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    CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Sl arvanitay for Cambridge IGCSE™ > Chapter 13 The Periodic ‘+ learn how the elements are organised into a table of periods and groups based on the order of increasing atomic (proton) number ‘describe the relationship between the group number and ionic charge of the elements ‘+ explain the similarities in chemical properties of the elements in a group a ? describe the trends in properties of the Group | alkali metals describe the trends in properties of the halogens (Group VI). ‘+ describe the noble gases (Group Vlll) as unreactive, monatomic gases ene © describe the change from metallic to non-metallic character across a period + describe the key characteristics of the transition elements Cee eae ene CE Ree ron ae sere ean see > CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Work in groups of three or four and use a copy of the Periodic Table. 41 Make an estimate of how many more metals there are than non-metal, and where they are placed in the Periodic Table, 2 What are the properties you most obviously associate with a metal? Make alist in your group. 3. Discuss the question ‘Are all metals magnetic?” ‘What do you think? 4 Ifyouhave a magnet, try to use it on samples of aluminium, copper and magnesium, Can you name the three most important magnetic, metalic elements? The modern Periodic Table has been a major scientific achievement involving both men and women. The breakthrough in the organisation of the: ‘elements came in 1869 when the Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev put forward his ideas of a Periodic Table. Inhis fist attempt he used 32 of the 61 elements known at that time and stressed the idea there was a periodic patter to the properties of the elements. Mendeleev drev up his table based (on atomic masses, but elements of similar mass and character are difficult to distinguish, Mendeleev ‘was in correspondence with Julia Lermontova, a Russian scientist working in Heidelberg and the first woman to obtain a doctorate in chemistry. Her ‘work on separation methads for the platinum group of elements meant that the elements could le properly placed in the Periodic Table. The success ‘of Mendeleev's Periodic Table was mainly due to fim leaving gaps in the table for further possible ‘elements and in predicting the properties of elements that had not yet been discovered. Mary women have been involved in the search for new elements, Marie Curie discovered radium and polonium in the 1890s and was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize. Other notable women involved in the discovery of the elements in the last century include Lise Meitner (protactinium in 1917), Ida Noddack (rhenium in 1925)-and Marguerite Perey {francium in 1939), Most of these wornen worked with ‘mele collaborators and their contributions were not always fly acknowledged atthe time, Francium was the last element to be ciscovered in nature and the search fornew elements now requires large teams with particle accelerators and big budgets. The work bby American chemists Darleane Hoffman and Dawn Shaughnessy helped to discover the most recent six new ‘superheavy’ elements (elements 113-118) that were officially recognised in 2015, Clarice Phelps, one of the co-ciscoverers of tennessine (element 117), isthe first Afican- ‘American woman to discover a new chemical element (Figure 131) Figure 13.1: Clarice Phelps, fone of the co-ciscowerers of ennessine ‘The critical role of women in science has been recognised by UNESCO, In 2015 UNESCO established the International Day of Women and Girls lin Science, celebrated annually on 11 February, as an ‘opportunity to promote access to and participation Inscience for women and girls. Discussion questions 41 Why do you think that much of the early pioneering work by women scientists was not acknowledged at the time? 2 Doyou think the situation has changed? Do you think there are obstacles to women and girls participating in science? 260 > 13. The Periodic Table 13.1 Classifying the elements Groups and the Periodic Table ‘All modern versions of the Periodic Table are based fn the table proposed by Mendeleev in 1869. We have discussed some aspects of the Periodic Table when describing atomic structure in Chapter 2, An example of the Periodic Table is given in Figure 13.2. In the Periodic Table: ‘+ clements are arranged in order of increasing proton (atomic) number + vertical columns of elements with similar properties are called yroups © horizontal rows are called perio — += stornic number Periodic Table: a table of elements arrenged in order of increasing proton number {atomic numbed) to show the similarities of the chemical elements with related electronic configurations groups: vertical columns of the Periodic Table ‘containing elements with similar chemical properties; atoms of elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in their outer energy levels period: a horizontal row of the Periodic Table 2 2 —a = &, = ff [E pects! preg 3 8 é 6 1 ee atone mas 638 8 8 § Period 1 ot Period2| Jb | ee Period 3] Na | Mg vewods| | 2 Le eel 2 ebele mae | ae fee | ge ree ea de Pars Se voicds| te | 3 |e |oz.| ae [aie | | | & Se ee rool lee el ele lelelelal se sat ee | | se | er | re zp me | Le | oe |S |e se |e LO | fe voos| [| LE SRB Te Te epee pe ae | 2282 222 eye tees + a =] See ele i= ae le The reactive metals: Group | ~the alkali metals; Group Il the alkane earth metals ‘The transition elements: hard, strong and dense metals Elements in Groups Ito Vil are sometimes known as the main-group elements. [Ey les reactive metas [i] Te motalloids: includes semiconductors, e9. silicon and germanium [Dj the non-metal: includes Group Vil the halogens [Ei te noble gases (Group VD very uresctve Figure 13.2: Periodic Table showing the major regions, as) > CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Metals and non-metals ‘The main distinction in the Periodic Table is between metals and non-metals. Metals are clearly separated. from non-metals. The non-metals are grouped into the top right-hand region of the Periodie Table, above the thick stepped line in Figure 13.2. One of the first uses of the Periodic Table now becomes clear. Although we ‘may never have seen a sample of the element hafaium (HD, we know from looking at the Periodic Table that ‘a metal, We may also be able to predict some of its properties. The change from metallic to non-metallic properties in the elements across a period is not as clear cut as suggested by drawing the line between the two regions of the Periodic Table. The elements close to the line show properties that lie between these extremes (we will consider the properties of metals and non-metals in more detail in Chapter 14), These elements are now often referred to as metalloids (or semi-metals). Such elements have some of the properties of metals and others that are more characteristic of non-metals. There are eight elements that are called metalloids. They often ook like metals but are brittle like non-metals, They are neither conductors nor insulators, but make excellent semiconductors. The prime example of this type of clement is silicon (Figure 13.3) Figure 13.3: A sample ofthe element siicon, the basis of the semiconductor industry, The Periodic Table allows us to make even more useful subdivisions of elements than simply deciding which are metals and which are non-metals. The elements present in Groups Ito VIII of the Periodie Table are sometimes known as the main-yroup elements. These vertical groups show most clearly how elements within the same group have similar chemical and physical properties. Some of these groups have particular names as well as numbers, ‘and we will refer to these names later in the chapter. Between Groups ITand I of these main groups of elements is a block of metals known as the transition «ements (or transition metals) The first row ofthese elements occurs in Period 4. This row includes such important metals a iron, copper and zine. The noble gases, in Group VIII on the right-hand side of the Periodie Table, ae the least reactive elements in the Periodic Table. However, the group next to them, Group VIL, which are also known as the halogens, and the group on the le-hand side of the Periodic Table, Group Tor the lkall metals, are the most reactive elements. The more unreactive elements, whether metals or non-metal are in the centre of the Periodic Table. Position of hydrogen in the Periodic Table Hydrogen is difficult to place in the Periodic Table. Different versions place it above Group I or Group VII. More often, in modern tables, itis left by itself (Figure 13.4). This is because, as the smallest atom of all, its properties are distintive and unique. It does not fit easly into the trends shown ia any one group (Table 13.1). Hydrogen doesn't a belong to any group. Group — on om wv a a ufee{s}cln]o tii [teotom|_tooe_| een | tame | once i wv] 2 ps | wy eye Na] Mg} Alsi] p | s K |G Figure 13.4: Position of hydrogen in the Periodié Table, 13. The Periodic Table Lithium Hydrogen Fluorine ‘solid atroom | gas 8s temperature metal non-metal non-metal; formsdiatomic _| forms ciatomic molecules (H,) _| molecules (F) atomhas one [aiomhasone | atom has seven lectionin —_electronin outer _| electrons in outershell__| shell cuter shell ‘atom can lose [atom can form | atom can gain ‘one electron | either a positive or | one electron toachieve | a negative ion; can | to achieve anoblegas | gain one electron | a noble-gas arrangement | to achieve a noble- | arrangement forms a gas arrangement, | (forms a positive ion) Jorlose itsonly | negative ion) electron Table 13.1: A comparison of the properties of hydrogen with lithium (Group ] and Fluorine (Group Vil). metalloid (semi-metal): element that shows some of the properties of metals and some of non-metals, e.g. boron and silicon main-group elements: the elements in the outer groups of the Periodic Table, excluding the transition elements (Groups I-Vill) transition elements (transition metals): from the central region of the Periodic Table ~ they are hard, strong, dense metals, which form compounds that are often coloured alkali metals: elements in Group | of the Periodic Table; they are the most reactive group of metals periodic property: a property of the elements that shows a repeating pattern when plotted against proton number (2) Organisation of the Periodic Table ‘When the first attempts were made to construct a Periodic Table, the structure of the atom was unknown. ‘The order of the elements was originally provided by their increasing atomic masses. However, it was later found that atomic number provides a better basis for ‘putting the elements in order. Atomic mumber provides a linear, continuous sequence to listing the elements, But the Periodic Table is a two-dimensional representation obtained by breaking the continuous list at certain points, The resulting fragments of the sequence of elements are then placed underneath each other. We split the sequence of elements according to the structure Of the energy levels (shells) of electrons in the atom. A periodic property is one that shows a repeating pattern in the Periodic Table, ‘We can now directly link the properties of an element ‘with its position in the Periodic Table and its electronic ‘configuration (Figure 13.5). The number of outer clectrons in the atoms of each element has been found, Elements in the same group of the Periodic Table have the same number of outer electrons, We also know that, fas you move across a period in the Periodic Table, a shell of electrons is being filled. Fach period in the Periodic ‘Table represents the filing of an electron shell. ‘There isa clear relationship between electron arrangement and position in the Periodic Table for the ‘main-group elements, ‘© Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in their outer shell. For the main-group clements, the number of the group is the number of electrons in the outer shell * Periods of the Periodic Table also have numbers. This number shows us how many shells of electrons the atom has ‘A magnesium atom, for example, has two electrons in its third, outer, shell, and is in Group II and Period 3 (Figure 13.5). 3 3 Grours tu mo YM ' ‘ He 2 pz alzyslelz|s g7 li |e é|¢|NiolF | ne = 3 sesfaaa| 4 PR Tes Figure 13.5: Relationship between an element’ position inthe Periogle Table and the electronic configuration of ‘ts toms. > CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Tris the outer electrons of an atom that are mainly responsible for the chemical properties of any element. Therefore, elements in the same group will have similar properties, Certain electron arrangements are found to be ‘more stable than others. This makes them more difficult to break up, The most stable arrangements are those of ‘the noble gases, and this fits in with the fact that they are so unreactive, ‘There are links between the organisation of particles in the atom and the regular variation in properties of the elements in the Periodie Table. This means that Wwe ean see certain broad trends in the Periodic Table (Figure 13.6). These trends become most obvious if we leave aside the noble gases in Group VIII. Individual ‘groups show certain ‘group characteristies. These properties follow a trend in particular groups. noble gases: elements in Group Vill - 2 group of stable, very unreactive gases transition elements [cs atoms getting smaller, less metalic > Relationship between group number and ionic charge The relationship between postion in the Periodic Table and letroni configuration means that there ink between group number and the charge on the ions that atoms form (Figure 13.7) [+] Group ow Wowy | u [ee ‘No- |e a | Tain S| metals Figure 13.7: lons formed by the main-group elements of the Periodic Teble. “You can see that for the metal ions the positive charge is the same as the group number. These atoms have lost their outer electrons to form the ion. For non-metals the negative charge on the ion is 8 minus the group number. ‘These atoms have gained electrons to form the negative jon. The atoms of elements in the middle of a period usually form covalent rather than ionic compounds. We have discussed this relationship earlier in Chapter 4 when talking about valency and writing formulae. ‘uorine —the most reactive non-metal Siar F 4~ caesium — the most reactive metal available in useful ‘amounts Figure 13.6: General tend in the Periodic Table, leaving aside the noble gases in Group Vill. 264 > 13. The Periodic Table Discovering elementary patterns! involved in the recent discoveries of new elements (eg, Glenn Seaborg, Dawn Shaughnessy or Clarice Phelps). In groups, organise yourselves as a team of news reporters working on a breakthrough in organising a table of the elements, or the discovery of new Research the scientist of your choice and the elements. You are putting together a blog post context of their work, Remember that this is a news celebrating this scientific progress. report, so does not need to be too technical. Write a post celebrating the achiovernent of a ‘Once you have written your blog post, get together scientst of your choice. You could choose a person with another group, swap reports end complete the from the history of chemistry (e.g. Mendeleev, following peer assessment. Marie Curie or William Ramsay) or someone Peer assessment ‘Now, write down the answers to the following sarah log reports with another group, questions to give some feedback to the Having swapped blog reports wth another group, Siena discuss the following questions: © What do you think they did well? © Nexttime they write a news blog, what could, they do to improve? Does their blog post include? 1 Acatchy/engaging heading. 2 Aconcise and clear introduction, 3. Specific facts and information about their chosen scientist and their achievernent. 4 The group's own opinion on the achievement. Having worked with others on Activity 13.1, consider whether you found group work helped you in your learning. Were you able to contribute confidently to the group discussion and appreciate the input of others to it? What would you do differently to gain more from this type of activity in future? 13.2 Trends in groups Group | - the alkali metals ‘The metals in Group Tare often called the alkali metals. They are soft solids with relatively low melting points and low densities (Figure 13.8). They are highly reactive and are stored in oil to prevent them reacting with the oxygen and water vapour in the air. When freshly cut with a Knife, all these metals have light-grey, silvery surface, which quickly tarnishes and becomes dull Figure 13.8: Al alkali metals are soft solids and can be cut with a knife. This is sample of lithium. Se aS TT RE 26s) > CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK [Density /g/en? | i | Mardnes lithium 24 0.53 181 1342 fairly soft. sodium [2.81 0.97 38 883 soft potassium [28.8.1 0.86% 3 760) very so the densities of rubidium and caesium are 1.53 and 1.88, respectively Tble 13.2: Physical aropote of some alkali metals eS - F pier | cae eee | | Production of flame i I disappears, fizzes slowly, 2 moves slowly on the lithium, h slowly, solution no flame. few bubbles surface, does not melt turns purple ‘melts into a ball ‘metal disappears re flava untae Fl sodium | fzes sonal «| on surface and cqickly okion ~~ | eeatounlesbld nen moves about tums purple pl fizzes violently, very | melts and moves very | disappears very quickly, | hydrogen ignites, a Potassium | many bubbles quickly on surface solution tums purple _| lilac flame produced Table 13.3: Observations on the reactions ofthe alkali meta with water (with universal indicator added) ‘The physical properties of the alkali metals change as ‘we go down the group in Table 13.2. The melting points become lower and the density of the metals increases. ‘There are several different trends down this group of elements: ‘+ melting points and boiling points decrease down ‘the group metals get softer as we go down the group densities increase as we go down the group (although this trend is obscured in Table 13.2 Decause the value for sodium is higher than would be expected; see footnote to table). Observing the trends in these values for physical properties means we can predict values for other alkali metals, For instance, we would predict the melting point of rubidium to be lower than that of potassium by about 20-30°C as the gap between melting point is getting smaller at each step. This would suggest a value of between 33-43°C. The actual value is 39°C. 266 > ‘Chemical reactivity increases as we go down the group. All Group I metals react with cold water to form hydrogen and an alkaline solution of the metal hydroxide. The production of an alkaline solution can bbe shown by adding a few drops of universal indicator to the water. The solution will turn the water purple if an alkali is produced. The reactions range from vigorous in the ease of lithium to explosive inthe case of gaesium. ‘The strength of the reaction of each metal can be judged by several observations (Table 13.3), Observations such, as the production of a gas, whether the metal melts on contact with the water and whether the gas produced isignited all give an indication of how vigorous the reaction is ‘You might predict that francium, at the bottom of Group I, would be the most reactive of all the metals. However, itis highly radioactive and very rare because it decays with a halflife of five minutes. This means that the amount of francium in any sample is halved in just five minutes, It has been estimated that there are only 30g of francium in existence on Barth at any one ‘moment in time. 13. The Periodic Table ‘The alkali metals (Group I are the most reactive metals ‘that oceur. They are known as the alkali metals because they react vigorously with water to produce hydrogen ‘and an alkaline solution. The equation forthe reaction between sodium and water is sodium sodium + water aa + hydrogen 2Na + 2H,0 + 2NaOH + Hy We will discuss the reactivity of the alkali metals further in Chapter 14, Questions ‘1 What is the name of the alkali formed when potassium reaets with water? 2. Write a word equation for the reaction between lithium and water 3. Using the information in Tables 13.2 and 13.3 suggest a value forthe melting point of rubidium b suggest how the reactivity of rubidium with ‘water compares with potassiam, Group VII - the halogens “The most reactive non-metals are the halogens in Group Vil of the Periodie Table (Figure 13.9). In contrast with Group I, in Group VII reactivity decreases down the ‘group. For example, fluorine is a dangerously reactive, ppale-yellow gas at room temperature. There is steady ‘increase in melting points and boiling points as we g0 > CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Halogen _| Sane. | Melting point / State atrt.p | Colour | chiorine [28,7 =101 85 pale-green bromine _|2, 8, 18,7 z liquid reddish-brown iodine _[2,8, 18, 18,7, +114 solid ‘greyish-black Table 13.4: Physical properties of some halogens. * The halogens themselves can react directly with ‘metals to form metal halides (or salts). ‘+ They all form negative ions carrying a single charge, «2g, chloride ions (Cr), bromide ions (Br-) and iodide ions (7). ‘There are gradual changes in properties between the halogens (Figure 13.9). As you go down the group, the boiling points increase (Table 13 4). The physica state of the halogens changes from gas to liquid to solid going down the group. The intensity of the colour of the element also inerease, from pale to dark. Following these trends, it should not surprise you to know that fiuorine is pale-yllow gas at room temperature Chemical reactivity of the halogens Fluorine and chlorine are very reactive They combine stcongly with both metals and non-metal. pice of Ditch metal foil (an allo of copper and zine) wil burst into lames when placed in «ga jr full of chlorine. When chlorine is passed overheated aluminium, the metal glows white and forms aluminium chloride: , 2AL+3C), ee. 2AlC1, Aluminium also reacts strongly with bromine and iodine. The reaction between a dry mixture of powdered aluminium and iodine can be triggered by adding just a few drops of water. The reaction is highly exothermic and some of the iodine is given off as purple Fumes before it has a chance to react. Hydrogen will burn in chlorine to form hydrogen chloride, Carried outa different way, the reaction can be explosive H, +, 2HC1 Chlorine dissolves in water to give an acidie solution. This ‘mixture is called chlorine water and contains two acids: c, + HO + Hcl + HCO hydrochloric hypochlorous acid acid Chlorine water acts as an oxidising agent ~ bypochlorous acid can give up its oxygen to other substances, I also acis as a bleach because some coloured substances lose their colour when they are oxidised, This reaction is used as the chemical test for chlorine gas (Chapter 22). Damp tus or universal indicator paper is Bleached when held in the gas. The halogens become steadily les reactive as you go down the group. Table 13.5 gives some examples, of the reactivity of the halogens The halogen displacement reaetions shown in the ower part of Table 13.5 demonstrate the order of reactivity ofthe three major halogens. For example, if you add chlorine to a solution of potassium bromide, the chlorine displaces bromine (Figure 13.10). Chlorine is more reactive than bromine, soit replaces bromine and potassium ebloride is formed. Potassium bromide solution is colourless. It turns orange wien chlorine i bubbled through i a, + | + 2KBr colourless + 2KCI + Br, orange Chlorine will also displace iodine from potassium iodide: CL + OKI 4 2KA+ | colourless yellow-brown halogen displacement reactions: reactions in which a more reactive halogen displaces a less. reactive halogen from a solution ofits salt ase ) 13. The Periodic Table Group VIII - the noble gases ‘When Mendeleev first constructed his table, part of his coloured [bleaches bleaches [bleaches | eriumph was to predict the existence and propertis of dyes | easily slowly [very slowly | some undiscovered elements. However there was no “ron wool fron reacts pron reacts | indication that a whole roup of elements (Group VII) reacts steadilyto_| slowly, remained to be discovered! Because of their lack of ‘Srongly to [form irontu)|even wth | reactivity thee was no clear sign of their existenes iron woot [foun von) | bromide: continuous | However, analysis of the eases in ir (Chapter 17) by Jobn Gioides |reeds heating, to | Wiliam Strut (Lord Rayleigh) le tothe discovery of sreicheat [continuous [form irontan | — argon in 1894, There was no suitable place in the Periodic tostat [heating | iodide ‘Table for an individual element with argon’ properties chlorides _[n mo reaction [no reaction | _Thispointed tothe existence of an entirely new group, ee lium, which had frst boen detected by spectroscopy of a Tht ftom the Sun during an eclipse, and other noble gases bromine, J in the group (Group VIIT) were isolated by Sir William. bromides |e.g. Cl, + no reaction | Ramsay in the 1890s. The radioactive gas, radon, was the 2 last tobe purified, in 1909. uals : | Atlof the noble gases are present in the Earth's atmosphere. displaces | displaces 3 “Together they make up about 1% of the total, though case, [omits |felnces, | | tmnstiemoncannon Tse ga ae nity Chr 2ki— |Br,+ 2K | timreacive They were sometimes refered to asthe inert 2kci=1, | 2Ker+t, | fuses meaning they didnot react at al. However, sine the |) 605 Sime compounds of enon and kypion have ben Table 13.5: Some reactions ofthe halogens TETRA hisaged to he noble pase ‘The uses of the noble gases depend on their unreactivity Helium is used in aitships and balloons because it is both light and unreactive. Argon is used to fill incandescent light bulbs because it will not react with the filament even ‘at high temperatures, The best-known use of the noble jzases is perhaps, its use in ‘neon’ lights (Figure 13.11). The brightly coloured advertising lights work when an electric clischarge takes place ina tube containing small amount of a noble gas, Different gases give different colours. Figure 13.11:'Neon’ lights give colour to Shanghai city Figure 13.10: Bromine is displaced by chlorine from centre by their use in advertising displays. The different ‘2 colourless solution of potassium bromide. colours are caused by diferent gases. 269) > campRioce iscse™ cHemisrRY: couRsEBOOK The atoms of the noble gases do not combine with each other to form molecules or any other form of structure. Their melting points and boiling points are extremely low (Figure 13.12). Helium has the lowest melting point of any clement and cannot be solidified by cooling alone (pressure is also needed). Figure 13.12: A small piece of rapidly melting ‘argon ice’: the malting point is ~189°C. All these properties point to the atoms of the noble gases being particularly stable: + the electron electronic configurations of the atoms of the noble gases are energetically very stable * this means that they do not react readily with other atoms * in many situations where atoms of other elements bond or react chemically, they are trying ta achieve the energetically stable arrangement of electrons found in the noble gases. ‘The elements of Group VIII lie between the two most reactive groups of elements (Groups I and VII) in the Periodic Table. Indeed, itis their closeness to this group with stable electron arrangements that makes the alkali ‘metals and the halogens so reactive, They can fairly easily achieve a noble-gas electron structure, The Group ‘Vil elements gain or share electrons and the Group 1 ‘elements lose electrons to reach a noble pas electronic ‘configuration (see earlier discussion in Chapter 3). Questions 4 Which halogen(s) will displace bromine from a solution of potassium bromide? 5 Whatis the similarity in the electron arrangement of the noble gases? 6 Arsenic isin the same group of the Periodic Table as nitrogen. Arsenic forms a compound with hydrogen just as nitrogen does, A molecule of this compound contains one atom of arsenic and three atoms of hydrogen. 4 What is the formula of this molecule? A 3AsH B AsH CASH, D (Ask), b What would you predict to be the formula of phosphine, the compound of phosphorus and hydrogen’? 13.3 Trends across a period Changes across a period ‘The elements of the vertical groups at either side of the Periodic Table show similar properties within the groups. However, following a petiod across the Periodic Table highlights the trend from metallic to ‘non-metallic properties within the Periodic Table. This change from metal to non-metal can be explored by looking more closely across each period. The first period of the Periodic Table contains just two elements, hydrogen and helium, both of which are distinctive in different ways. The final period in the Periodic Table is now recently complete with the discovery of elements such as oganesson (Og) (see Chapter 4). Each of the five remaining periods of elements starts with arreactive alkali metal and finishes with an unreactive, non-metallic, noble gas. In Period 3, for example, from sodium to argon, there appears to be a gradual change in physical properties across the period. The change in properties seems to centre uround silicon; clements before this behave as metals and those after it as nnon-metals (Figures 13.13 and 13.14), 20) 13. The Periodic Table As you move across a period there are also differences in some chemical properties linked to the metal to non- ‘metal transition. Metal oxides (eg. magnesium oxide) are usually basic, while those of non-metals (e.g. sulfur dioxide) are acidic. Therefore, there is a change from basic oxides to acidic oxides as we move across a period. (see also Chapter 11). ‘The change from metal to non-metal across a period shows itself in changes in bonding type from metallic bonding to covalent bonding, To be more precise, in Periods 2 and 3 there isa shift from metallic lattice to Biant covalent structure and then to simple molecular structure as we move across the Periodic Table. We commented earlier on this when we were discussing the formulae of the elements in Chapter 4 All elements except Cland Ar are solids ‘at room temperature Lirretalloids rnon-metals atomic sire decreasing Figure 13.13: Changes in propertis of the elements in Period 3 and in Group IV of the Periodic Table. ‘The changeover in properties is emphasised if we look i NGwuplv Aswepodow tisgoup thechunges —ransition elements from non-metal to metal. The metalloids, silicon and If we look at Period 4 inthe Periodic Table, we see that germanium, are in the centre of the group (Figure 13.13). there isa whole ‘block’ of elements inthe centre of the Periodic Table. This block of elements falls outside the main groups of elements that we have talked about so far ‘They are best considered not asa vertical group of elements but asa row or block. They are usually referred to asthe traisition elements (or transition metals). Their properties ‘make them among the most useful metallic elements available to us (Figure 13.15). They are much less reactive than the metals in Groups I and Il. Many have excellent corrosion resistance, for example chromium. The very high ‘neting point of tungsten (3410 °C) led to its use in the filaments of incandescent light bulbs. ‘The different structures of the elements in Periods 2 and 3 are reflected in their boiling points and melting points. Figure 13.14 shows how the values for the melting points and boiling points of the elements of Period 3 increase up to Group IV and then decrease to Group VIL f sft ‘Many familiar objects are made from transition metals. Figure 13.15 shows a range of these objects including steel nails a vanadium spanner, silver cutlery, gold jack plugs, ‘copper pipe joints, an iron magnet, a titanium camera body and chromium-plated balls on the Newton's cradle Temperature /°C Mg AS oP $ Gm 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 cine gant simple revalic covalent molecular Figure 13.14: Trends in the structure and physical propertias ois tomers serass Porters Figure 13.15: Some everyday abjects mace from transition metals > CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Coloured transition metal salts dissolve to give coloured solutions. Figure 13.16: Many of the compounds of transition metals are coloured and, when they dissolve, they give coloured solutions. ‘These general properties mean that the transition metals are useful in a number of different ways. In addition, there are particular properties that make these metals, distinctive and useful for more specific purposes. One important feature of transition metals is that their compounds are often coloured (Figure 13.16). General features of transition metals: ‘+ they are hard and strong + they have high density ‘+ they have high melting and boiling points. Distinctive properties of transition metals: + many of their compounds are coloured + the transition metals, or their compounds, often act as catalysts Iron, for example, is used as a catalyst in the Haber process for making ammonia (Chapter 9). ‘© they often show more than one valency (variable oxidation number) — they form more than one type of ion. For example, iron can form compounds containing iron(T) ions (Fe) or iron(II) ions (Fe"). ‘+ These metals can often form more than one type of oxide because ofthe different oxidation states they can show. The oxides of the lower oxidation state are basic ionic oxides, eg. copper(II) oxide and chromium(I} oxide . However, the oxides of the highest oxidation states eg. chromium(VD oxide , tend to be covalent and produce acidic solutions in water. Chromium(IID oxide (Cr,0,) is similar to aluminium exide (ALO,) in being an amphoteric oxide (Gee Chapter 11). ‘oxidation number: a number given to show whether an element has been oxidised or reduced; the oxidation number of a simple ion is, simply the charge on the ion Questions 7 Describe how metallic character changes across Period 2 or 3 8 a Which metal isthe softest and least dense in Period 3? b Which of the elements in Period 3 has the highest melting point? 9 State four differences between an alkali metal and a transition metal such as nickel. 10. Which phrase (A-D) completes the following statement? All transition metals in their compounds A... re white in colour B .. are magnetic CC... form ions of the type M2" and M2 D _... have variable oxidation states. 13. The Periodic Table Eta ‘The chemical elements can be organised into the Periodic Table based on increasing atomic (proton) number. ‘The electronic configuration of an element determines the group in which an element occurs in the Periodic Table and the chemical properties of the element. ‘The ionic charge of an clement relates to the group number of that element. ‘The chemical and physical properties of the Group T alkali metals (lithium, sodium and potassium) vary as we descend the group and we can predict the properties of other members of the group, given data, Tnformation on given elements in a group can be used to identify trends within all the elements of that group. ‘Trends in the data for certain properties ofthe halogens can be used to predict the properties of other halogens in the group. ‘The noble gases (Group VIII) are unreactive, monatomic gases because they have eight electrons in their outer shells, ‘There is a trend from metallic to non-metallic character in the properties of the elements as we move across a period in the Periodic Table. The transition elements (transition metals) have certain common key characteristics ‘Transition metal atoms are able to form ions with variable oxidation numbers. Figure 13.17 shows a suggested set of information ‘to enter on the cards, although you could add in. further oraltemnative information (but do make it relevant to your learning). Having made the cards, deal out a set bf cards between a pair of you and challenge each other according to the following criteria: * _fornames and symbols - alphabetical precedence wins for numbers — the higher number wins ‘for physical state - solid beats gas; with the Elements card game Symibot Ut Name: Lithium Atomic nambor 3 Mase number 7 Groups! Period: 2 Physical state ot rt: Solid Figure 13.17: Suggested layout for an elements card — probably not 2 winning one! This sa card game in which two people compete with each other on a chosen value ina set of cards featuring a particular collection of objects; in this ‘case the elements. In groups, make a set of cards based on the first 36 elements of the Periodic Table. ‘one liquid trumping al. ‘As you work through the game you can ask each other questions about the cards you are currently challenging with; which element is the more reactive of the two elements, what isthe electronic configuration of the atoms and so on, Use the game to reinforce your familiarity with the elements. > campaince tcse™! cHemisTRY: COURSEBOOK 1. The figure shows an outline of the Periodic Table with certain elements marked. ™ ‘Which combination of the elements V, W, X or ¥ in the table is a metal and a non-metal? A y Vv 8 Y x Cc Ww x D w Vv i) 2 The reactivity of elements within a group in the Periodic Table changes ‘with their position in the group. Which combination in the table shows the order of increasing reactivity of elements in Group I and Group VII? a A 8 us SF ic lias FoI D Ga Isr m 3. The table shows part of two groups of the Periodic Table. lithium, Li sodium, Na__| chlorine, Cl potassium, K__ | bromine, Br iodine, | ‘Choose from the elements given: a asolid Group VII element : a b the Group I element with the lowest density 1 anclement that is liquid at room temperature a d_ the two elements that would react most violently with each other [2] Total: 5) 274) Table xpress in clear terms ‘Flements in the same period of the Peri Teeth same ramber of electron shells Renee ace eee nn Peete enteme nr seat! eee tensor reece Sen ronjumn fovins three different metal oxide eer ecase) . Pec ree nm hea} 275 >> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK LF-EVALUATION CHEC rats ‘understand how the elements in the Periodic Table are organised in order of increasing atomic number _| explain the similarities of clements in the same _group in terms of their electronic configuration describe the relationship between group number and ionic charge

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