Cell Cycle Checkpoint and Stages
Trivia
Bacteria cells (coli) divide every 20
minutes, epithelial cells of the intestinal
lining every 8-10 hours, a yeast cell
every 90 minutes, etc.
Dividing Human Cells with a
24-Hour Cell Cycle
o G1 phase lasts approximately 9
hours
o S phase (Synthesis phase) lasts 10
hours
o G2 phase lasts about 4 and one-
half hours
o M phase (Mitotic phase) lasts
approximately one-half hour.
o G1 phase – the cell grows larger
o S phase – duplicates DNA
o G2 phase – DNA checked by
enzymes for mistakes and repaired
o M phase – when ready, cell division
begins (mitosis). It begins when the
nuclear membrane dissolves and
the DNA thickens (Prophase).
Special fibers called spindle fibers
(Mitotic spindle) form on each end
of the cell, and grow toward the
DNA chromosomes
o When we add all the chromosomes
up, each cell actually contains
about 2m of DNA and this DNA has
to fit into a tiny nucleus of a tiny
nucleus of 5-10 u’m (micrometer) in
diameter. This is like trying to stuff a
piece of string 2km long. To do this
seemingly impossible task, cells
devised an ingenious packaging
system: it wraps DNA around
Histone proteins
Chromatin – an uncoiled mass of
genetic material composed of DNA and
proteins that condense to form
chromosomes. It is composed of small
proteins called histones which help in
the coiling of Chromatin so that this
very long thread-like structure will
become a compacted chromosome.
Chromosomes – stranded groupings
of coiled chromatin. Chromatin must
exist in chromosomes or coiled form to
prevent it from being entangled during
cell division which ensured that all the
information from the DNA is properly
copied and not entangled.
Chromatid – either of the two
strands of a replicated chromosome.
Chromatids connected by
centromere are called sister
chromatids and has a familiar X shape.
Centromere – the point
attachment of between sister
chromatid. Within the chromatid, a
kinetochore can be found.
Kinetochore – the structure where
the spindle fiber attaches during cell
division.
o The spindle is necessary to equally
divide the chromosomes in two
daughter cells during mitosis and
meiosis.
Spindle fibers – protein fibers called
microtubules which extend from a pair
of centrioles are produced by
centrosome which is the microtubule
organizing center of the cell.
Centrioles – can only be found in the
animal cell. It has 2 pairs.
Cell Cycle Checkpoints
Checkpoint Consideration #1:
Regulation of the Cell Cycle by
External Events
Both the initiation and inhibition of cell
division are triggered by events
external to the cell when it is about to
begin the replication process. An
event may be as simple as the death of
a nearby cell or as sweeping as the
release of growth-promoting
hormones, such as human growth
hormone (HGH). A lack of HGH can
inhibit cell division, resulting in
dwarfism, whereas too much HGH
can result in gigantism.
Crowding of cells can also inhibit cell
division. Another factor that can initiate
cell division is the size of the cell; as a
a cell grows, it becomes inefficient due to
its decreasing surface-to-volume ratio.
The solution to this problem is to divide.
of Whatever the source of the message,
the cell receives the signal, and a
series of events within the cell allows it
to proceed into interphase. Moving
forward from this initiation point, every
parameter required during each cell
cycle phase must be met or the cycle
cannot progress.
Checkpoint Consideration #2:
Regulation at Internal Checkpoints
It is essential that the daughter cells
produced be exact duplicates of the
parent cell. Mistakes in the duplication
or distribution of the chromosomes lead
to mutations that may be passed
forward to every new cell produced
from an abnormal cell.
Figure. The cell cycle is controlled at
three checkpoints.
o The integrity of the DNA is
assessed at the G1 checkpoint.
o Proper chromosome duplication is
assessed at the G2 checkpoint.
o Attachment of each kinetochore to phases that lead up to and include
a spindle fiber is assessed at the M nuclear division). Chromosomes are
checkpoint not clearly discerned in the nucleus,
although dark spot called the nucleolus
The G1 Checkpoint may be visible. The cell may contain a
pair of centrioles (or microtubule
The G1 checkpoint determines whether organizing centers in plants) both of
all conditions favorable for cell division which are organizational sites for
to proceed. This checkpoint checks the microtubules.
following:
o Adequate reserves of protein
and cell size
o There is a check for genomic
DNA damage
NOTE: A cell that does not meet all the
requirements will not be allowed to
progress into the S phase. The cell can
halt the cycle and attempt to remedy Prophase – Chromatin in the nucleus
the problematic condition, or the cell
begins to condense and becomes
can have advance into G0 (Gap 0) and
visible in the light microscope as
await further signals when conditions
chromosomes. The nucleolus
improve.
disappears. Centrioles begin moving
to opposite ends of the cell and fibers
The M Checkpoint extend from the centromeres. Some
fibers cross the cell to form the mitotic
The M checkpoint occurs near the end
spindle.
of the metaphase stage of
Karyokinesis. The M checkpoint
checks the following:
o Determine whether all the sister
chromatids are correctly
attached to the spindle
microtubules.
NOTE: Because the separation of the
sister chromatids during anaphase is
an irreversible step, the cycle will not
proceed until the kinetochores of each Prometaphase – the nuclear
pair of sister chromatids are firmly
anchored to at least two spindle fibers membrane dissolves, marking the
arising from opposite poles of the cell. beginning of prometaphase. Proteins
attach to the centromeres creating the
Cell Cycle (Mitosis) kinetochores. Microtubules attach at
the kinetochores and the
chromosomes begin moving.
Interphase – The cell is engaged in
metabolic activity and performing its
preparation for mitosis (the next four
 disperse, and cytokinesis or the
partitioning of the cell may also begin
during this stage.

Metaphase – Spindle fibers align the

chromosomes along the middle of the
cell nucleus. This line is referred as the
metaphase plate. This organization
helps to ensure that in the next phase,
when the chromosomes are separated,
each new nucleus will receive one copy
of each chromosome.
Cytokinesis – In animal cells,
cytokinesis results when a fiber ring
composed of a protein called actin
around the center of the cell contracts
pinching the cell into two daughter
cells, each with one nucleus. In plate
cells, the rigid wall requires that a cell
plate be synthesized between the two
daughter cells.

Anaphase – the paired

chromosomes separate at the
kinetochore movement along the
spindle microtubules and through the
physical interaction of polar
microtubules.

Telophase – chromatids arrive at

opposite poles of the cell, and new
membranes from around the daughter
nuclei. The chromosomes disperse and
are no longer visible under the light
microscope. The spindle fibers
 Reproduction and Cell
Division
Asexual Reproduction –
replicate DNA, split cell contents in half,
make genetically identical offspring
(except for occasional mutations) –
Mitosis ONLY
Sexual Reproduction – make
genetically different offspring from:
o fusion of sex cells (Meiosis)
o makes sex cells or gametes
(Mitosis)
Cell division after fertilization and to
replace dead cells after apoptosis.
Mitosis – a form of eukaryotic cell
division that produces two daughter
cells with the same genetic
components as the parent cell.
Chromosomes replicated during the S
phase are divided in such way as to
ensure that each daughter cell receives
a copy of every chromosome. In
actively dividing animal cells, the whole
process takes about one hour.
Interphase
Cells may appear inactive
during this stage, but they are quite the
opposite.
This is the longest period of the
complete cell cycle during which DNA
replicates, the centrioles divide, and
proteins are actively produced.
Interphase generally lasts at
least 12 to 24 hours in mammalian
tissue. During this period, the cell is
constantly synthesizing RNA,
producing protein and growing in size.
Interphase can be divided into 4
steps: Gap 0 (G0), S (synthesis) phase,
Gap 2 (G2).
Gap 0 (G0): There are times when
a cell will leave the cycle and quit
dividing. This may be temporary resting
period or more permanent. An example
of the latter is a cell that has reached
an end stage of development and will
no longer divide (e.g. neuron).
Gap 1 (G1): Cells increase in size in
Gap 1, produce RNA and synthesize
protein. An important cell cycle control
mechanism activated during this period
(G1 Checkpoint) ensures that
everything is ready for DNA synthesis.
S Phase: To produce two similar
daughter cells, the complete DNA
instructions in the cell must be
duplicated. DNA replication occurs
during this S (synthesis) phase.
Gap 2 (G2): During the gap
between DNA synthesis and mitosis,
the cell will continue to grow and
produce new proteins. At the end of this
gap is another control checkpoint (G2
Checkpoint) to determine if the cell can
now proceed to enter M (mitosis) and
divide.