base. This portion is interpreted by Zerfass et al.
(2003) as high-sinuosity fluvial and overbank deposits. The upper part
of SM2 consists of a coarsening-upward succession (Caturrita Forma-
tion; Andreis et al., 1980) exposing small-scale trough cross-bedded
sandstone lenses. Rhythmites and massive or climbing cross-laminated
sandstone bodies also occur; this facies association is stated as a la-
custrine-deltaic depositional system. In Santa Maria 3 sequence (SM3),
cross-stratified and conglomeratic sandstones are dominant and in-
filtrated clays are common. SM3 corresponds to Mata Formation and
the lithofacies are interpreted as product of gravitational flows as a
result of collapsing fluvial terraces (Zerfass et al., 2003).
Santa Maria Supersequence is a wide terminology, and the term
Santa Maria Formation is generically used for the Zerfass et al. (2003)
proposing of SM1, SM2, SM3, and even if these nomenclatures are still
used, other names according the toponyms of types sections are also
used. Santa Maria 1 is equivalent to Pinheiros-Chiniquá and Santa Cruz
Sequence. Santa Maria 2 corresponds to Candelária Sequence and Santa
Maria 3 includes Mata Sequence. This way, they are into Santa Maria
Supersequence and as part of Gondwana II (Milani, 1997).
Arroio Moirão Graben is one of six isolated Gondwana Units (Boa
Vista, Cerro Partido, Delfino, Amaral Ferrador and Tabuleiro) over the
Sul-riograndense Shield, southern portion of Paraná Basin (Ketzer,
1997). AMG developed during Triassic when an overall stretching took
place in the southern part of Gondwana. This event led to formation of a
rift basin, generating Supersequence Gondwana II deposition (Milani,
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 90 (2019) 181–190
1997; Zerfass et al., 2004). From this stretching, AMG is referred in the
literature as a relict of Paraná basin (Ketzer, 1997; Milani et al., 2007;
Machado, 2014; Horn et al., 2015). The graben has pelitic-sandy sedi-
ments interpreted by Lima et al. (2018) as inundite deposits. They
propose subaqueous, episodic flow that evolved to ephemeral channels.
Regarding paleoclimate, deposits are referred to as arid to semi-arid
conditions, typical of the Triassic (Zerfass, 2003). AMG deposits follow
structurally the pattern of the Sul-riograndense Shield that shows faults
and folds in a NE trend. This direction is inherited from Brasiliano
Orogeny (900-530 Ma) (Chemale, 2000; Hartmann et al., 2007; Phillip
et al., 2015).
In terms of age, SMF has vertebrate and invertebrate fossils, in-
cluding the vertebrate Rhynchosaur that is attributed to the Upper
Triassic (Faccini, 1989; Faccini et al., 1990; Schultz et al., 2016). In
AMG deposits, a Triassic age was also determined by Rhyncosaur fossil
assigned to the genus Hyperodapedon, index fossil of the Hyperodapedon
AZ, corresponding to the base of Candelária Sequence, Santa Maria
Supersequence. (Horn et al., 2015). This finding was crucial to correlate
the deposits of AMG and SMF, because they are similar in terms of
stratigraphy and age. In addition, Borsa et al. (2017) based specially on
stratigraphic data relates AMG to Candelária Sequence that is SM2 in
the Santa Maria Supersequence.
Borsa et al. (2017) based on sedimentological, paleontological and
sequence stratigraphic correlation relates the AMG record to the base of
the Candelaria Sequence (sensu Horn et al., 2014) and by Zerfass et al.
(2003) is equivalent to the SM2.
Philipp et al. (2018) from zircon data results of the Santa Cruz Se-
quence (bottom portion of Santa Maria Supersequence) proved that the
top of this Sequence is aged close to the Ladinian-Carnian boundary
(Triassic). This work is very important to show that biostratigraphic age
proposed by Horn et al. (2015) is in agreement with the absolute
chronostratigraphy from UePb results. Moreover, Philipp et al. (2018)
gathering geochronological, stratigraphic, structural and paleocurrent
information indicate that the source areas for the Triassic sedimentary
rocks they analyzed are located to the south, and the uplift that out-
crops both basement and units from Paraná Basin deposited until Late
Permian are related to the formation of Rio Grande Arch.
I.C. Rodrigues et al.
Fig. 2. Geological maps of the study areas. A- Santa Maria Supersequence as part of Paraná Basin. Letters A and B inside the boxes are where Pierini et al. (2002)
collected SMF samples and piled the column sections. B- Arroio Moirão Graben deposits as an isolate portion of Paraná Basin.
3. Methodology
This is a comparative study between AMG and SMF clay minerals
content. The current authors analyzed several samples (32) from AMG
in terms of petrography, XRD, SEM analyses and Infrared Spectrometry.
Previously, authors included into Pierini et al. (2002) work, studied
Santa Maria and Caturrita formations stratigraphically and geochemi-
cally and in terms of clay minerals they analyzed 39 samples. By that
time Santa Maria and Caturrita formations were interpreted as different
in terms of lithostratigraphy, however as mentioned in Geological
Setting, nowadays they are interpreted as part of a huge sequence called
Santa Maria Supersequence and can be divided into SM1, SM2, SM3 or
even into small sequences (Mata, Candelária, Santa Cruz and Pinheiros-
Chiniquá respectively).
Data acquired by them, involved XRD, petrography, SEM and che-
mical analyses. As this prior work has similar approach to the samples,
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 90 (2019) 181–190
analyses are almost the same, figures are able to be compared, and the
areas are related by many papers, the authors herein found reasonable
to compare the clay mineral content data in order to better understand
paleoclimate conditions and other controls that led the difference be-
tween them, since this kind of approach has never been done and it
would be important for a better understanding about Paraná Basin
deposition.
It is important to clarify that when it comes to the Santa Maria
Supersequence nomenclature, Pierini et al. (2002) studied the major
register of it, including SM2 (Candelária Sequence) and SM3 (Santa
Cruz and Pinheiros-Chiniquá). As for a long time part of the register
mentioned were called Santa Maria Formation (even in the title of their
paper), this terminology is still widely used to refer the registers from
Santa Maria Supersequence, as published by a variety of papers such as
Langer and Schultz (2000), Horn et al. (2015), Borsa et al. (2017),
Langer et al. (2018) and Philipp et al. (2018). Consequently, the SMF
I.C. Rodrigues et al.
Fig. 3. Lithostratigraphic column and chronostratigraphic of the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous of Paraná Basin. SMF is a generic name to express Santa Maria
Supersequence portions and AMG is related to Candelária Sequence or SM2. (Modified from Faccini, 1989; Pierini et al., 2002; Horn et al., 2014).
name will be used in the entire manuscript for the reasons mentioned.
Once more, the AMG analyses and results presented herein are
completely a novelty and were achieved by the current authors and all
SMF analyses and results (including pictures) were done by authors
included in the work of Pierini et al. (2002). The closure of the present
work is followed by a discussion on the evolution of clay minerals
content through Triassic and implications for paleoclimate.
3.1. Fieldwork
Google Earth® was used to find the best outcrops for the AMG, and
after this searching the fieldwork and sample collection succeeded.
Pierini et al. (2002) gathered from SMF a total of 111 siltstones and
14 sandstones samples, however 39 samples (siltstones) were analyzed
in terms of composition of clay minerals, whereas in AMG 25 pelites
and 7 sandstones from Arroio Moirão Graben were put to analyses.
Samples taken from both units cover a wide areal distribution (see
Table 1).
3.2. X-ray diffraction
X-ray diffraction (XRD) is suitable to analyze crystalline structure to
discriminate mineral phases. Hence, this method was applied to fine-
grained fraction (FF < 2 μm) containing clay minerals. Separation of
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 90 (2019) 181–190
clay minerals followed Alves (1987) and Moore and Reynolds (1997).
XRD analyses were done at the X-Ray Diffractometry Laboratory of
the Geochemistry and Petrography Research Center (CPGq)—Earth
Sciences Institute (UFRGS), using a SIEMENS D 500 Diffractometer with
copper anode, nickel filter, 1° slits, 40 mA and 30 kV. Diffraction pat-
terns were obtained with speed of 0.5° 2θ/min, covering the analytical
angle range of 2–80° 2θ.
All oriented mounts were scanned three times with X-rays, fol-
lowing three treatments: (a) air-drying: named natural sample; (b)
ethylene glycol solvation: the mounting slide was stored in a closed
desiccator with ethylene glycol (CH2OHOH2OH) before the analysis by
the X-rays. Inside the desiccator, a saturated atmosphere was created in
a stove at 60 °C during 8 h (Whitney and Northrop, 1987); (c) heating:
the mounted slide was kept in an oven at 500 °C for 2 h.
3.3. SEM analysis
After XRD analysis, some samples were analyzed in a scanning
electron microscopy (SEM). This method is able to display morpholo-
gical features and clay minerals arrangement and disposition, which
better indicate the evolution of clay minerals. Sample preparation fol-
lowed Mizusaki (1986) procedure and analyses were done in two la-
boratories, as follows.
Arroio Moirão Graben samples were analyzed by a PHILIPS
I.C. Rodrigues et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 90 (2019) 181–190

Table 1
Clay mineral composition of siltstones, pelites and sandstones samples from SMF and AMG.
Santa maria Formation Arroio Moirão Graben

Samples I/S (%) I (%) Kaolinite (%) Samples Kaolinite (%) Hematite (%) Ilite (%)

AGB18 91 9 TR09A 90 10
AGB19 95 5 TR09B 85 15
AGB68 88 12 TR09C 87 13
AGB69 91 9 TR09D 95 5
AGB74 98 2 TR09E 88 12
AGB75 89 11 TR09F 86 14
AGB76 87 13 TR35 100
AGB77 80 20 TR34B 100
AGB78 86 14 TR34E 100
AGB81 85 15 TR TR34A 100
CF118 80 19 1 TR34D 100
CF120 85 12 3 TR03 100
CF122 87 13 TR TR59 100
CF126 90 10 TR63 100
DF82 91 9 TR36 100
DF90 86 14 TR34F 100
DF95 86 11 TR34C 100
DF100 92 8 TR96A 68 32
DF105 81 19 TR96B 67 8 15
DFB115 93 7 TR121 80 20
BP41 81 19 TR122 100
BP45 89 11 PGMCA1 88 12
BP51 87 13 PGMCA7 93 7
BP55 94 6 PGMCB1 90 10
BP60 92 8 PGMCB2 92 8
BP63 96 4 PGMCB3 90 10
FNB02 95 5 PGMCB4 94 6
FN09 89 11 PGMCB5 96 4
FNB10 91 9 PGMCB6 92 8
FNB15 90 10 PGMCB9 94 6
FNB27 84 16 PGMCC1 91 9
FNB31 86 14 PGMCC7 95 5
FNB33 91 9
FNB34 92 8
FNB37 82 18
FNB38 94 6
AC12 86 9
FS13 93 6
FS16 92 8

Fig. 4. Photomicrographs of SMF (A,B,C) and AMG rocks (D,E,F). A- Optical photomicrograph of heterogeneous sedimentary rocks with disseminated iron oxides. Be
Optical photomicrograph of mixed I/S rims around infiltrated clay minerals coatings. Ce Optical photomicrograph of infiltrated clay minerals arrangement. D,E−
Kaolinite filling pores with characteristic booklet habit. Fe Kaolinite substituting mica grain and exposing booklet habit.

185
I.C. Rodrigues et al.
Fig. 5. XRD diffractograms of SMF (A,B) showing I/S, illite (I) and quartz peaks; XRD diffractograms of AMG (C,D) showing kaolinite (Kao) and quartz (Qtz) peaks.
scanning electron microscope (XL30 model) at Electron Microscopy
Laboratory (PUCRS). With this method, millimetric samples were pre-
pared and attached to micro tapes (5 × 6 mm) and later covered with
thin gold coating (around 20 Å).
3.4. Infrared spectroscopy
After all these methods, a doubt remained about the kaolinite
polymorph dickite and infrared spectroscopy analysis was performed.
This polymorph is only generated under meso-diagenetic conditions.
Two samples were submitted to infrared analysis at PUCRS chemical
laboratory, using a Perkin Elmer spectrophotometer (Spectrum 100
model). KBr pastilles were prepared and analysis conducted at 4 cm−1
resolution, 4000 to 450 cm−1 scan and velocity of analysis at 10 s under
220 V.
4. Results
Results are approached comparatively between SMF and AMG, ex-
posing differences between the units regarding clay minerals content.
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 90 (2019) 181–190
4.1. Petrography
SMF includes well-sorted sandstones, however in laminated samples
they display moderate sorting. The base of the section is dominated by a
very fine-grained sandstone (around 0.0625 mm) and replaced upwards
by fine to medium-grained sandstone (around 0.25 mm).
Sandstones from the basal portion show loosely packed intercala-
tions, subtle finer-grained layers with pores impregnated with iron
oxide (Fig. 4A). Coarser-grained sandstone exposes no preferred or-
ientation and is loosely packed. Sand grains are subangular in the entire
section and display low sphericity and common elongated contacts. In a
short, SMF section includes supported framework sandstone with some
textural changes.
In terms of clay minerals, SMF holds small amount of authigenic
clay minerals in two ways: I/S mixed-layers filling pores (Fig. 4B),
developed as infiltrated clay mineral coatings; and discrete and fibrous
neoformed occur on the I/S mixed-layered aggregates similar to needles
(Fig. 4C). Kaolinite randomly appears on sandstones pores in small
amounts.
I.C. Rodrigues et al.
On the other hand, AMG has sandstones, siltites and pelites. Pelites
are dominant in the section. Texturally, rocks vary from well-sorted to
poorly-sorted and grains also vary between well-rounded and poorly-
rounded.
Siltite is mainly massive and seldomly laminated. Matrix is made up
of clay with few quartz grains. Oxide pigmentation is common. Quartz
grains show sharp corners and feldspar grains are rare. White mica
lamellae and small amounts of kaolinite booklets appear locally sub-
stituting clay clasts. Some of the fine-grained rocks show higher content
of clay matrix, therefore classified as pelites, but they have nearly the
same features.
Regarding clay minerals, AMG virtually has only kaolinite. This
mineral occurs as pseudomorphs of feldspars, clay clasts and detrital
mica grains (Fig. 4D), pore filling sandstone grains (Fig. 4E) with
booklet habit characteristic of the mineral (Fig. 4F).
4.2. X-ray diffraction, SEM analyzes and infrared spectroscopy
The XRD patterns shows that the analyzed stratigraphic section
matches with whole-rock description in relation to fine-grained com-
position (< 2 μm). SMF rocks are predominantly composed of I/S
mixed-layered clay minerals, illite content is minor and kaolinite is
nearly absent compared to other clay minerals. AMG clay content is
exclusively composed of kaolinite and without significant content of
other clay mineral. Comparative clay minerals composition for both
areas is described in Table 1.
XRD patterns for kaolinite show a very strong peak of kaolinite
(Kao) and a lower intensity peak of quartz (Qtz), reflecting a very or-
dered structure. Fig. 5 shows a comparative XRD result using two
samples of each area to show the predominance of I/S on SMF and
kaolinite on AMG.
Illite occurs replacing K-feldspar grains and I/S mixed-layered ag-
gregates and detrital grains (Fig. 6A–C). Illite morphology is needle-
shaped as seen in thin sections. Kaolinite displays well-formed ag-
gregates, showing pseudo-hexagonal form (Fig. 6D), booklet habit
(Fig. 6E) and also kaolinite substituting detrital grains (Fig. 6F).
Infrared spectrum shows the characteristic absorption bands of
kaolinite (Fig. 7). Kaolinite absorption bands range between 3500 and
3750 cm−1 corresponding to stretching frequencies of OH groups
(Wilson, 1987; Madejová, 2003). When the four characteristic bands
Fig. 6. Clay minerals of SMF (A,B,C) and AMG (D,E,F) under SEM analysis. A- Illite (Ill) over detrital feldspar grain (Kfs). Be Illitization over detrital grains. Ce
Radiated aggregates of authigenic illite over detrital grains. D- Aggregates of kaolinite displaying well-formed pseudo-hexagonal form. E− Kaolinite booklet habit.
Fe Kaolinite substituting detrital grain.
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 90 (2019) 181–190
(3700, 3670, 3650 and 3620 cm−1) are well defined, it means that
kaolinite is well-ordered. Analyzed kaolinite has ordered structure be-
cause all four bands cited are well defined.
5. Discussion
Two Triassic units from Paraná Basin, the main outcrop area (SMF)
and the AMG triassic layers, are genetically correlated based on verte-
brate fóssils and stratigraphic correlations.
The similarity of the two deposits leads to the expectation that their
clay minerals content is concordant. Nonetheless, SMF layers show
enrichment in illite and I/S mixed layers while AMG deposits have
kaolinite, confirmed optically by microscopic analyses and structurally
by XRD results.
As clay mineral content is controlled by paleoclimate conditions, the
contrast between minerals variety offers clues regarding paleoclimate
changes after the layers deposited. In this way, illite and I/S mixed
layers were associated with hot, semi-arid to arid conditions while
kaolinite was related to humid conditions (Chamley, 1989; Thiry,
2000).
In SMF, paleoclimate was arid to semi-arid due to widespread pre-
sence of illite and I/S mixed layers. These clay minerals represent in-
filtrated material from post-depositional compaction, mainly supported
by lack of diagenetic features as shown by Pierini et al. (2002). Ac-
cording to Langer et al. (2018) biostratigraphic data suggests appear-
ance of dinosaurs in the region that matches with dryer and warmer
conditions, due to the dominance of Rhynchosaur as first level con-
sumers and the general faunal diversification.
AMG has no illite and I/S mixed layers and fillings with kaolinite
fractions, which suggests humid conditions. Kaolinite from AMG is
well-formed and distributed over the entire succession as observed in
SEM analyses. Infrared results also indicate any mesodiagenetic con-
ditions for the layers, otherwise kaolinite fractions would be trans-
formed into dickite.
The origin kaolinite in the Arroio Moirão Graben is still a con-
troversial topic. In terms of diagenesis, the recognition of the precise
timing and extent of kaolinization in sedimentary sequences is difficult.
Kaolinite may have been formed both in eodiagenetic and telogenetic
stages, so it is very difficult to differentiate them. They are precipitated
from detrital silicate-grains dissolution (K-feldspars, micas and lithic
I.C. Rodrigues et al.
Fig. 7. Infrared spectrum from AMG showing characteristic absorption bands of kaolinite.
fragments) by an undersaturated meteoric water environment, where
pH and (K+, Na+)/H+ ratio are low, moreover warm, subhumid to
humid (precipitation > 1000 mmyr-1) and near-surface conditions
(eodiagenesis) are required. As a result, aggregates with vermicular and
booking habits are formed (McAulay et al., 1994; Ketzer et al., 2003;
Worden and Barclay, 2003).
Besides euhedral booklets and vermicular textures, there are several
evidences indicating an in situ origin for kaolinite as kaolinized mica
flakes expanded into open pores (Fig. 4F), micro porosity of pore-filling
kaolin (Fig. 5D; E), which is typically present in diagenetic conditions,
as opposed to detrital clay aggregates (Hurst and Nadeau, 1995).
Consequently, the eodiagenesis possibility is not excluded in this
case. However, it is important differentiate the paleoclimate conditions
during deposition from paleoclimate after the layers were deposited. As
seen by XRD in SMF all the samples show the predominance of I and I/S
mixed layers. SMF during deposition of the layers is in agreement with
the arid or semi-arid conditions, so these clay minerals content is ex-
pected. AMG is strongly related to SM2 and the expected clay minerals
were erased or at least masked from the register. Therefore, only telo-
diagenetic conditions are able to explain this contrast.
Several aspects control the spatial, temporal distribution and the
extent of meteoric telodiagenesis among the presence of faults, which
extend to the surface and act as conduits for meteoric water (Morad
et al., 2000). Parnell et al. (2000) showed that the original kaolinite
precipitation is focused along the high permeability fault zone that
served as high permeability conduit.
Therefore, clay mineral content suggests that after the deposition
settings of both areas, hot conditions established in the SMF deposits,
associated with arid to semi-arid climate, while in AMG humid condi-
tions dominated in the deposits.
The close association of elevated amounts of kaolinite and in-
tragranular porosity with such normal faults is attributed to telodia-
genesis (Ketzer et al., 2003). Modifications related to the exposure of
previously buried sedimentary sequences to near-surface meteoric
conditions below unconformities and/or along faults are referred to as
telodiagenesis (Choquete and Pray, 1970).
Moreover, spatially and temporally extensive telogenetic meteoric
alterations are expected to occur around uplifted blocks in humid cli-
mates and in mineralogically immature sandstones with good hydraulic
conductivity. As the incursion of meteoric water along faults bounding
uplifted blocks occur to depths of a few hundred of meters, the spatial
and temporal distribution of telogenetic modifications are not ne-
cessarily systematically related to unconformity surfaces.
The recent study of Philipp et al. (2018) corroborates this
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 90 (2019) 181–190
assumption for the area, since they propose that Rio Grande Arch was
responsible for the uplift of the basement and the units deposited until
Late Permian.
After the breakup of the southern portion of Gondwana separated
the two areas, hot conditions prevailed SMF deposits and even if arid or
semi-arid climate was part of paleoenvironment of AMG, humid con-
ditions took place propitiated by the uplift of Rio Grande Arch.
The telogenetic rather than eogenetic formation of kaolinite is
presumably enhanced by more humid climatic conditions compared
with the semi-arid climate during the Triassic and the generation of
smectite in the other sedimentary units of the Santa Maria Formation as
well as silicate dissolution is more extensive under semi-humid to
humid climatic conditions and typically is accompanied by kaolinite
precipitation (Ketzer et al., 2003).
Therefore, when we analyze the AMG deposit from paleoenviron-
mental perspective, the lithologic inundites system that requires peri-
odic rainfall to create inundation flux as proposed by Lima (2016) and
perhaps this rainfall could create some kind of kaolinization to the
layers. However, AMG is associated to SM2, and it has similar pa-
leoenvironment starting with high-sinuosity fluvial and overbank de-
posits grading for lacustrine-deltaic depositional system, and there is no
kaolinite in the register.
Only telodiagenetic conditions are able to mask or change clay
minerals content in this case, so we suggest that eodiagenesis is able to
influence the mineral content however, telodiagenetic conditions have
way more impact for this contrasting situation, where telogenetic fac-
tors make precipitation easily to permeate AMG deposits and spread
kaolinization through the rocks. The ubiquitous presence of kaolinite
for AMG deposits is also favored by small thickness compared to SMF
amplitude, where the fractures and faults resulted by the graben em-
placement helped kaolinization to spread in virtually all the lithologies.
Fig. 8 show a simplified sketch for AMG deposits.
6. Conclusions
The compilation of multiple analyses of Santa Maria Formation and
Arroio Moirão Graben has revealed results in terms of paleoclimate
implications of Triassic.
The clay mineral content shows predominance of illite and I/S
mixed layers in Santa Maria deposits; allied to stratigraphic informa-
tion, this suggests hot conditions for this formation. In Arroio Moirão
Graben, kaolinite is invariably present in the lithologies exposing
humid conditions, in spite of the genetic relationship of the two de-
posits.
I.C. Rodrigues et al.
Fig. 8. Paleoenvironment sketch of AMG. A- Inundite model for AMG deposits. After the exposure of rocks, humid conditions took place over the deposits (Modified
from Lima et al., 2018). Be The graben setting propitiated the occurrence of fractures and faults, and since the AMG layers are thinner than SMF deposits, rainfall was
able to percolate through the rocks generating kaolinite (Kao) presence over the entire section. (Modified from Ketzer, 1997; Milani, 1997; Zerfass et al., 2003).
As AMG is a relict from Paraná Basin, this register is not as thick and
wide as SMF deposit and also had influence from uplift, telogenetic
meteoric alterations are expected to take place creating humid condi-
tions for the area, erasing or masking the primary clay content.
In our case, kaolinite is the mineral predominant and thus, ac-
cording to the structural (faults and water percolation) characteristics
of the area (as explained above) we considered kaolinite predominantly
influenced by telodiagenesis, but eogenetic effect is not excluded.
Conversely, SMF is influenced by hot and arid conditions as proposed
by paleoenvironmental analysis and even biostratigraphic conditions.
Acknowledgements
The first author thanks CNPq (the research fund of Brazilian
Ministry of Science and Technology) for a MSc degree scholarship and
also to UFRGS and PUCRS for the use of laboratories.
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