Water Sampling and Analysis

Dr Hira Amjad
 Sampling Water
2

 Water is a common substance to sample considering that

the earth’s surface is composed of 70% water
 Water is heterogeneous, both spatially and temporally, thus
making it extremely difficult to obtain representative
samples
 Stratification within oceans, lakes and rivers is common with
variations in flow, chemical composition and temperature all
occurring.
 Variation with respect to time (temporal) can occur, for
example, because of heavy precipitation (snow, rain, etc.)
and seasonal changes
 Water samplers
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 Can be either automatic or manually operated

 Automatic samplers are used to collect samples at either fixed time-
intervals or in proportion to the flow and then to retain the water
sample in a separate container.
 These are commonly used, for example, in rivers or from a point
source (effluent outfall)
 Manually operated samplers are essentially open tubes of known
volume (typically1to 30L) fitted with a closure mechanism at each
end.
 They are constructed of stainless-steel or PVC.
 Useful when sampling from open waters (e.g. oceans, seas, lakes, etc.)
at specific depths.
 The sampling device is lowered on a calibrated line to the specific
sampling depth, the sample is taken and then the top and bottom lids
are closed and sealed
 Sampling Water
4

 A good manual water sampler should possess the

following attributes:
 provide a rapid descent in the water
 be substantial enough to prevent minimal drift from the
vertical
 have a suitable closing & sealing mechanism to retain the
sample but not allow the ingress of the surrounding water
 be inert & hence not contaminate the sample

 be easy to use & maintain

 have an appropriate sample capacity

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 Water Sampling
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 Location of sampling points

 Sampling frequency

 Sampling methods for microbiological analysis

 Storage of samples for microbiological analysis

 Sampling methods for physicochemical analysis

 Sample collection form for record

7
 Minimum sample numbers for piped drinking-
water in the distribution system
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 Transport box for samples for
microbiological analysis
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 Bacteriological analysis
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 Indicator organisms
 Thermotolerant coliform bacteria
 Coliform organisms (total coliforms)
 Faecal streptococci
 Principal analytical techniques
 Minimizing the cost of analysis
 Choice of methods
 Membrane-filtration method
 Multiple-tube method (Most probable number – MPN Technique)
 Presence–absence tests
 Single-application (disposable) test kits
 Lab vs on-site testing
 Typical sample volumes for membrane-filtration
analysis
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 Typical sample volumes and numbers of tubes
for the multiple-tube method
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 Comparison of methods for analysis of coliform
bacteria
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Decision-making network
for selection of method
of analysis
 Laboratory-based versus on-site testing
15

— deterioration of samples during transport to

centralized laboratory facilities;
— high cost of transporting samples;
— inadequate techniques for sample storage and
preservation during prolonged transport, thus
limiting the sampling range;
— increased personnel costs because of the need
for repeat sampling journeys;
— the need for reporting, which may necessitate
further return journeys.
 Physicochemical analysis
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 Chlorine residual
Three types of chlorine residual may be measured: free
chlorine (the most reactive species, i.e. hypochlorous acid
and the hypochlorite ion); combined chlorine (less
reactive but more persistent species formed by the
reaction of free chlorine species with organic material
and ammonia); and total chlorine (the sum of the free
and combined chlorine residuals).
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 Alkalinity
 Acid neutralizing capacity of a water
 Is significant in many uses and treatments of
natural waters & wastewaters
 Alkalinity in excess of alkaline earth metal conc. is
significant for irrigation water
 Properly operating anaerobic digesters (2k to 4k
mg (CaCO3)/L
 Measured by titration method
 Physicochemical analysis
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 Acidity
 Is quantitative capacity to react with a strong base to
a designated pH
 Acids contribute to corrosiveness and influence
chemical reaction rates, chemical speciation &
biological processes
 Determines the change in the quality of water

 Measured by titration method

 Physicochemical analysis
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 Hardness
 Originally, a measure of the capacity of water to
precipitate soap
 Total hardness is defined as the sum of calcium &
magnesium concentrations, both expressed as
calcium carbonate (mg/L)
 Measured by EDTA titrimetric method &

 By sum of Ca & Mg conc. (mg/L)

 Physicochemical analysis
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 TDS
 Physicochemical analysis
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 pH
Efficacy of disinfection with chlorine is highly pH-
dependent: where the pH exceeds 8.0, disinfection is less
effective.
 Turbidity (the clarity of water)

 Turbidity is important because it affects both the

acceptability of water to consumers, and
 the selection and efficiency of treatment processes,
 particularly the efficiency of disinfection with chlorine
since it exerts a chlorine demand and protects
microorganisms and
 may also stimulate the growth of bacteria.
 Aesthetic parameters
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 Colour
 Colour in drinking-water may be due to the presence of
coloured organic matter, e.g. humic substances, metals such as
iron and manganese, or highly coloured industrial wastes.
 Drinking-water should be colourless.

 Taste and odour

 Odours in water are caused mainly by the presence of organic
substances. Some odours are indicative of increased biological
activity, others may result from industrial pollution.
 Generally, the taste buds in the oral cavity detect the inorganic
compounds of metals such as magnesium, calcium, sodium,
copper, iron, and zinc.
 Other analyses of relevance to health
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The range of health-related parameters may include:

— Fluoride (where it is known to occur naturally)
Other analyses of relevance to health
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— Nitrate (where intensification of farming has led to

elevated levels in groundwater)
 Eutrophication
Other analyses of relevance to health
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— Lead (in areas where it has been used in plumbing)

 Too much lead can damage various systems of

the body including the nervous and reproductive

systems and the kidneys,
 and it can cause high blood pressure and anemia.

 Lead accumulates in the bones and lead

poisoning may be diagnosed from a blue line

around the gums.
Other analyses of relevance to health
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— Chromium (e.g. in areas where it is mined)

 It causes allergic and asthmatic reactions, is

carcinogenic.
 Health effects related to
hexavalent chromium exposure include
 diarrhoea,

 stomach and intestinal bleedings,

 cramps, and

 liver and kidney damage.

Other analyses of relevance to health
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— Arsenic (in areas where it is known to occur

naturally)
 Long-term exposure to arsenic from drinking-
water can cause cancer and skin lesions.
 It has also been associated with cardiovascular

disease and diabetes.

 Other analyses of relevance to health
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— Pesticides (where local practices and use indicate

that high levels are likely).
 When pesticides are found in water supplies, they
normally are not present in high enough
concentrations to cause acute health effects such as
chemical burns, nausea, or convulsions.
 Instead, they typically occur in trace levels, and the

concern is primarily for their potential for causing

chronic health problems.
Checklist for
effective
analytical
quality
assurance
 Safety

 The safety of staff undertaking analytical procedures, both in the

field and in the laboratory, is of the greatest importance.
 All staff should be trained in safety procedures relevant to their
work.
 In the laboratory, individual staff members should be authorized to
undertake procedures involving risk of any type only after
appropriate training; unauthorized staff should not be allowed to
undertake analyses.
 All laboratories should formulate and implement a safety policy
that should cover cleaning, disinfection, and the containment of
hazardous substances.
 Safety equipment such as fire extinguishers, safety glasses, and
first-aid kits should be suitably located, and readily available; they
should be routinely checked and all staff should be trained in their
use.