Tourism Management 78 (2020) 104027

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tourism Management
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman

Could virtual reality effectively market slow travel in a

heritage destination?
Li-Pin (Lynn) Lin a, Shu-Chun (Lucy) Huang b, *, Yao-Chun Ho c
a
Department of Leisure and Recreation Management, Ming Chuan University, 250 Zhong Shan N. Rd., Sec. 5, Taipei 111, Taiwan
b
Shih Hsin University, #1, Lane 17, Sec. 1, Mu-Cha Rd., Taipei, Taiwan
c
Department of Tourism, Department of Leisure and Recreation Management, Ming Chuan University, 250 Zhong Shan N. Rd., Sec. 5, Taipei 111, Taiwan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A recent trend in tourism research involves the application of high technology in marketing practices such as
Virtual reality virtual reality (VR), cell phone apps, and new media. Among these, VR is the most novel. In 2016, Discovery
Chinese traditional painting Travel created TRVLR, which includes all seven continents. Even earlier, specific tourist destinations were
Tourism destination marketing
providing VR content about their respective locales. These venues expose potential tourists to tourist locations by
Slow travel
Nostalgia
immersing them in a visceral, 360-degree storytelling setting. However, while VR has gradually grown in
Destination image popularity in the tourism industry, the marketing effects have been infrequently studied by academia. This
research asked participants to view a VR presentation of a famous 700-year-old Chinese painting, and investi­
gated viewers’ nostalgia and ST travel intentions. Information was collected from 308 samples at certain popular
tourist destinations around Fuzhou in the Fujian Province of China, and Taipei and Taoyuan in Taiwan. Struc­
tural equation modeling was then used to analyze the collected data and test the hypotheses. The findings
indicate that VR is a very useful tool for encouraging respondents to travel to Jinan in a slower and more
intensely observational manner, significantly arousing their sense of nostalgia and leading to a strong intention
to ST to Jinan. This research provides important insights into how this new technology might function as a tool
for marketing Jinan, a tier-two but historically important destination in China. The implications of these findings
are important to understanding the associations for potential tourists among VR use, destination marketing, and
travel intention, particularly when the object city is relatively unknown.

1. Introduction longer periods of time than do their purely entertainment-based coun­

As a means of responding to the effects of climate change, the fast-
growing tourism industry has begun promoting slow travel (ST) as an
alternative tourism experience that emphasizes deeper and more
meaningful interactions with locals and environments, coupled with a
slower manner of transportation (Dickinson, Lumsdon, & Robbins,
2011). It encourages sustainable mobility through the use of public or
mass transportation systems, walking, cycling, and boating. All play an
important role; driving is avoided, encouraging climatic sustainability
by reducing GHG emission (Dickinson & Lumsdon, 2010; Lin, 2017).
Once the ST concept and its sustainable contribution is fully understood,
it is vital that the process be promoted and the destination welcome it.
Thus, there is a need for further research on practical means of
implementation.
Heritage attractions encourage tourists to visit destinations for
terparts, because they encourage experiences of deep cultural explora­
tion. Heritage tourism in old cities and settlements engages tourists in
cultural, historical, and folk aspects and inspires their imaginations,
encouraging visitors to interact with locals and their immediate envi­
ronment. Based on these characteristics, heritage-based tourist desti­
nations are appropriate objects for ST marketing. Heritage tourism
inspires connections among tourists, events, and personal experiences of
the past, encouraging a sense of nostalgia and sentimentality that leads
to deep feelings, reflections, and interpretations of the place and people
(Davis, 1979). In this fashion, nostalgia might positively influence the
marketing of heritage destinations (Bandyopadhyay, 2008; Vesey &
Dimanche, 2003), and thus be a meaningful method of promoting ST to
heritage destinations, if the relationship between nostalgia and ST
intention could be realized through an empirical study.
In tourism practice, visual images have widely been employed to

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: lynnlin@mail.mcu.edu.tw (L.-P.(L. Lin), huangsch@mail.shu.edu.tw (S.-C.(L. Huang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2019.104027
Received 21 February 2019; Received in revised form 16 May 2019; Accepted 29 October 2019
Available online 28 December 2019
0261-5177/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L.-P.(L. Lin et al.
market specific destinations. Hunt (1975), Lawson and Bond-Bovy
(1977), and Crompton (1979) all proposed the concept of destination
images. In the 1990s, their theory was often employed in academic work
to discuss how to establish and what the effects might be of destination
images, and if they might be used to market and manage destinations (e.
g., Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Gartner, 1993). Recently, with the advent
of social media (e.g., Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, etc.), visual images
from both user-generated content (UGC) and destination marketing or­
ganizations (DMOs) have been found to be effective ways of influencing
consumers in their formation of destination images (e.g., Molinillo,
Li�ebana-Cabanillas, & Anaya-Sa �nchez, 2018; Pan, Lee, & Tsai, 2014).
Since the first decade of the 21st century, virtual reality (VR) has also
increasingly been employed by certain tourist destinations and travel
professional programs as a means of providing marketing tours (Budd,
2017). However, relevant empirical research discussing the effects of
this new technology is still relatively lacking, especially in terms of
various demographic groups, venues, and tourism attractions (Gutten­
tag, 2010).
VR could be used to provide sensory experiences, accessing objects or
places through the distinct views facilitated by computerized simulation
(Cheong, 1995). VR may impress upon potential tourists the presence of
the particular place (Guttentag, 2010), producing a genuine and dy­
namic visual expression of the destination through which people could
explore and wander. Emerging research should fill this research gap by
attempting to connect VR with the destination marketing of sustainable
tourism. Currently, qualitative and quantitative analyses of case studies
are needed that explore how and why VR might be effective for tourism
marketing; the findings of existing relevant research (e.g., Griffin,
Giberson, Lee, Guttentag, & Kandaurova, 2017; Tussyadiah, Wang,
Jung, & Dieck, 2018) are limited. To promote heritage-based ST activ­
ities at appropriate destinations, the current study incorporated VR of
one 700 hundred-year-old Chinese painting of a heritage tourism city
into a model to probe how and why VR might work effectively to
encourage sustainable tourism practices.
2. Literature review
2.1. Slow travel intention
Connected with sustainability, ST can be traced back to the late
1980s. Anti-McDonald’s sentiment led the “Slow Food” movement in
Italy. This movement served as a contrast to the fast food American
culture that emphasized efficiency (Dickinson et al., 2011; Pietryowski,
2004). In response to the cost of living one’s life in a fast fashion
(Bluedorn, 2002), ST attempts to cure people of their “hurry sickness”
(Parkins & Craig, 2009), which induces the disappearance of shared
public space, social interactions, and a deep appreciation of traditional
culture (Mallett, 2004). A handful of researchers, such as Dickinson et al.
(2011), Go€ssling, Hall, Lane, and Weaver (2008), Lumsdon and McGrath
(2011), and Scott and Becken (2010) were among the first to introduce
the main concepts of ST. Lin (2017, 2018) elaborated upon the con­
ceptual structure through measurable items in empirical studies. These
include: (1) using relatively slower transportation, such as buses, bikes,
and foot travel, in contrast to airplanes and cars; (2) freely seeking
authentic tourism experiences through deeper and more extended
engagement with local activities and slow-paced excursions; and (3)
environmental sensitivity, mainly with regards to the effects of GHG
emissions.
In practice, ST creates new opportunities through which people are
encouraged to intentionally embrace slowness in leisure travel. They go
through an ST process of facing an aversion in fast daily life; intending to
look for a “purer” mind and “simpler” life, in contrast to one of accel­
eration; and co-creating a journey experience with the people encoun­
tered and stories collected from the travel space. In other words,
travelers are inspired to pursue mindful slowness and enjoy the privi­
leges associated with taking time (Petters, Egmond van, & Visser, 2004),
2
Tourism Management 78 (2020) 104027
such as escaping from the hectic pressure of daily life and achieving a
mindset of living an easy and simple life by following a self-defined
rhythm (Lin & Huang, 2018). Travelers become proud of the deep in­
teractions they develop with locals and their engagement with various
and distinct cultures. They appreciate the local beauty, natural and
humane; enjoy the space and feelings shared with their companions; and
are enriched by local knowledge. The end result is happiness, a higher
quality of life, and a general sense of wellness (Lin & Huang, 2018).
Researchers have also concluded that environmental concern has
become a byproduct of ST, since the means of sustainable mobility
highlight minimal environmental impacts, which is also a part of the
practice of ST.
In short, tourists pursuing ST prefer to spend longer amounts of time
to develop a deeper engagement with locals, culture, and places. The ST
intention of visiting a particular destination is characterized by the wise
use of time, demonstrated by employing slower transportation, an
intentionally unrushed travel schedule, and a free mindset of wandering
and appreciating the details of the local life and landscapes of destina­
tions. Tourists may also be concerned with the environmental impacts
and other issues relevant to tourism activities. In addition to be moti­
vated by the benefits of slower-paced leisure travel, tourists may be
encouraged by the appealingly appropriate settings of the contextual
environment, such as the accessibility and design of certain attractions
(Lin, 2018). The surrounding environment, both natural and built, plays
a vital role in facilitating tourists’ co-creation and experience of inten­
tionally slow leisure.
2.2. Destination image
Early research on destination images (DIs) in the 1970s generally
defined them as a person’s impression of a place or object, an expression
of his or her beliefs, ideas, knowledge, impressions, prejudices, and
imagination (Crompton, 1979; Hunt, 1975; Lawson & Bond-Bovy,
1977). Later studies explored how DIs had become critical influences
on tourists’ travel decisions, and how they might be employed as a
marketing venue for tourist destinations (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999;
Echtner & Ritchie, 1991; Gartner, 1993). DIs are considered an impor­
tant branding tool, leading to the successful marketing of tourist
destinations.
Many have suggested that DIs influence tourists’ decisions, attitudes,
and behavioral intentions (Jin, Lee, & Lee, 2015; Kim, Holland, & Han,
2013; Lim & Weaver, 2014; White, 2014; Zhang, Fu, Cai, & Lu, 2014).
Researchers have also confirmed that DIs are formed mainly by external
stimuli (e.g., information and previous experience) and personal factors
(Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Jin et al., 2015; Stepchenkova, Kim, &
Kirilenko, 2015). Therefore, managers have put significant effort into
building up their product’s identity and creating for it a positive DI
(Gallarza, Saura, & García, 2002; Gnoth, Baloglu, & Ekinci, 2007; Sirgy
& Su, 2000), believing that doing so will improve the impressions and
beliefs of cognition and emotion about their destinations, further
influencing tourists’ travel behaviors.
DIs can be measured by several aspects, often categorized as cogni­
tive, affective, conative, and overall impressions. When a destination
provides a variety of appealing sensations, how tourists evaluate its
image is based on personal experiences, impressions, expectations, and
cognitions, all adding different dimensions (Kim & Richardson, 2003;
Lee, 2009; Lim & Weaver, 2014; Murphy, Benckendorff, & Moscardo,
2007; Zhang et al., 2014). The early research of Echtner and Ritchie
(1991) distinguished three continuums of DI: attribute-holistic, func­
tional-psychological, and common-unique. DI measurement scales were
proposed by Gartner (1993) and Dann (1996), and included cognitive,
affective, and conative aspects. Cognitive refers to tourists’ ideas and
knowledge of destinations, while affective and conative concern feelings
and other emotional reactions, and intention to visit, respectively. The
above DI measurements have widely been employed by researchers such
as Stylos, Vassiiadis, Bellou, and Andronikidis (2016), who recently
L.-P.(L. Lin et al.
developed the DI model with a mediator of personal normative beliefs,
which was used to predict the revisit intention of Russian tourists to
Greece.
To examine how DI would influence tourists’ behavioral intentions,
the current research developed the following hypothesis:
H1. DI has a significantly positive effect on potential tourists’ intention
to engage in ST to an ancient city.
2.3. Effects of virtual reality
Virtual reality (VR) is developing quickly, and is currently being
applied for entertainment, education, and production purposes. In the
past decade, commercialized VR products have become considerably
more accessible on the market. Users are able to see images of a place via
360-degree views, instead of a simple “bird’s eye” view, triggering
simulated interactions and communication and offering users flexibility
in terms of pace, detail, and foci (Guttentag, 2010). Its applications are
wide, and include education, medical treatment, wildlife adventures,
cultural and sustainable tourism development, and entertainment, all in
well-simulated environments. Some museums have even utilized VR to
exhibit their collections beyond the limitations of space, time, and dis­
tance (Jung & tom Dieck, 2017). VR has also been suggested for use as a
marketing tool for tourist destinations, facilitating potential tourists’
experiences with cultural and natural attractions (Jacobius, 2016). For
instance, Discovery TRVLR has produced several 360-degree VR videos
for famous but difficult-to-reach destinations.
VR facilitates experiencing the effects of actual presence and inspires
viewers’ imaginations. Thus, VR’s simulated environments may also
impact users’ attitudes, behavioral intentions, and eventual behaviors
(Mania & Chalmers, 2001). Among the few studies relevant to how VR is
employed in the tourism industry, some have considered its function in
sustainable development. Sussmann and Vanhegan (2000) suggested
that VR could replace mass tourism, assisting with the sustainable
management of natural resources. Sambhanthan and Good (2013) pro­
posed the application of VR in order to increase the accessibility of
destinations to potential visitors who are mobility impaired; it could also
improve the economic sustainability of tourist destinations in devel­
oping countries. Other studies have focused on the marketing applica­
tions of VR. Williams and Hobson (1995) stressed the potential of selling
tourism by providing sensory information, and Guttentag (2010) dis­
cussed other advantageous functions of VR in this area. Both studies
argued that VR could be used to immerse viewers in the reality of
presence, away from the anxiety associated with strange destinations; it
could also offer informative communication to tourists, enhance
viewers’ experiences, encourage their imaginations, and provide in­
terpretations and other educational functions.
In conclusion, the primary effects of VR are immersion, imagination,
and interaction (Burdea & Coiffet, 2003), which could together be used
as an effective means of triggering people’s attitudes and inspiring
behavior changes. The successful incorporation of VR into tourism
marketing will lead to a unique emotional proposition (UEP) in its
marketing (Jacobius, 2016), particularly when the multi-sensory
method is innovatively applied (Pawaskar & Goel, 2014). However,
empirical evidence is still needed to explain the associations between VR
applications and tourism marketing, as well as to strengthen the theo­
retical grounds for this type of study. The very recent and pioneering
research of Tussyadiah et al. (2018) found that VR could result in
viewers becoming trapped in their virtual environments. The sense of
presence and enjoyment induced by VR can significantly impact tour­
ists’ attitudes toward visiting destinations, leading to alterations of their
visitation intentions. Research has shown that VR directly influences
viewers’ attitudes; therefore, VR is considered an effective marketing
tool for tourist destinations. Thus, to examine VR’s effects on behavioral
intention, the current research has developed the following hypothesis:
H2. VR has a significantly positive effect on potential tourists’
3
Tourism Management 78 (2020) 104027
intention to engage in ST to an ancient city.
2.4. Nostalgia in heritage tourism
Nostalgia is an intensely positive yearning for times past (Davis,
1979). Such feelings incorporate complex emotions in response to ob­
jects, persons, experiences, and places. In marketing research, nostalgia
has been widely employed to explain consumer behavior.
Nostalgia-related emotions can be encouraged through nostalgic im­
ages, themes, and products that stimulate consumers’ imagination,
fantasies, and memories (Havlena & Holak, 1991; Holak & Havlena,
1998). Nostalgia is the joy, happiness, and pleasure connected with a
sense of belonging and affiliation, and thus is an effective tool in mar­
keting (Holak & Havlena, 1998).
In marketing cultural tourism destinations, nostalgia has been used
to drive tourists’ emotional reflections and sense of self by encouraging
them to experience their own ancestral exotic cultures. Since tourism is a
commodity to be consumed, tourists purchase products, images, and
services from heritage destinations, through which they seek experi­
ences relevant to particular historical events and local cultures, even­
tually achieving satisfaction through their authenticity (Chhabra, Healy,
& Sills, 2003; Vesey & Dimanche, 2003). Both passive receivers and
active seekers rely on the unique cultural or historical offerings of these
destinations. Therefore, nostalgic tourism has created cultural explora­
tions, attracting people interested in the historical, artistic, scientific,
lifestyle, and heritage offerings of specific destinations. These can be
divided into two categories: real and historical. The former brings
tourists to their own past location and culture, developing “returning”
and “remembering” reactions; the latter conveys tourists to an idealized
and never-experienced cultural environment through indirect venues
such as books, stories, and images (Russell, 2008). High tourist
involvement signifies their search for authenticity in their cultural ex­
periences (Russell, 2008; Vesey & Dimanche, 2003).
The compound contents of nostalgia defined by Davis (1979) need to
be further distinguished when examining its influence on behavioral
intentions regarding heritage explorations. Nostalgia has been described
as a simple, reflexive, interpreted effect, a humble desire to return to the
beautiful life of the past. Nostalgia has also been described as analytical
ideas adding up to a straightforward back-to-back desire, and further
interpretation of nostalgic objects (Davis, 1979). Thus, nostalgia is
actually a combination of direct effects and indirect emotions that
emerge after an analytical process. Baker and Kennedy (1994) described
nostalgia as having three aspects: real, simulated, and collective. Real
nostalgia involves personal experience with the time and event context,
while simulated and collective nostalgia are derived from indirect ex­
periences via historical imagination and stories of historical events.
Nostalgia has been applied in empirical research studying adver­
tising media. Natterer (2014) differentiated personal nostalgia (PN)
from historical nostalgia (HN) in order to develop a reliable scale for
measuring nostalgia. PN is directly related to autobiographical mem­
ories (i.e., “the way I was”), while HN is derived from reflection, re­
membrance, and knowledge of historical subjects (i.e., “the way it was”)
(Natterer, 2014; Stern, 1992).
The motivation and features of nostalgic tourists were found mostly
to relate to the desire to perceive authentic historical and cultural ele­
ments (Chhabra et al., 2003). According to Russell (2008), nostalgic
tourism in Ireland and the UK satisfies tourists’ expectations of ancestral
roots and personal experience with cultural identity-seeking, as well as
their enjoyment of authentic traditional legacies and local experiences,
and finding connections between local objects and their own lives. The
process of seeking local authenticity and traditional legacy inspired by
nostalgic emotion demands a relatively slower pace and the detailed
observations that occur during ST travel and activities. Therefore, the
current research developed the following hypothesis:
H3. Nostalgic feelings have a significantly positive effect on potential
L.-P.(L. Lin et al. Tourism Management 78 (2020) 104027

tourists’ intention to engage in ST to an ancient city. suggested by Burdea and Coiffet (2003) and Guttentag (2010). Three
main elements of ST intention to visit Jinan were included with ques­
VR also increases viewers’ enjoyment (Tussyadiah et al., 2018) and
tions derived from past conceptual and empirical research on ST (e.g.,
enriches their experiences and emotions through value co-creation
Dickinson et al., 2011; Lin & Huang, 2018; Lumsdon & McGrath, 2011;
during cultural heritage tours (Jung & tom Dieck, 2017). As a result,
Scott & Becken, 2010). Potential tourists were also asked about their
VR may also trigger visitors’ feelings about historical events and objects,
background information and travel behavior.
and personal memories associated with both. This study developed the
After the questionnaire was completed, all eight experts viewed the
following hypothesis to investigate this possibility:
selected VR of an ancient painting and were consulted regarding the
H4. VR has a significantly positive effect on potential tourists’ appropriateness of 38 questions as they pertained to the four constructs
nostalgic feelings about an ancient city. of DI, nostalgia, VR’s effects, and ST intention. Among the questions,
five referencing modern urban development in Jinan were considered
Based on relevant theories suggested in past research, the current
less important than the others that address urban features encouraging
study conceptualized the following model to examine how VR stimulates
individuals to visit, because all of the experts already knew the city’s
ST intentions via the above-developed hypotheses (see Fig. 1).
long history. Another four questions concerning the biological and
weather conditions described through the VR’s imagination effects were
3. Method
suggested to be only slimly connected to the virtual painting, and
perhaps might be beyond the general public’s observational capabilities.
3.1. Measurement
Eventually, 29 questions remained and were adapted with regards to
wording, expression, and order. The responses were measured on a five-
Before the conceptual model was finalized, the researchers invited
point Likert scale anchored between 1 (strongly disagree) and 5
tourism professors, tour guides, tourism bloggers, and Taiwanese tour­
(strongly agree). After the questionnaire was finalized, the self-
ists with more than two independent touring experiences in China to
administered survey was distributed. Tables 1 and 2 show the main
form a team of eight experts. In a one-hour interview with four of these
contents of the items in the survey.
experts, two tourists expressed concern regarding why viewing VR
relevant to tourist destinations might influence tourists’ travel decisions,
and asked what kinds of VR products would be used in the research. One 3.2. Research area
tour guide had very limited knowledge of VR and no experience relevant
to tourism-related VR. This individual was very excited about the In 2018, the National Palace Museum in Taipei approved the current
research, but wondered why this kind of high technology had been research to employ the VR program produced by the museum featuring
highly potential to be widely employed in destination marketing. One an ancient Chinese painting entitled Autumn Colors on the Qiao and Hua
scholar focused on the details regarding how viewing the VR would be Mountains. The painting was created by the master Zhao Mengfu around
incorporated into the current research, how the effects of the VR would 1295 AD, and is part of the museum’s current collection. As a well-
be measured, and how other factors might function together to influence known and highly-praised Chinese relic housed in Asia, it was catego­
travel intention. The main thoughts expressed by the four interviewees rized as a national treasure by the Ministry of Culture in 2011. It depicts
are summarized in Appendix I.
The questionnaire was designed to solicit potential tourists’ personal
Table 1
information, attitudes, and travel decisions regarding ST to Jinan City
Respondents’ characteristics.
based on the previous literature. Three dimensions of perceived DI –
Characteristic %
cognitive, emotional, and conative – were developed based on the
relevant studies (e.g., Kim & Richardson, 2003; Lim & Weaver, 2014; Age
Murphy et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2014). Two dimensions of nostalgia (i. 18–27 years old 27.9
28–35 years old 18.8
e., personal and historical) were used to measure potential tourists’ 36–43 years old 14.6
nostalgic feelings about past personal experiences and the historical 44–51 years old 21.9
context of the ancient Chinese painting. The items of the questionnaire 52–60 years old 11.0
were drafted following Baker and Kennedy (1994), Marchegiani and Older than 61 years old 5.8
Monthly salary (unit: NT dollar)
Phau (2013), Natterer (2014), and Stern (1992). VR’s effects mainly
� NT$30,000 (or US$1000) 43.8
concerned aspects of immersion, imagination, and interaction, as NT$30,001-$60,000 (or US$2000) 37.4
NT$60,001-$100,000 (or US$3333) 14.6
NT$100,000-$200,000 (or US$6666) 3.2
� NT$200,001 1.0
Gender
Male 40.6
Female 59.4
Education
Elementary school graduate 1.6
Middle school graduate 2.6
High school graduate 25.6
College graduate 56.9
Post-graduate degree 12.0
PhD 1.3
Ever visit Jinan
Never 89.0
� 2 times 10.4
� 3 times .6
(1) Leisure travel to China (respondents in Taipei and Taoyuan in Taiwan) or (2)
Leisure travel outside Fujin Province (respondents in Fuzhou) in 2016 or 2017
Never 46.8
1–3 times 39.3
4–6 times 13.6
� 7 times .3
Fig. 1. A hypothesized conceptual model.

4
L.-P.(L. Lin et al.
Table 2
Descriptive statistics for destination image and explanatory factor.
Factor/Item Mean Factor Eigen Var.
loading
Destination image: Cognitive (Cronbach’s alpha ¼ .812)
Jinan is a very old city. 4.04 .885
Jinan has profound cultural 4.08 .848
development (e.g., many famous
people have come from Jinan in the
past two thousand years).
Jinan has well-known lakes and 4.03 .658 .971 32.911
landscapes (e.g., Daming Lake appears
in many TV dramas).
Destination image: Emotional (Cronbach’s alpha ¼ .919)
It would be exciting to travel to Jinan. 3.95 .828
I would be satisfied to travel to Jinan. 3.97 .873
I would feel delighted to be a tourist in 4.05 .844
Jinan.
I would be pleased to be a tourist in 3.98 .832 4.465 44.747
Jinan.
Note: KMO ¼ 0.860, Rotation method: Varimax. Eigen denotes eigen values
accumulated from all items of the factor. Var. denotes percentage variances
explained for the factor.
the 13th century suburban landscape of an ancient city, Jinan, located in
the Shandong Province in China. At the time, Mongolia had defeated the
Han people, who until then had ruled the whole of China, as well most of
western Asia and part of eastern Europe. Currently, Jinan can be found
at 360400 N and 1160590 E; it is a tier-two city in China, and therefore
may not be universally familiar or considered a high priority tourism
destination by most residents of Southern China and Taiwan.
Thus, Jinan was suitable for the current research’s attempt to iden­
tify the effects of VR on marketing a tourist destination. First, the city
was advantageous for studying the incorporation of a high-quality,
ready-to-use VR product in the marketing of a famous ancient painting
in Chinese history. Second, the city was not internationally and na­
tionally famous, and thus would infrequently be considered by partici­
pants to be a must-visit destination; therefore, the survey of intention to
visit could avoid being skewed by a strong general desire to visit among
tourists. This research was designed to investigate potential tourists’
impressions and perceptions of Jinan before they experienced the VR
program. The results may reflect the area’s marginal popularity and
reputation as a tourist destination Third, the distance from the main area
to where the researchers conducted the survey was about 750 miles, and
the less accessibility, the more obvious the influence of VR in encour­
aging visits. Several cities selected for conducting the data collection
included Fuzhou in the Fujian Province of Southern China, and Taipei
and Taoyuan in Taiwan. These cities where the assistants of the re­
searchers resided in the summer break had similar latitudes and dis­
tances from Jinan.
3.3. Data collection
The surveys were distributed at popular tourist spots in Fuzhou in the
Fujian Province of China, and Taipei and Taoyuan in Taiwan during six
two-day holidays occurring between May and August of 2018. Conve­
nient sampling was employed at these locations to invite visitors older
than 18 to participate in the study. The participants were told before
receiving the survey that they would have the opportunity to experience
the internationally famous ancient painting Autumn Colors on the Qiao
and Hua Mountains via an innovative, high-tech process; they were also
offered either a gift card of NT$50 (US$1.70) for use in Taiwan or
Taiwanese snacks in China as a reward for completing the survey.
At the beginning of the survey, the recruited participants were asked
to provide information about their travel behavior and DIs related to
Jinan. The HTC VIVE VR device was then used to exhibit the painting;
each participant’s experience was five minutes in length. Participants
were then asked to complete the survey questions about the VR
5
Tourism Management 78 (2020) 104027
experience’s effects, their feelings of nostalgia, and any ST intention to
visit Jinan. The total length of each survey was about 10 min and was
completed via the survey venue SurveyMonkey. A total of 308 samples
were collected.
4. Results
4.1. Basic information about the samples
The sample of 308 potential tourists to Jinan was relatively evenly
collected from the three research locations, with 99, 117, and 92 being
retrieved from Fuzhou, Taoyuan, and Taipei, respectively. More than
50% of respondents were younger than 43 years of age, and 70% were
well-educated, holding bachelor’s degrees or higher. Approximately
44% and 81% of respondents had personal salaries less than US$1000
and US$2000 dollars per month, respectively. According to the National
Bureau of Statistics (2018), the average distributable income per resi­
dent per month in Fuzhou in the Fujian Province was about US$500
dollars in 2017. At that time, Fujian Province’s average income was
ranked seventh in China (first was Shanghai, with a distributable income
per resident of about US$727). In addition, based on information
announced by the Directorate General of Budget, Accounting, and Sta­
tistics for Taiwan (2018), the average distributable income per resident
per month in the Taipei metropolitan area (i.e., Taipei, New Taipei, and
Taoyuan) was about US$1,670, the highest in Taiwan. Thus, the sample
for the current research was relatively likely to be able to afford travel
greater than 700 miles from where they reside, based on their average
ages and economic statuses.
Approximately 47% of the total sample had not engaged in long-
distance travel in 2016 or 2017, which refers that the samples in the
Fujian had never had leisure travels outside of Fujian Province, and
those in Taiwan never did that to China. Jinan is not a popular tourist
destination in Northern China; nearly 90% of the respondents had never
been there. Therefore, both the few visits of samples to other non-local
Chinese cities and unpopularity of Jinan provided appropriate condi­
tions for the study. It is unlikely that the results were skewed by travel
attractiveness, as one might like to see a tier-one city and a sample group
inclined to engage in frequent long-distance travel in China.
The socio-economic backgrounds of the sample and their travel ex­
periences were considered suitable for use in a study identifying the
effects of VR on the intent to visit Jinan. The personal information for
the participants can be found in Table 1.
4.2. The measurement models
First, this study attempted to justify how the perceived DI of an
infrequently visited ancient Chinese city could function to encourage
potential visitors’ intentions of engaging in slow heritage tours (see
Fig. 1). Data were collected regarding visitors’ images of the destination
before they experienced the VR. Many seemed to be only marginally
impressed by Jinan City, per the relatively low mean values for each
item reflecting destination image as measured on a five-point scale. A
factor analysis was utilized to combine highly related items or variables
into one factor. Two factors were extracted, “cognitive image” and
“emotional image,” which explained more than 78% of the variance in
this construct. The Cronbach’s alpha values for the two factors were
0.812 and 0.919, and all factor loadings exceeded 0.5, indicating that
both the reliability and internal consistency were adequate (Cortina,
1993). In addition, as the research employed a mixed-methods
approach, the interviewed experts were consulted with regards to the
questionnaire, which was developed based on the past literature; these
consultations confirmed the instrument’s construct validity (Fink,
2009). The results of the descriptive and factor analyses are shown in
Table 2. The multiple linear regression (MLR) model incorporated the
dependent variable, ST intention and independent variables, perceived
destination images (i.e., cognitive and emotional), age, monthly salary,
L.-P.(L. Lin et al. Tourism Management 78 (2020) 104027

education, and leisure travel frequency. Hence, the perceived destina­ Table 3
tion image of the samples was investigated before participants experi­ Descriptive Statistics for the Survey Items and Confirmatory Factor analysis
enced the VR of the ancient painting. The MLR was appropriate for (CFA).
evaluating the DI of Jinan and how it was associated with potential Factor Mean Standardized Standard t-
tourists’ ST intentions expressed at the end of the study. The MLR model factor loading error value
fit the assumptions of the ordinary least square (OLS) regression, such as VR Effects (Cronbach’s alpha ¼ .918, AVE ¼ .669, CR ¼ .923)
model specifications, normality, heteroskedasticity, multicollinearity, I could clearly see the suburbs 4.35 .905 .043 22.94
and outlier issues. of Jinan nearly a thousand
years ago, as shown in the
The second model of the research aimed to understand how the VR
painting.
effects could influence tourists’ nostalgia feelings and the intentions to It seemed like I was moving in 4.41 .882 .043 21.76
slow travel in Jinan City (see Fig. 1). The model included five constructs the suburbs of Jinan, as
were established, and the structural equation analysis was employed. shown in the painting.
The Cronbach’s alpha values for the five constructs ranged from 0.892 to I seemed to live in the suburbs 4.36 .878 NA NA
of Jinan nearly a thousand
0.933. The significant factor loadings of all items (P < 0.001) in each years ago.
construct were greater than 0.5. It appeared that there was an adequate I seemed to walk around 4.31 .777 .052 17.20
level of reliability and internal consistency for each factor (Cortina, places inside the painting.
1993) (see Table 3). I waved to greet people, as 4.08 .712 .062 14.97
shown in the painting.
The confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) method was conducted to
I noticed that the women in 4.10 .730 .059 15.55
examine the validity of the measurement model. Several indices of the the painting were happy.
goodness-of-fit analysis showed an acceptable level of fit between the Personal Nostalgia (PN) (Cronbach’s alpha ¼ .893, AVE ¼ .743, CR ¼ .896)
constructed model and the data: (1) Chi-square ¼ 368.995, Df ¼ 199, Recalled the humble living 4.07 .797 .052 17.46
and p ¼ 0.000; (2) RMSEA ¼ 0.053; (3) GFI ¼ 0.903; (4) NFI ¼ 0.931; conditions of my childhood
Recalled my simple life during 4.09 .904 .044 21.28
and (5) CFI ¼ 0.967 (Muth� en & Muth� en, 2012). In addition, the values of
my childhood
the average variance extracted (AVE) for the five constructs were as Recalled my traditional house 4.02 .881 NA NA
follows: 0.669, 0.743, 0.824, 0.549, and 0.767. All AVEs were greater during my childhood
than 0.5 and less than the construct reliability (CR): 0.923, 0.896, 0.934, Historical Nostalgia (HN) (Cronbach’s alpha ¼ .933, AVE ¼ .824, CR ¼ .934)
Recalled the glory of the 3.81 .884 NA NA
0.894, and 0.908 of the five constructs. The correlation among the
Mongols’ territorial
constructs was <0.85, not sufficiently high to cause concern. Together, expansion in Europe and
these values demonstrate the convergent validity of the measurement Asia
model (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2009). Finally, the AVEs were Recalled the mixture of 3.87 .919 .042 23.90
greater than the corresponding squared inter-construct correlation es­ multiple ethnic groups in
the times of Mongol rule
timates (SIC). This indicates that all items had more in common with the
Recalled the frequent 3.78 .920 .041 23.99
construct they highlighted than with the other constructs, and thus the international exchanges in
discriminant validity was confirmed (Hair et al., 2009). Table 3 shows the time of Mongol rule
the results of the CFA, and Table 4 includes the correlation coefficients ST Intention - Slow Travel Experience (Cronbach’s alpha ¼ .892, AVE ¼ .549,
CR ¼ .894)
and SICs among the constructs.
Flexibly and independently 4.34 .691 .070 12.34
arranging my visiting
4.3. Testing the hypotheses schedule
Never considering rushing 4.48 .709 .064 12.72
A multiple linear regression (MLR) model was employed to test when travelling
If possible, taking trains or 4.27 .650 .071 11.52
whether the perceived destination image would significantly influence using any other type of
the intention to slow travel to the heritage city of Jinan. Parts of the public transit system to
perceived DIs were found to significantly encourage ST intention, and connect between tourism
thus H1 was partially supported. Both the impression of Jinan’s complex spots in a slower manner
Preferring to travel by freely 4.44 .770 .067 13.97
culture, lengthy history, and elegant landscape, and the imagination and
wandering around tourism
expectation of a pleasing trip to Jinan were significant drivers triggering attractions
potential tourists’ intention to engage in special travel and destination Making deeper observations 4.43 .768 .066 13.94
experiences at a slow pace. However, considering that slow travel was and gaining greater
accompanied by important environmental concerns, potential tourists appreciation of the local
natural landscape
would only be encouraged when they expected positive feelings from the Spending more time and 4.46 .815 .064 14.94
imagined Jinan tour. Generally, socio-economic background and travel slowing down in travel to
experience/frequency outside of the province were not important for further explore local culture
encouraging potential tourists’ intention to slow travel to Jinan City. Sharing time, communicating 4.33 .769 NA NA
with, and learning from
Table 5 shows the results of the MLR analyses.
local people
A structural equation model was developed to test the 3 hypotheses ST Intention - Environmental Concerns (Cronbach’s alpha ¼ .905, AVE ¼ .767,
established for the current research (see Fig. 1 for the hypothesized CR ¼ .908)
conceptual model). The second model was examined for its goodness-of- Practicing smart energy use, 4.43 .817 .046 16.81
fit indices. First, the Chi-square ¼ 484.555 and Df ¼ 202, indicating that decreasing CO2 emissions,
and mitigating GHG effects
this was not an appropriate model. According to Hair et al. (2009), “the in travel
model chi-square is also affected by sample size … if the sample size is Preventing trash pollution at 4.52 .874 .043 22.64
large … the value of [the] model chi-square may lead to rejection of the the destination through
model” (p. 136). The research employed an alternative method, the travel
Preventing air pollution by 4.49 .933 NA NA
Normed Chi-square (NC) (Bollen, 1989); the NC value for the present
choosing clean
model was 2.399, which is less than 5; therefore, the model was quite transportation modes for
reasonable. Second, there were some popularly-used fit indices, such as travel
GFI, CFI, and RMSEA. Common practice for GFI, NFI, and CFI includes

6
L.-P.(L. Lin et al. Tourism Management 78 (2020) 104027

Note: all factor loadings were significant (P < 0.001), and the SE and t-values 5. Discussion and conclusion
were not shown (NA) when the parameters of each construct were fixed at 1.0
for identification. Goodness-of-fit: (1) Chi-square ¼ 368.995, Df ¼ 199, and 5.1. VR is an effective tool for marketing tourist destinations
p ¼ 0.000; (2) RMSEA ¼ 0.053; (3) GFI ¼ 0.903; (4) NFI ¼ 0.931; and (4)
CFI ¼ 0.967.
The major contribution of this empirical study is that it attempts to
understand whether and how VR might enhance potential visitors’
behavioral intentions. In order to closely observe the effects of VR, this
Table 4
Pearson correlation analysis and corresponding squared inter-construct corre­ research chose a destination that was not internationally or nationally
lation estimates (SIC). appealing or impressive to most tourists (as would be the case with first-
tier cities in China, such as Beijing, Shanghai, or Guangzhou). In support
F3 F4 F5 F6 F7
of sustainable heritage tourism, this research utilized a high-quality VR
F4 .623* – – – – experience published by the National Palace Museum in Taiwan that
.388
depicts a traditional landscape painting of an ancient city. A model was
F5 .540* .614* – – –
.292 .377 then established to test hypotheses regarding VR as a means of signifi­
F6 .559* .513* .462* – – cantly and positively leading tourists’ intentions toward visiting that
.312 .263 .213 particular tourist destination.
F7 .494* .542* .494* .640* –
While the tourism industry has found an increasing number of ap­
.244 .294 .244 .410
plications for VR, the relevant research examining its effects on pro­
Note: (1) F3: VR Effects, F4: Personal Nostalgia (PN), F5: Historical Nostalgia moting tourist destinations and activities has been relatively lacking.
(HN), F6: ST Intention - Slow Travel Experience, F7: ST Intention - Environ­ The current study goes beyond past work, which has focused on VR’s
mental Concerns; (2) In each cell, the number on the top denotes the correlation implications and limits (e.g., Jung & tom Dieck, 2017; Guttentag, 2010;
coefficient, with the asterisks indicating significance at the level p < 0.01(two-
Jacobius, 2016), and testing its effects on tourism marketing (e.g.,
tailed); the number at the bottom denotes the SIC values.
Griffin et al., 2017; Tussyadiah et al., 2018). The present pioneering
study in VR marketing conceptualized a model incorporating relevant
Table 5 factors that can be used to examine whether and how VR might serve as
Hypothesis testing and effects of the parameters (MLR). an effective tool for destination marketing. Filling a significant research
gap, this work demonstrates that VR could be used to trigger potential
Model 1: ST Model 2: ST
Intention1 Intention2 visitors’ intention to practice sustainable tourism. Several other factors
Coefficient (Beta) Coefficient (Beta) were also identified that function together to encourage potential
Destination image: Cognitive .31 (.17) *** .08 (.09) tourists’ ST intention to visit an ancient city.
Destination image: Emotional .35 (.27) *** .16 (.25) *** Particularly, VR is still a relatively new tool for tourism marketing,
Gender (F ¼ 1, M ¼ 0) -.50 (-.07)* -.16 (-.04) not familiar to a lot of tourists, but seeming effective for those who
Age -.11 (-.05) .04 (.03) experienced it, as indicated by the results of semi-structured interviews
Salary .19 (.05) -.01 (-.00)
(see Appendix I). This empirical study reveals that potential tourists are
Education .36 (.08)* .03 (.01)
Ever visited Jinan .40 (.04) -.55 (-.11)** generally encouraged to actually visit tourist destinations. The result
Travel frequency in the past 2 years -.08 (-.02) -.01 (.00) further reflects the thought raised by one interviewee who says, “it has
Constant 19.91*** 10.37*** to be able to touch me” (see Appendix I). Obviously, the success of VR
N ¼ 308, *p < 0.10 **p < 0.05 ***p < F ¼ 8.11 F ¼ 4.78
applied in tourism marketing relays on potential tourists’ emotional
0.01 (one-tail tests) P > F < 0.001 P > F < 0.001
R-sq. ¼ 0.18 R-sq. ¼ 0.11 reaction, which is triggered by effective communication via the high-
Adj. R-sq. ¼ 0.16 Adj. R-sq. ¼ 0.09 tech simulated reality. Therefore, the prevailing use of VR in recent
years can be explained when the reason of its effectiveness is fully un­
Note: (1) ST Intention 1: ST intention - Slow Travel Experience, and ST
derstood. In addition, two interviewees point out that VR that could
Intention 2: ST intention - Environmental Concerns.
show clear details and actuality and encourage viewers’ engagement
will be effective to influence their travel decisions as the interviewees’
indices roughly greater than 0.90, and for RMSEA, values between 0.05
suggestion (see Appendix I). When the new technique is still novel for
and 0.08 being considered a “reasonably good fit,” (Kline, 2005). The
most of the people who are curious about being immersed in image-
four indices of the research model were 0.88, 0.91, 0.95, and 0.07;
based reality, destination managers should cautiously select the VR
therefore, the model was good, based on the rule. Third, all standardized
products they would like to employ. How the VR product could present
factor loadings of the variables were greater than 0.5, and no modifi­
protectional tourists with the vividly real environment and lead them
cation indices (MI) for any variable greater than 100 were satisfied by
into the scenario is vital.
the model (Kline, 2005). In conclusion, the structural model was
acceptably good.
5.2. Theoretical and practical implications
In addition, the results of the SEM analysis generally supported the
research hypotheses. First, VR’s effects on encouraging ST intentions
With the goal of understanding how VR might play a critical role in
regarding enjoying a slower pace and deeper experience (ß ¼ 0.354,
destination marketing, the relevant theories related to VR effects,
t ¼ 4.27) and environmental concerns (ß ¼ 0.170, t ¼ 2.11) were both
nostalgia, and ST intention were incorporated into the main research
significant. These results support H2. Second, nostalgia, both personal
model. First, it was found that Jinan City did not particularly impress the
(PN to ST1 ß ¼ 0.252, t ¼ 3.45; PN to ST2 ß ¼ 0.368, t ¼ 5.08) and his­
participants, resulting in relatively low mean values for each item in the
torical (HN to ST1 ß ¼ 0.148, t ¼ 2.35; HN to ST2 ß ¼ 0.219, t ¼ 3.50)
factor of DI. Consequently, the VR effect was examined by testing
were found to significantly stimulate potential tourists’ ST intentions
whether it could singly influence ST intention, since the destination was
regarding slow travel experiences and environmental concerns. H3 was
not particularly well known by potential visitors. The analysis facilitated
fully supported. Third, the associations between VR’s effects and both
exploring the theoretical application of destination branding by
types of nostalgic feelings were in support of H4 (to PN ß ¼ .664,
employing a new high-tech tool. In addition, how the destination
t ¼ 12.37; to HN ß ¼ 0.575, t ¼ 10.72). The parameter estimates and
welcomed a sustainable form of tourism (e.g., ST) while promoting
significances of the hypothesis tests are summarized in Table 6.
nostalgia-inspiring heritage visits was studied by checking the effects of
nostalgia, a feeling often aroused when visiting heritage sites that

7
L.-P.(L. Lin et al.
Table 6
Hypothesis testing and effects of the parameters (SEM).
Hypothesis Standardized coefficient T value
H2 VR effects → STIntention1 .354*** 4.27
VR effects → STIntention2 .170** 2.11
H3 Nostalgia 1 → ST Intention1 .252*** 3.45
Nostalgia 1 → ST Intention2 .368*** 5.08
Nostalgia 2 → ST Intention1 .148** 2.35
Nostalgia 2 → ST Intention2 .219*** 3.50
H4 VR effects → Nostalgia1 .664*** 12.37
VR effects → Nostalgia2 .575*** 10.72
Note:
(1) Nostalgia 1: Nostalgia - Personal (PN), Nostalgia 2: Nostalgia - Historical (HN), ST Intention 1: ST intention - Slow Travel Experience, and ST Intention 2: ST
intention - Environmental Concerns.
(2) Test results support the hypothesis when the estimate is significant at p < 0.05.
(3) NA denotes no effect between the variables. 3. ** denotes significance at P < 0.05; ***denotes significance at P < 0.01.
(4) All direct, indirect, and total effects are standardized.
(5) R-square: (1) Nostalgia1:44%; (2)Nostalgia2: 33%; (1)ST Intention1: 42%; (2)ST Intention2: 40%.
inspire ST intention.
Certain theories of destination branding are employed to examine
whether VR could be an effective means of marketing tourism.
Responding the suggestion of one interviewee (see Appendix I), the
current research has developed the measurement of VR effects, having
been absent in the tourism relevant literature. The scale incorporates the
expressions of interviewees regarding the actuality of experience and
engagement in place (see Appendix I). They are grounded by the ques­
tions in the survey, such as “I could clearly see …,” “It seemed like I was
moving …,” “I seemed to walk around …,” and “I waved …. ”
Therefore, the scale including three cores proposed by the literature
of designing VR programs is composed of items regarding immersion (e.
g., I moved through the suburbs of Jinan), interaction (e.g., waving to
and greeting people), and imagination (e.g., determining that the
women inside the painting were happy). This supports Burdea and
Coiffet (2003) and further supplements the findings of Tussyadiah et al.
(2018). The current study suggests that viewers will better enjoy and
sense the presence of VR through the effects of immersion, interaction,
and imagination.
The most important theoretical confirmation is that VR’s effects
significantly and directly encourage tourists’ ST intention to a destina­
tion through the emotional proposition. The research findings illustrate
why VR could serve as an effective marketing tool, especially after the
application of theory of destination branding from the perspective of
sensory or emotional propositions. As Morgan and Pritchard (2004)
suggested, successful branding of a destination lies in forming an
emotional relationship with customers seeking a particular lifestyle
through their vacation destinations. This is supported by UNWTO
(2007), which called for replacing the unique selling proposition (USP)
with the unique emotional proposition (UEP) in destination marketing.
As a very competitive strategy, UEP is best suited to products and ser­
vices associated with destinations that have the credentials to deliver on
and exceed client expectations, being strong enough to convert cus­
tomers from “lookers” to “bookers.” In other words, the key to influ­
encing tourists’ behavioral decisions regarding destination choice is
triggering their emotional reactions and feelings. As a tool for branding a
destination through emotional triggers, VR has the ability to effectively
stimulate some human senses, particularly hearing, touch, smell, and
taste, in addition to sight; the technology promotes a multisensory
approach (Pawaskar & Goel, 2014).
Practically speaking, this research argues that when VR was able to
really engage viewers in wandering around the ancient landscape of
Jinan, their multi-sensory reactions triggered the desire to visit the city
at a relatively slower pace. The primary conclusion responds to the
concerns of interviewees regarding what kind of VR might work to in­
fluence tourists’ decisions (see Appendix I). This finding can be used to
further explain the results of Griffin et al. (2017), who concluded that
8
Tourism Management 78 (2020) 104027
Test result Direct effect Indirect effect Total effect
Supported .354*** .253** .607**
Supported .170** .369** .539**
Supported .252*** NA .252***
Supported .368*** NA .368***
Supported .148** NA .148**
Supported .219*** NA .219***
Supported .664*** NA .664***
Supported .575*** NA .575***
360VR works significantly better than 2D video and website photos in
encouraging interest (e.g., seeing further information and sharing in­
formation with others), but not in terms of increasing the intention to
visit. Hence, compared to the simulated VR environment used in the
current research, 360VR is simply a video of places with 360-degree
views, relatively lacking in interaction and imagination effects.
One important suggestion relates to selecting a suitable topic when
attempting to use VR as a marketing tool, particularly for those not
internationally known (e.g., Beijing) and high-tourism cities (e.g., Xi’an,
which is famous of housing Emperor Qinshihuang’s mausoleum). For
instance, the VR of an ancient Chinese painting utilized in the current
research appropriately reflected the heritage-based image of old Jinan.
This city has been mentioned in middle-school text books and by a
famous 1910s travel book, both familiar to people in China and Taiwan.
As a result, by seemly travelling through time to tunnel back to the 13th
century, VR viewers could be impressed by the historical image depicted
by the painting and activate their imagination and feelings of nostalgia.
Additionally, nostalgia, including both PN and HN, was revealed to
play the most important direct role (see Table 6 for a comparison of the
direct effects of VR and nostalgia on ST intention) in encouraging po­
tential visitors’ ST intention to visit Jinan. The findings indicate that
potential visitors would be directly inspired by their nostalgic feelings
after viewing the VR of the ancient painting, and encouraged to visit
Jinan at a slower pace and with the expectation of a deeper travel
experience. The most interesting finding concerned how to make VR
more effective in destination marketing; the effects of VR on ST intention
through nostalgia (see Table 6 for the indirect effects) were plausible, in
addition to VR itself.
As a result, the theoretical concept of nostalgia perceived by tourists
was confirmed as a determinant in tourism marketing (Holak & Havlena,
1998). The UEP approach in destination branding (Morgan & Pritchard,
2004; UNWTO, 2007) was supported as a means of explaining why
nostalgia could trigger visitors’ ST intentions. The effects of nostalgia,
and particularly personal nostalgia (e.g., recalling a humble house,
simple life, or traditional home from one’s youth), were found to stim­
ulate potential tourists to visit Jinan, echoing Bandyopadhyay (2008)
and Vesey and Dimanche (2003). This study also found support for the
theoretical relationship between VR’s effects and nostalgia, based on the
scheme of imagination, fantasies, and memories (Holak & Havlena,
1998). Viewers nostalgic for Jinan and the era when Mongolians gov­
erned China and the surrounding areas (i.e., the time when the ancient
painting was completed) were prompted by VR’s effects. This result
supports Griffin et al. (2017), who argued that VR would influence
viewers with regards to their affective perception.
The current research emphasizes that feelings of nostalgia are vital
when marketing a destination of historical importance. It argues that the
destination management organizer (DMO) should utilize the most
L.-P.(L. Lin et al.
representative resource and relevant story when marketing historical
locations. Authenticity is the key to significantly awakening a sense of
nostalgic romance and related insights, feelings of identity, and periods
of reflection on the relevant past to potential visitors (i.e., PN). Cutting-
edge technology is a critical venue for crossing the age gap in nostalgia
marketing because older generations who are increasing the importance
of remembering the past used to be emphasized in nostalgia marketing
(Russell, 2008). Youths are inclined to engage with new technological
products (e.g., VR) that provide exciting experiences in interesting set­
tings. The current research had a high proportion of younger re­
spondents (over 50% were in their 30s or younger). VR allowed them to
effortlessly wander around in a well-mimicked landscape, naturally
connecting it with their present lives.
Finally, Jinan is not a popular destination or major city to general
leisure tourists in terms of its economic importance or cultural unique­
ness. Following the suggestion of one interviewee who was also a uni­
versity professor, the researchers included one section about the DI of
Jinan in the questionnaire (see Appendix I). Respondents were requested
to complete the perceived DI portion before viewing the VR. The current
research found that most of the participants had a confused impression,
little understanding, and trivial emotional expectations with regards to
Jinan’s historical, scenic, cultural, and entertainment aspects. It is also
clear that the perceived DI for Jinan was still significantly effective for
ST destination marketing, but only for ST stressing leisurely apprecia­
tion and deeper local experiences. This is in line with the conclusions of
certain theoretical and empirical studies (e.g., Baloglu & Brinberg, 1997;
Gallarza et al., 2002; Sirgy & Su, 2000; Zhang et al., 2014). As part of the
research design, the weakness of place image for low-profile destina­
tions for most potential visitors was demonstrated with regards to its
significant influence on potential visitors’ ST intentions, but insufficient
power to fully explain them (i.e., the small R-squared value). In other
words, for this kind of destination, innovative, impressive, and effective
narrative and interactive methods (e.g., VR) are vital to supplementing
and enhancing destination marketing, while at the same time potentially
improving the DI of potential visitors.
The findings reconfirm that the traditional way of prompting infor­
mation delivery and emotional expectation regarding destination visits
might not be sufficient to produce the desired results, and in contrast,
the new intervention tool could play a critical role in destination mar­
keting. Potential tourists who emotionally resonate with historical
romance (i.e., nostalgia) will become active in desiring a visit at a
relatively slower pace, in order to deeply enjoy the travel and engage in
sustainable destination development.
5.3. Limitations and future research
This study has several limitations that should be considered in future
research. First, because of time and financial limits, the researchers
queried Taiwanese visitors at several attractions in two cities, and Chi­
nese individuals in the capital city of Fujian Province, just across the
Taiwan Strait. Many residents of Taiwan originally migrated from South
China about three hundred years ago. When considering survey partic­
ipants with diverse traditional, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds, more
is better. Thus, additional cities in South China should be included in the
sample in order to improve preventiveness. Second, some factors might
not have been considered in the current hypothesized model. For
instance, it would be interesting to learn how ancestral nostalgia in­
fluences the intention to visit and feelings of nostalgia. Researchers
might also explore whether the authenticity of heritage tours might be
enhanced by VR. An extended model could offer better results in terms
of exploring how VR could work to raise potential visitors’ ST intention.
Based on these findings, this study demonstrates that VR is a suffi­
cient and effective tool for destination marketing. However, there might
be some potential barriers to its application. Examples might include
personal characteristics (e.g., a personality appreciating solitude or a
lifestyle of resisting travel) and limitations of high-tech applications (e.
9
Tourism Management 78 (2020) 104027
g., technology failing to show the VR presentation or limited ability to
exhibit VR to customers). These could be further studied in future
research of VR application in tourism activities.
Funding
Mr. He, Yao-Chun received the research funding from the Ministry of
Science and Technology, Taiwan (MOST 107-2813-C-130-011-H) to
support his undergraduate project derived from the current research.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Mr. Hsieh, Chun-Ko, the deputy director, and Mr.
Wu, Shao-Chun and Mr. Luo Ding-Hong of Division of Education,
Exhibition, and Information Services, National Palace Museum (NPM),
Taiwan for their technical support of playing VR. We would like to
particularly thank Ms. Shenhen Margaret Lo, the late speaker of NPM
Volunteer Association for her bridging us to the exhibition division of
NPM. The efforts of students, Mr. Chen, Lu-Yen, Mr. Chen, Po-Hua, Mr.
Chen, Wan- Kit, Miss Chen, Ruo-Ying, and Miss Zhang, Hang-Jun in
helping authors to collect research data are also appreciated.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.tourman.2019.104027.
Author contribution
Dr. Li-Pin (Lynn) Lin contributes to the research in establishing the
research model, running data analysis, and writing the results and dis­
cussion in the current research.
Dr. Shu-Chun (Lucy) Huang contributes to the literature review, and
assisting to build up the research model and drafting the discussion
conclusion in the current research.
Mr. Yao-Chun Ho is a college student to work for his undergraduate
student thesis under supervising of Dr. Lin. He contributes to assist
literature review and data collection in the current research.
References
Baker, S. M., & Kennedy, P. F. (1994). Death by nostalgia: A diagnosis of context-specific
cases. Advances in Consumer Research, 21, 169–174.
Baloglu, S., & Brinberg, D. (1997). Affective images of tourism destination. Journal of
Travel Research, 35(4), 11–15.
Baloglu, S., & McCleary, K. W. (1999). A model of destination image formation. Annals of
Tourism Research, 26(4), 868–897.
Bandyopadhyay, R. (2008). Nostalgia, identity and tourism: Bollywood in the India
diaspora. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 6(2), 79–100.
Bluedorn, A. (2002). The human organization of time: Temporal realities and experience.
Stanford, CA: Stanford Business Books.
Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York: Wiley.
Budd, K. (2017). Five destinations using virtual reality to put you in their place. Retrieve
on Oct. 1, 2018 https://www.pcma.org/virtual-reality-destination-marketing/.
Burdea, G., & Coiffet, P. (2003). Virtual reality technology (2nd ed.). NY: John Wiley.
Cheong, R. (1995). The virtual threat to travel and tourism. Tourism Management, 16(6),
417–422.
Chhabra, D., Healy, R., & Sills, E. (2003). Staged authenticity and heritage tourism.
Annals of Tourism Research, 30(3), 702–719.
Cortina, J. M. (1993). What is coefficient alpha? An examination of theory and
applications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(1), 98–104. https://doi.org/10.1037/
0021-9010.78.1.98.
Crompton, J. L. (1979). An assessment of the image of Mexico as a vacation destination
and the influence of geographical location upon that image. Journal of Travel
Research, 17(4), 18–23.
Davis, F. (1979). Yearning for yesterday: A sociology of nostalgia. New York: Free Press.
Dickinson, J., & Lumsdon, L. (2010). ST and tourism. London, UK: Earthscan Ltd.
Dickinson, J. E., Lumsdon, L. M., & Robbins, D. (2011). Slow travel: Issues for tourism
and climate change. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 19(3), 281–300.
Directorate-General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics, Executive Yuan, ROC (Taiwan).
(2018). The survey of family income and expenditure (in Chinese), from https://www.
dgbas.gov.tw/mp.asp?mp¼1. (Accessed 10 January 2019).
L.-P.(L. Lin et al.
Echtner, C. M., & Ritchie, J. R. B. (1991). The measuring and measurement of destination
image. Journal of Tourism Studies, 2(2), 2–12.
Gallarza, M. G., Saura, I. G., & García, H. C. (2002). Destination image: Towards a
conceptual framework. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(1), 56–78.
Gartner, W. C. (1993). Image formation process. In M. Uysal, & D. Fesenmaier (Eds.),
Communication and channel systems in tourism marketing (pp. 191–215). New York,
NY: The Haworth Press.
Gnoth, J., Baloglu, S., & Ekinci, Y. (2007). Introduction: Building destination brands.
Tourism Analysis, 12(5/6), 339–343.
G€ossling, S., Hall, M., Lane, B., & Weaver, D. (2008). The Helsingborg statement on
sustainable tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16, 122–124.
Griffin, F., Giberson, J., Lee, S. H., Guttentag, D., & Kandaurova, M. (2017). Virtual
reality and implications for destination marketing. In The proceeding of 2017 ttra
international conference. http://scholarworks.umass.edu/ttra/2017/Academic_Pap
ers_Oral/29.
Guttentag, D. A. (2010). Virtual reality: Applications and implications for tourism.
Tourism Management, 31, 637–651.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2009). Multivariate data analysis
(7th ed.). Englewood Clifs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Havlena, W., & Holak, S. L. (1991). The good old days: Observations on nostalgia and its
role in consumer behavior. Advances in Consumer Research, 18, 323–329.
Holak, S. L., & Havlena, W. J. (1998). Feelings, fantasies, and memories: An examination
of the emotional components of nostalgia. Journal of Business Research, 42(3),
217–226.
Hunt, J. D. (1975). Image as a factor in tourism development. Journal of Travel Research,
13(3), 1–7.
Jacobius, P. (2016). VR in tourism destinations (Ch.5). In P. Jacobius (Ed.), Virtual reality
in tourism: Current news, trends & feature articles. http://www.virtual-reality-in-touri
sm.com/overview-destinations/.
Jin, N.(P., Lee, S., & Lee, H. (2015). The effect experience quality on perceived value,
satisfaction, image and behavioral intention of water park patrons: New versus
repeat visitors. International Journal of Tourism Research, 17(1), 82–95.
Jung, T. H., & tom Dieck, M. C. (2017). Augmented reality, virtual reality an 3D printing
for the co-creation of value for the visitor experience at cultural heritage places.
Journal of Place Management and Development, 10(2), 140–151.
Kim, S.-H., Holland, S., & Han, H.-S. (2013). A structural model for examining how
destination image, perceived value, and service quality affect destination loyalty: A
case study of Orlando. International Journal of Tourism Research, 15(4), 313–328.
Kim, H., & Richardson, S. L. (2003). Motion picture impacts on destination images.
Annals of Tourism Research, 30(1), 216–237.
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: The
Guilford Press.
Lawson, F., & Bond-Bovy, M. (1977). Tourism and recreational development. Architecture
Press.
Lee, T.-H. (2009). A structural model for examining how destination image and
interpretation services affect future visitation behavior: A case study of Taiwan’s
Taomi eco-village. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(6), 727–745.
Lim, Y., & Weaver, P. A. (2014). Customer-based brand equity for a destination: The
effect of destination image on preference for products associated with a destination
brand. International Journal of Tourism Research, 16(3), 223–231.
Lin, L.-P. (2017). Industrial tourists’ behavioral intention toward slow travel in Taiwan.
Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 25(3), 379–396.
Lin, L.-P. (2018). How would the contextual features of a destination function together
with individual factors to enhance tourists’ intention toward ST in Taiwan? Journal
of Sustainable Tourism, 26(9), 1625–1646.
Lin, L.-P., & Huang, S.-C. (2018). Developing the measurement scale of slow travel
characters based on cyclists. In Paper presented at the annual ICHRIE summer
conference & marketplace in palm springs, CA, USA (25-27 july, 2018).
Lumsdon, L. M., & McGrath, P. (2011). Developing a conceptual framework for slow
travel: A grounded theory approach. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 19(3), 265–279.
Mallett, S. (2004). Understanding home: A critical review of the literature. The
Sociological Review, 52(1), 62–84.
Mania, K., & Chalmers, A. (2001). The effects of levels of immersion on memory and
presence in virtual environments: A reality countered approach. CyberPsychology and
Behavior, 4(2), 247–264.
Marchegiani, C., & Phau, I. (2013). Development and validation o the personal nostalgia
scale. Journal of Marketing Communications, 19(1), 22–43.
Molinillo, S., Li�
ebana-Cabanillas, F., & Anaya-S� anchez, R. (2018). DMO online platforms:
Image and intention to visit. Tourism Management, 65, 116–130.
Morgan, N., & Pritchard, A. (2004). Meeting the destination branding challenge (Ch.5).
In N. Morgan, A. Pritchard, & R. Pride (Eds.), Destination branding: Creating the unique
destination proposition (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Elsvier Butterworth-Heinemann.
Murphy, L., Benckendorff, P., & Moscardo, G. (2007). Linking travel motivation, tourist
self-image and destination brand personality. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing,
22(2), 45–59.
Muth�en, L. K., & Muth�en, B. O. (2012). Mplus user’s guide (1998–2012) (7th ed.). Los
Angeles, CA: Muth�en & Muth� en.
National Bureau of Statistic of China. (2018). Yearly statistics (in Chinese). from http://dat
a.stats.gov.cn/. (Accessed 10 January 2019).
Natterer, K. (2014). How and why to measure personal and historical nostalgic responses
through entertainment media. The International Journal on Media Management, 16,
161–180.
Pan, S., Lee, J., & Tsai, H. (2014). Travel photos: Motivations, image dimensions, and
affective qualities of places. Tourism Management, 40, 59–69.
Parkins, W., & Craig, G. (2009). Slow living (Oxford, Berg).
10
Tourism Management 78 (2020) 104027
Pawaskar, P., & Goel, M. (2014). A conceptual model: Multisensory marketing and
destination branding. Procedia Economics and Finance, 11(14), 255–267.
Petters, P. M., Egmond van, T., & Visser, N. (2004). European tourism, transport and
environment. Final version. Deliverable 1 for the DG-entr Mustt project. Breda: NHTV
Centre for Sustainable Tourism and Transport.
Pietryowski, B. (2004). You are what you eat: The social economy of the slow food
economy. Review of Social Economy, 62, 307–321.
Russell, D. W. (2008). Nostalgic tourism. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 25(2),
103–116.
Sambhanthan, A., & Good, A. (2013). Virtual world model to enhance tourism destination
accessibility in developing countries. Cornell University. arXiv.org > cs > arXiv:
1302.5199.
Scott, D., & Becken, S. (2010). Adapting to climate change and climate policy: Progress,
problems and potentials. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18(3), 283–295.
Sirgy, M. J., & Su, C. (2000). Destination image, self-congruity, and travel behavior:
Toward an integrative model. Journal of Travel Research, 38(4), 340–352.
Stepchenkova, S., Kim, H., & Kirilenko, A. P. (2015). Cultural differences in pictorial
destination images: Russia through the camera lenses of American and Korean
tourists. Journal of Travel Research, 54(6), 758–773.
Stern, B. B. (1992). Historical and personal nostalgia in advertising text: The Fin de Si�
ecle
effect. Journal of Advertising, 21(4), 11–22.
Stylos, N., Vassiiadis, C. A., Bellou, V., & Andronikidis, A. (2016). Destination images,
holistic images and personal normative beliefs: Predictors of intention to revisit a
destination. Tourism Management, 53(2016), 40–60.
Sussmann, S., & Vanhegan, H. (2000). Virtual reality and the tourism product:
Substitution or complement?. In Proceedings of the European conference on information
systems 2000, paper 117.
Tussyadiah, I. P., Wang, D., Jung, T. H., & Dieck, M. C. D. (2018). Virtual reality,
presence, and attitude change: Empirical evidence from tourism. Tourism
Management, 66, 140–154.
UNWTO. (2007). A practical guide to tourism destination management. Madrid: World
Tourism Organization.
Vesey, C., & Dimanche, F. (2003). From Storyville to Bourbon street: Vice, nostalgia and
tourism. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 1(1), 54–70.
White, C. J. (2014). Ideal standards and attitude formation: A tourism destination
perspective. International Journal of Tourism Research, 16(5), 441–449.
Williams, A. P., & Hobson, J. S. P. (1995). Virtual reality and tourism: Fact or fantasy?
Tourism Management, 16(6), 423–427.
Zhang, H., Fu, X., Cai, L. A., & Lu, L. (2014). Destination image and tourist loyalty: A
meta-analysis. Tourism Management, 40(1), 213–223.
Dr. Li-Pin (Lynn) Lin got her PhD degree from Texas A&M
University, USA with her dissertation research about
ecotourism operators’ wetlands conservation behavior in
Florida. She has built a strong teaching record and received
several prestigious awards since she started her professorship
at College of Tourism in MingChuan University, Taiwan. She is
passionate about interdisciplinary research relevant to envi­
ronmental management and planning at tourism destinations.
She has been engaged in several research projects around
sustainable destination marketing, slow travel, low-emission
CSR practices, high technology in tourism research, and pro-
environmental behaviors of tourists.
Dr. Shu-Chun (Lucy) Huang received her PhD degree from
Texas A&M University, USA with her research focus on tourist
behavior and leisure psychology, as well as landscape plan­
ning. She has been outstanding in research and education in the
areas relevant to ecological impacts of tourist behaviors, and
marketing in the leisure and tourism industry. Also, she has
supervised master students to develop a variety of research
topics around tourism development and marketing in Shih-
Hsin University and won students’ high applauds.
L.-P.(L. Lin et al. Tourism Management 78 (2020) 104027

Under supervision of Dr. Li-Pin Lin, Mr. Ho is currently a

senior student writing his undergraduate thesis which is
required by MingChuan University. His thesis topic is derived
from the current research with the financial support of Ministry
of Science and Technology, Taiwan (MOST 107-2813-C-130-
011-H).

11