Composite Structures 274 (2021) 114388

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Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Experimental investigation on mechanical performance of carbon fiber

reinforced polymer wire after exposure to elevated temperature
Yawei Fang a, Zhi Fang b,⇑, Daobin Huang c, Zhengwen Jiang d, Xuhong Zhou e
a
College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan 410082, China
b
College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Key Laboratory for Wind and Bridge Engineering of Hunan Province, Changsha, Hunan 410082, China
c
Guangxi Communications Design Group Co., Ltd., Nanning, Guangxi 530029, China
d
Key Laboratory for Damage Diagnosis of Engineering Structures of Hunan Province, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan 410082, China
e
Research Center for New Structural System of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan 410082, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The current study experimentally investigated the influence of elevated‐temperature exposure on the mechan-
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) ical performance of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) wires through conducting the axial tensile, three‐
Wire point bending and transverse load tests. The results show that the CFRP wires under axial tensile load exhibited
Elevated temperature exposure a brittle fracture after exposure to 30 and 100 °C, and the wires after 200 °C exposure were pulled out from the
Ultimate load
anchorage. The axial tensile and three‐point bending performance of the wires were adversely affected by the
Failure criteria
elevated temperature; and with the increase of the exposed temperature, the maximum contact force, maxi-
mum wire tension, maximum wire tension increment, deflection at fracture and the energy dissipation capacity
of the preloaded CFRP wires in the transverse load tests declined. Based on the experimental results, reduction
functions were established to quantify the degradation in tensile properties of the CFRP wires after elevated‐
temperature exposure, and the formulas used for predicting the post‐elevated temperature transverse failure
responses of the preloaded CFRP wires were proposed. Furthermore, through verification by the test results,
the previously established failure criteria are demonstrated to be applicable to assess the failure state of a
CFRP wire after evaluated‐temperature exposure when subjected to combined tension and bending.

1. Introduction
External prestressing technology has been widely used in construc-
tion and retrofit of bridges owing to its advantages of simple construc-
tion, ease of maintenance and convenience for replacement [1].
However, the high weight and corrosion of the conventional steel wire
adopted in prestressed structures always cause the premature failure
and low carrying efficiency of the structures [2,3]. Compared to steel
wire, carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) wire possesses the fea-
tures of inherent durability, high strength to weight (10–15 times
greater than steel) and excellent fatigue resistance (about 3 times that
of steel) [4–7]. Therefore, the CFRP wire is regarded as a potential
replacement of steel wire in prestressed structures [8,9].
CFRP wire is comprised of carbon fibers and resin, in which the car-
bon fibers provide the primary tensile strength while the resin matrix
serves as the binder for the wire [10]. Attributing to the temperature‐
sensitive properties of the resin, the mechanical performance of the
CFRP wires is significantly influenced by the temperature [11,12].
Upon exposure to elevated temperature, the resin in the wire softens
and changes from glassy state to rubbery state at the glass transition
temperature Tg (around 50–120 °C for available commercial products
used in civil engineering), and then gradually decomposes into toxic
fumes and solid char when approaching to the decomposition temper-
ature Td (around 300–400 °C); with the increase of the temperature,
the resin eventually ignites [13–16]. During the variation of the tem-
perature, the irreversible thermal damage is formed and the deteriora-
tion of the strength and stiffness occur, even if the resin is cooled to
room temperature after exposure to elevated temperature [10,17].
Thus, the mechanical properties of the overall CFRP wire after
elevated‐temperature exposure degrade owing to the decreased
strength and stiffness of the resin as well as the reduction in force
transfer ability among fibers [10,18].
In practical applications, CFRP wire is generally exposed to envi-
ronment conditions and the service temperature for the wire changes
in a wide range due to the variation of the sunlight, seasonal and daily
temperature, as well as the fatigue loads [11,19,20]. A previous

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: fangyawei@hnu.edu.cn (Y. Fang), fangzhi@hnu.edu.cn (Z. Fang), jiangzw@hnu.edu.cn (Z. Jiang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2021.114388
Received 5 June 2021; Revised 15 July 2021; Accepted 19 July 2021
Available online 22 July 2021
0263-8223/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Fang et al.
research conducted by Baschnagel et al. [21] observed that the tem-
perature on the surface of a CFRP strap can reach to 80 °C after
20,000 load cycles, and a much higher temperature may be achieved
under the combined action of fatigue load and sunlight in the interior
structure. Consequently, CFRP wire is inevitably subjected to the ther-
mal cycle loads while in service, and the extent of mechanical behavior
degradation must be precisely evaluated and investigated to certify the
safe and reliable applications of the CFRP wires.
To date, several studies have been performed to investigate the ten-
sile properties of CFRP bars after elevated‐temperature exposure.
Sayed‐Ahmed and Shrive [22] performed a series of tensile tests on
steel and CFRP tendons after exposure to temperatures ranging from
20 °C to 400 °C. The results indicated that CFRP tendons retained
about 90%, 63% and 26% of their tensile strength at the elevated tem-
peratures of 200 °C, 300 °C and 400 °C, respectively, which were much
lower than the associated value of 94%, 78% and 52% for steel ten-
dons. Hamad et al. [4] experimentally investigated the post‐elevated
temperature behavior of different FRP bars. They found that compared
to basalt FRP and glass FRP bars, CFRP bars experienced a higher
reduction in their elastic modulus and a lower reduction in tensile
strength; in particular, upon exposure to 125 °C, 250 °C, 325 °C and
375 °C CFRP bars lost 9%, 27%, 55% and 71% of their ambient tensile
strength, and suffered the reduction of 8%, 16%, 32% and 53% in their
elastic modulus, respectively. The above investigations suggest that
the tensile properties of CFRP tendons are adversely affected by the
exposed elevated temperature resulting from the vulnerability of the
resin, and the higher the temperature achieves, the lower tensile
behavior the wires retain. To improve the heat resistance of CFRP bars,
Sumida and Mutsuyoshi [23] developed the heat‐resistant CFRP bars
by using resol type phenolic (PH) and M type cross‐linked polyester‐
amide (CP) resin as matrix in bar fabrication, and they examined the
tensile properties of the bars during and after heating in temperature
range of 20–400 °C. The results show that the breaking load of the
newly developed CFRP bars was approximately the same with that
of the CFRP bars made with traditional epoxy resin at 20 °C; however,
the retention of the breaking load of the heat‐resistant CFRP bars was
much higher during and after heating, which was closed to that of
deformed steel bars.
Generally, CFRP wires in prestressing structures are not only
applied with longitudinal tension but also subjected to transverse com-
pression transferred from the deviators, which creates a combined
tension‐transverse loading state for the wires [24]. Compared to the
tensile properties of CFRP, the transverse performance is much lower
and more dependent on the resin strength, and therefore, may be more
sensitive to elevated temperatures [10]. A few published studies
[25,26] reported that the flexural FRP profiles and laminates experi-
enced high losses in their mechanical properties after elevated‐
temperature exposure due to the critical fiber/resin debonding and
crack formation in flexure, and the degradation rates of flexural
strength and modulus for FRP laminates increased with the augment
of the temperature. Unfortunately, the research on the post‐elevated
temperature transverse performance of CFRP wires, especially the
wires under combined tension‐transverse loads is seldom reported,
which limits the wider acceptance and application of the CFRP wires.
To address this important research gap, the current paper focused
on the mechanical properties of the CFRP wires after three hours expo-
sure at 30, 100 and 200 °C through conducting axial tensile tests,
three‐point bending tests and transverse load tests. Based on the exper-
imental results, the effects of evaluated‐temperature exposure on the
axial tensile and bending performance, as well as the failure responses
of the CFRP wires under combined tension and bending load were
revealed; and the corresponding reduction functions used for quantifi-
cation of the degradation in tensile properties were established. In
combination with the reduction functions, the formulas were proposed
to predict the post‐elevated temperature failure responses, including
the maximum wire tension, maximum contact force and transverse
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Composite Structures 274 (2021) 114388
deflection at fracture of a CFRP wire subjected to combined tension
and bending. Additionally, as a further research of the previous work
[24], another main purpose of the current study is to examine the
applicability of the failure criteria that obtained at ambient tempera-
ture for the CFRP wires after elevated‐temperature exposure under
combined tension and bending. Through verification by using the test
results, the interaction equation at ultimate state on longitudinal and
transverse loads was demonstrated to be independent of the
elevated‐temperature exposure and was also applicable to assess the
failure state of a CFRP wire after evaluated‐temperature exposure.
2. Experimental program
2.1. Specimens
Three types of CFRP wire specimens were prepared for the axial
tensile tests, three‐point bending loading tests and transverse load
tests, respectively, as shown in Fig. 1. In the three‐point bending load-
ing tests, the specimens were designed with a total length of 140 mm,
which was 40% longer than the span length of 100 mm in accordance
with ASTM standard D7264/D7264M (ASTM 2015) [27], to ensure
the CFRP wire was able to be reliable supported on the test device dur-
ing the entire loading process, as displayed in Fig. 1(a).
The specimens adopted in the axial tensile and transverse load tests
were composed of a CFRP wire and two bond‐type anchorages grouted
with reactive powder concrete (RPC) at each end, as shown in Fig. 1(b)
and (c). Under the guidance of ASTM standard D7205 (ASTM 2011)
[28], a free length of 400 mm was designated for the axial tensile test
specimens, and the two anchor tubes with an inner and external diam-
eters of 18 and 22 mm, respectively, were designed with a length of
160 mm. The dimensions for the transverse load test specimens
employed in the current research were the same with those used in
the previous work [6,11,24]. The total length and free length of the
transverse load test specimens were 340 and 100 mm, respectively;
and the anchor tubes with an inner and external diameters of 35 and
39 mm, respectively, were engraved with an external M39 × 3 thread
to apply longitudinal tension on the specimens.
2.2. Materials
The CFRP wires used in the present study were obtained from
Tokyo Rope (Tokyo, Japan). The CFRP wires were fabricated from
polyacrylonitrile (PAN)‐based carbon fibers and thermosetting resins,
and the volume fraction of fibers and resins were 65% and 35%,
respectively. The wires with a nominal diameter (dn) of 4.17 mm
mainly consisted of inside core fibers and a layer of outside protective
yarn, as shown in Fig. 2. The protective yarn was wrapped outside the
core fibers with the assistance of epoxy resins; and the effective diam-
eter for the core fibers (de) in the wire was 3.72 mm, leading to a cross‐
sectional area (A) of 10.86 mm2. Additionally, the glass transition tem-
perature (Tg) for the CFRP wires was measure to be approximately 99 °
C through the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) method per-
formed by Benmokrane et al. [29].
RPC was selected as the grouting material for the bond‐type
anchorage due to its ultra‐high strength, limited shrinkage and
creep, as well as the excellent fluidity. The RPC is a cement‐based
material which composed of cement, silica powder, quartz powder,
and superplasticizer [30]. In this research, the RPC was cured under
standard curing conditions for 28 days (i.e., 20 ± 2 °C and ≥95%
relative humidity) to eliminate the influence of curing temperature
on mechanical performance of the CFRP wires. After 28 day’s cur-
ing, the RPC compressive strength for the standard 100 mm cubes
and 100 × 100 × 400 mm prisms according to GB/T31387‐2015
test standard [31] were measured to be 126 and 107 MPa,
respectively.
Y. Fang et al. Composite Structures 274 (2021) 114388

Fig. 1. Geometries and dimensions of specimens: (a) three-point bending test specimen; (b) axial tensile test specimen; (c) transverse static load test specimen.

Fig. 2. Configurations of the CFRP wires.

2.3. Test setup and loading procedure
Fig. 3 shows the temperature and loading process for the CFRP wire
specimens. Before preparation of those specimens, all CFRP wires were
placed in an electric furnace at different temperatures of 30 (i.e., the
ambient temperature), 100 and 200 °C, respectively, as shown in
Fig. 4. The designated elevated temperature was achieved by electrify-
ing the heating wire at a change rate of 6 °C/min, and kept at the target
temperature for three hours to ensure a uniform temperature distribu-
tion in the CFRP wires. After the exposure to the elevated tempera-

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Y. Fang et al.
Fig. 3. Temperature and loading regime.
Fig. 4. Electric furnace for elevated temperature exposure.
tures, the wires were cooled to room temperature, and then the bond‐
type anchorages grouted with RPC were installed on the CFRP wires.
The axial tensile tests were conducted under the guidance of ASTM
standard D7205 (ASTM 2011) [28], and 3 groups, 5 specimens for
each group, were tested with a hydraulic testing machine, as shown
in Fig. 5. During the tests, the axial tension and elongation of the wires
were measured through the data acquisition system of the testing
machine and two digital displacement meters, respectively. Based on
the experimental results, the tensile strength, modulus and ultimate
strain of the CFRP wires after elevated‐temperature exposure were
determined.
Totally 15 specimens after three different elevated temperature
exposure were tested under three‐point bending. According to ASTM
standard D7136/D7136M (ASTM 2015) [32], the span length for the
CFRP wire was determined to be 100 mm and a steel semi‐cylinder
16 mm in diameter was adopted as the hammer to apply a transverse
compression in the mid‐span of the wire at a steady rate, as shown in
Fig. 6. During the tests, the transverse load and deformation were mea-
sured with a pressure transducer and a digital displacement meter,
respectively.
To simulate the loading state of the CFRP wires in prestressing
structures, a reaction frame used for applying a longitudinal tension
and transverse load was designed, as shown in Fig. 7. In the transverse
load tests, a longitudinal tension was applied on the specimens
4
Composite Structures 274 (2021) 114388
through tightening the nuts outside the steel anchor tubes; afterwards,
a transverse load transferred from the hammer was loaded at the mid-
dle of the CFRP wire until the failure of the specimen. In actual appli-
cation, the initial pre‐stress of a CFRP prestressed tendon is generally
40% of its ultimate tensile strength (ft) and the available tensile
strength reduces to 0.34ft with consideration of the prestress loss.
Therefore, a maximum pretension ratio that was defined as the ratio
of the pretension to the tensile breaking force of the CFRP wire (i.e.,
λ = T0/Tu) was determined as 0.34 in the current study. Five groups
of specimens were tested under pretention ratios of 0.00, 0.10, 0.17,
0.28 and 0.34, and each group contained three identical specimens.
The longitudinal tension and transverse contact force between the
hammer and the specimen were measured with two pressure transduc-
ers, and the transverse deformation was monitored with a digital dis-
placement meter.
3. Experimental results and discussions
The appearance of the CFRP wires after different elevated‐
temperature exposure was examined, as shown in Fig. 8. The results
indicate that no visible physical changes occurred on the wires under
treatment of 30 and 100 °C. However, the surface of the wires after
200 °C exposure lost its smooth and changed its color to yellow, result-
ing from the oxidation and decomposition of the epoxy resins.
3.1. Axial tensile test
Two typical damage patterns, including the tensile fracture and
pull‐out failure of the CFRP wires were observed for the axial tensile
test specimens, as shown in Fig. 9. The wires subjected to 30 and
100 °C exposure exhibited a tensile fracture without obvious slip
between the CFRP wire and RPC. However, for the specimens after
200 °C exposure, the wires were pulled out from the anchorage due
to the bonding failure on the core fibers‐yarn interface rather than
yarn‐RPC interface, which was a result of the oxidation and decompo-
sition of the resin adhesive.
Fig. 10 shows the stress–strain relationships for the specimens after
different elevated‐temperature exposure. The results show that all
stress–strain curves for the specimens almost keep linear up to failure.
Correspondingly, the average values for the ultimate tensile load (Tu),
tensile strength (ft), elastic modulus (E), ultimate tensile strain (εu) and


average bond stress in the anchorage zone (τ ) are summarized in
Table 1. The average bond stress can be determined through the fol-
lowing equation.
Y. Fang et al. Composite Structures 274 (2021) 114388

Fig. 5. Hydraulic testing machine for the axial tensile test.

Fig. 6. Setup of the three-point bending test.

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Y. Fang et al. Composite Structures 274 (2021) 114388

Fig. 7. Setup of the transverse load test.

Fig. 8. Appearance of the CFRP wires after three hours exposure at 30, 100 and 200 °C.

Fig. 9. Damage patterns for the axial tensile test specimens.

Tu Compared to the wire exposed to the ambient temperature (i.e.,

τ ¼ ð1Þ
πdn l AT‐30), a slight reduction on the ultimate tensile load, elastic modulus,
ultimate tensile strain and bond strength in the anchorage with the
where dn is the nominal diameter of the CFRP wire, and l is the length values of 2.85%, 1.78%, 1.01% and 2.64%, respectively, occurred
of the anchorage.

6
Y. Fang et al.
Fig. 10. Stress–strain curves for the axial tensile test specimens.
Table 1
Axial tensile test results for CFRP wires after elevated-temperature exposure.
Specimen code Temperature (°C) Tu (kN)
AT-30 30 31.6
AT-100 100 30.7
AT-200 200 22.6
for the wire subjected to 100 °C exposure. As the temperature rose to
200 °C, the bond strength on the core fiber‐yarn interface decreased by
28.48% due to the degradation of the resin properties, which induced
the pull‐out failure of the CFRP wires under tensile load. Therefore,
only the ultimate tensile load and elastic modulus with a drop of
28.48% and 8.93% were obtained for the specimens AT‐200. The
results suggest that the post‐elevated temperature axial tensile behav-
ior of the CFRP wires decreased with the increase of the exposed tem-
perature, which coincides well with the observations on CFRP strand
obtained by Sayed‐Ahmed and Shrive [22]. The explanations for those
results are due to the following reasons: (1) the bond strength on the
fiber/resin interface and load‐transfer capacity degraded resulting
from the reduced resin properties caused by the irreversible thermal
damage; and (2) the micro‐cracks were generated during the exposure
to elevated‐temperature due to the mismatch strains cause by the dif-
ferent thermal expansion coefficient between fiber and resins.
3.2. Three-point bending test
In the three‐point bending tests, all CFRP wires fractured at the
loading position regardless of the exposed temperatures, as shown in
Fig. 11. During the loading process, the bending load of the CFRP
wires linearly increased with the increase of the transverse displace-
ment; when the load reached to its peak value, the sudden fracture
of the wires occurred and a reduced bending resistance provided by
the survival fibers was obtained. As the transverse deformation grew
larger, the wires completely fractured and the associated bending load
almost dropped to zero. Therefore, totally four stages, including a lin-
ear ascent stage, an abrupt descent stage, a rebalancing stage and a
complete fracture stage were observed on the bending load‐
transverse displacement curves for all three groups of specimens, as
shown in Fig. 12.
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Composite Structures 274 (2021) 114388


ft (MPa) E (GPa) εu (πε) τ (MPa)
2907 168 18,700 15.1
2824 165 18,511 14.7
– 153 – 10.8
The average maximum bending load (Fb) and the corresponding
transverse displacement at such load (db) for the CFRP wires subjected
to elevated‐temperature exposure are summarized in Table 2. Com-
pared to the wire exposed to 30 °C, the maximum bending load for
specimens B‐100 and B‐200 with values of 0.323 and 0.289 kN,
decreased by 2.42% and 12.95%, respectively; and the associated
transverse displacement of 5.66 and 5.58 mm for specimens B‐100
and B‐200 was dropped by 2.08% and 3.46%, respectively. The results
indicate that the elevated‐temperature treatment, especially at a tem-
perature higher than Tg, can lower the bending resistance and the
transverse deformation capacity of the CFRP wires due to the irre-
versible thermal damage of the resin under elevated‐temperature
exposure.
3.3. Transverse load test
In the transverse load tests, the specimens subjected to different
temperatures completely fractured at the position contacted by the
hammer, and no visible slip between the core fibers and outside yarn
or the yarn and RPC was detected for all specimens. Additionally, for
the specimens subjected to 200 °C exposure, the outside
protective yarn debonded from the internal core fibers, as illustrated
in Fig. 13.
A summary of the average results of the maximum wire tension
(Tmax) in the wire, the maximum wire tension increment (Tcmax)
(i.e., the difference between Tmax and the initial pretension T0, Tcmax =-
Tmax‐T0), the maximum contact force (Fmax) applied to the wire, and
the transverse deflection at fracture (dmax) is listed in Table 3. In the
Table 3, the specimen codes indicate the type of the test, the operating
temperature and the pretension ratio applied on the wire, for example,
TB‐100–0.10 means the specimen after exposure to 100 °C was tested
with a pretension ratio of 0.10 in the transverse load test.
Y. Fang et al. Composite Structures 274 (2021) 114388

Fig. 11. Typical damage failure for the three-point bending test specimens.

Fig. 12. Bending load–deflection curves for the three-point bending test specimens.

Table 2 maximum contact force for the specimens subjected to 30, 100 and
Three-point bending test results for CFRP wires after elevated-temperature 200 °C exposure decreased by 6.9%, 7.7% and 7.9%, respectively,
exposure. and the values of dmax decreased by 28.2%, 24.9% and 29.1%, respec-
Specimen code Temperature (°C) Fb (kN) db (mm) tively. The reason for the preceding results is that the higher preten-
sion ratio caused larger initial tensile strain and less remaining
B-30 30 0.332 5.78
B-100 100 0.323 5.66
strain was available to resist the transverse load, thus leading to a
B-200 200 0.289 5.58 reduced transverse load resistance and deformation capacity, as stated
in the previous study [6].
Fig. 16(a) illustrates the effect of exposed temperature on the max-
3.3.1. Contact force–deflection relationship imum contact force (Fmax) of the specimens under varied pretension
The contact force–deflection curves for the transverse load test ratios. When the operating temperature rose from 30 °C to 100 °C,
specimens are shown in Fig. 14. It is inferred that the curves obtained the maximum contact force for specimens under pretension ratio of
after three types of elevated‐temperature treatment had the similar 0.00, 0.10, 0.18, 0.27 and 0.34 decreased by 2.7%, 4.2%, 4.3%,
features. With the increase of the transverse deflection the contact 3.7% and 3.6%, respectively; and a more significant reduction in the
force of the wire significantly increased, and then the force abruptly force with values of 12.9%, 14.1%, 12.7%, 13.8% and 13.9%, respec-
dropped due to the sudden fracture of the wire. Additionally, a more tively, was observed as the temperature increased to 200 °C. Therefore,
obvious “tension stiffening” was observed for the specimens under a the elevation of the exposed temperature degraded the transverse ulti-
lower pretension ratio. mate load of the CFRP wires, and the more obvious degradation of the
The effect of pretension ratio on the maximum contact force (Fmax) load occurs for the wires subjected to higher temperature exposure.
and deflection at fracture (dmax) was similar for the specimens exposed This is because the transverse mechanical performance of the CFRP
to three different temperatures, as shown in Fig. 15. In the pretension wires that were mainly dependent on the resin properties would
ratio range of 0.00–0.34, the maximum contact force and transverse decreased due to the reduced resin strength after high temperature
deflection decreased with the increase of the pretension ratio. exposure. Moreover, the degraded resin properties caused a low bond
Specially, as the pretension ratio increased from 0.00 to 0.34, the strength on the fiber/resin interface and load‐transfer capacity,

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Y. Fang et al. Composite Structures 274 (2021) 114388

Fig. 13. Typical failure patterns for the transverse load test specimens.

Table 3
Main results of transverse load tests conducted on CFRP wires after elevated-temperature exposure.

Specimen code Temperature (°C) λ = T0/Tu T0 (kN) Tmax (kN) Tcmax (kN) Fmax (kN) dmax (mm)

TB-30-0.00 30 0.00 0.07 11.45 11.38 4.80 10.20

TB-30-0.10 0.10 2.94 11.79 8.85 4.81 9.55
TB-30-0.18 0.18 5.68 13.41 7.73 4.65 8.89
TB-30-0.27 0.27 8.53 14.06 5.53 4.56 8.51
TB-30-0.34 0.34 10.72 15.90 5.18 4.47 7.32
TB-100-0.00 100 0.00 0.09 11.14 11.05 4.67 10.03
TB-100-0.10 0.10 3.08 11.65 8.57 4.61 9.42
TB-100-0.18 0.18 5.56 12.91 7.35 4.45 8.72
TB-100-0.27 0.27 8.45 13.76 5.31 4.39 8.39
TB-100-0.34 0.34 10.66 15.43 4.77 4.31 7.23
TB-200-0.00 200 0.00 0.04 10.27 10.23 4.18 9.89
TB-200-0.10 0.10 3.01 10.86 7.85 4.13 9.25
TB-200-0.18 0.18 5.57 12.13 6.56 4.06 8.48
TB-200-0.27 0.27 8.42 12.75 4.33 3.93 7.85
TB-200-0.34 0.34 10.67 14.17 3.50 3.85 7.01

thereby leading to a decreased maximum contact force of the whole
CFRP wire.
The effect of exposed temperature on the deflection of the speci-
mens at fracture was relatively marginal, as shown in Fig. 16(b). Com-
pared to the specimens subjected to 30 °C exposure, the deflection of
the wires experienced 100 °C treatment under five pretension ratios
decreased by 1.2% to 1.9%, and the specimens of series TB‐200 lost
3.0% to 7.7% of their ambient deflection. The slight influence of the
temperature on the transverse deformation capacity can be understood
because the ultimate tensile strain of the CFRP wires exhibited little
changes under elevated temperatures due to the thermal stabilities
of the carbon fibers.
3.3.2. Wire tension and wire tension increment
Fig. 17 compares the maximum wire tension (Tmax) and maximum
wire tension increment (Tcmax) of the specimens under different pre-
tension ratios. The results suggest that as the pretension ratio varied
from 0.00 to 0.34, the maximum wire tension of the specimens after
30, 100 and 200 °C exposure showed a similar growth of 38.9%,
38.5% and 38.0%, respectively. Actually, the increase of pretension
ratio can lower the deflection angle at the loading position and pro-
mote a uniform stress distribution among the fibers, therefore leading
to an improved maximum wire tension of the CFRP wires.
When the pretension ratio increased from 0.00 to 0.34, the max-
imum wire tension increment for specimens of series TB‐30, TB‐100
and TB‐200 decreased by 54.5%, 56.8% and 65.8%, respectively.
Therefore, the augment of pretension ratio was adverse to the
improvement of maximum wire tension increment of the CFRP
wires. An explanation for this conclusion is that the wires under a
higher pretension ratio achieved a smaller transverse deflection
owing to the less remaining strain available for the subsequent
transverse loading process; that is, the axial elongation was smaller,
consequently leading to a decreased maximum wire tension
increment.
The influence of exposed temperature on the maximum wire ten-
sion is displayed in Fig. 18(a). It is observed that the maximum wire
tension for the wires decreased with the increase of the temperature
in the range of 30–200 °C. Specifically, the specimens under pretension
ratios of 0.00, 0.10, 0.18, 0.27 and 0.34 lost 2.7%, 1.2%, 3.7%, 2.1%
and 3.0% of their maximum wire tension, respectively, after exposure
to 100 °C conditions, and experienced a reduction of 10.3%, 7.9%,
9.5%, 9.3% and 10.9% in Tmax when subjected to elevated‐
temperature treatment at 200 °C. The reduction degree of the longitu-
dinal ultimate load (i.e., the maximum wire tension) for the CFRP
wires in the transverse load test coincides with that of the tensile
strength in the axial tensile tests, and the reasons for the decline of
the maximum wire tension were the same as those for the degradation
of the axial tensile properties described above.
Owing to the decreased maximum wire tension, the associated
maximum wire tension increment for the specimens with designated
pretension ratios also decreased, as shown in Fig. 18(b). When the
exposed temperature increased from 30 to 100 °C, the maximum wire
tension increment for the specimens under five different pretension
ratios decreased by 10.1% to 32.4%; as the temperature rose to
200 °C, the corresponding reduction for Tcmax reached to 10.1%–
32.4%. Similarly, these observations are understandable attributing
to the lower axial tensile properties after elevated‐temperature
exposure.

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Y. Fang et al.
Fig. 14. Contact force–deflection curves for transverse load test specimens: (a) ambient temperature; (b) 100 °C exposure; (c) 200 °C exposure.
Fig. 15. Effect of pretension ratio on the maximum contact force and deflection: (a) maximum contact force; (b) deflection at fracture.
3.3.3. Dissipated energy
During the entire transverse load tests, the total energy (Etot)
absorbed by the specimens consisted of the initial tensile strain energy
(E0) inputted by the axial pretension and the energy dissipated in the
subsequent transverse loading process (Edis), as expressed in the fol-
lowing equation.
E tot ¼ E0 þ E dis
In Eq. (2), the value for Edis can be determined through integrating
the contact force–deflection curve of the specimens, and because of the
linear‐elastic stress–strain relationship of the CFRP wires under axial
tensile load the initial tensile strain energy can be calculated through
Eq. (3)
Composite Structures 274 (2021) 114388
T 20 L
E0 ¼ ð3Þ
2EA
where T0 and L are the initial pretension and free length of the speci-
men, respectively; A is the effective area of the CFRP wire; and E is
the elastic modulus of the CFRP wire after elevated‐temperature
exposure.
ð2Þ Table 4 summarizes the average values of the energy parameters
for each groups of specimens. In the pretension ratio range of
0.00–0.34, the total energy for the specimens under five different pre-
tension ratios slightly fluctuated around the certain values of 17.8,
17.0 and 15.8 J, respectively, after elevated‐temperature exposure at
30, 100 and 200 °C. Therefore, the total energy absorption capacity
10
Y. Fang et al. Composite Structures 274 (2021) 114388

Fig. 16. Effect of exposed temperature on the maximum contact force and deflection: (a) maximum contact force; (b) deflection at fracture.

Fig. 17. Effect of pretension ratio on the maximum wire tension and maximum wire tension increment: (a) maximum wire tension; (b) maximum wire tension
increment.

Fig. 18. Effect of exposed temperature on the maximum wire tension and maximum wire tension increment: (a) maximum wire tension; (b) maximum wire
tension increment.

of the CFRP wires is insensitive to the variation of the pretension ratios
in the researched range, which is consistent with the results obtained
in the previous research [6]. Compared to the pretension ratio, the
influence of exposed temperature on Etot was much more significant.
As the temperature increased from 30 °C to 100 and 200 °C, the aver-
age total energy absorbed by the specimens decreased by 4.5% and
11.2%, respectively. Thus, the energy absorption capacity of the wires
declined with the increase of the temperature, which is caused because
the micro‐cracks were prone to be generated and developed under
higher temperature exposure due to the different thermal properties
between fiber and resins.
Based on the results, a surface diagram is also plotted to reveal the
influences of pretension ratio and exposed temperature on the energy
dissipated during the transverse loading process, as shown in Fig. 19.

11
Y. Fang et al. Composite Structures 274 (2021) 114388

Table 4
Values of energy characteristics.

Specimen code Temperature (°C) E0 (J) Edis (J) Etot (J) Average Etot (J)

TB-30-0.00 30 0.0 17.9 17.9 17.8

TB-30-0.10 0.3 17.0 17.3
TB-30-0.18 1.0 16.4 17.4
TB-30-0.27 2.2 16.0 18.2
TB-30-0.34 3.4 14.8 18.2
TB-100-0.00 100 0.0 16.7 16.7 17.0
TB-100-0.10 0.3 15.9 16.2
TB-100-0.18 1.0 15.5 16.5
TB-100-0.27 2.2 15.4 17.6
TB-100-0.34 3.4 14.4 17.8
TB-200-0.00 200 0.0 16.0 16.0 15.8
TB-200-0.10 0.3 15.3 15.6
TB-200-0.18 1.0 14.8 15.8
TB-200-0.27 2.2 13.9 16.1
TB-200-0.34 3.4 12.6 16.0

The results show that when the pretension ratio increased from 0.00 to
0.34 the dissipated energy for the specimens subjected to 30, 100 and
200 °C exposure decreased by 17.3% 13.8% and 21.3%, respectively.
Thus, the CFRP wires under higher pretension ratio dissipate less ener-
gies when subjected to a transverse load. This is because the total
energy that can be absorbed by the CFRP wire was almost constant,
and a higher pretension ratio caused larger initial tensile strain energy,
thereby, leading to a lower dissipated energy in the transverse loading
process. For the effect of exposed temperature, the specimens under
0.00, 0.10, 0.18, 0.27 and 0.34 lost 6.7%, 6.5%, 5.5%, 3.8% and
2.7%, respectively, of their ambient dissipated energy after 100 °C
exposure, and suffered a higher reduction of 10.6%, 10.0%, 9.8%,
13.1% and 14.9%, respectively, in Edis when experienced 200 °C expo-
sure. Therefore, the elevated‐temperature exposure degraded the dissi-
pated energy capacity of the CFRP wires during transverse loading
process.
4. Analysis of failure response
4.1. Prediction of failure response
To analyze the failure responses of a preloaded CFRP wire sub-
jected to transverse loads, a simplified analytical model with a trans-
verse concentrated load in the mid‐span of a hinged‐hinged wire was
established in a previous study conducted by the authors [6], as shown
in Fig. 20. Based on the model and results of the transverse load tests at
ambient temperatures, the formulas for predicting the transverse
mechanical performance at fracture of the preloaded CFRP wires,
including the maximum wire tension, maximum contact force and
associated deflection at fracture were proposed, as expressed in Eqs.
(4)–(7).
T max ¼ ηðλÞ  T u ð4Þ

Fig. 19. Surface diagram of the relationship of Edis against pretension ratio and exposed temperature.

12
Y. Fang et al.
Fig. 20. Schematic of the transverse loading on a preloaded CFRP wire with
two hinged ends.
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ɛ u ð1
λÞ
F max ðλÞ ¼ 4ηðλÞ  T u  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 þ 4ɛu ð1
λÞ
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ɛ u ð1
λÞ
dmax ¼ L
2 be employed to estimate the maximum wire tension of a preloaded
ηðλÞ ¼ 0:4λ2 þ 0:232λ þ 0:368
where Tmax, Fmax and dmax are the maximum wire tension, maximum
contact force and deflection at fracture of the preloaded CFRP wire
under transverse loads, respectively; Tu and εu are the axial tensile
breaking force and tensile fracture strain of the wire at ambient temper-
ature, respectively; η is the ratio of the maximum wire tension to axial
tensile breaking force; and L and λ are the free length and pretension
ratio, respectively.
Among those equations, Eqs. (4)–(6) were derived without consid-
eration of the elevated‐temperature exposure, and the expressions of
the equations suggest that the transverse load resistance of a preloaded
CFRP wire was closely related to its axial tensile behavior, such as εu
and Tu of the wire. Unfortunately, the tensile performance of a CFRP
wire degraded after exposure to an elevated‐temperature higher than
its Tg. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the tensile properties
prior to applying those equations in prediction of the post‐elevated
temperature transverse failure responses of the preloaded CFRP wires.
In the axial tensile tests, the tensile properties, including the elastic
modulus, tensile strength and fracture strain were entirely obtained for
the wires after 100 °C exposure, while some of them were unobtain-
able due to the slip failure of the test specimens when subjected to
200 °C exposure. Therefore, a related research [22] that reported a
similar decreasing amplitude in tensile strength was referenced to
determine the tensile strength (2634 MPa) of the CFRP wires after
200 °C exposure. Fig. 21 plots the retention of the elastic modulus
and tensile strength in the exposed temperature range of 30–200 °C,
and two reduction functions were fitted to quantify the reduction of
those two mechanical performance indexes for the CFRP wires after
elevated‐temperature exposure, as expressed in Eqs. (8) and (9).
r E ðTÞ ¼ 1
3:11  ðT
30Þ2  10
6 30  C ⩽ T ⩽ 200  C
r f t ðTÞ ¼ 1
2:8  ðT
30Þ  10
4
1:6  ðT
30Þ2
 10
6 30  C

⩽ T ⩽ 200 C
where r E and r f t are the ratios of elastic modulus and tensile strength of
the CFRP wires after elevated‐temperature exposure from 30 °C to 200 °
C to those obtained at ambient temperature, respectively; and T is the
exposed temperature with a unit of °C.
The determination coefficient for the reduction functions of r E and
r f t are 1.00 and 0.999, which demonstrates an acceptable fitting accu-
racy of those two equations. Consequently, the post‐elevated tempera-
ture elastic modulus and tensile strength are estimated through
introducing the reduction functions, and correspondingly the tensile
fracture strain can be obtained.
Composite Structures 274 (2021) 114388
To predict the maximum wire tension of wire, the Eq. (7) used for
evaluation of the relationship between the maximum wire tension and
pretension ratio (λ) was also essential, because the pretension can pro-
mote a uniform stress distribution among the fibers and have a signif-
icant influence of the maximum wire tension. However, this function
was obtained through fitting the results tested at ambient temperature,
and the applicability of this equation for a CFRP wire after elevated‐
temperature exposure should be examined. A comparison between
the experimental and predicted η for the wires under pretension ratio
range of 0.00–0.34 after elevated‐temperature exposure was plotted in
Fig. 22. It is observed that the tested values of η slightly fluctuates
around the predicted curve and are closed to the associated predicted
values for three different types of elevated temperature exposure.
ð5Þ
Therefore, it can be concluded that the relationship between the max-
imum wire tension and the pretension applied on the CFRP wires is
independent of the elevated‐temperature exposure, and Eq. (7) can
ð6Þ
CFRP wire subjected to a temperature lower than 200 °C.
ð7Þ Accordingly, the transverse failure response of a preloaded CFRP
wire after elevated‐temperature exposure can be estimated using
Eqs. (4)–(7) in combination with the reduction functions in tensile
properties Eqs. (8) and (9). Table 5 lists the comparison results
between the tested and predicted Tmax, Fmax and dmax. It is observed
that the predicted values showed good agreement with the corre-
sponding tested ones. Therefore, those formulas can be employed as
a simplified tool for the evaluation of the post‐elevated temperature
transverse failure responses of the CFRP wires.
4.2. Failure criteria for CFRP wire under combined tension and bending
In another work conducted by the authors [24], the failure criteria
based on the internal forces in macroscopic view were established to
evaluate the damage state of a CFRP wire under combined tension
and bending, as described in Eq. (10).
 0:5  3
T max F max
þ 0:048 ¼1 ð10Þ
Tu Fb
where Tmax, Tu, Fmax and Fb are the maximum wire tension, axial tensile
breaking force, maximum contact force and maximum bending load of
a CFRP wire, respectively.
The above interaction function that expressed by four internal force
indexes reveals an interrelationship between the longitudinal and
transverse ultimate load of the CFRP wires at ultimate state. However,
both the axial tensile and transverse mechanical properties of the
CFRP wire were influenced by the elevated‐temperature exposure,
and thus, whether those post‐elevated temperature properties coincide
with the interrelationship described in Eq. (10) remains to be verified.
The values calculated from Eq. (10) for the CFRP wires after 30,
ð8Þ 100 and 200 °C exposure are listed in Table 6. The results indicate that
the average value of 0.97 is closed to the expected value of 1.0 with an
average deviation of 3.1%. Thus, a conclusion can be drawn that the
interrelationship between the longitudinal and transverse ultimate
load was almost not influenced by the elevated‐temperature exposure
ð9Þ
and can be quantified using the proposed function. That is, the estab-
lished failure criteria are also applicable to assess the failure state of a
CFRP wire after evaluated‐temperature exposure when subjected to a
combined tension and bending.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, the axial tensile, three‐point bending and transverse
load tests were performed on CFRP wires exposed to elevate tempera-
tures of 30, 100 and 200 °C, and the effect of exposed temperature on
the mechanical performance of the wire was systematically investi-
13
Y. Fang et al. Composite Structures 274 (2021) 114388

Fig. 21. Retention of the tensile properties for CFRP wires after elevated-temperature exposure.

Fig. 22. η–λ relationship for the CFRP wires after elevated-temperature exposure.

gated. From the experimental results, the main conclusions are as
below:
• In the axial tensile tests, a tensile fracture occurred on the CFRP
wires after 30 and 100 °C exposure, and the wires subjected to
200 °C exposure were pulled out from the anchorage due to the
bonding failure on the core fibers‐yarn interface. As the tempera-
ture increased from 30 to 100 °C, the ultimate tensile load, elastic
modulus, ultimate tensile strain and bond strength in the anchorage
for the wire decreased by 2.85%, 1.78%, 1.01% and 2.64%,
respectively.
• The bending resistance and the transverse deformation capacity of
the CFRP wire under three‐point bending load degraded with the
increase of the exposed temperature. Compared to the wire exposed
to 30 °C, the maximum bending load for the wire subjected to 100
and 200 °C decreased by 2.42% and 13.00%, respectively, and the
associated transverse displacement decreased by 2.08% and 3.46%,
respectively.
• All specimens in the transverse load test fractured at the loading
position regardless of the exposed temperatures. With increase of
the exposed temperature, the maximum contact force, maximum

14
Y. Fang et al. Composite Structures 274 (2021) 114388

Table 5
Comparison between tested and predicted transverse failure responses

Specimen code Maximum wire tension Maximum contact force Deflection

Tested (kN) Predicted (kN) Deviation (%) Tested (kN) Predicted (kN) Deviation (%) Tested (mm) Predicted (mm) Deviation (%)

TB-30-0.00 11.45 11.65 1.70 4.80 4.42 −7.92 10.20 9.66 −5.31
TB-30-0.10 11.79 12.43 5.40 4.81 4.50 −6.44 9.55 9.21 −3.61
TB-30-0.18 13.41 13.35 −0.41 4.65 4.61 −0.86 8.89 8.76 −1.49
TB-30-0.27 14.06 14.53 3.33 4.56 4.74 3.95 8.51 8.26 −2.91
TB-30-0.34 15.90 15.57 −2.07 4.47 4.84 8.28 7.32 7.86 7.38
TB-100-0.00 11.14 11.32 1.60 4.67 4.27 −8.57 10.03 9.59 −4.36
TB-100-0.10 11.65 12.14 4.17 4.61 4.35 −5.64 9.42 9.11 −3.27
TB-100-0.18 12.91 12.99 0.62 4.45 4.45 0.00 8.72 8.69 −0.31
TB-100-0.27 13.76 14.19 3.11 4.39 4.58 4.33 8.39 8.18 −2.52
TB-100-0.34 15.43 15.25 −1.16 4.31 4.68 8.58 7.23 7.76 7.35
TB-200-0.00 10.27 10.57 2.93 4.18 3.86 −7.66 9.89 9.29 −6.11
TB-200-0.10 10.86 11.39 4.85 4.13 3.94 −4.60 9.25 8.79 −4.96
TB-200-0.18 12.13 12.29 1.29 4.06 4.04 −0.49 8.48 8.34 −1.63
TB-200-0.27 12.75 13.50 5.91 3.93 4.17 6.11 7.85 7.81 −0.50
TB-200-0.34 14.17 14.62 3.20 3.85 4.19 8.83 7.01 7.36 5.06
Mean value – – 2.30 – – −0.14 – – −1.15

Table 6
Verification of the applicability of the failure criteria for CFRP wires after elevated-temperature exposure
 0:5  3
Specimen code Tmax (kN) Fmax (kN) Deviation (%)
T max
Tu þ 0:048 FFmax
b

TB-30-0.00 11.45 4.80 0.94 −5.9

TB-30-0.10 11.79 4.81 0.95 −4.8
TB-30-0.18 13.41 4.65 0.96 −3.3
TB-30-0.27 14.06 4.56 0.96 −3.5
TB-30-0.34 15.90 4.47 0.98 −1.8
TB-100-0.00 11.14 4.67 0.95 −5.4
TB-100-0.10 11.65 4.61 0.98 −2.0
TB-100-0.18 12.91 4.45 0.98 −2.4
TB-100-0.27 13.76 4.39 0.98 −1.6
TB-100-0.34 15.43 4.31 1.01 0.6
TB-200-0.00 10.27 4.18 0.95 −4.5
TB-200-0.10 10.86 4.13 0.96 −4.1
TB-200-0.18 12.13 4.06 0.98 −2.3
TB-200-0.27 12.75 3.93 0.96 −3.7
TB-200-0.34 14.17 3.85 0.98 −1.9
Mean value – – 0.97 −3.1

wire tension, maximum wire tension increment, deflection at frac-
ture and the energy dissipation capacity of the preloaded CFRP
wires declined.
• For the wires under combined tension and bending, the relation-
ship between the maximum wire tension and pretension ratio is
independent of the elevated‐temperature exposure. Based on the
experimental results, reduction functions were established to quan-
tify the degradation in tensile properties of the CFRP wires after
elevated‐temperature exposure. In combination of the reduction
functions, the formulas used for predicting the post‐elevated tem-
perature failure responses of the preloaded CFRP wires were
proposed.
• The interrelationship between the longitudinal and transverse ulti-
mate load of the CFRP wire under combined tension and bending
was not influenced by the elevated‐temperature exposure, and
the previously established failure criteria are also applicable to
assess the failure state of a CFRP wire after evaluated‐
temperature exposure when subjected to a combined tension and
bending.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Yawei Fang: Data curation, Investigation, Writing ‐ original draft.
Zhi Fang: Writing ‐ review & editing, Supervision. Daobin Huang:
Data curation. Zhengwen Jiang: Writing ‐ review & editing. Xuhong
Zhou: Writing ‐ review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Founda-
tion of China (grant number: 51938012) and China Postdoctoral
Science Foundation (grant number: 2021M690968).
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