A C R I T I C A L A N A L Y S I S OF ISLAMIC S T U D I E S IN M A L A Y ON

C O N T E M P O R A R Y ISSUES; MALAYSIA*.APPROXIMATELY 1975 TO THE

PRESENT DAY

By

Md.Zaki b in A b d M a n a n

A T h esis p r e s e n t e d for the d e g r e e of

D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
F a c u l t y of Art

at the
School of Oriental and A f r i c a n S t u d i e s
U n i v e r s i t y of L o n d o n
D e p a r t m e n t of La n g u a g e and C u l t u r e of
So u t h Eas t A s i a and the Islands

1994
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ABSTRACT
 Abstract

My thesis is divided into six ch a p t e r s which

include a general overview of the socio-political and

economic background of the Malay Muslim society, a

d e f i n i t i o n of the t e r m M a l a y and M u s l i m an d the v a r ious

interpretations that arise from these definitions, the

c h a nges experienced by the Muslim society before and

after Malaysia's Independence, the importance of Islam

in the everyday life of the Muslims, the s u b s equent

developments of the Malay textual tradition s t a rting

fro m the coming of Isl"am to M a l a y s i a until the present

day.

Ch a p t e r two deals (briefly) with 'Sastra

Kitab’ and discuss the efforts to re-interprete the

meaning of the ter m 'Islamic literature' as a result

of the Islamic res u r g e n c e in M a l a y s i a that b e g a n in the

early 1970's.

The textual analysis in Chapter T h ree is the

main part of my study. It focuses only on Islamic

b o oks written in Malay from 1975 to the p r e sent d ay

(1992) and includes discussion of works on Theology,

'Akida', Islamic law, ' F i k h 1, I s l amic Jurisprudence,

devotion services, 'ibadiTt1, 1mu'"amalat' , marriage,

' m u n a k a h a t 1, criminal 'jinayah' and moral, 'a k h l a k '.

 C ontr o v e r s i a l issues such as al-Arqam, anti

Hadith, the position of women, marriage, Islamic rule

and administration (Islamic democracy, Islamic

politics, Syura system, Islamic state) a nd S u f i s m are

discussed in detail in chapter four. Chapter five

an a l y s e critically the Islamic books in Malay, as

mi r r o r s of so c i e t y particularly their approach, nature

and academic s t a n dards within the terms of Islamic

t e a c h i n g generally.

In conclusion, I present general view on the

future role of Islamic writing in the context of the

d e v e l o p m e n t of Mu s l i m s s o ciety in Malaysia.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

My gratitude to A l l a h a l m i g h t y for w i t h His help

and g r ace I am able to complete w r i t i n g this d i s s e r t a t i o n

succesfully. I also b e l ieve that without the c o n t inuous

encouragement, g u i d a n c e and ass i s t a n c e fro m m y sup e r v i s o r

Dr. E.U Kratz it is doubtful that my studies will

pr o g r e s s according to plan and be completed on time and

within the period stipulated. My d e epest gratitude also

to Dr. N. Philips, John Okell and staff in the S o uth East

Asia Department for their assistance.

My thanks are extended to the staff at several

academic institutions, government departments, publ i s h e r s

and l i b r arians who are directly and indirectly involved

w i t h m y research.

My s i n cere thanks to Mr J. Adams, Mrs Kirsty

S t a lker and Mrs Jill Heales for reading and c o r r e c t i n g my

English.

I am grateful to the Islamic Affairs Division of

the Prime Minister's Depa r t m e n t and the Government of

Malaysia for aw a r d i n g me a scholarship and fully pai d

s t udy leave to enab l e me to pursue m y g r a d u a t e studies at

the School of Oriental and A f r i c a n Studies, U n i v e r s i t y of

►

London.

Finally special appreciation and thanks also due

to my wife, my daughter, my son and parents for their

u n f a i l i n g love, sacrifice, patience, s u p port and prayers.

n
TRANS LITERATION
 TRANSLITERATION

(C o n s o n a n t a l ) a q
1 o
so u n d

> L o n g vowel a k
j )
)
b 1
*__ > J
t m
f
th n
o

j > h
£ * £

h consonant w
£
kh long v o w e l o
£
d diphthong au
j
» 2 consonant
<_s y
S long v o wel i
LT* <^5
sh diphthong ai
(J-° c 5
s / (fatha) a

dh fkasra) i
s'

> t 7 (d h a m m a ) u

Ji? 2
o

(i n v e r t e d a p o s t r o p h e )
t
 G L O S S A R Y OF T E RMS C O M M O N L Y USED BY M A L A Y S I A N M U S L I M S

(The m e a n i n g s and spe l l i n g s of the A r a b i c w o r d s a c c o r d i n g

to Encyclopedia of Islam and for the Malay words
a c c o r d i n g to K a m u s Inggeris M e l a y u Dewan)

'AD AT A D A LAW [ see ’ADA] ’A D A

Custom, c u s t o m a r y law
AD-DEEN s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t w a y of life
AHL those w ho o c c u p y w i t h one the
same tent. It m a y come to m e a n
"sharing in a thing, b e l o n g i n g to
it" or o w ner of the same
AHL-I HAKK__ "Men of God"
AHL AL-HADIJEH [q.v.] T r a d i t i o n i s t s
AHL A L - & U N N A the "Sunnites", i.e. the or t h o d o x
[ see SUNNA] S U N N A
AHL A L - K I T A B ("possessors of the Scripture" or
"People of the Book")
’A ID A L - F I T R T Festival of the f a s t i n g m o n t h of
Ra m a d h a n
’A I D A L - A D H H A Festival of S a c r i f i c e or hadjdj
pilgrimage
AKAL_ intelligence
AKHIRAT, _ Da y Hereafter, D a y of Judgement,
(HARI A K H I R A T Life after death, R e s u r r e c t i o n
HARI P E N G A D I L A N
_HARI KEBANGKITAN
AKHLAK no ble character, virtue, morality,
ethics. ___
AKHIRA fern, of akhir, "the last"
AKIDA creed; but s o m e times also
doctrine, d o g m a or a r t i c l e of
faith
'AKIKA
* *
is the name of the s a c r i f i c e
on the se v e n t h d ay a f t e r the b i r t h
of a child
’A K L , M A ’KUL sy s t e m a t i c legal t h o ught
’A L A M * ( p l . ’alamun, ’awalim) w o r l d
’A L A M A L - G H A Y B the world_of mystery
'ALIM [see ’ULAMA'] 'U L A M A
rel i g i o u s learned; t h e o l o g i a n
 VII

AL-IMAM m o n t h l y n e w s p a p e r first p u b l i s h e d
in Sin g a p o r e in 1906
AL-KADA' WA'L KADAR the D e c r e e of God, b o t h the
* * eternal D e c r e e (the m ost
frequent m e a n i n g of kada') and
the D e c r e e g i v e n e x i s t e n c e in
time (the most f r e q u e n t sense of
Kadar) Predestination,
AL-KHALIQ the C r e a t o r
A L - K U R 1£N the M u s l i m scripture,
*
c o n t a i n i n g the r e v e l a t i o n s
re c ited by M u h a m m a d and
p r e s e r v e d in a fixed, w r i t t e n
form. _
AL-SAHABA, [see A S H A B ] , C o m p a n i o n s (of
P r o phet Muhammad)
AMAL 1. 'Amal, performance, a c t i o n
is u s u a l l y d i s c u s s e d b y the
s p e c u l a t i v e t h e o l o g i a n s and
p h i l o s o p h e r s o n l y in c o n n e c t i o n
w i t h belief. 2. (the pi. a'mal),
"that w h i c h is p r a c t i s e d " and
fol l o w i n g the u s a g e of K u r 1an and
H a d i t h "the works"
'AMAL S A L I H a m o r a l l y g ood a c t i o n s y n o n y m o u s
• «
w i t h m a 1ruf
AMANA commission, fro m A r a b i c w o r d
araanah
AMAR MA'ARUF en j o i n what is g ood or leading the
NAHI~ m u n g k a r pe o p l e in the right p a t h to h i n d e r
t h e m from f o l l o w i n g the w r o n g p a t h
'A Q I D A H belief; faith or w o r l d - v i e w /
ideology,
1a q T q a h s l a u g h t e r i n g of a goat to
ex p r e s s t h a n k f u l n e s s to A l l a h
for g i v i n g a c h ild
A R Q A M , AL-ARQAM D a r u l - A r q a m or Je m a ^ a h
Muhammadiah
’A R I F __ "one w ho knows"
1A S A B I Y Y A Ar. w o r d m e a n i n g o r i g i n a l l y
I
"spirit of kinship" (the
'a s aba are m a l e r e l a t i o n s in
the m ale line)
 V I 11

ASHAB (sing: Sahib) or § a h a b a (a

single one: sahabi)
"Companions
'A S Y U R A 1 nam e of a v o l u n t a r y f a s t - d a y
w h i c h is o b s e r v e d on the 10th
Muharram
A ’Y A N plural of 'Ayn the p a r t i c u l a r
t h ing that are p e r c e i v e d in
the e x t e r i o r w o r l d 1
’A U RAT l i m i t a t i o n of u n c o v e r e d parts
of the body, genital
A W RAD a routine p r o g r a m m e of dhikr
and reading the Al-Kur'ah.
F r o m s i n gular A r a b i c w o r d wir d
AYN, A'YAN essances, the t h i n g itself,
the r e a l , c o n crete t h i n g
rather than its d e s c r i p t i o n or
idea; in a way, q u ite
contrary, the idea of a thing
in God's mind, p r i o r to its
e x i s t e n c e in the w o r l d
A 1Y A N T H A B I T A me ans the stable or eternal
t h i n g that are p e r c e i v e d in
the e x t e r i o r w o r l d
AZAN (Ar. A d h a n ) call to p r a y
1A Z I M A H conjuration, strict or
e
u n m o d i f i e d l a w _ w h i c h remains
in its. original r i g o u r due to
the absence of m i t i g a t i n g
factors
B A H A G I A N HAL _
E H WAL ISLAM Islamic Af f a i r s Division,
BALA' ca l a m i t y
BARAKA bl e s s i n g
BATIN __ internal
BAYT A L - M A L in its c o n crete m e a n i n g "the
H o u s e of w e a l t h " , but
particularly, in an a b s tract
sense the "fiscals" or
"treasury", of the M u s l i m
State
 ix

BERSANDING H i n d u - s t y l e s i t t i n g of the
bridal pair on an e m b e l l i s h e d
dais or a trad i t i o n a l M a l a y
w e d d i n g d u r i n g w h i c h the bride
and g r o o m are i n s t a l l e d in
bridal throne c a l l e d "pelamin"
BIDADARI houris
BIDAN t r a d i tional M a l a y M u s l i m
midwife
BID 1A" reprehensible innovation
B I D V A H JAHAT false i n n o vation
BILAL m u e z z i n - m a n w h o summons
Mu s l i m s to prayers,
t r a d i t i o n a l l y f r o m the mi n a r e t
of a m o sque
BISMILLAH in God's name
B O M O H , PAWANG traditional m e d i c i n e m an
BUMIPUTRA indigenous, or son of the
soil
CINTA DUNIA w o r l d l y desire
C l N T A PA N G K A T
(GILA PANGKAT) c r azy for p o wer
DALIL it can m e a n sign or i n d i c a t i o n
finally it is u s e d as
synonymous w i t h proof,
generally
DA'WA p i ._ d a 'a w a t , f r o m t he root
da'a, to call, invite has the
p r i m a r y m e a n i n g call or
invitation, "summons" to the
true faith
DAR AL-ISLAM 'the Land of Islam' or, more
simply, in M u s l i m authors,
'd a r u n a 'our c o u n t r y is the
w h ole t e r r i t o r y in w h i c h the
law of Islam p r e v a i l s
DEWAN NEGARA Senate; U p p e r H o u s e of
Parliament
DEWAN RAKYAT H o use of Represe n t a t i v e s ;
Lower H o u s e of P a r l i a m e n t
DHALALAH a s tray
DHIKR reminding o n e self
D J A M A ’A po s t p o n e pra y
 X

DU' A appeal, i n v o cation

(addressed to God), e i t h e r on
b e half of a n o ther or for
on e self or else a g a inst
someone
DZANNI doubt, f r o m A r a b i c w o r d zann
ESA, K E E S A A N existence
FA LAK sphere, in p a r t i c u l a r the
t * celestial sphere
FA L A K I A H astronomical,
FARD* also farida l i t e r a l l y
"something w h i c h has b e e n
apportioned, or m a d e o b l i g a t o r y
FARD K I F A Y A H it is an o b l i g a t i o n w h i c h falls
o n l y on the c o m m u n i t y in general,
p r o v i d e d that there are e n o u g h
volunteers
FAS IK unju s t man, g u i l t y of fisk-that
l
is to say, one who has c o m m i t t e d
one or several "great sins"
FA TWA o p i n i o n on a point of law
FIKH o r i g i n a l l y "understanding,
knowledge, i n t e l l i g e n c e and ap p l i e d
to any b r a n c h of k n o w l e d g e s has
be c o m e the technical t e r m for
juris p r u d e n c e the s c i e n c e of
r e l i gious law in Islam
F IKR pl.afkar, thought, r e f l e c t i o n
FIRASA a t e c h n i q u e of ind u c t i v e
divination which permits
the f o r e t e l l i n g of moral
c o n d itions and p h y s i o l o g i c a l
b e h a v i o u r from e x t ernal i ndications
FUKAHA' sc h olars of or e x p e r t s on Islamic
jurisprudence; s i n g u l a r form is
fakih _
FURIT [see Fikh, Usui] the b o d y of
p o s i t i v e rules d e r i v e d f r o m the
usul, the roots or s o u rces
and physical states
GHANIMA or cjhunm, b o o t y
GHAYB (Ar. G H A Y B A (masdar of g h a b a ) m e ans
"absence"
 xi

GILA HARTA materialistic

GOTONG-ROYONG mutual self help
HADD fixed p e n a l t y
&ADITH (narrative, talk) w i t h the def i n i t e
a r t icle (hadith) is u s e d for
Traditions, b e i n g an a c count of
w h a t the Prophet said or did or of
his tacit approval of s o m e t h i n g
said or done in his p r e s e n c e
HADJDJ p i l g r i m a g e to Mecca), 'Arafat
« -
and MinaT the f i f t h of t he five
"pillars" (ark*ah) of Islam,
HA$_ truth _
gAICA'I § plural of h a k i k a - t r u t h
HAKEKAT essence * '
HALAL p e r m i s s i b l e a c c o r d i n g to M u s l i m
laws, u s u a l l y c o n c e r n i n g or
(religiously) p e r m i s s i b l e
gARAKA motion _
H
ftA R A M [see S H A R I 7A]
f o r b i d d e n by M u s l i m laws or
(religiously) not p e r m i s s i b l e or
c o n t r a v e n i n g r e l i gious law or
precept
HARI_QIAMAT Last D a y
H I DJAB (from the v e r b h a d,j aba "to hide
ft from view, conceal") is u s e d of any
veil p l aced in front of a person,
or an object in o r d e r to conceal it
from v i e w or to isolate it
HI SAB "account to be r e n d e r e d to God"
H U DUD pi. of HADD [q.v.] see also, for
$
frontier zones and frontier-
warfare; and for the d e l i m i t a t i o n
of frontiers.
HUKM (pi. a h k a m ) , verbal n o u n of
hakama, w h i c h o r i g i n a l l y m e ans
sto withhold, restrain, prevent, is
u se d in a n u m b e r of technical
m e a n i n g s in the f i e l d of religious
law. [see AHKAM]
HUKUM TAK L I F I , d e f i n i n g law, law w h i c h
AL-HUKM__ d e f ines rights and o b l i g a t i o n s
AL-T A K L I F I
 Xll

H U K U M W A D 'I , d e c l a r a t o r y law, that is law

AL-HUKM which reg u l a t e s the p r oper
A L - W A D 'I i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of a l - h u k m al-
takllfi such as b y e x p o u n d i n g
the conditions, e x c e p t i o n s and
qualifications thereof
IBADAT (pi. of 'ibada) s u b m i s s i v e
o b e d i e n c e to a master, and
th e r e f o r e r e l i g i o u s practice,
c o r r e s p o n d s t o g e t h e r w i t h its
sy n o n y m ta'a, in the works of
fikh, a p p r o x i m a t e l y to the
ritual of M u s l i m law
I B ADAH KHUSUSI spe c i f i e d d e v o t i o n
IBADAH U M U M general d e v o t i o n
IBLIS_ proper nam e of the devil
I D J M A 1_ consensus of o p i n i o n
IDJTIHAD [q.v.] to inde p e n d e n t
r e a soning in law
’IFRIT sometimes c o n n e c t e d w i t h
wicked, is an e p i thet
ex p r e s s i n g power, c u n n i n g and
insubordination
IJAZAH certi f icate
IKHLA'S The IV th for m adds
to the d o u b l e idea of the
r o o t - p u r i t y and s a l v ation-
that of "dedicating, d e v o t i n g
or c o n s e c r a t i n g oneself" to
so m ething
IKHTI Y A R choice
I 'LAM info r m a t i o n
ILHAD [see MULIJID] heresy, d e v i a t i o n
from right b e lief
ILHAM means l i t e r a l l y "to cause
to s w a l l o w or g u l p down" But
by far the m ost important use
of Ilham is in c o n n e x i o n w i t h
the do c t r i n e of saints. A l l a h
reveals h i m s e l f to m en
indiv i d u a l l y by k n o w l e d g e cast
into their m i nds
ILMU science
ILMU LADUN invisible knowledge, k n o w l e d g e
d i r e c t l y f r o m God, insp i r a t i o n
ILTIZAM work har d _
IMAM [see IMAMA, MASIUID] IMAMA,
the imamate in the m e a n i n g of
"supreme leadership" of the
M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y a f t e r the
d e ath of the Prophet,
IM AN belief, faith
I M A N H AQ True faith
INSAN KAMIL a perfect or u n i v e r s a l m an
I S R A 1 Ml'RAj The Night J o u r n e y of the
Prophet M u h a m m a d
IS T IHSAN
«• to d e e m s o m e t h i n g good,
juristic p r e f e r e n c e
ISTISHAB p r e s u m p t i o n of c o n t i n u a t i o n of
the status quo ante
IST I Q A M A H rectitude, c o n s t a n t l y
ISTINBAT inference, d e d u c i n g a somewhat
h i d d e n m e a n i n g f r o m a g i ven
text.
JABATAN PERDANA
M E N TERI Prime M i n i s t e r D e p a r t m e n t
JAW I _ M a l a y script
JA B A R I A H a sect
J A M I 'A H c o n g r e g a t i o n , s o m e t i m e spelt as
j a m a 1a
J A M A 7 AH __ com m u n i t y
JIHAD FI S A B I L I L L A H the struggle in the p a t h of
A l lah
J I N AYAH criminal
JIWA_ soul
JUMHUR d o m inant m a j o r i t y
r a d A' o r i g i n a l l y m e a n i n g "decision"
m
God's "eternal d e c i s i o n or
decree" c o n c e r n i n g all beings
KADAR , [see AL-KADA' W A 1L-KADAR]
KADHF s landerous a c c u s a t i o n of
• — -
f o r n i c a t i o n (z i n a 1[ q .v .], or
i l l e gitimate d e s cent
$ADI "judge",
KADI B E S A R Chief M u s l i m Judge
 xi v

KADIRIYYA o r d e r (tarikat) of d e r v i s h e s
c a l l e d after 'Abd A L - K a d i r AL-
Dj i 1 ani"
K A FAN shrouded
KAMAL perfection
KAMPUNG village
karAm g e n e r o s i t y [see supplement] it
seems p r e f e r a b l e - t a k i n g into
account the d i f f e r e n c e of the
res p e c t i v e A r a b i c r o o t s - t o
t r a n s l a t e k a r a m a by "marvel of a
saint"
KASIH bene v o l e n t
KASYAF vision, from A r a b i c w o r d k a s h f ,
reveal, uncover; k n o w l e d g e t h r ough
mysti c a l means
K A U M TUA old (conservative) g e n e r a t i o n - as
o p p o s e d to K a u m M u d a
KEMENTERIAN M i n i s t r y of E d u c a t i o n
PELAJARAN
( K E M E NTERIAN
PENDIDIKAN)
K E R AMAT h o l y place, s a cred spot
KHADIM servant
KHALIFA _ Caliphate
A L - K H U L A F A f AL deputy, viceregent, successor, the
RASHIDUN ri g h t l y g u i d e d Caliphs, the first
Four Caliphs of Islam
JKHALg _ creation
KHARIDJITES (al-khawaridj, sing, k h a r a d j i ), the
m e m b e r s of the e a r l i e s t of the
r eligious sects of Islcim
KH A S I A T speci a l i t i e s
KHATAM c o m p l e t i o n of the A l - K u r ' a n recital
KH A T A N circumcision. In M a l a y c a l l e d
be r s u n a t or m a s u k jawi
KHAWARIDJ [see KHAR I D J I T E S
KHUNSA hermaphrodites
KHURAFAT fiction, mystic, fable of myth,
inventive religious a c t i v i t i e s
KHUSYIJ' att e n t i v e
KISAS s y n o nymous w i t h Kawad,
3 r »
r e t a l i a t i o n ("settlement", not
"cutting off" or "prosecution")
 XV

K I TAB __ (Pl.KUTUB) "book"

KITABIYAH female follower of a n o n Islamic
rev e l a t i o n
K I TAB JAWI Islamic book w r i t t e n in Jawi
KITAB KUNING Islamic book w r i t t e n in A r a b i c
KIYAS (Ar.), r e a s o n i n g by analogy, the
*
fourth source of M u s l i m law
$UBUR grave
KUFR__ un-belief
$URBAN_ sacrifice, s acrificial v i c t i m
LADUNI m a n ought t h e r e f o r e to c l i n g to the
u n k n o w a b l e m y s t e r y "from w h e r e God
is"
MADRASAH religious school w h i c h u s u a l l y also
t e a ches s e c ular su b j e c t s or Islamic
school (smaller b o a r d i n g schools
are c a l l e d pondok)
MADHHAB school of law or school of
thought
MAFASID disutilities
MAHMUDAH g o o d mora l s
MA&SYAR _ p l ace of a s s e m b l y
MAJLIS A G A M A ISLAM Islamic R e l i g i o u s Council
M A K H L U K H A LUS r e f ined creatures
MAKRUH* abominable, r e p r e h e n s i b l e
MAL_ finance
MALAIKAT Angel
M A L A Y LA N G U A G E colloquial language s p o k e n by M a l a y
p e o p l e s in M a l a y s i a a nd in
I n d onesia
MALAYSIAN LANGUAGE official M a l a y s i a n na t i o n a l
1anguage
MANAKIB plural s u b s t a n t i v e (sing.
manakaba) f e a t u r i n g in the
t itles of a q u ite c o n s i d e r a b l e
n u m b e r of b i o g r a p h i c a l w o r k s of a
l a u datory n a t u r e w h i c h have
e v e n t u a l l y b e c o m e a part of
h a g i o g r a p h i c a l l i t e r a t u r e in
Arabic, in Pe r s i a n and in
Turkish
MANDUB commendable
MANSUKH abrogated, r e p e a l e d
MAQAM mystical station
MA'RIFAH (Ar. ma'rifa), knowledge,
M A ’RTTF right conduct
 xvi

MASALIH utilities. F r o m A r a b i c w o r d
* % maslahah
MASBUK precedented
MASDJID mosque, the n o u n of p l ace
from sadLjada "to p r o s t r a t e
oneself", h e nce "place w h e r e one
p r o s t r a t e s o n e self [in worship]"
MA§HAF A l - K u r !an
MASLAHAH,
— ^ IS T I S%L A H c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of p u b l i c
interests
MASUK MELAYU to b e c o m e a Malay, c o m m o n l y u s e d
in M a l a y s i a to refer to the act
of c o n v e r t i n g to Isl'am
M A T A HATI intuition
MATN a term with various
meanings__of w h i c h that of text
of a h a d i t h [q.v.] is to be
notedr _
M A 1U N A (pi. maunat, ma'awin),
"assistance" an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
t e r m of e a rly I s l amic h i s t o r y
w i t h several m e a n i n g s
MAULID birthday
MAULUD c e l e b r a t i o n of the b i r t h d a y of
the Prophet M u h a m m a d s.a.w. or
collective ritual in the form
of a g a t h e r i n g to c e l e b r a t e the
b i r t h of Muhammad,
M A ’U NAH provision, ^rom A r a b i c w o r d
m a 'u na
M A W D U ”' fabricated, forged
MELAYU M a lays
MENTERI BESAR Chief M i n i s t e r or H e a d of
g ove r n m e n t of a State w i t h i n the
F e d e r a t i o n w h i c h has a _
h e r e d i t a r y R u ler or S u l t a n
MENURUN trance
MISBA^ [SEE SIRADJ] lamp
MU'AMALAT a ter m w h i c h d e s i g n a t e s in
w o r k s of fikh the b i l ateral
co n t r a c t s as o p p o s e d to the
1ibadat [q.v.] w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e
the "ritual of Is l a m i c law"
 XVII

MUBAH "licit, authorised" o ne of

the five Juridical _
q u a l i f i c a t i o n s [see AgKAM] of
h u m a n acts [see SHARI'A]
MUBALLIGH [see DIKKA, MASDJID]
MUDJTAHID denotes, in c o n t e m p o r a r y
usage, one who p o s s e s s e s the
ap t i t u d e to for m his o wn
judgement on q u e s t i o n s
c o n c e r n i n g the S h a r p a, u s i n g
personal effort (i d j t i h a d [q.v.]
in the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the
fundamental p r i n c i p l e s (usul
[q.v.] of_jthe s h a r p a
mufti" (see FATWA) the sc h o l a r w ho
gives a fatwa
MUKALLAF a competent p e r s o n w h o is in
full p o s s e s s i o n of his faculties
MUKALLID^ [see TAKLID, also KASS; MADDAH]
MUNAFIKUN _ _ Here it*is u s u a l l y
A L M U N A F I KmU N t r a n s l a t e d into E n g l i s h and
F r e n c h as "hypocrites"
MUNAKAHAT marriage
MUNGKAR disobedient, i n d e c e n c y
M U Q A T T A 'AT short form letters
MUQARRABlN the n e a rest to Allah, also
d e s c r i b e d as the S a b i q o o n
m e a n i n g o u t s t r i p the rest,
MURSHID literally, "one w ho g i ves right ^
guidance, rushd, irshad, in sufT
mystical p a r l a n c e the spiritual
d i r e c t o r and i n i t i a t o r into the
o r der (tarikat) of the n o v i c e or
m u r i d [q.v.] who is f o l l o w i n g the
S u f i path
MURTADD fione who turns back" especially
from Islam, an a p o s t a s y
MUSLIM the p e r s o n w ho p r o f e s s e s
I s 1am [q.v.]
MUZAKARAH e x c h a n g e of views
NABAWTYAT P rophetical
NABT P rophet
NAFS soul
 X V I 11

NAFSf self, carnal

NAFSU _ lust, inner self d e s i r e
NAFSU LAWAMAH s e l f - a c c u s i n g sole
NAFSU MARDIAH a p p rove s o u l ,
NAFSU MULHAMAH inspired sole
N A F S U M U T M A 1INNAH soul at rest
NAHI * pr o h i b i t e d
NASS a re l i g i o n legal t e r m
NI1KMAT _ blessing
N I S F U S H A 1B AN The M i d d l e of the S h a 1ban m o n t h
NfYYA the intention of the heart
PA D A N G M A H S Y A R The D a y of R e c k o n i n g and
*—
Judgement
PANDUAN BATIN spiritual guide
PANT U N poetry
PENGHULU leader
P E MUTUS UBAT co m p l e t i o n of the c u r i n g process
PERAWAT medical m en
PONDOK traditional l e a r n i n g centre
(traditional r e l i g i o u s b o a r d i n g
school) or Islamic b o a r d i n g
school ( u s u a l l y in rural areas
and s m a ller t h a n m a d r a s a h )
P R A Y E R OF T A R A W E H night prayers d u r i n g the
m o n t h of R a m a d h a n
PUSAT ISLAM Islamic Centre
QADYANP A h m a d i a h School of Th o u g h t
RADJM the c a s ting of stones
RAJA__ Kin g or R u ler of a State.
RA K ' A (the c e r e m o n i e s f r o m the
rec i t a t i o n of the fatiha, to the
second sutjiud __ 9
R A K A ’AT (Ar. RAK'A) [See SALAT] part of
prayer, *
RAKYAT__ subjects of a ruler,
RA M A D H A N (Ar. RAMADAN) n a m e of the
n i n t h m o n t h in the M u h a m m a d a n
calendar
RA S U K disturbed
RASUL (Ar. RASUL) (plur. r u s u l ),
messenger, a p o stle
 xix

RAT IB (plur. rawatib) a w o r d

m e a n i n g w hat is f i x e d and hence
ap p lied to c e r t a i n n o n
ob l i g a t o r y salats or c e r t a i n
litanies
RE D H A gratified
RIBA" lit. increase, as a
technical term, u s u r y and
interest ___
RIJALUL-GHAIB (Ar. ridial al-ghayb) the m e n of
the m y s t e r y
RIWAYAH narration, t r a n s m i s s i o n
r i y AR pride, h y p o c r i s y
ROH __ spirit, soul
RSHANI spiritual
RU K S S A H c o n c e s s i o n or c o n c e s s i o n a i r e
law, that is law w h i c h is
modified due to the p r e s e n c e of
m i t i g a t i n g factors
RUKN _ pillar, essential i ngredient
R U KUN IMAN Cardinal A r t i c l e s of F a i t h
R U K U N ISLAM Islamic Pillars, Islamic
Principles
RUMI Roman, Latin
R U 'Y A H si g h t i n g the m o o n to c o n f i r m the
first day of the f a s t i n g m o n t h
of Ra m a d h a n
s a b Tl a way, road, or p a t h
SABR in the first p l a c e w i t h the
0
general m e a n i n g of b e i n g patient
SADJ ’ a p e c u l i a r m o d e of rh e t o r i c in
w h i c h at short i n t e r v a l s words
occur w h i c h rhyme. T h o u g h it is
distinguished from poetry
(shi'r) by not b e i n g b o u n d by a
regular r h y t h m or m e t r e
SALAF, A S - S A L A F I Y E E N the e a r l y years. S o m e t i m e u s e d
AS-SALIHEEN g e n e r a l l y to d e s c r i b e the e a r l y
• < « g e n e r a t i o n s of the M u s l i m s
p a r t i c u l a r l y the C o m p a n i o n s of
the M e s s e n g e r of A l l a h a nd those
w ho f o l l owing them, w h o c l o s e l y
follows the S u n n a an d the H o l y
Prophet Muhammad, the righteous
co m p a n i o n s * o f M u h a m m a d
 XX

SALAT the usual n a m e in A r a b i c for the

3 ritual p r a y e r or d i v i n e service
SALAT H A JAT p r a y i n g for sp e c i f i c intension
1~>ANTAU * poisoning
SELAWAT praises for the Prophet
t
Muhammad, ritual p r a y e r
"SETINGGAN" AREA zone of illegality; t e r m u sed by
M a l a y s i a n u r b a n p l a n n e r s and
g o v e rnment o f f i c i a l s to refer to
a squatter sett l e m e n t
SHAHID witness, m a r tyrs
( p i .shuhada-1)
SHAR' the d i s c r e t i o n a r y p u n i s h m e n t of
crimes
shP T sm a sect
SHURA _ consultation
SIASSA SHARRIA p o l i c y of d i v i n e o r i g i n by state
SIFAT '_ attribute, q u a l i t y
SILAT GHAIB invisible art of s e l f - d e f e n c e
S O M BONG proud
SIT’ wicked
SUDJUD prost r a t i o n s
SUFT_ [See Tasawwuf] a M u s l i m m y s t i c
S u l tQ a n the M a l a y M u s l i m ruler of a.
M a l a y s i a n states (Ar. SULTAN)
S U M A 'AH boastful *
SUNNA m u s t a h a b and t a t a w w u ' ,
r e c o m m endable
SUNNA custom, use and wont,
statue. In Hadith, by sunna is
u s u a l l y u n d e r s t o o d M u h a m m a d ’s
Sunna *_
JURA Ch a pter of the A l - K u r ' a n
SURAU small M u s l i m p l a c e ^ o f w o r s h i p or
bu i l d i n g in M a l a y v i l l a g e u sed
for congre g a t i o n a l prayers;
small, n e i g h b o u r h o o d m o s q u e
S Y A F A 1AT inter c e s s i o n on the D a y of
Judgement
SYAHADA de c l a r a t i o n of faith; the first
pri n c i p l e or p i l l a r of IslcOn
SYAIR a Persian p o e t i c f orm as a kind
of M a l a y classical literature.
 xx i

SYAJRAH tree __
S Y A R I 'AH (Ar. SHARI*1A), also S H A R 1
(originally infinitive), the
p a t h w h i c h the b e l i e v e r has to
tread, the r e l i g i o n of IslcTm
as a technical term, the canon
law of Islam, (also u s e d as the
t e r m for a single c o m m a n d m e n t
= hukm, the plural s h a r a 1= a h k a m
_SYATAHAT, SYAT ec s t a t i c u t t e r a n c e of the Sufis
^y e Ikh (Ar. SYAY&H) "spiritual
director"
SY I R I K (Ar. S H I R K ) (also ishrak)
a s s o c i a t i n g a c o m p a n i o n to God-
ho n o u r i n g a n o t h e r b e s i d e
God, p o l y t h e i s m
S Y U 1B A H committee
SYUKUR thanks
SYUMUL undivided
JABIJAT nature
TABLIGH Indian M u s l i m s "da'wa" m o v e m e n t
TAFAKUR _ to m e d i t a t e
TAFS_IR A L - K U R ' A N commentary, e x e g e s i s a t i o n
TAHL_IL a dhikr
TA H R I M p r o h i b i t i o n or r e n d e r i n g
so m e t h i n g into h a r a m
TAJDlD ISLAMf _ Islamic r e form
TAJW I D A L - K U R ’AN rec i t a t i o n of the H o l y A l - K u r ’an
w i t h p r ecise a r t i c u l a t i o n and
exact i n t o n a t i o n
TAKABBUR arrogance
TA K F I R a c c u s a t i o n or b r a n d i n g of
inf i dels
taklid Co n fine to the explanation,
*
a p p l i c a t i o n and at the most
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the do c t r i n e
as it had been laid d own once
and for all, to be an
u n r e a s o n i n g i m i t a t i o n and a
pa s sive acceptance,
TAKLIF liability, o b l i g a t i o n
TA L F I Q The c o m b i n a t i o n and f u s i o n of
Juristic opi n i o n s
TA L K I N i n s t r u c t i o n to the dying, the
final e x h o r t a t i o n at a funeral,
 XXII

TAMRIN t r a ining
TAQIYYAH conc e a l m e n t of o n e's v i ews to
escape persecution
TAQWA piety, d e v o t i o n
TARAQQI self-recogni t i on
TA R B j A H e d u c a t i o n and b r i n g i n g up
tarirat Muslim brotherhood
tasbth rosary, g l o r i f i c a t i o n of God
(Allah)
TASHRl' legislation
taslT m salutation, s u r r e n d e r
TA S A W W U F Islamic metaphysics, sufTsm,
9
sometimes spelt as tasawuf,
TAUBAT re p e ntance
t a u h Td u n i t y of e x i s t e n c e and oneness
of God
TAWADHUK humble, h u m i l i t y
T A W AKKAL a b s olute trust in God,
TA W A S S U L i n d i r e c t l y s u r r e n d e r i n g or
s u b m i t t i n g to A l l a h
TAYAMMUM ablutions w i t h c l e a n earth, sand
in the event no w a t e r m a y be
found
TA'ZIR (Ar. ta'zTr) deterrence,
discretionary penalty determined
by the Kadi
TIJARAH, AL-TIJARAH business
UGAMA religion, c o m m o n l y u s e d to refer
to the Islamic r e l i g i o n
UGUT intim i d a t i o n
'UJUB pride, c o n c e i t e d
UK H U A H brotherhood
'ULAMA' (plural of 'alim) the religious
learned; pious m a n t h e o l o g i a n or
Islamic r e l i gious scholars;
M u s l i m scholars.
'ULAMA' LAHIR Islamic r e l i gious s c h o l a r who
pr a c t i c e I s lam s u p e r f i c i a l l y
'U L A M A ' SUK or w i c k e d or w o r l d l y Islamic
'ULAMA_^ D U N I A religious scholar
'ULAMA' A K H I R A T he r e a f t e r Islamic r e l i gious
scholar
 X X I 11

’ULAMA' MUJADDID reformers Islamic religious

scholar
ULU A L - A M R persons in a u t h o r i t y and in
charge of c o m m u n i t y affairs
UM M A H com m u n i t y of M u s l i m s or
c o m m u n i t y of believers;
c o m m u n i t y b o n d e d by religious/
ideological a f f i l i a t i o n
UNDANG-UNDANG law, rule
US RAH g r oup d i s c u s s i o n in f a m i l y sense
UStfL the "roots" or sources of legal
knowledge, the fundamental
pri n c i p l e
USUL__UD-DIN Th e o l o g y
WAHYU di v i n e i n s p i r a t i o n
WSJIB ob i i g a t i o n
w^Lr one close to God
walTTj l l a h a pious p e r s o n
WARA' scrupulous abstention, s o m etime
spelt as warak
W A SLAT wi 11
WASTLAH connection
WARA' scrupulous a b s t e n t i o n
W A R ID mystical i l l u m i n a t i o n
WIRD [q q ,v . ] hiz b or the w i r d [qg.v]
of t e n a c c o m p a n i e d by the
"spiritual oratorio" ( s a m a 1)
WUDU 1 wudu' [q.v.] a b l u t i o n
YAIJIN certainty _
YANG DI-PERTUAN AGONG " K i n g " . A S u l t a n c h o s e n by
the other S u l t a n s e v e r y five
years to a s s u m e this p o s i t i o n
of Par a m o u n t R u ler of M a l a y s i a
YAQZAH_ in life
YUNANI Greek
ZA HIR literal meaning, e x t ernal
Ja k a t Islamic p r o p e r t y tax or tithe,
alms tax
ZA LIM ty r anny
ZAHID, ZUHD, ZUHUD ascetic, asceticism, a u s t e r i t y
ZAITUN ol ive
 xxiv

ZINA _ ad u l t e r y
Z INDIQ, ZANADIQA heretic, c o m p l e t e a n d utter
un b e l i e v e r s in All"ah and the
Last Day, A t h e i s t
ZIRiT'AH, AL-ZIRA'XH agricultural
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYM

Ab., Abd. Abdul

Ar. Arabic
ABIM A n g k a t a n B e l i a Islam M a l a y s i a
(Malaysian M u s l i m Y o u t h O r g a n i z a t i o n )
AIDS A c q u i r e d Immune D e f i c i e n c y S y n d r o m e
ALHUNAFA The N ew Converts A s s o c i a t i o n
ALIRAN Persatuan Aliran Kesedaran Negara (The
A s s o c i a t i o n of the Ide o l o g y of the
Nation's Awareness
AR Annual Report
Ar. Arabic
ARQAM Al-Arqam, Dar a l - A r q a m
ASEAN A s s o c i a t i o n of S o uth East A s i a n N a t i o n s
BAHEIS B a h a g i a n Hal Ehwal Islam (Jabatan P e r d a n a
Menteri)
(Islamic A f fairs Division, P r i m e M i n i s t e r
Department)
Cl. Column
Co. Company
Dec. December
DBP D e w a n B a h a s a dan P u s t a k a
Dr. D o k t o r (Doctor)
ed. edited
e.g. for e x a m p l e
Exco. E x e c u t i v e Com m i t t e e
fern. femin i n e
H., Hj Hadjdi,
HIV H u m a n I m m u n o - d e f i c i e n c y V i rus
i.e. that is to say; in o t h e r w o rds
intro. Introduction
JIM Ja m a ' a h Isl a m i a h M a l a y s i a
(Malaysian M u s l i m O r g a n ization)
JMBRAS Journal of the M a l a y s i a n B r a n c h of the Royal
Asiatic Society
J.M.C.L.I Journal of M a l a y C u l t u r e a nd L a n g u a g e
I n s titute
JOSA Journal of Sou t h - E a s t A s i a
JRAS Journal of Royal A s i a t i c S o c i e t y
LA W A S I A Law of A s i a
 xxvi

lit. literary
Masc. Masculine
M d . ,M o h d ., Muhammad
M B RAS M a l a y s i a n B r a n c h of A s i a t i c S o c i e t y
n .d . no date
No Number
p .b .u .H . p e a c e be u p o n H i m
PAS Parti IslSm Se m a l a y a (Pan of M a l a y a n Islar
Party)
PE R K I M P e r t u b u h a n K e b a j i k a n I s lam M a l a y s i a
(Muslim W e l f a r e Organisation)
PI. Plur. Plural
PMIP Pan M a l a y s i a n Islamic P a rty
PT, p t . PART, part.
PUM P e r s a t u a n Ulama" M a l a y s i a
(Malaysian M u s l i m S c h olars Or g a n i z a t i o n )
q.v. (Latin quod vide) eg s h o w i n g a cross-
r e f e rence
RIMA R e v i e w of I n d o n e s i a n and M a l a y s i a n A f f a i r s
Sch. Schedule
Sdn. Bhd. S e n d i r i a n B e r h a d (Company limited)
sing. singular
Skr. Sanskrit.
S.W.T. Subljanahu Wa Ta”'a la
TABLIGH J a m a'at T a b l i g h
t r l . trans. translator
U KM U n i v e r s i t i K e b a n g s a a n M a l a y s i a (National
U n i v e r s i t y of Malaysia.
UMNO U n i t e d M a l a y National O r g a n i z a t i o n
Us . Ustaz or A l - Ustaz
U SA U n i t e d State of A m e r i c a
Ust. Ustazah
YADIM Y a y a s a n D a k w a h Isl a m f y a h M a l a y s i a
(Malaysian Islamic M i s s i o n a r y Foundation)
CONTENTS
 CONTENTS

Abstract i - ii

Acknowledgement iii - iv

Transliteration v

Glossary vi - xxi v

A b b r e v i a t i o n s and
Acronym x x v - xxvi

Introduction xxx - xlii

C H A P T E R ONE. M a l a y M u s l i m S o c i e t y and 1 - 5 5
Culture; its h i s t o r y
and pre sent state.

Malay Muslim Relationship

The Influence of I s lam in

M a l a y Life

The M u s l i m S o c i e t y B e f o r e
Independence

The M u s l i m S o c i e t y A f t e r
I n d e pendence
Economy
Education
So c i e t y
Politics
The R e s u r g e n c e
C u l ture

C H A P T E R TWO_j_ M a l a y Islamic Literature. 56 - 113

A General Definition.

Th e N a t u r e of Islamic
L i t e r a t u r e in
T r a d itional Malay.

Islamic W r i t i n g s i nce the

I n t r o d u c t i o n of the
P r i n t i n g Press.
 X X V I 11

CHAPTER THREE Scope of Islamic W r i t i n g s 114 - 225

on C o n t e m p o r a r y Issues and
its O b j e c t i v e s F r o m
1975-1992.
Theology
Apostacy
Polytheism
False D o c t r i n e
The E x i s t e n c e of A l l a h
Islam, the re l i g i o n
b r o ught by A l l a h ' s
M e s s e n g e r s and the
Prophets
A l - K u r 'an
Hadrth
Life A f t e r D e a t h
(Akbirat)
The Grave W o r l d
H e a v e n and Hell
D i s a p p e a r a n c e of
Al-KurJ_anic V e r s e s
Imam Mahdi
Al-Kada' w a 11 K a d a r
Ahl_* A1 - Sunn a
S h i 'ism

Islamic Law and

Juri sprudence
Sc h o o l s of Laws 'M a d h h a b 1
Criminal Law
D e v o t i o n s e r vice
Islamic E c o n o m y

General Scope
Islamic G e o g r a p h y
Islamic K n o w l e d g e
Islamic E d u c a t i o n and D a ' w a
The H i s t o r y of the Pr o p h e t s
Islamic H i s t o r y
M u s l i m s c h olars in S o u t h East
Asia
 xxix

CHAPTER FOUR Islamic B o oks on 226 - 3 ^

C o n t r o v e r s i a l Issues

Anti HadTth
» ._____

Al-Arqam

Wo m e n

Family

Suiism
tr
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and
Rule

C H A P T E R FIVE Critical A n a l y s i s of the 34^ - 402

Islamic B o o k s in M a l a y
and A u t h e n t i c i t y Of
M u s l i m Writers

N a t u r e and Q u a l i t i e s

The Co n t e n t s of B o o k s

Style of W r i t i n g

C H A P T E R SIX Conclusion 403 - 411

Bibliography 412 - 449

Appendix 450 - 451

INTRODUCTION
 Int roduct i on

R e s u r g e n c e of Islam among the M u s l i m s o c i e t y in

M alaysia, particularly among the youth in urban areas

began in the early 1 9 7 0 's. Through this movement,

Muslims were called upon in seminars, forums, speeches

or a r t icles in newspapers, magazines and per i o d i c a l

bulletins, to practice a complete Is l a m i c way of life

in every aspect. Islamic resurgents demanded a n ew

social order, the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of an Is l a m i c e d u c a t i o n

system, economy, political order and legal framework.

Above all they wanted creation of an Islamic s t ate

with Al-Kur'an and Sunna as the sole constitution of

the country. The passion of the demand for change,

fortified by the enthusiastic s u p port of a growing

number of young adherents, in d u c e d the government to

respond.

In 1974, the Islamic Affairs Division of the

P r ime Minister's Department was established. Its a im

w as to co-ordinate national Islamic activities by

standardizing and encouraging u n i f o r m i t y in Islamic

 xxx i

law and administration in the country. Programmes to

inculcate Islamic valu e s in Muslim society and the

e f f o r t s by the g o v e r n m e n t to e s t a b l i s h v a r i o u s Islamic

institutions became more pronounced. Islam which was

once basically a Muslim affa i r became a national

concern.

Concomitant with this, the writing of Islamic

texts was promoted by individuals, groups and other

government bodies. Consequently, hundreds of books in

Malay, discussing various topics in different fields

of Islamic teachings were published. There was very

l ittle w r i t t e n in English. T h ese b o o k s w e r e w r i t t e n by

Muslims of v a rious nationalities who came from

different political and e ducational backgrounds, and

schools of thought. The publishing s c ene was soon

e n l i v e n e d w i t h views, opinions and s u g g e s t i o n s that all

literature produced, fiction as well as non-fiction,

s h o u l d i n c o r p o r a t e ele m e n t s of Islam.

Over a span of twenty years, Muslim writers

wrote books on contemporary matters relating

particularly to faith such as on apostasy, polytheism,

false doctrine, disappearance of Al-Kur'anic verses,

soul, !r o h t a r T k a t 1,Imam MahdT, the concept of 1walT 1,

 XXXI1

meeting with Prophet Muhammad while f u lly conscious,

'alam a l - g h a y b 1, recommendatory devo t i o n a l practices

for example 'dzikir' and ‘w i r d ’, traditional medical

treatment using the expertise of the ’b o m o h ’

( traditional medicine-man), the devil, 1i b l i s ' ,

S h F 1Tsm, s c h ools of law 1m a d h h a b 1 and 'bid'a1'

(reprehensible innovation).

Other subjects covered were Islamic geography,

Islamic r e l igious knowledge, the exegesis of A l - K u r ’an

(tafsir), m o d e r n t e c h n i q u e s of t e a c h i n g and r e a ding Al-

£ u r ’5n, the importance of memorising and the b e n efits

of the study of A l - £ u r ’an, Islamic education and

'da'waT1, the history of the Prophets, I s l amic history,

the p o s i t i o n of H a d i t h as a seco n d s o u r c e of M u s l i m law

in I s lam and its rejection, polygamy, f a mily life,

Muslim women, SufTsm, administration a nd rule,

biographies of Islamic prominent f i g ures and others

f r o m the Islamic point of view.

In general these books are intended:

1. To g ive basic information about Islamic

t e a c h i n g to M u s l i m s and n o n - M u s l i m s alike, particularly

w i t h r e f e r e n c e to c o n t e m p o r a r y issues.

2. To explain the IslcTmic t e a c hings

 XXX111

t h e o l o g i c a l l y from v a rious s c h o l a r l y views.

3. To try to cl a r i f y ambiguous issues of a

theological nature in a p a r t i c u l a r way.

4. To publicly pr o m o t e individual opinions on

the issues concerned.

However, the m u s h r o o m i n g of I s l amic w r i t i n g s has

created ce r t a i n o t her issues that t r o u b l e the M u s l i m

community of Malaysia. Most s i g n i f i c a n t a m o n g these

issues are t h ose which c o n cern conflicting theological

views, disobedience and disregard for fatwa,

dissatisfaction and u n c e r t a i n t y a m o n g laymen because

th e experts contradict e a c h other, the m a n i p u l a t i o n of

religion for political and p e r sonal gains and g r oup

interests, and the a l l eged subversion of generally

a c c e p t e d ideas, schools of thought and traditions.

L o o k i n g at the books p r o d u c e d w i t h i n this p e r i o d

further, a n u m b e r of points can be m a d e as follows;

1. T h ere are popular and academic Islamic books

wh o s e a u thors lack appropriate scholastic knowledge

a nd a u thors l a c king a ny sound k n o w l e d g e of Islam.

2. The Islamic books reflect theological

c o n t r o v e r s i e s e l s e w h e r e in the Islamic world.

3. The books c o n c e r n t h e m s e l v e s w i t h all aspects

 xx x iv

of the contemporary state, society, politics, economy,

c u l t u r e and n a t i o n building.

The purpose of my study was to analyse Islamic

texts published in Malay from 1975 onwards and to

access t h eir religious, social and p o l i t i c a l imp o r t a n c e

an d significance. In this study, I w as particularly

i n t e r e s t e d in the academic, scholarly and t h e o logical

t h i n k i n g b e h i n d t h ese books; h o w far t h e s e studies w e r e

based, in an a c a d e m i c sense, u p o n r e c o g n i z e d sources of

Islamic writing a nd written within particular

traditions and within particular 'madhhab', h ow far

these books f a iled or s u c c e e d e d to express a nd reflect

conflicting views and concerns within the contemporary

Muslim society. When I talked of Muslims or books

written for Muslims, the Muslims I meant were the

Muslims of Malaysia. I did not look at contemporary

fiction and periodicals as such. In addition, I

examined how far the books reflect the fatwa issued by

the ’J a w a t a n k u a s a Fatwa" K e b a n g s a a n 1 (National Fatwa-'s

Committee) and 'Jawatankuasa Fatwa" Negeri-negeri1

(States FatweT Committee).

More than five hundred Islamic b o oks in Malay

rel e v a n t to m y t o pic have been studied. The books w e r e

 XXXV

obtained from university libraries, national p u blic

libraries, publishers and book shops in Malaysia. The

content of t h ese books in general c o v e r e d e v e r y field

of I slamic teaching, which in c l u d e d Theology, 'Fikh',

Islamic jurisprudence 'Usul-Fikh', A l - K u r ’anic

d i

recitation 'Tajwid', Al-Kur'anic exegesisation'

Tafsir', 1H a d T t h *, 'Mustalah H a d T t h ' , I s l amic history,

m o r a l i t y and SufTsm.

For the p u r p o s e of m y study, I s e l e c t e d over two

hundred and t h i r t y five books w h i c h formed the p r i m a r y

subject of m y research. These rep r e s e n t books from the

various fields concerned. However general books on

philosophy, Islamic thought, Islamic civilization,

Isramic art, science and architecture hav e not been

studied in detail due to the l i m ited n u m b e r w r i t t e n

in M a l a y by Muslim scholars in Malaysia. Priority has

bee n given to b o oks which discuss pol e m i c a l and

controversial issues.

T he m a j o r secondary sources used for this s t udy

were my i n t e rviews with publishers, articles on Islam

in M a l a y s i a n journals, serials and newspapers like

Berita Harian, Utusan Melayu, Utusan Malaysia and the

News S t rait Times. W h e n s e l e c t i n g the I s l amic books for

 xxxvi

my research I was guid e d by the fo l l o w i n g

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ,*

1. The books represent every f i eld of Islamic

studies.

2. The books include those w h i c h are considered

ac a d e m i c as well as n o n academic texts.

3. Books written in the Jawi scripts which of

late are very few in number and books written in the

R o m a n i s e d script.

4. B o oks written by Muslim scholars, 'U l a m a ',

and by o t her M u s l i m writers.

5. B o oks w h i c h discuss trad i t i o n a l t h e o l o g y in a

c o n t e m p o r a r y and c o n t r oversial context.

6. B o oks which concern themselves with

government policy, fatwa, Shafi'i School of Law or the

collective ideas of the past and modern Muslim

scholars.

7. B o oks w h i c h are u sed as t e x t b o o k s by students

studying Islamic r e l igious s u b jects at the secondary

school level.

8. B o o k s w h i c h c l a i m to follow conventionally

the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the K i fab l i t e r a t u r e and 'Kitab

K u n i n g ’ in general.
 xxxvii

9. B o oks w h i c h give i n f o r m a t i o n on aspects of

I s l amic teaching that are rarely discussed elsewhere

or are r a r e l y taught in the formal or informal learning

s e s s i o n s a m ong M u s l i m s in Malaysia.

10. B o oks which clearly s t ate the false

teachings as understood by the Shafi'T School, against

Al-Kur'ah and Sunna which endanger the f a ith of the

M u s l i m s and the u n i t y of the M u s l i m s o c i e t y as a whole.

11. Books for different target groups of

readers.

I have chosen and only s t u d i e d typical examples

for all the aspects I hav e d e s c r i b e d here. This is not

an exhaustive s t udy of all b o oks but rather an

exemplary s t udy of various types. I was int e r e s t e d

p a r t i c u l a r l y in books p u b l i s h e d by M a l a y s i a n p u b l i s h e r s

and predominantly written by M u s l i m s who had had their

education in Malaysia. I am however a w are that books

published in Malaysia and written by Malaysians are

only part of the picture and that there are others

w h i c h are w r i t t e n by Arabs, Indonesians, and Europeans.

I shall not look at the p r o blems of marketing, price,

quality of p r i n t i n g m a t e r i a l s a nd at the publishers of

Islamic books w r i t t e n in Malay.

 XXXVll1

In carrying out m y study I f a ced a number of

problems. The first problem being the absence of a

specific cat a l o g u e for Malay Isl’h m i c b o oks published

by Malaysian M u s l i m s and p r e p a r e d by the bookshops,

p u b l i s h e r s or u n i v e r s i t y libraries. However, 'Katalog

Koleksi Melayu Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 1990' and

'Katalog Koleksi Melayu Perpustakaan Univ e r s i t i Malaya

1980', were useful guides and answered some questions.

T h ere were also some books with an unclear publishing

year which from the topics and issues discussed I am

absolutely certain are relevant to my s t udy and were

published a f ter 1975 . Classifying the field of study

of the Isl'amic books by their titles posed another

problem. Some Islamic b o oks give a g e n eral discussion

on various fields even t h ough the t i tles of the books

are on a spe c i f i c field. Thus for the purpose of my

s t udy the actual contents of the book w e r e u s e d as the

d e c i d i n g factor rath e r tha n their titles.

As an i n t r o d u c t i o n to my thesis, in C h a p t e r One,

a general o v e r v i e w of the socio-political and ec o n o m i c

background of the Malay Muslim society has been

presented. I hav e d e f i n e d the t e r m M a l a y and M u s l i m and

the various interpretations that a r ise from the

 x x x ix

definitions. The changes experienced by the Muslim

society before and after M a l a y s i a ’s I n d e p e n d e n c e have

also bee n described. This is fo l l o w e d by a discussion

on the extent of the importance of Isl'Sm in the

e v e r y d a y life of the M a l a y s i a n Muslims.

The sub s e q u e n t d e v e l o p m e n t of M a l a y l i t e rature

starting from the i n t r o d u c t i o n of Islcim to M a l a y s i a

until the p r e sent d ay are c o v ered in Chapter Two. The

discussion i n d i r e c t l y tries to show h o w the texts have

been used by the authors, to bring about c h a nges to

the s t ate and promote the stan d p o i n t a nd attitude of

t he M u s l i m society. The chapter d e als (briefly) with

the M a l a y L i t e r a t u r e w r i t t e n by s c h o l a r s of traditional

Muslim society ’S a s t r a K i t a b ’ and M a l a y l i t e r a r y w o rks

with IslcTmic elements, such as novels, short stories,

p o ems and p l ays published since the i n t r o d u c t i o n of

the printing press. This chapter also d e als with the

ch a n g e s of the 1 9 7 0 's w h e n as a result of th e Isl'Smic

resurgence in Malaysia, the suggestion was mad e to r e ­

interprete the meaning of the term 'Islamic

1 i t e r a t u r e '.

Chapter Three covers the textual analysis, the

focus of w h i c h was Islamic studies in Malay, (Islamic

 xl

books w r i t t e n in Malay) from 1975 to the present day

(1992). In this context, the t e r m 'Islamic studies' in

my title means 1Isl'Smic religious knowledge' as

m e n t i o n e d earlier.

S i nce 1975, Muslims writers have written

hundreds of b o oks dealing with IsTamic studies and

contemporary issues on Isl'am. The subjects which

s t i m u l a t e a lot of interest include:-

1. Theology:

The books classified under theology discuss the

Six Articles of the Muslim Creed concerning God, the

Prophets of God, the Angels of God, the Books of God,

the Day of J u d g ement and Predestination of good and

evil 'al-Kada' w a'1-Kadar'. The issues raised in t h e s e

books include the issues of 'bid'a', conferring the

rewards of recitation fro m the Al-Kur'an to Prophet

Muhammad and the dead, pr a y e r s 'du'"a', apostasy,

polytheism, trad i t i o n a l medicine, false doctrine,

Qadiani, Isl'am the r e l igion brought by Allah's

Messengers and the Prophets, HadTth, life a f ter death,

the w o r l d of the grave, Heaven and Hell, disappearance

of Al-Kur'anic verses, Imam MahdT, 'Ahl' al-Sunna'

and Shi 'Ism.

 xli

2. Jurisprudence:

These books focus on the topics; Islamic law,

'jenayah', jurisprudence, 'madhhab', devotional

service, i n h e r i t a n c e and Islamic economy.

Un d e r the top ic devotional service, the books

deal with the F ive P i llars of Isl'am, non-obl ig a t o r y

prayers, v i s i t i n g the sick and p a y i n g the last respect

to the dead, praying, meditating and chanting Allah

N a mes and Attributes, ethics in the mosque, recitation

of the 'Talkin', non-obligatory sacrifices 'Korban' and

• •
’ ’AkTka', a nd the importance of these devotion

services, the way to perform perfect devotion

services, the effects on those who do not practise

d e v o t i o n s e r vices and Prophet M u h a m m a d as a model of an

ideal s e r vant of Allah and with Alllh's punishment on

the D a y of Judgement. On marriage, issues w r i t t e n about

deal directly or indirectly with family life, Islamic

f a m i l y law, polygamy, and divorce.

Relating to general scope, topi c s discussed

evolve around science and modern medicine, Islamic

geography, Islamic r e l igious knowledge, the s t ory of

the Prophets, Islamic h i s t o r y and Is l l m i c movement. In

this chapter besides its scope, the objectives of

 xlii

w r i t i n g will also be emphasised.

Ch a p t e r Four focuses on b o oks discussing

controversial issues w h i c h include the r e c e n t l y bann e d

al-Arqam, anti-HadTth. the position of Muslim women,

marriage, Islamic rule and administration (Islamic

democracy, Isl"amic politics, 1Syura' system, Islamic

state)y and 4SufTsm.

Chapter Five attempts to giv e a critical

analysis of the Malay Islamic b o oks which hav e been

studied. The nature and the qualities of the Islamic

bo oks produced in general are discussed and the

theo l o g i c a l authenticity of the M u s l i m w r i t e r s is also

examined.

In conclusion, an attempt has b e e n m a d e to look

at the future role of Isllmic w r i t i n g in the context of

the d e v e l o p m e n t of M a l a y s i a n society.
CHAPTER ONE
 C H A P T E R O NE

M a l a y M u s l i m s o c i e t y and culture;

Its h i s t o r y and p r e s e n t state.

Malaysia is an ethnically and religiously d i v ided

society, comprising of indigenous (Bumiputra) and non-

indigenous groups. The majority of the non-indigenous

people are the Chinese and the Indians most of whom came

to the country during the period of c o l onial rule (Roff,

1967:13)(1). O z a y (1990:21) views the term Bumiputra as

" merely a his t o r i c a l dimension of id e n t i t y

differentiating a g r oup for s e t ting prior claim to a

territory r e l ative to more recent arrivals such as the

Chinese an d Indians". However, s i nce the formation of

Malaysia, l e g ally the term Bumiputra 'sons of the soil'

refers not only to the Malays, as previously used, but

also includes, as defined by the constitution, the

ind i g e n o u s g r oups of S a bah and S a r a w a k a n d the a b o r i g i n e s

of the Peninsular. Bumiputra were guaranteed special

privileges by the constitution which covers r e c r uitment

into the Civil Service, awards of scholarships,

opportunities for education and training and issue of

licenses and p e r mits (S. Husln, 1981:3-5).

The majority of the Bumiputra are Malays.

 2

According to Bailey, in the Malay Peninsula, the t erm

Malay c o vers many groups: "The Malaypopulation

comprises a mixture of i ndigenous Malays and va r i o u s

migrant groups from Indonesia, including Minangkabau,

Javanese, Achinese and Bugis as well as migrants from

Pattani on Southern Thailand's East Coast". Most of the

migrants arrived in the late nineteenth and early

twentieth cen t u r i e s (Bailey, 1983:9). T h o u g h they are

p e ople fro m different l i n g uistic g r oups w h o have retained

their own ethnic identity, the migrants and the

i n d i genous M a l a y s see t h e m s e l v e s u n i t e d in t h eir religion

since the y all are M u s l i m s (Chandra, 1987:1) and are

f o l l o w e r s of the S h a f P i " School (Mohd Nor, 1985:9).

It is thus that the terms 'Malay' and 'Muslim'

have come to be c o n s i d e r e d synonymous. Unlike the Malays,

the other Bumiputra and the non-indigenous communities

are predominantly non-Muslims (S.HusTn, 1982:5). When a

tff

society is t o t a l l y dichotomized into the i n d i genous and

non-indigenous groups as in Malaysia, identity, and in

this c ase language, c u l ture and religion, becomes a

matter of paramount importance. This d i c h o t omization,

also affects the economy, politics, education and almost

every other r e alm of activity of s o c i e t y in M a l a y s i a

 3

(Chandra, 1987:23).

Malav-Muslim Relationship

According to the Malaysian constitution, a Malay

is d e f i n e d as meaning, "a p e r s o n w h o p r o f e s s e s the M u s l i m

religion, habitually speaks Malay, conforms to Malay

c u s t o m and was born b e f o r e M e r d e k a Day, in the F e d e r a t i o n

or S i n g a p o r e or b o t h of parents one of w h o m was born

in the F e d e r a t i o n or Singapore; or is the issue of such a

person" (C o n s t i t u t i o n of Malaysia; Article 160)(2). Those

b o r n a f ter M e r d e k a D a y a u t o m a t i c a l l y g ain this status.

From the point of law, the criteria given

prominence are cultural rather than ethnic. A Malay can

be a n y b o d y w ho is a M u s l i m and use s the M a l a y language,

it is not necessary to be ra c i a l l y or ethnically Malay.

Thus, the Malay Muslim s o c i e t y are people who are joined

by the Islamic faith, the Malay la n g u a g e and culture,

r e g a r d l e s s of e t h n i c i t y (S. Husin, 1981:2).

'A M u s l i m 1 is d e f i n e d as "any p e r s o n decended from

either of the pa r e n t s w ho is a M u s l i m or a p e r s o n w h o has

embraced the religion of Isl'am u n d e r this Enactment and

has not converted himself to a ny other r e l i g i o n " (Perak

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of M u s l i m Law Enactment, No 11, 1965:3).

 4

The implication of these definitions hav e long caused

confusion a m ong people since it is argued that becoming

a Muslim does not mean 'becoming a Malay' or 'm a s u k

Melayu' (Roff, 1967:67). However, by merely embracing

Islam but continuing to speak his mother tongue and to

follow his custom in his everyday life, a new convert of

I s lam has not f u lly satisfied the constitutional

provision (S. HusTn, 1981:3).

According to Hussin, (Hussin, 1990:9) for the

Malays, I s lam is a symbol of Malayness and to be a Malay

a nd to be a Muslim are inseparable. This identification

of I s lam and Malayness, according to Fred R. Von D er

M e h d e n , ( F r e d R, V o n Der M e h d e n 1987: 180) has p r o v i d e d an

ob s t a c l e to Islamic unity in Malaysia. Unlike the Arabs,

Indonesians, Indians and Pak i s t a n i s w ho to a limited

d e gree has been socially incorporated into the Bumiputra,

Chinese co n v e r t s are not fully accepted by many Malays

due to t h eir ethnic identity. This is despite the fact

that their convertion is often publicised in the media

and that the y change t h eir names and live as Muslims.

F urthermore, the Arabs, Indonesians, Indians and

Pakistanis being hereditary Mu s l i m s and not c o n verts are

m o r e e a s i l y a s s i m i l a t e d into the M a l a y c o m m u n i t y (HussTn,

 5

1990:28).

The Malays see the Chinese converts as 'converts

of convenience' to q u a l i f y for 'Malay' special privileges

or for reasons of in t e r m a r r i a g e a nd not for spiritual

reasons. Malays view their perceived refusal to s t udy

t h eir new religion and the fact that they c o n tinue

living like Chinese, as evidence of their lack of

co m m i t m e n t to Islam (Nagata, 1984:194-200). The State

Religious Council is o f ten put in a difficult position

when the family of a dead convert alleges that the dea d

has re v e r t e d to his former faith and demands for the

bod y to be b u r i e d in a Ch i n e s e cemetery(3). The Council

too sometimes has to face prosecution for converting a

Chinese, later p r o v e d to be u n d e r - a g e ( 4).

The UMNO (United Malay Na t i o n a l O r g a n ization)

S u p reme Council's, 'Majlis Tertinggi UMNO', decision to

recognize the Melaka Portugese descendants and the

Chinese Baba as B u m i p u t r a was considered irrational and

faced stro n g opposition from some Muslims. Being

descendants of i mmigrants from Europe and China,

historically and socio-culturally they do not belong to

the Malay Austronesian stock. The Portugese way of life,

l anguage and re l i g i o n does not fulfil the c r i t e r i a stated

 6

in the Constitution. In the case of the Chinese Baba,

m a n y speak Malay, sing Malay melodies (dondang sayang),

and practise Malay table manners. However, in general

their culture, language and religion, according to some,

are still dominated by the traditions practised by their

a n c e s t o r s (5).

Thus, to d e fine a Malay according to S. H u s i n

(S.Husin, 1981: 6) both socio-culture an d legal factors

have to be t a ken into consideration. Since religion,

language, and custom have been instituted as the

yardsticks for i d e n t i f y i n g the Malays, the t e r m M a l a y can

t h e r e f o r e be d e f i n e d as d e c e ndants of the M a l a y stock and

those w ho have embraced Islam and gradually assimilated

as a Malay.

In my study, the term M u s l i m is u n d e r s t o o d as

meaning a person who p r o f esses Islam, irrespective of

race. However, since almost all Malays are Muslims and

the majority of the Muslims are Malays (Roff, 1967:67)

thus the term a Muslim is basically synonymous with the

t e r m a Malay.

The i n f l uence of Islam on M a l a y life

Based on the first written evidence of the

T r e n g g a n u Stone I n s c r i p t i o n ( 6), I s lam wa s i n t r o d u c e d to

 7

the Peninsula Malays in the fourteenth century. As to

the origins, academic deba t e c e ntres on Arabia and

India(7). Unlike Hinduism, w h i c h was court centred, Islam

succeeded in winning and to take root in the hear t s and

m i n d s of the M a l a y p e o p l e at large.

Islam which has a strong rational and

ph i l o s o p h i c a l b a sis has infused its influence into the

wh o l e life of the Malays and their artistic expression

(S.Husin, 1981:12). Syed M. Naguib Al-Attas co n c l u d e s

* »t
that I s lam set in m o t i o n the pr o c e s s of revolutionizing

the Malay outlook, "turning it away fro m a crumbling

world of m y t h o l o g y . .. to the world of intelligence,

r e ason a nd o r d e r . .. the most momentous event in the

history of the Archipelago" (Al-Attas, 1969:2). In

r«
addition, the advent of Islam gave the Malays a

st r o n g e r bond of communal identity. "Islam is not only

the faith of the Malays; it serves also as one of the

core foundations u p o n w h i c h their s e l f - i d e n t i t y is based"

(Hussin, 1990:1). In d a i l y life, Is l a m i c teachings and

values became an important source of guidance. Islamic

inf l u e n c e on the Malay culture went beyond language,

theatre, dance, music or ar c h i t e c t u r a l s t yles or e v e n

 8

so c i o - p o l i t i c a l and e c o n o m i c conce r n s (Salem (ed.)/ 1982:

140-142). I s lam helped s y m b olise the unity of the state

and the s t ate w as legitimized in the name of Islam. As

S. Hussein (S. Hussex’n Ahmad, 1988:74) claims for the

history of Malaya and Malaysia, "Islam wa s never wholly

s e p a r a t e d f r o m the affairs of g o v e r nance."

The M u s l i m S o c i e t y B e f o r e I n d e p endence

Late colonialism brought great changes to the

Muslim society in Malaysia. Today, except for introducing

a few new words in the M a l a y vocabulary, the Portuguese,

inspite of t h eir p r e s e n c e of m ore tha n one h u n d r e d years,

by and large, never h ad any influence on the Muslim

society and culture. This is the case, even in M a l a c c a

where there still exists a small P o r t u g e s e community.

The Dutch l i k ewise d id not leave behind any traces

(S.Husin, 1981:12). It was the British, who since the

#
late nineteenth century had the m ost profound i n f l uence

particularly for the s u b s equent development and shaping

the course of I s lam in the M u s l i m society.

To regul a t e i n d i genous life the B r i t i s h cr e a t e d a

modern governmental administration a nd instituted other

reforms. Initially, the B r i t i s h stabilised the p o s i t i o n

 9

of the Malay Muslim rulers, retaining their

responsibility o ver re l i g i o n (Roff, 1967:11). However,

the M a l a y M u s l i m rulers became "only s y m bols of Malay

political s o v e r e i g n t y but w i t h o u t any a u t h o r i t y to make

their own decisions or to have them carried out" (S.

Husin, 1981:27). The a d vice and consultation of the

if

B r i t i s h o f f i c i a l s h ad to be sought and a c t e d u p o n in all

matters which also gradually i n c luded I s lSm a nd Malay

cu l t u r e (Hussin, 1990:15-17).
*
Mustafa says that the British policy and

administration, caused Muslim unre s t l e a ding to several

uprisings and incidents. These w e r e led m a i n l y by the

'UlamaT , w ho saw colonialism as a threat to Islam

(Azzam, (ed.), 1993:111), and the Muslim nobility and

the feudal chiefs who found that the sovereignty of

t h eir states and t h eir privileged position were

undermined by fore i g n e r s of d i f ferent race, c u l ture and

rel i g i o n (S. Husin, 1981: 14-15). Th e To’ Janggut

uprising in Kelantan in 1915 (Roff, 1974:62) and the

rebellion in Trengganu in 1928 are examples of this

resistance. The concept of the holy war 'jihad' further

stimulated opposition towards the British (Andaya

and Andaya, 1982:202). The B r i t i s h f i n a l l y succeeded in

 10

establishing t h eir rule after s u p p r e s s i n g and punishing

those w h o resisted, and rew a r d i n g the collaborators.

The most sign i f i c a n t development during the

British period was the i m m i gration of the Chinese f rom

South China and the Indians from India, mainly to the

West Coast of the peninsula. The in c r e a s e in British

owned mining and p l a n t a t i o n act i v i t i e s led to a w i d e - o p e n

immigration policy which particularly attracted Chinese

and Indians, to work as contract lab o u r e r s and a small

minority of A r abs and Pakistanis (S.HusTn, 1981:14). The

*
influx was to such an extent that in the twentieth

century, immigrants exceeded the Muslims in number

producing the plural feature of the Malaysian society.

The M u s l i m s became a minority in t h e i r own land (Hussin,

1990:29) (8) and came to see the immigrants as a threat

to t h e i r f u ture survival.

Prior to World War II, radical political

m o v e m e n t s ,inspired the M u s l i m s to fight for independence.

These w e r e led i n i t i a l l y by religious teachers or Islamic

reformists who st u d i e d under Muslims modernists in the

Middle East. Religious teachers s uch as Sheikh Tahir

Jalaluddin and Syed SheTkh Alhady- w h o had st u d i e d under

Jamaluddin al-Afghani and M u h a m m a d A b d u h in the Middle

 11

East, (Roff, 1967:60) conveyed the message of change

and nationalism to the Muslim. They used lectures,

newspapers articles, magazines and b o oks (S.Husin,

*

1981:15-16).

The outbreak of the Pacific War and the short but

h a r s h o c c u p a t i o n by the Japan e s e h e i g h t e n e d the spirit of

Malay nationalism (Roff, 1967:247). The British post-war

move to put the M a l a y States d i r e c t l y u n d e r B r i t i s h rule

t h r o u g h the Malayan Union led to the f o r m a t i o n of U n i t e d

Malays N a t ional Organisation 'U M N O 1(P e r t u b u h a n Kebangsaan

Melayu Bersatu). This was a pol i t i c a l party led by

secularist-ethnic nationalist oriented leaders, a i med to

unite the M a l a y s and to o p p o s e the M a l a y a n Union.

T he Merdeka mission delegation to the United

Kingdom, consisted of representatives of the nin e Rulers

and the Alliance Party ’Parti Perikatan' (a c o a lition

of UMNO, Malayan Chinese Association 'MCA' and Malayan

Indian Congress ’MIC'), and was headed by UMNO. Through

peaceful negotiation it succeeded in obtaining

independence from the British in 1957 (Mahathir, 1989:

155-160). I n s tead of reinstating t he mona r c h i c a l

system of government a democratic system of gove r n m e n t

w h i c h put little e m p h a s i s on Islamic p r i n c i p l e s was set

 12

up. Islam was made the re l i g i o n of the F e d e r a t i o n but

within a s e cular state (HussTn, 1990:35).

The M u s l i m S o c i e t y A f t e r I n d e pendence

In the late 1980's, i n c r eased urbanization and

mobility s h owed the Muslim s o c iety to be no longer

uniform as a whole. Urbanization i n c r eased the Muslim

presence in cities and towns. However, the M u s l i m s in the

urban and rural areas f o llow different ways of Islamic

life.

Economically however, Muslims still felt left

b e h i n d by the non-Muslims. T h e y felt that t h e y h a d become

economically dispossessed in their ow n land and some

perceived that the Chinese w ere beginning to pose a

challenge to Malay political primacy (Conber Leon,

1983:19) .

Following, the trag i c vi o l e n c e and disturbances of

May 1969, the g o v e r n m e n t of M a l a y s i a introduced the1* N ew

Economic policy with the aims to "give effect to the

co n s t i t u t i o n a l special rights and privileges of the

Ma l a y s through a t w o - p r o n g e d approach: the e r a d i c a t i o n of

poverty especially amongst the rural peasantry; and the

re s t r u c t u r i n g of co r p o r a t e assets ownership and

emp l o y m e n t str u c t u r e in the country" (Ozay, 1990:154).

 13

There was hope that the racial barriers and

animosity between the Muslims and other races in these

m u l t i -racial comm u n i t i e s c o u l d be broken down through

intermarriage. However, Leon (Leon, 1 9 8 3 :xv) claims that

the social and religious structure of the Muslims

community made it impossible for any other religious or

ethnic group to be i n t e g r a t e d with them. The e xceptions

to this were the Arabs and the Indian Muslims.

Intermarriage b e t ween Muslims and non-Muslims is

extremely rare, as the non-Muslim's partner would be

re q uired to e m b race Islam. However, Muslim males are

p e r m i t t e d to m a r r y n o n - M u s l i m women "of the book" without

r e q u iring their conversion.

A Muslim holds to his or her faith very firmly

and to change re l i g i o n he o r she will face s a n c t i o n and

condemnation fro m family a nd community. The Malaysian

Constitution, 11 [4] forbids others to induce a M u s l i m to

leave Islam, for the c o n s e q u e n c e s are serious. A Muslim

man or woman who relinquishes Islam w ill automatically

loose his or her ’M a l a y n e s s ’ and all the privileges

a t t a c h e d will be withdrawn.

A M u s l i m w h o changes h is re l i g i o n is an ap o s t a t e
 14

(murtad) who has committed the greatest sin in Islam

and according to Islamic jurisdiction (not applied in

M alaysia) this c a r r i e s the d e a t h penalty (Abdr Rahman,

a

1984:265,267). Socially, an apostate's ma r r i a g e

automatically becomes null and void (Abdr Rahman, 1984:

133) a nd he has no legal rights over wealth, inheritance,

titles descended from his M u s l i m family, as guardian to

his Muslim children, to receive Islamic tithe 'z a k a t ' or

to be b u r i e d in a M u s l i m c e m e t e r y (Abdr Rahman, 1984:140,

265,289,288). E v e n after his death, an apostate's

estate, which he gained during the time he was a M u slim

will be inherited by his M u s l i m relatives, while the

property w h ich he gained after he changed his religion

will go to public treasury (Abdr Rahman, 1984:291). Thus,

a n o n - M u s l i m p a r t n e r has to c o n vert in o r d e r to m a r r y and

to possess equal rights and duti e s in the Muslim

c o m m u n i t y to w h i c h he or she will be a d m i t t e d (Mohd. Nor,

9

1985:21 ) .

In' an a t t empt to improve the living c o n d itions

(education, health, nutrition, publ i c utilities) among

the poor Muslims in the rural areas, to balance the

economic ine q u a l i t y and to increase Muslim participation

in the u r b a n e c o n o m y under t h e N e w E c o n o m i c policy,

 15

subsidies and special purpose financial institution

pr o g r a m m e s were used by the Malaysian government

(Ozay, 1990:154). However, th e government plans, faced

several o b s tacles in ach i e v i n g maximum effect. Some

of the reasons are said to b e due to t h e feature of the

M a l a y s i a n economy w h i c h seen, as a whole, is in the hands

of the non-indigenous groups, particularly the Chinese

(Leon, 1983:56-7; E.Frankel and others, 1989:9). Stro n g

racialism existed between the indigenous and the non-

indigenous comm u n i t i e s e s p e c i a l l y in p o l i t i c s and e c o n o m y

(S.Husin, 1981:82-91). The Muslim technocrats and

eco n o m i s t s lacked exp e r i e n c e a n d e x p e r t i s e to e n a b l e them

to c o m p e t e in the o p e n economic system.

The disunity among the Muslims because of

di f f e r e n t political ideologies, (Chandra, 1987:82)

fanaticism about their ethnic groups and

r e g i o n a l i t i e s ( 9), lack of confidence, mistrust,

disloyalty and dishonesty of their leaders which a re so

vi v idly potrayed by the novelist Shahnon A h m a d (10),

further hindered the s u c cess of the government's

programmes. So did the fact t hat the Malays failed to

compete with the other races who were trained in and

had m ore e x p e r i e n c e from the p a s t B r i tish e c o n o m i c s y s t e m

 16

(Leon, 1983:19). Thus, the m a j ority of the Muslim

peasants continued ea r n i n g incomes which kept them at

or near subsistence level. Extra income usually came

fromtheir c h i l d r e n w o r k i n g in town.

The financial institution programme in the form

of Bumiputra trust agencies has been successful in

creating a new middle class Muslim. Unfortunately

however, it created a new and still widening inequality

within the Muslim community 'which thr e a t e n s the unity

among Muslims further. The growing intra-Muslim

inequality according to Ozay (Ozay, 1990:157) is the

major cause for the rise of Islamic fundamentalism

in Malaysia.

Education

During the period of British colonial rule,

E n g l i s h - m e d i u m s c h o o l s were set up by the B r i t i s h in the

urban areas. Besides the immigrant children, c h i l d r e n of

the Muslim u p per class and aristocracy wer e educated

and trained to become g o v e rnment se r v a n t s (S.Husin,

1981:64). Education in Malay was developed only up to

the stage of primary school. English was th e language of

the B r i t i s h colonial government and the p r i v i l e g e d c l a s s

 17

and it was als o the official l a n guage used in

administration, legislative and judicature (Kua,

1985:266).

.T h e number of Muslims in English schools

e s p e c i a l l y at u p per s e c o n d a r y level or at universities

abroad was ver y small. The Muslims viewed modern

education and s c h o o l i n g p r o v i d e d by the B r i t i s h c o l onial

government wit h suspicion. They perceived the education

and knowledge brought by the British as 'secular' or

'Western' and felt such education might undermine t h eir

faith in Islam (Roff, 1967:71,126-127). Their suspicion

was deepened by the fact that many of these s c h ools

were set u p and m a n a g e d by va r i o u s Christian missionary

bodies. Many Muslims believed that to learn in an E n g l i s h

school was to b e come a Christian (HussTn, 1990:16).

c

P r ior to the i ndependence of Malaya in 1957,

particularly in the early twentieth century the m a j o r i t y

of the rural Muslim parents sent their chi l d r e n to

'pondok' school or reformist 'madrasah' to learn the

Al-Kur'an and acquire religious knowledge (Roff,

1967:76). Even today, in the u r ban areas it is the

parents who migrated from the rural areas that continue

to send t h e i r c h i l d r e n to the Islamic religious schools.

Opposition to so-called 'secular' education still

exists and the debate c o n t inues on t he m e rits and

demerits of education other than the 'religious' one.

 18

However, Muslims are conscious that as part of a plural

society, they nee d both Is l a m i c and secular education

to lessen the gap with other communities. The Mu s l i m s

know that in the A l - K u r ' a n b e s i d e s matters p e r t a i n i n g to

the worship of Allah, performance of prayers, the fast

and the pilgrimage, there are verses relating to

politics, economics, science and technology, war crime,

marriage, morality, education, art and literature

(Mahathir, 1989: 18-21).

The rapid development in e d u c ation since the

1 9 6 0 's, d e s igned to maximize the educational

opportunities, opened the way for upward social mobility

and heightened the Muslims' political awareness. Free

education at primary and secondary level, a free text

book borrowing programme for the less for t u n a t e and

s c h o larships to atte n d special residential hig h schools

for the brightest students helped to reduce financial

obstacles to education.

Malay became the official language a nd medium of

instruction in majority of the schools in the country

(Kua, 1985:269). However, the dominant education system

co n t inued structurally unchanged from the colonial

pattern. T h e secular s t r e a m r e m a i n e d dominant at the t op

 19

of the h i e r a r c h y w i t h official rel i g i o u s s c h ools ex i s t i n g

alongside it. In a d d i t i o n there are t he privately-run

and lapidated 'p o n d o k '. In comparison to the secular

schools the rel i g i o u s schools are still greatly inferior

in n u m b e r s or in social status (Hussin, 1990: 471).

Social issues

The rise in educ a t i o n a l attainment is r e f l e c t e d in

the inc r e a s e in the M u s l i m s m i g r a t i o n fro m rural areas to

seek urban employment or to pursue higher education.

Furthermore, since 1975, many Muslims m i g r a t e d to u r b a n

areas to fill the w o r k i n g quotas reserved for them in

the private sectors. T h ese quotas were established in

line with the g o v e r n m e n t ’s policy of promoting

development through urban-based industrialization and

balancing the participation of the Bumiputra in the

p r i v a t e sector.

Very few Muslims work on their parents' land

after completing their schooling. Exposure to

’g l a m o u r o u s ’ urban surroundings, the lack of modern

f a c i lities and entertainment and the unattractive

traditional w ork in rural areas, better job

opportunities in town, in t e r m a r r i a g e b e t w e e n couples from

 20

different residential areas, states or even e t hnic

groups and races, account for the Muslim younger

g e n e r a t i o n ' s d e c i s i o n to live in u r b a n ce n t r e s away from

their parents. As a result, the Muslim society in the

rural areas today faces a critical labour shortage

problem, both sk i l l e d and unskilled. In fact, the

migration resulted in the decrease of the traditional

Muslim population in the vi l l a g e s when many of the o ld

generation died. However, a Muslim's link with his

village is still strong. Yearly visits are usual during

the festival days, the fruit seasons, on wedding,

funerals, farewell or welcome home celebration for

members of the fami l y w ho perform the 'Hadjdj' or

pilgrimage to Mecca. The 'Hadjdj' is the fifth foundation

on w h i c h I s fam stands and the a im of every Muslim in

his l i f e - t i m e (Mohd Nor, 1985:24).

Nevertheless, not all Muslims who migrated to

urban areas possess adequate qualifications that will

en a b l e them to secure good jobs with high salaries. The

large number of poo r Muslims that moved to the urban

areas to tr y their luck sometimes f o und t h e m selves

unemployed or working as blue-collar workers whose

incomes w e r e not e n o u g h to e n able t h e m to rent or b u i l d a

 21

d e c e n t p l a c e to live in.

As a result many Muslims live in s l u m areas which

are found in abundance on the fringes of large towns,

joining the u r b a n poor. The u r b a n - b a s e d industrialization

seem e d to transfer rural poverty into urban poverty

(Ozay, 1990:44). The frustrated unemployed Muslim youth

in urban areas often gan g up and indulge in drugs and

crime. At present most of the drug ab u s e r s are

Musli m s ( l l ) . This situation is mos t alarming with the

recent i n c rease of HIV (Human I m m u n o - d e f i c i e n c y Virus)

and A I D S (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) cases

which are c o n n e c t e d w i t h drugs abuse. As for y o u n g M u s l i m

women and girls who left their villages to work in the

fa c t ories in the urban areas, life without any

protectors, either t h e ir parents or c l ose relatives,

exposes t h e m to false f r e e d o m and u n d e s i r a b l e i n f l uences

which can lead the m to all sorts of misfortunes (S.

Husin, 1981:67-68).

The infras t r u c t u a l support provided by the

c l oser contact with government to the rural areas

particularly in the c o m m u n i c a t i o n system, which b r ought

the M u s l i m s into u r b a n centres within and ou t s i d e the

c o u n t r y r e s u l t e d in s t r i k i n g changes in t h e i r attitudes,
 22

b e lief and life style. Most a p p arent are the c o n f l i c t i n g

perceptions and a c t ions of the o ld and young generation.

Be s i d e s f a c i l i t a t i n g movement, the i m p r o v e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n

system allows the flow of n ew ideas, and knowledge

t h r o u g h m e d i a consumption.

S i nce the introduction of electric power to rural

homes, every household owns either a television set or a

radio or both. F ew read daily newspapers, e x cept t h ose

w ho received s e c o n d a r y education. T h ese electronic media

have become an imp o r t a n t source of entertainment and

information about current events w i t h i n and o u t s i d e the

country. However, they are also responsible for the

s p r e a d of the ’new' or 'up-to-date' c u l t u r e of the West

a m ong the younger generation. This influences them to

drift a w a y f r o m the old tradition, c u l tural and religious

values and n o rms of the p e a sant society (Von D er Mehden,

1987:180) .

At present, the Muslims in urban areas read

various kind of re a d i n g materials suc h as newspapers,

magazines and s t ory books every day. Generally, Muslims

in town hav e better knowledge on c u r r e n t issues. Most

u r b a n Muslims, m e n as well as women have g one through

h i g h e r education. In general the women in tow n work,

 23

t h eir type of e m p l o y m e n t d e p e n d i n g on t h e i r q u a l i f i c a t i o n

and experience. Those with higher qualification can

co m p e t e w i t h m e n for h i gher positions in administration

and business. T h ere are no women liberation movements in

Muslim society for a woman is assumed and considered a

c o m p a n i o n of man. But there are v o i c e s of protest from

the urban Muslim women a s king for equal rights through

non-governmental organizations and professional bodies

(Ng and Yong, 1990:7-11). Islam envisages women's roles

in society not as competing but as complementary to man.

Eac h has certain d u ties and functions in accordance with

his or her nature and constitution. Thus, the question

of e q u a l i t y of m e n and w o m e n is considered meaningless

(Hammudah, 1975:184).

However, the M u s l i m s hold different opinions on

the issues relating to working women and the freedom of

women. Many emphasise that the primary duty of Muslim

women is the ' r esponsibility of m otherhood' and they

see the w o r k i n g w o m e n in the m o d e r n setting as a form of

interference in motherhood. L e a ving c h i l d r e n in the care

of parents, parents-in-law or p a i d m a i d s w h i l e working,

is v i e w e d as d e p r i v i n g the children of the 'natural

m a t e r n i t y and the s t able socialization' that is vital for

 24

growing children. Most of the revivalist groups claim

that the entry of M u s l i m w o m e n into the labour force too

has b een associated with declining morality and sexual

promiscuity (Hussein, 1988:479), an in c r e a s e in cases of

child abuse, violence against women, s uch as domestic

violence, rape and sexual harassment.

Difficulty in finding reliable, trustworthy maids

for t h eir children and their demand for a higher monthly

p a y ment plus the w o m e n ’s d e sire to work outside home,

forc e d w o r k i n g women in town to resort to birth control.

Family planning is an issue w h i c h is still subjected to

controversy a m ong the Muslims. The late MuftT* of Johore

in a series of answers on family planning in his fatwa

took an i n t e r m e d i a t e p o s i t i o n but ruled 'avoiding giving

birth’ as f o r b i d d e n ’haram'
• (S. Hussein,
* 1988:486).

On the same issue the Mufti of Trengganu

proclaimed that "The for m a t i o n of b o d i e s and a s s o c i a t i o n s

for the purpose of family planning is an act demanded of

Muslims by the religious law of Islam" (M. A. Mannan,

1970:144). The dif f e r e n t fatwa" on prominent issues and

interpretation of Islamic tea c h i n g s g i v e n by religious

experts is a d i l e m m a faced by the M u s l i m s a nd is one of

the factors said to hamper unity among them. Since

 25

rel i g i o u s e x p e r t s d i s a g r e e among themselves, Muslims who

hav e not specialized in religion have to make a choice

ba s e d on meagre knowledge. When confronted with a

situation where reality, logic and faith are in conflict

the Muslims often become confused, bewildered and tend

to make contradicting and conflicting c h o ices or

decisions that are dangerous to the individual and the

society. Similarly, when Muslim leaders do not share a

common interpretation on Islamic teachings t h eir Muslim

s u p p o r t e r s w h o are not w e l l - v e r s e d in r e l i g i o n w o u l d hav e

to choose between interpretation and between leaders

(Mahathir, 1989:105).
*

Pol itics

From the Malaysian government p o int of view

the Muslims should be united under one pol i t i c a l

party (Deliar Noer, 1988:200). However, Islam and not

party po l i t i c a l i d e o logies such as nationalism, e m e rges

as the strongest source of identification for the

Muslims. It is Islam that clearly sets them apart from

o t her e t h n i c g r oups (Ozay, 1990:22)(12). U M N O c o uld not

get all M u s l i m s to support it. The M u s l i m s w e r e d r awn to

v a r i o u s parties, mos t s i g n i f i c a n t l y P a n M a l a y s i a n Islamic

 26

Party 'PAS or P M I P ’, a b r eak away f rom the religious

group in UMNO. Until today, the Muslims remain divided

by t h ese two major political organisations, UMNO and PAS

(Deliar No€Tr, 1988:200). Of the two, UMNO has striven to

reta i n its p a r a m o u n t p o s i t i o n t h r o u g h a long acrimonious

political struggle. UMNO is p r e s e n t l y the ruling party in

the coalition ru n n i n g the Federal Government. PAS is the

opposition party in which Islamic teaching forms the

basis of its p o l itical philosophy. PAS captured the

heart of the rural M u s l i m s wh o for m the b a c k b o n e of the

party. However t h e y also receive great su p p o r t fro m the

urban Muslims as a result of the Is l a m i c resurgence. Th e

key difference between the two is PAS distinguished

itself as 'M a l a y - I s l a m i c nationalism' as opposed to

UMNO's 'M a l a y - s e c u l a r i s m ' (Funston, 1980:94). Currently

it is the government party of the s t ate of Kelantan but

it does not fare well in o t her states (Roff, 1974: 272).

A c c o r d i n g to M i l n e r (Milner, 1986:118), UMNO based

its policies on Ataturk's nationalist and sec u l a r i s t

policies of reform which have been branded by the

'K a u m Tua’ (traditionalists) as a betrayal of Islam.

However, m a n y w r i t e r s a r g u e that the 'ethnic' inclination

of the two p a r t i e s d id not diff e r much, both were equally

 27

'chauvinist' on m ost issues even t h o u g h PAS is k n o w n for

its avowed I s l amic 'raison d'etre'. T he PAS main

campaign c o n c e n t r a t e d on U M N O ' s betrayal of I s lam and the

Muslims (S. Hussein, 1988:100-101) and it accused its

members of b e i n g infidels. The 'kafTr mengkafiTr ' ( inf i d e l )

issue and the animosity between the followers of the two

pa r t i e s reached its peak in 1982 when in the four

northern states of the peninsula many groups of PAS

fol l o w e r s had se p a r a t e mosques and graveyards (Gale,

1 9 8 7 : 8 , 2 0 ) ( 1 3 ) . The cooperation between UMNO and PAS

which w as attained in 1969 due to the May thirteen

incident succeeded in uniting the Muslims but it lasted

for o n l y two y e ars (AmaluddFn, 1979:176).

The I s lamic resurgence of 1970, s aw the role of

young revivalists from Muslim organizations and groups

as well as the 'Da'weT' movement pressurizing the

government to emba r k on 'I s l a m i z a t i o n ' p o l i c i e s leading

to an 'Islamic State' (Husslh, 1990:161). This led to

the emergence of two significant pressure groups in the

Muslim society, t h o s e w ho support and share the goals of

PAS and a n o t h e r who w a n t e d to r e tain the pol i t i c a l power

un d e r the pr e s e n t government which rules t he country as

a s e c u l a r state and w h i c h e m p h a s i z e s d e v e l o p m e n t and the

 28

redistribution of wealth. One can assume that the

n u m b e r of UMNO supporters will remain s t a b l e or will

increase as long as the present government is able to

pr o v i d e modern living facilities a nd to fulfil the b a sic

ne eds of the Muslims in the country particularly in the

rural areas.

In o t her words, as long as the p r o b l e m of poverty

persists a m ong the Muslims and the n e eds to improve the

economic conditions of Muslims continue the inf l u e n c e of

the ruling party a m ong the Muslims is assured. The

government mas s media consistently help to highlight the

government development pr o j e c t s and its p o l icies

regarding the Muslims improved life and better living

prospects in the future and this has l i ttle c h a n g e d since

1979 ( H . M . D a h l a h and W a n Hashim, 1979:36). In fact, today

it is c l ear that the gove r n m e n t has successfully promoted

a better e c o n o m y for the M u s l i m s in this c o u n t r y and has

given especially those who are UMN O members great

o p p o r t u n i t y in b u s i n e s s .

V a r i o u s a c t ions have bee n t a ken by the g o v e r n m e n t

to o v e r c o m e the p o l i tical instability of the Muslim

c o m m u n i t y (14). Ironically, bot h M u s l i m p a r t i e s use the

mosque and 's u r a u ' as their battle ground(15). 'Imam'

 29

w i t h rival p o l i tical affiliations lead separate prayer

session (Hua, 1983:177). To avoid all mosque and surau

officials eith e r governments' or non governments1

officials (r a k y a t ) suc h as ' I m a m 1, 'Bilal', 'Khatib',

and 'Noja' from t a k i n g sides, they are n o w appointed by

Department of Civil Se r v i c e or the Islamic Rel i g i o u s

Department and their acti v i t i e s and t e rms of references

must be in line w i t h the regulations a nd rules provided.

These mosque officials were traditionally recognized as

i nfluential local Muslim leaders and attained their

position by reas o n of their p i ety a nd comparative degree

of le a r n i n g and for their voluntary ser v i c e s to the

society in religious occasions and c e r e m o n i e s (Mohd Taib,

1984:168). However they found that t h eir res p e c t e d

positions w ere undermined when t h eir duti e s were

controlled by the committees of the mosque and 'surau'

who are mostly appointed by the I s l amic Rel i g i o u s

C o u n c i l (16). At the Federal level an I s l amic Centre has

been established by g o v e r n m e n t to s t a n d a r d i z e the Islamic

a f f airs t h r o u g h o u t M a l a y s i a and to e n s u r e the u n i f o r m i t y

of the administration of r e l igious af f a i r s t h r o u g h the

Religious Departments in e v e r y state. These instit u i t i o n s

are responsible to the Islamic R e l i g i o u s Councils, the

 30

policy maker at the Federal and the state level. At

both levels, a Fatwa* C o m m i t t e e is also e s t a b l i s h e d either

to standardize fatwas (Federal) or to issue fatwas

(states) respectively. In every state there are S y a r T 'a

Courts set up to hear any prosecution made by M u s lims

under the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of Islamic R e l i g i o u s Enactments.

To upgrade the position of Syari'a Court and the status

of their judges in Malaysia a special committee was

formed at Federal level. However, as s e cond class courts,

the p o w e r of the S y a r F 1a Courts and t h eir provisions, the

amount of fines and severity of sentences passed u n der

t h ese enactments are extremely limited, when compared to

the Civil courts and the M a l a y s i a n laws in general. In

fact, the H i g h Court has the right to amend, o v e r r u l e and

ignore any d e c i s i o n s mad e by the S y a r T ' a C o urt w h e n it is

a p p e a l e d to by any p a r t y d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h the d e c i s i o n s

of the Syari'"a Courts (17).

Formerly, the Malay Muslims who are the followers

of the Shaf i 'T School of Law were rel u c t a n t to pray in

the mosques built by the Indian or Pakistani Muslims of

the o t her ’madhhab' such as the H a n i f i y y a or e v e n to be

led when praying, by the ' I m a m 1 of the latter. This

practice is c l e a r l y against the t e a c h i n g s of Islam w h i c h

 31

calls u p o n all M u s l i m s to be united irrespective of

class, race and 'm a d h h a b '(Abdul Hamid, 1957:114). Today,

as 1d a 'w a 1 has g r own st r o n g e r in the wider Muslim

community a nd 'Tabligh' (an Indian Muslim's 'da'wa'

m o v e ment) has w o n considerable appeal and respect among

the M a l a y M u s l i m s (Nagata, 1984:192) their attitudes have

changed.

In fact, some u r b a n M a l a y M u s l i m s have joined the

'Tabligh1 group and attend the Friday prayer in the

I n dian or P a k i stani Muslims' mosques even though the

s e r mons are g i ven in Urdu or Tamil only. However, the

fanatical attitude of some Indian an d PakistanT Muslims

to w a r d s their 1m a d h h a b ' in their mosques' management is

against the administration of I s l amic affairs in every

state and h i n d e r s M u s l i m unity.

T he Constitution of Malaysia 3 [1], states that

Islam is the official re l i g i o n of the Federation. A ruler

in e v e r y state (Sultan) is the p r o t e c t o r of I s lam wh e r e a s

the states of Penang, Malacca, W i l a y a h Persekutuan, S a bah

and Sarawak, not h a v i n g a ruler, come u n d e r the King, the

Yang diPertuan Agong (Sheridan, 1979:485)(18).

Prior to colonial rule, a Malay Sultan held

 32

absolute power and his subjects gave him absol u t e

loyalty. However, a ruler is responsible to Allah and

subject to the principles of Islam. Ahmad I b r a h i m says,

"The Sult
*
anate w as the result of the assimilation of the

spiritual and religious tradition originally associated

with the institution of the Caliphate with the purely

temporal a u t h o r i t y that was the Sultan; the latter thus

*
in addition to being a sovereign prince in the s e cular

sense also came to m a i n t a i n a close association with and

responsible for the S h a r p ah" (Mohamed Suffian, H.P.Lee

and F.A.Trindade (eds.), 1978:47)(19). In Islam the

i n s t a l l a t i o n of the S u l t a n is 1fard k i f a y a h ' . T he Prophet

*
said, "Respect the Sultan and honour him, because he is

the honour of Allah and the shadow of Him upon the

e a r t h if he is a just Sultan" (Mohd Nor, 1985:33).

Thus, the M u s l i m s are still strongly bound by the

ties of sen t i m e n t and tradition and by religious feeling

to the ruling dynasties of the states. Besides b e ing the

h e ads of the rel i g i o n in e a c h state, the S u l t a n s are also

the protectors of Malay custom which is so dearly

c h e r i s h e d in the m a n n e r s and life of the Muslims. In

fact, [jr. M a h a t h i r who is rather critical towards the

Sultans' position in the M u s l i m s o c i e t y has s t a t e d that

 33

the Muslims' a t t i t u d e until the e nd of the S e c o n d W o r l d

War, b e i n g p a r o chial had not seen the s h o r t c o m i n g of the

system (MahathTr, 1989:195).

Even though t h ere is no similar provision to be

f o und in the Federal Constitution, the State

Constitutions provide that the Ruler of the State may

act in his d i s c r e t i o n in the p e r f o r m a n c e of any functions

as H e a d of the re l i g i o n of Islam. Ahmad Ibrahim and

F.A.Trindade say that the Yang diPertuan Agong may only

act on advice in p e r f o r m i n g his fu n c t i o n s as Head of the

religion of Islam in the states concerned. According to

Y.A.M. Raja Azlan S hah there is no s i g n i f i c a n t difference

between the role of a King (Yang diPertuan Agong) and

o t h e r R u l e r s of the States.

The R u l e r s have a great deal of i n f l u e n c e on the

appointment of r e l i gious o f f i c i a l s including the 'Mufti'.

The y can give special sa n c t i o n before a fatwa*, according

to the tenets of o t her schools, can be issued by a

'Mufti' (Mohamed Suffian, H.P.Lee and F.A.Trindade

( e d s . ), 1978:59)(20).

In practice, the p o wer of the rulers in Islamic

r e l igious matters is limited since they are not an

a b s o l u t e but a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m o n a r c h y (Raja A z l a n Shah,

 34

1986:77 and 86)(21). U n d e r the Constitution (Amendment)

Act 1993, t he Yan g diPertuan Agong shall cease to

exercise the functions of the Yang diPertuan Agong if

c h a r g e d w i t h an offence. A Special Court, with the Lord

Pr e s i d e n t of the S u p reme Court as chairman, has exclusive

ju r i s diction to try the Y ang d i P e r t u a n A g o n g or the Ruler

of a State. A Ruler of a State c o n v i c t e d of an offence in

the Special Court and sen t e n c e d to imprisonment for m ore

than one day, unless he receives a free pardon from the

Pardons Board, shall c e ase to be t h e Ruler of the State

( C o n s titution (Amendment) Act 1993,_Harding, 1993:18).

Y.A.M. Raja Azlan Shah say s that the Me r d e k a

Constitution became a masterpiece of compromise. The

Rulers agreed to i n d e p endence a n d to hand over their

p o wers to the people in return f or their positions and

p r i v ileges (Y.A.M Raja A z l a n Shah, 1986:78). E ven though

they (Yang diPertuan Agong and t h e Sultans) have their

positions and p r i v ileges and m a y act on their discretion

in the performance of certain functions such as the

appo i n t m e n t of a Malaysian Prime Minister or in other

s t ates a 'Menteri B e s a r ', there are written Constitution

in which consequentially the rulers are not completely

free (Y.A.M R a j a A z lan Shah, 1986: 80). Thus to the

 35

Muslims, the rulers seemed sometimes to comply w ith

all the decisions and rules made by the present

government -

The r u lers cannot u s e their discretionary power

eve n in Islamic religious matters before the approval of

the ' P a r l i a m e n t 1 or 'Legislative Assembly'. As a result

t h e r e might be a serious consti t u t i o n a l crisis if there

wer e a dispute between the r u l e r s (22) and the ruling

party (Y.A.M R a j a Azlan Shah, 1986:87)(23). When there is

a crisis between Rulers and ruling party the political

power of the Muslims will decline. However, Dr. Mahathir

claims that t he latest amendment to the Malaysian

Constitution inv o l v i n g the immunity of the rulers does

not affect t h e i r powers on religious matte r s ( 2 4 ) .

To s t r e n g t h e n a political p a r t y in a democratic

system, the number of members and supporters is

important. For the PAS, the membership is open to every

Muslim, either Malay or non-Malay. To counteract this,

UMNO open e d its membership to whoever are legally

considered 'Malay' and m i g h t define t h e t e r m 'Malay', to

be more tolerable( 25) than the 'Malay' in the

Constitution of Malaysia. UMNO's flexibility on the

term 'Malay' c a n be o b s e r v e d as Leon (1983:51) says, from

U M N O ' s stand t o w a r d s the formation of M a l a y s i a in 1963,

 36

" This Greater Federation Concept attracted

c o n s i d e r a b l e U M N O support d u r i n g the period f rom 1956

to 1960 as it appealed to Malay nationalists who

t h o ught of the ind i g e n o u s p e oples of B o r n e o as Malays."

PAS h i g h l i g h t e d e v e r y a m b i g u i t y of the government

policies an d programmes fro m an Is l a m i c p o int of view.

This was p a r t i c u l a r l y the case w h e n the rel i g i o u s m a t t e r s

approved by the Council of Fatwa were questionable or

disorderly managed. Concomitant to this, the government

promised that the Islamic v a lues would be absorbed into

the development programmes of the country (HussTh, 1990:

153). To PAS, the sincerity of the government to

i m p l ement I s l amic teachings in e v e r y a s pect of life w ere

do u b t f u l since they claimed that UMNO leaders wished to

confine I s lam to the spiritual aspect, rituals and

sy m b o l s o n l y (Del Noer, 1988:204).

The R e s u r g e n c e

The M u s l i m s of M a l a y s i a believe that u n i t y a m ong

Muslims can be achieved through the establishment of an

I slamic S t ate which implements an a b s o l u t e I s l amic law.

N evertheless, a country in w h i c h the s y s t e m of g o v e r n m e n t

is b a s e d on the principles of democracy, where every

 37

Malaysian citizen has the right to vote, the

establishment of an Islamic State faces strong o p p o s i t i o n

from the n o n - M u s i i m s (26).

D uri n g the resurgence, especially in the late

1980's some zealous Mu s l i m s joined n on political groups

or the 'da'wa g r o u p 1 and submitted them s e l v e s completely

to A l l a h as practised by the Sufis. The y also propagated

Islamic fundamentalism a m ong the Muslims. They were

driven to this by the hopelessness of establishing an

Islamic state and because of a c tion taken by the

government to d e t a i n the o pposition party l e a ders (Wang

Gungwu, 1964:364) (27), s ome of whom were PAS members,

under, the Internal S e c u r i t y Act.

The m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the t rue concept of Sufism

however, causes some of the M u s l i m s to alienate

themselves from the Malaysian political- system(28) and

turn to active participation in religious gathering

performing the 'wird' and the 'zikir' “e i t h e r in the

mosques or in their houses, in g r o u p s or individually.

They feel that political activities might lead a Muslim

to act against Islamic teachings. They also belief that

through p e r f o r m i n g p r a yers and remembering Allah they

 38

can become pious and good Muslims. The Muslims believe

Paradise, the idyllic world, is a t t a i n a b l e only by m e n

w ho are pious and virtuous in the p r esent life w h e reas

Hell is reserved for the wicked and the unbelievers

(Mohd Nor, 1985:14).

The c u r rent Islamic revival in M a l a y s i a w h i c h ha d

b een gathering momentum since the early 1 9 7 0 ’s was

symbolised by the emergence of a host of 'da'wa' groups.

There are at least two prominent non-political

o r ganizations, the 'TablTgh' and the al-Arqam( 29) . The

urban revivalists w h i c h refer to the v a r i o u s intellectual

and devotional activities and organizations which

collectively make up the new Islamic movement (Nagata,

1987:115) actively run the ' d a ’wa' activities throughout

the country. They call on Muslims to live a life of

c los e r communion with God, without withdrawing entirely

from the world and to order t h eir lives according to

special rel i g i o u s rules. Even though they do not

associate t h eir group with any o r d e r s of Suffsm, their

activities are s i m ilar to the life of the SufFs.

v

According to S y e d M N a g u i b Al-Attifs (Al-Attas, 1967:49)

"The individual m a y t ry to live an isolated life, form a

community, or cultivate privately a contemplative or

 39

acti v e r e l i g i o u s life, w i t h or w i t h o u t special vows of

co n s e c r a t i o n . " An e x a m p l e of such c o m m u n i t y is the al-

A r q a m group.

Based on the membership and the effectiveness of

their r e gular activities, al-Arqam claims that their

organization now should take the responsibility to

reformulate the M u s l i m society to I s lam and to cha l l e n g e

the government. The g o v e r n m e n t publicly announced that

al-Arqam is one of the s e v enty false d o c t r i n e movements

in M a l a y s i a ( 30). Today, there are many o t her IslSmic

groups which actively or g a n i z e 'da'wa' activities such

as A n g k a t a n B e l i a Islam Malaysia ( M a l aysian Muslim Youth

O r ganization), Pertubuhan Kebajikan I s lam Malaysia

(Muslim Welfare Organization), 'al-Hunafa7 (The New

Converts A s sociation), Je m a ^ a h Islah M a l a y s i a (Malaysian

«
Reform Or g a n i z a t i o n ) and Persatuan Ulama" Malaysia

(Malaysian M u s l i m Scholars Or g a n i s a t i o n ) .

Though the y lack proper res o u r c e s and finances

these grou p s have managed to c a rry the responsibilities

which in t h eir view should be carried officially by

various government b o dies such as 'Yayasan Dakwah

Islamiyah Malaysia' (Malaysian Foundation of Islamic

Missionary Activity), the Islamic A f f a i r s D i v i s i o n of

 40

the P r ime M i n i s t e r ’s Department and Islamic Re l i g i o u s

Departments particularly in the ' d a ’wa'’ activities.

Undoubtedly, without prejudice and political game-

playing, through close cooperation and an integrated

approach between t h ese groups and the government,

'da'waT’ activities can be organised more effectively.

Though these organizations are disunited, ABXM criticised

the g o v e r n m e n t w h e n recently, the suggestion was made

by certain states to b an the ’Tablighi1 group(31).

When PAS confronted the government on the ’H!*u d u d ’

issue(32), the party called these I s l amic movements to

w or k together in i m p l e m e n t i n g Islamic law in the state of

Kelantan.

Though these Islamic institutions succeeded in

conveying and im p a r t i n g information and knowledge on

Islam to the Muslim society, through modern and

traditional approachs, the instability in politics and

d i s u n i t y of the M u s l i m s o c i e t y a u t o m a t i c a l l y fail e d t h e m

in other social, education, economic and cultural

development.

T he a l - A r q a m and the ’T a b l i g h ’ g r o u p s believe that

the salvation for M u s l i m s lies in individual piety and

"If individuals were moral and upright, society would

 41

also become c l ean and wholesome", (Chandra, 1987:45). To

t h e m the g o v e r n m e n t s y s t e m of education has fail e d in

p r o d u c i n g g o o d Muslims. The y c l aim that the increasing

number of crimes, modern v i ces and immoral activities at

p r e s e n t c o m m i t t e d p a r t i c u l a r l y by the M u s l i m y o u t h are a

result of the se c u l a r system of education received,

(S. Hussein, 1988:465-478). ABIM a i m e d to tra n s m i t a

*

proper understanding of Islam and create Islamic

consciousness a m ong the young. Thus, al-Arqam and ABIM

set up s c h ools b a s e d on their own c u r r i c u l a w h i c h gav e a

lot of prominence to individual character training. Al-

Arqam' s t h e o l o g i c a l education is b a s e d almost entirely

on the Al-Kur'an, the S u nna and the w r i t i n g s of famous

Muslim scholars. S e c u l a r i s m to t h e m has resulted "in a

modern society i n f l icted by such disease as hedonism,

materialism,individualism,utilitarianism, p e r missiveness,

r e l a t i v i s t i c v a l u e s and anomie", (Chandra 1987:45,48).

Culture

Although some of the y o u n g g e n e r a t i o n are Muslims

in n ame only and fail to understand IslEim or perform

their re l i g i o u s d u ties regularly in their d a i l y lives,

(Haron and Sobri, 1988:46) they are v e r y s e n s i t i v e about

 42

their religion. The Muslims affirm themselves to Islam

as t h eir o n l y r e l i g i o n and they are w i l l i n g to strive to

uphold it. They reject being called unbelievers and

infidels by t h eir opponents and are intolerant of them.

This is reflected in every election campaign when

Muslims in the ruling p a r t y are a c c u s e d of b e i n g infidel

by o t h e r M u s l i m s in the opposing political party when

they espouse policies which are perceived as not

f o l l o w i n g the strict t e nets of IslSm. Such accusations

lead to quarrels a nd boycotts a m ong the villagers (Mohd

9

Nor, 1985:22).

Leon (1983:5) claims that through Islam, Muslims

in this country have a strong f e e ling of racial i d e ntity

since Islam is against those unbelievers. This attitude

is a g a inst I s lam since I s lam e n c o u r a g e s the M u s l i m s to be

just and kind and forbids Muslims to fight the

u n b e l i e v e r s u n l e s s t hey fight the M u s l i m s for t h eir faith

and drive them out from their homes (Hammudah, 1975:

p

137). Even though the i n f l uence of Isla"m on the Mu s l i m s

is v e r y deep-seated, the influence of t r a d i t i o n a l b e liefs

is still strong a m ong some of the Muslims. T r a d i tional

be l i e f s h a v e r e m a i n e d part and parcel of the M u s l i m life,

part of M u s l i m cultural h e r i t a g e (S.HussTn, 1981:46). S.

 43

Hussein (S. Hussein, 1988:72-73) says, "Islam that came

ft o

to the Malays was already syncretised with popular

m a g i c o - a n i m i s t elements, p a r t i c u l a r l y of the P e r s i a n and

Indian varie t y . . . " . A c c o r d i n g to M o h d Taib (Mohd Taib,

X * *

1980:8) "It is the Islamic belief and ethos that have

become the foundation of the culture of the Malays."

Islam brought new valu e s and ideals a nd int r o d u c e d

alternative structures of social organization (Ozay,

1990: 21-2).

To Professor Ismail al Faruql^ I s l ^nic cu l t u r e is

different from o t her cultures such as the c u l ture

of h e d o n i s m and asceticism. In fact, there is no culture

un l e s s it m a k e s a meta-cultural claim to truth, go o d n e s s

and beauty (Salem (ed.), 1982:140-142). Islam constituted

social righteousness and the vi r t u e s of character such as

truthfulness, t r u stworthiness, selflessness, cleanliness,

d i 1 i g e n c e ,i n d u s t r i o u s n e s s ,c o u r t e s y , compassion, chivalry,

graciousness, benevolence, generosity, altruism, loyalty,

obedience, gratitude, patience, pragmatism, simplicity,

moderation, and prohibited their opposites. In contrast,

Is l a m will penalize those who behave with negative

at t r i b u t e s such as laziness, fatalism, dirtiness,

crudity, "holier tha n tho u attitude and ulterior

 44

motive" (Al-Attas, 1972: 65-66). Furthermore, when Islam

s p r e a d to the M a l a y Archipelago, this r e l i g i o n h ad to

grapple with 'traditional' practices and conventions

a l r e a d y well entrenched in the Muslim culture, commonly

ref e r r e d to as ''adat' (Hussin, 1990:12).

In the p o l i tical system of the t r a d itional

Muslims, the i n f l uence of the ' '"adat' s p e c i f i c a l l y the

' 'Adat Pepateh' and the ' '"Sdat Temenggung' were

evident. However, the contact between Islam and the

prelslamic ''"adat' did not result in the complete

s u b j u g a t i o n of the former by the latter; t h e r e wer e areas

of compromise, accommodation and ambiguity. Though the

general trend can be said towards the strengthening of

Islam at the expense of original Malay ''adat', the fact

remains that Islam and the p r e - I s l a m i c l!adat' exist side

by side (S.Hussein, 1988:73-74).

»
Nevertheless, there wer e i n s t ances of Islamic law

b e i n g put a s i d e in favour of the traditional ' 'adat'

(S.Hussein, 1988:77) as seen in the customs, rules of

marriage and property inhe r i t a n c e of the ’ '*Adat Pepatih'

still practised by the Negeri Sembilan and c e r tain parts

of Malacca and Pahang Muslims (Othmah, 1979:75).(33)

The ' 'Adat Pepatih' gives, for instance, f e m ales total

 45

ownership on customary land and specifies re s i d e n c e as

matrilocal and decendents as matrilineal. T he ' 'Adat

T e m e n g g u n g ’, on the other han d is based on bilateral

kinship system with a slight em p h a s i s attributable to

Isl‘3mic influences. Males are g i ven a larg e r share of the

fa m i l y property and which specifies residence to be

patrilocal. T h ese practices definitely do not conform

w i t h the t e a c h i n g s of Islam (Abdul Maulud, 1976:173)(34).

The law of inheritance in I s l a m d e t e r m i n e s the

list of the heirs and ratio of share when distributing

the wealth of the deceased. In a large family the

inheritance is distributed amongst the kin of "father,

f a t h e r ’s fath e r and so on", half-brother by the mother,

the husband, the wife, daughter, son's d a u g h t e r h o w low

soever, full sister, consanguine sister, uterine sister,

mother and true g r a n d mother" (Abdur Rahman, 1984:296). In

general "to the male, a portion equal to that of two

females" (Al-Nis"a'a: 11). However, t h ere are cases where

the heirs of the deceased, particularly sons and

daughters, agree to d i v i d e the i n h e r i t a n c e e q u a l l y among

t h e m and a larger share is g i ven to the less f o r t u n a t e

h e i r that is disabled, physically or m e n t a l l y retarded,

an orphan, a widow or an u n m a r r i e d heir. This system of

 46

inheritance which is k n o w n in the Muslim society as

1 '"Adat Kampung' is allowed by I s lam since the

distribution is agreed by all the heirs (O t h m a n , 1989:

86) .
Even today ' 'Adat Kampung' seems m o r e reasonable,

since in p r a c t i s e w o r k i n g d a u g h t e r s and sons bear equal

obligations and responsibilities towards their parents

and siblings. However, the practice of equal

responsibility is b a s i c a l l y not in line with Islamic

teachings (Hamudah, 1975:188). In a Muslim society to

will inheritance particularly to an adopted child is

common since in Islam an ad o p t e d c h ild is unrecognised

(LeilsT and Aisha, 1985:130) and has no rights to inherit

property. An adopted ch i l d ' s position in Islam is not

equal to a t rue child for Islam p e r m i t s him to m a r r y his

adopted mother. However, to will more than one-third of

the amount of the i n h e r i t a n c e to an h e i r is p r o h i b i t e d in

Islam and u s u a l l y e nds in di s p u t e s and q u a r r e l s a m o n g the

heirs.

Ri t u a l s and ceremonial aspects, t h o u g h the M u s l i m s

re a l i s e that t h e y are a g a inst their f a ith and som e t i m e s

are wasteful, are carried out because they are part of

tradition. A s u b s tantial wedding feast an d the publ i c

 47

display of gifts exchanged between the b r ide and the

bridegroom's families are still an imp o r t a n t part of a

wedding ceremony but the Hindu-style sitting of the

bridal pair on an embellished dais 'bersanding'

diminishes over the y e ars as 'da'wa'1 becomes stronger.

F e asts that f o l l o w after special occasions such as g i v i n g

a n a m e to a n e w - b o r n baby, the first hair s h a v i n g and

the s l a u g h t e r i n g of a goat to express thankfulness to

Allah ''akikah', c i r c u m c i s i o n for the boys 'khatan' and

completion of the Al-Kur'ln recital 'khatam' encouraged

by Isram are becoming more prominent in the p r esent

Muslim society. However, worship of a host of local

spirits, ghosts, 'walT' and holy places 'k e r a m a t ' w h i c h

are popular during the t raditional period has declined

in the Muslim society. 'Bidan' (traditional Malay Muslim

midwife) ’p a w a n g ’ and 'bomoh' w ho are b e l i e v e d to posses

ma g i c a l knowledge and magical p o wers have been re p l a c e d

by modern medical staff suc h as midwives, nurses and

do c t o r s during the time of birth a nd sickness. The

'bidan', 'pawang' and 'bomoh's help is only sought as an

ad d i tional effo r t to help 'i k h t l a r ' (S.HussIn, 1981:42,

46) .

In e v e r y d a y life, M u s l i m s are well k n o w n for their

 48

customs and p r a c t i c e s involving f a m i l y life, neighbours,

betrothal and marriage. A child's process of l e a rning or

education begi n s at a very e a r l y age. He is taught

Islamic w a y of life. Islamic v a l u e s s u c h as the ethics of

giving, of sharing, of sacrificing are e m p h a s i s e d to

equipped him with goo d moral values. Th e concept of God,

r espect for parents, par e n t ' s responsibilities and good

n e i g h b o u r l i n e s s are s l o w l y taught to the c h i l d as soon as

he can speak and c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h o l der people.

The M u s l i m s h a v e their Islamic f e s t i v a l s such as

''Aid al-FitrT"1 and ''Aid al-Adhha"' (Festivals of

!» 3

Sacrifice), 'M a u l u d 1(the birthday of the Prophet

Muhammad) and 'IsraT M i 'raj^ (the night j o urney of

the Pr o p h e t Muhammad) which are celebrated annually in

ft

the mosque and 'surau', (R a h i m s y a m and Norhale, 1985:33)

which serve as an important centre for religious as well

as social activities.

M ost of the M u s l i m s come to the holy house during

other occasions such as on the first d a y of ' M u ah a r r a m ' ,

'Nisfu S h a 'b a n 1 (The M i d d l e of the S h a ' d a n month), duri n g

the w h o l e of the 'Ramadan' month and on the tenth of the

m o n t h of 'Muharram' ''Ashura'. Ritual feast and religious

activities hel d in the mosque are usually organised

 49

through 1g o t o n g royong' (mutual self-help) and

'kerjasama' (working together). Muslims consider 'gotong

royong' as part of t h eir way of life, a rel i g i o u s d uty

and it is t h eir tradition ' 'adSTt' to help e a c h o t her to

contribute to activities for the common good. In the

rural areas 'gotong royong1 activities organised d u ring

wedding feasts, death rites, constructing prayer house

and foo t p a t h s enhance village life (Abdul Maulu"d, 1976:

160) .

E v e r y F r i d a y at n o o n m a l e M u s l i m s a t t e n d w i t h the

congregation at the mosque for Friday prayer, uniting

individuals in the common brotherhood of Isl"am.

Attendance is c o m p u l s o r y since it rests on direct c o m mand

and a p e r s o n w h o fails to p e r f o r m this p r a y e r three times

consecutively is regarded as a bad M u s l i m by the society

(Mohd Nor, 1985:24). Undoubtedly, I s lam has become an

i mportant factor for promoting social relations and

maintaining unity and solidarity particularly at village

level.

In a Muslim society, marriage is encouraged since

it is sacred, God ordained and as a remedy to sexual

immorality. Muslims co n s i d e r marriage a very serious

c o m m i t m e n t since I s l a m p r o h i b i t s trial marriages, fixed

t e r m m a r r i a g e s or marriages that appear experimental,

 50

casual, or temporary (HammTTdah, 1975:116). When a m an

*
marries, he creates a n e t work of k in relations which

intr o d u c e s new obligations, rights and e x p e c t a t i o n s and

widens his c i rcle of k in ties. It has b e c o m e his duty

to care for his wife and he is responsible for her

b ehaviour. He is expected to respect his p a rents-in-law,

his wife s i b lings and relatives and expects the same

treatment fro m them (Abdul Maulud, 1976:171).

Lately, polygamous marriages have become widely

practised, particularly among a l - A r q a m i s t s . The number

of M u s l i m w o m e n p a r t i c u l a r l y the u n m a r r i e d is said to be

more t han m e n p a r t i c u l a r l y in u r b a n areas and many argued

that p o l y g a m y h ad b e c o m e n e c e s s a r y to a v o i d moral de c l i n e

and sexual promiscuity. Muslims still take great p r ide

in having a large fami l y and polygamous marriage is one

way to a c h ieve it. Practitioners of polygamous marriages

defend themselves on the ground that it was practiced by

the Prophet. However, a c c o r d i n g to L e i l a a nd Aisha", their

conspicuous c h oice of beautiful, educated young women as

marriage partners is clearly against the concept of a

p o l y g a m o u s m a r r i a g e p r a c t i s e d by the P r o phet wh o m a r r i e d

for Islamic g l o r y and on h u m a n i t a r i a n g r o u n d s (Leila” and

 51

Aisha", 1985:129-130).

I s lam allowance for polygamy has been misused by

many irresponsible m en leading to cases of abuse. As

c l a i m e d by t h ose w h o o p p o s e the a l - A r q a m group, the al-

Arqam followers in particular, marry without the

knowledge and c o n sent of the woman's parents which is

against Islamic law and the law of the country. In

Malaysia, with the implementation of the Muslim Family

Law(35), polygamous marriages h ave to re c e i v e the

approval of re l i g i o u s authorities. Besides giving valid

reasons and proof of e c o n o m i c and ph y s i c a l capability,

the man has to obtain the c o n sent of his first wife

b e f o r e he is a l l o w e d to p r a c t i s e p o l y g a m y (Hussin, 1990:

483)(36).

Among the young working people, the initiative to

get married is theirs. Unlike the traditional days,

parents have very little i n f l uence in the c h oice of

s p o uses for t h eir children except for their non-working

daughters. However, pa r e n t s and older si b l i n g s in

particular are usually consulted to get t h eir blessings.

In a M u s l i m family, the f ather is u s u a l l y regarded as a

symbol of authority and lea d e r s h i p and all major

decisions regarding family matters are made by the

 52

father. Islamic law requires the fath e r or in his ab s e n c e

an o l d e r m a l e sibling, to give the girl a w a y in marriage.

O n l y in the a b s e n c e of both or the grandfather, the

religious d e p a r t m e n t official k n o w n as the 'Kadi’ is

authorised to give the girl away (Abdul Maulud,

1976:172.

Thus as seen above, over the last d e cades the

M u s l i m s o c i e t y has u n d e r g o n e great c h a n g e s in attitudes,

v a l u e s a nd w a y of life as a result of the in f l u e n c e of

various environmental factors and historical events.

T h ese c h a nges that affect the society are depicted

through M u s l i m writings, t raditional or modern, creat i v e

or non-creative. Muslim writers through their

observations and experience of contemporary everyday

e ven t s and h a p p e n i n g s reco r d and reflect the change, both

the small and the great, the external a nd the internal.

In my nex t chapter I shall look more closely at this

w r i t i n g and its tradition.

 53

Notes

1. For a d i s c u s s i o n of M a l a y society and the influx

of Ch i n e s e and Indian cheap labours under B r i t i s h
in Malaya see Roff, 1967:1-31.
tN

See also Leon, 1983:xvi.

ro

Utusan Malaysia, 25 J u n e 1991.

'tf

U t u s a n Malaysia, 8 June 1993.

LO

Harakah, 31 M a y 1993. * _
UD

O n the T r e n g g a n u Stone Inscription, see S.M. Nagu i b

Al-Attas, (1970).
7. On the various th e o r i e s as to w h e n and f r o m where
Islam first spread to the M a l a y Archipelago, see
Roof in ArchipeJL_, 29 (1985 )pp .7-34 .
8. See also Mahathir, 1989:160.
9. For example see Goh, 1971:26. He said, " U M N O was
not united. T h e s u p p o r t e r s of Sul a i m a n Bulon in the
Sou t h e r n p a r t s of the state had long r e s e n t e d the
d o m i n a t i o n of the three no r t h e r n d a t o s ... As such,
the UMNO b r a n c h e s in t h e South w e r e not u n d u l y upset
o v e r the p r o s p e c t s of a fall of the trio from
p o w e r ."
10. In the n o v e l s 'Terdedah' (Exposed) and 'Menteri'
(Minister), Shahnon Ahmad directly shows the
t e m p tations a nd w e a k n e s s e s of the p o l i t i c i a n s who
are selfish, corrupt, hypocritical, seeking sexual
sa t i s f a c t i o n and are indecisive. S ee also M o h d Yusof
1989: 120. A c c o r d i n g to Hua, (1983:175),
11 W h ile s t a t e subsidies and e x p e n d i t u r e in t h e rural
sector are a t t e m p t s to b u y over t he M a lay peasantry,
th e state a g e n c i e s and e n t e r prises simultaneously
provide an e c o nomic base for the M a lay state
b o u r g e o i s i e . " See also C h a n d r a 1987:56, T u a n Haji
Yusuf, April, 1984:5. "Specific allegations of
corr u p t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e s e elites a re heard now and
then. The l o s s of trust this creates in ordinary
people, especially if the elites in question
exercise some form of direct authority over
them, has in small measure, helped in the
g r o w t h of I s l a m i c resurgence." Chandra, 1987:20.
 54

11. U t u s a n Malaysia, 3 D e c e m b e r 1991.

12. See als o C h a n d r a 1987:25.
13. See also New s S t r aits Times, M a r c h 24, 1982.
14. Government curbed those 'c e r a m a h ' t h r o u g h Act and
legal action. D e l i a r Noer, 1988:199.
15. Both parties e i ther use 'khutbah' or speeches in
the m o s q u e or 1s u r a u ' . D e l i a r Noer, 1988:199.
16. See States A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of M u s l i m Law Enactments.
(Appointments).
17. Abdullah in_ 'Makallah Undang-undang Menghormati
Ahmad Ibrahim', 1988:69. See also Kariun Acara
J e n a y a h s e k s y e n 282(a).
18. See also Leon, 1983:49 and M a l a y s i a n Constitution
N i n t h S c h e d u l e List II State List.
19. See also Y.A.M. Raj a Azlah Shah, 1981:78 or Raj a
T un Azl"an Shah, (1982).
20. See for example, s e c t i o n 9 and 10 A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of
M u s l i m Law E n a c t m e n t 1964 (Perlis), s e c t i o n 39(1),42
and 43 A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of M u s l i m Law E n a c t m e n t 1965
(Perak). A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of M u s l i m Law E n a c t m e n t 1964
(Perlis), s e c t i o n 43 (Perak), s e c t i o n 38 (Kedah).
21. R u l e r s in M a l a y s i a have no a b s o l u t e p o w e r and their
roles are specifically provided for in the
Constitutions and the Rulers have no p o w e r to
refuse. See also Federal C o nstitution, VIII Sch.,
c l .I . See the Constitution Amendment A ct 1983 and
the Constitution (Amendment) Act 1984 and the
discussion in H. P. Lee, 'The Malaysian
Co n s t i t u t i o n a l Crisis; King, Rulers and Royal
A s s e n t '(1984) L A W A S I A 22. See also A Harding.
22. R u l e r s must be c o n s i d e r e d Malay.
23. T he r u ling party is a com p o n e n t of 'Barisan
N a s i o n a l 1 c o m p r i s i n g UMNO, M C A and MIC and UMN O
b e i n g t he w h i p party.
24. B e r i t a M i n g g u 13 Disember, 1992.
25. T o d a y O r a n g Asli, Si a m e s e and S a b a h a n are a m o n g the
m e m b e r s of UMNO.
26. In the case of a Bill for m a k i n g any amendment to
the C o n s t i t u t i o n other than an amendment pursuant
to A r t i c l e 159, this is true o n l y as long as the
as the G o v e r n m e n t can c o m m a n d a two t h i r d s m a j o r i t y
in b o t h H o u s e s of Parliament.
 55

27. "A P a r t y in control of a gov e r n m e n t w h i c h uses such

power against the opposition pa r t i e s ^ w h a t e v e r
its u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the j u s t i f i c a t i o n of the use,
m u s t hav e c a use to spe c u l a t e on the s e c u r i t y of its
own p a r t y leaders and m e m b e r s s h o u l d control slip
a w a y f r o m t h e m and this w e a p o n of repression fall
into the hands of o t h e r s . S e e Gungwu, 1964:364.
28. For e x a m p l e Darul-Arqam want to project a non­
pol i t i c a l image d e s p i t e the a p p arent difficulties.
See H u s s T n 1990:99.
29. These are four 1da'wa"1 groups. A m o n g others are
A B I M and the Islamic R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Council. But
Darul Arqam and ’T a b l T g h 1 significantly are
d i f f e r e n t fro m b o t h former groups s i nce t h e y do
not p a r t i c i p a t e in all aspects of s o c i e t y i n c luding
politics. See Zainah, 1987:55. See also Hussin,
1990:99.
30. U t u s a n Malaysia, 30 N o v e m b e r 1991).________________ _
31. The Government of Malacca ban all 1T a b l i g h 1
activities. See M i n g g u a n Malaysia, 29 Mac, 1992:10.
32. U t u s a n Malaysia, 12 Mei 1992). __
33. See also Ahmad, 1963:48. Haji Mohd. Din, 1963:20
and M a r t i n Lister, 1890:290 - 301.
34. See als o Oilman, 1979:82.
35. For e x a m p l e A k t a K e l u a r g a Islam W i l a y a h Persekutuan,
1984. E n a k m e n K e l u a r g a Islam Kelantan, No.l, 1983,
Enakmen Keluarga Islam Melaka, 1983. Enakmen
Keluarga I s lam Negeri Sembilan, N o . 71, 1983,
Undang-undang Keluarga Islam Kedah, No.l, 1984,
Enakmen Keluarga Islam Perak, 1984, Enakmen
Keluarga I s lam Pulau_ Pina n g N o . 2,1985. See also
Md. A k h i r and ‘ Siti Z a l i k h a h , 1989:20-21.
36. Md. A k h i r and Siti Zal ikhaVi, 1989 :57 .
CHAPTER TWO
 C H A P T E R TWO

M a l a y Islamic L i t e r a t u r e

I s l amic lit e r a t u r e was introduced to the Malay

world along with Islam and w as u sed in p r o p a g a t i n g Islam.

The 'Kitab' literature (sastera kitab) wa s the first form

of Islamic writing that flourished in Malay literature

(Mana Sikana*, 1983:17). Schol a r s like R. Roolvink

(Encyclopedia of IsLam 1971:1231) conclude, that "Malay

li t e r a t u r e is in fact an Islamic literature( 1) and it is

through this I s l amic l i t e rature that Islam penetrated

into the o t her languages and literatures of the Malay

Archipelago." The in f l u e n c e of Western culture came

about partly with the introduction of the p r i n t i n g press

in the mid nineteenth century (Winstedt, 1939:142). It

brought a n e w g e nre of cr e a t i v e literature in the f orm of

novels, short stories, poetry and p l ays into the

limelight of the l i t e r a r y w o r l d (Mana Sikaha", 1983:30).

More recently the growing in t e r e s t in Islam

influenced the literary scene. There was an awa r e n e s s

a m ong Muslim writers of the need to reevaluate and

reassess m o d e r n M a l a y l iterature and to imbue it w i t h the

spirit of 'da'waT', to return to I s lam so as to a c h ieve

 57

AllcTh’s grace in this world an d the hereafter* The

The literary works produced were viewed unsuitable

to g u ide the society t o w ards the p a t h of Allcih. Thus

the literary scene w as soon inundated with essays and

writings on the subject of Islam and literature. The

definition of 'Islamic literature' become a contentious

issue among Muslim writers. The issue of Islamic

literature was discussed several times a nd as a result

there were several publications. For example there is a

book 'S a s t e r a Agama', 1986, by Ismail Hussein,

'K e s u s a s t e r a a n Melayu dan Islam', 1980, by Sye d Hussein

Alatas, 'Polemik Sastera Islam', 1987, by Kassim Ahmad,

* *

and S h a h n o n Ahmad(2).
£

Until today, not a single definition has bee n

agreed to met the actual fe a t u r e s of an Isl’amic

literature. Even though competitions for I s lamic novels

and short stories w e r e o r g a n i s e d by the I s l amic R e l i g i o u s

Departments at n a t ional and state level as well as by the

Muslim writer's organization, the definition and concept

of I s l amic w r i t i n g s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d ad h oc by the j u d ging

committees or the organizing committees concerned. This

is not surprising because the nature of t he organisation

of Islam within its t r a d i t i o n gives c o n s i d e r a b l e freedom

 58

of thought and expression to individual Muslim scholars.

This means that they sometimes take an independent

attitude on certain matters of public concern. As there

is no s i ngle agreed view on t he definition of Islamic

i

literature, the government, which exerts its

respon s i b i l i t y for all things religious, allows

o r g a nising groups to choose t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n d e p e n d i n g on

the situation. In fact government officials who feel

a u t h orised to organise the 's a y e m b a r a sastera' lack the

knowledge of evaluating Islamic literature from a

literary point of view. Evaluation is t h e r efore based

only on its religious content and not on its literary

value.

In M a l aysia as in Indonesia, writers face the same

u n c e r t a i n t y on the d e f i n i t i o n of Islamic literature. As

Kratz (1986:63) says, with r e f e rence to Indonesia,

"modern Islamic l i t e rature still finds itself, b e ing

caught between d o g m a t i s m and the desire for cr e a t i v e

freedom." One of t he reasons m i ght be that 'religious

writers' felt discouraged because popular novels and

short s t o r i e s wer e b r a n d e d 'haram' (forbidden) by the

more orthodox writers (Kratz, 1986:63). Nevertheless,

if the yardstick of I s lamic literary works is its

 59

religious content w h i c h glorifies, upholds a nd p r o p a g a t e s

an Islamic concept of life, then there is much religious

fiction, prose, p o e t r y and 'drama' written by ’religious

writers' (Kratz, 1985:60). However in m a n y cases even the

readers might sometimes find the religious e l e ments

in these literary w o r k s insignificant.

The limited literary stimuli from 'Islamic' or

'Muslim' countries p a r t i c u l a r l y the M i d d l e East in the

M a lay and Indonesian literatures, the limited number of

Muslim scholars with a good command of Arabic and Malay

"who have been men of letters or are i nterested in

belles lettres" and the lack of interest among Islamic

publishers in pub l i s h i n g l i t e r a r y works, were said to be

some of the reasons for the small number of Islamic

literary works for the general public. Furthermore,

religious content of the literary works stirred the

interest of only a small a u d i e n c e except w h e n its content

were regarded blas p h e m o u s and offensive to their belief

and c o n v i c tions (3). Students too are not exposed to

literature (4). These interrelated fa c t o r s lead to the

presence of Islamic literature in M a l a y s i a having little

impact on the Muslims (Kratz, 1986:60-61).

 60

The N a t u r e of Islamic L i t e r a t u r e in T r a d i t i o n a l Malay.

The c h anges u n d e r g o n e by a s o c i e t y are o f ten seen

in literature, t r a d itional and modern. As r e f l e c t e d by

Winstedt (Winstedt, 1950:139), "For a thousand y e ars

t he Malay wa s under th e i n f l uence of Hinduized courts,

that were c e n tres of Buddhism and Saivism, H i n d u magical

science, Hindu art and literature." This i n f l uence is

visible by the extent of cultural borrowing and the

assimilation of numerous S a n skrit and Tamil w o rds into

the Malay language. The a d o ption of some Hindu, Buddhist

and Sivaistic r e l i gious thoughts, law, social and moral

codes, ceremonies a nd rituals are still f o und in a M a l a y

everyday life (Mohd Taib, 1984:16)(5). Ismail, (1983:35)

c i ted a Chinese report dated 1567 that refers to the use

of the Malay language in Malacca, written in a form of

a l p habet si m i l a r to Indian script, which according to

Winstedt (1981:139) were the Pallavan and the Nagari

scripts.

The advent of IslSm to the M a l a y Archipelago via

Persia and India(6) resulted in the adoption and

adaptation of the new re l i g i o n and the culture

accompanying it and its impact on traditional Malay

literature is undisputably profound. The translation,

 61

reworking and adaptation from Arabic or P e r s i a n works,

textbooks of Arabic, translation of the Al-Kur'ah,

commentaries, s a c r e d history, philosophical tr e a t i e s and

religious tracts, theology, law and mysticism

( E n c y c l o p e d i a of Islam, 1971:1231) resulted in the g r o w t h

and development of Malay literature. It dominated Malay

t h o u g h t s and b e c a m e the cultural traits in M a l a y life.

I s lam influenced the development of the Malay

langu a g e in the adoption of the Arabic a l p habet and

script as the m e d i u m of writing, changing and enriching

it by borrowing a large number of Arabic a nd Pe r s i a n

words. An e p i t a p h on the tombstone of a Pasai Princ e s s

shows the existence of the m i x t u r e of M a l a y S a n skrit and

Arabic since A.D. 1380. The carved characters of the

i n s c r i p t i o n of T r e n g g a n u stele is the e a r l i e s t M a l a y text

in Arabic script (Al-Attas, 1970:7). The Malay language

which before the c o ming of IsIcTm w as use d for

interinsular intercourse ( E n c y clopedia of Islam, 1971:

1231) became the li t e r a r y and religious language that

spread the new f a ith far and wide, creating a n ew

civi1ization.

T h r o u g h the medium of the Malay language, new

converts were taught v a r ious disciplines of learning

 62

including theology, philosophy, mysticism, logic and

law. Propagation works were obviously successful when

numerous Islamic i n s t i tutions were established in

different p a rts of the Malay Archipelago to study these

fields (Ismail, 1983:47). Today, the Malay l a n guage is

the official and the national l a n guage of Malaysia,

Indonesia, Brunei and S i n g a p o r e (if o n l y nominally).

Sc h o l a r s who study Malay literature hold different

opinions on the form of literature that e x ist b e fore and

after the adve n t of I s lam in the Malay Archipelago and

when it was written. It w as assumed that before the

advent of Islam t h ere p r o b a b l y w e r e M a l a y literary works

either in the for m of written manuscripts or tales.

However, the Malay literature in Indian s c r ipts has

been lost and those that survived were manuscripts

written in Perso-Arabic a l p habet known as ' J a w i 1.

(Winstedt, 1981:139) Nevertheless t h ere is abundance of

evidence of an Indianised tradition of writing, in the

Javanese and Balinese regions, on p a l m - leaves. S i m ilar

tradition can be assumed to have existed during the pre-

I s l amic period in the Malay region (Jones, 1986:122-4).

Roolvink (Roolvink, 1971:1230) clai m s that, "the

inf l u e n c e of Islam on the M a l a y l i t e r a t u r e is twofold: on

 63

the one hand Islam c a u s e d much of the older literature,

in particular r e l i gious to disappear; on the other hand

it enriched the l i t e rature by substituting new genres

and new works for t h ose that fell into oblivion, and

by adding to the l i t e rature that already existed"

( E n c y c l o p e d i a of Islam, 1971:1230).

A. Day claimed, since there is no evidence that

book burning took p l ace the possible answer for the

gradual draining of the l i t erary lan g u a g e of Hindu-

Buddhist court c u l ture c o uld be due to the loss of its

f u n d amental r e l igious reasons with the Islamization of

the Malay world (Hooker (ed.), 1988:141). According to

Kratz, the fact that some of the earliest Islamic texts

even call for the extinction of heathen literature bears

evidence to the suspicion of the possibility of its

deliberate destruction by the protagonists of the new

faith 'Isl'am’(Kratz, 1979:4). Nevertheless, the g e n e r a l l y

h u m i d c l i m a t e of the M a l a y A r c h i p e l a g o w h i c h causes p a per

to quickly deteriorate, in particular, has bee n accep t e d

as one of the logical factor for the relatively short

life and the loss of the m a n u s c r i p t s (7).

The m a j o r i t y of the w r i t t e n Malay literature of

except for the S e j a r a h Melayu, the l i t e r a t u r e of mirrors

 64

of conduct often ref e r r e d to as 'adab' lit e r a t u r e and

nineteenth century historiographies and autobiographies

are a n o n y m o u s (Kratz, 1979:7) and do not contain dates

writing or if found, t h ese dates usually refer to the

time of copying rather than of creating. Two w e l l - k n o w n

works of 11adab' lit e r a t u r e are Tajul Salatin (The C r o w n

of the King) written or translated into the Malay

language by Bukhari al-JauharT in 1906 and of Persian

o r i g i n and B u s t a n a l - S a l a t T n w r i t t e n by S y e T k h Nur al-Din

al-Raniri. Tajul Salatin contains I s l amic instructions

and injunctions from Allah to His se r v a n t s b e s ides

examples of Muslim Kings and pious men of golden times.

Bustan al-Salatin deals with the creation, Pr o p h e t s and

9

kings, just kin g heroes, intelligence and clever

ministers liberal men and all kinds of science. Thus,

establishing the date of the beginning of the Malay

traditional lit e r a t u r e or the date of origin of a genre

pose a problem. In the M a l a y Peninsula, although it is

generally assumed that l i t e rature e x i s t e d d u r i n g the time

of the fifteenth century court of Malacca, the e a r liest

e x tant manuscripts on paper date fro m the sixteenth

c e n t u r y and most of the m a n u s c r i p t s are r e l a t i v e l y recent

copies of the o r i g i n a l s d a t i n g from the n i n e t e e n c e ntury

 65

(Kratz, 1979:3-4).

M.G. E m eis and Zuber Usman suggested that Malay

l i t e r a t u r e b e g a n to be produced a f ter the advent of

Isllim in 1500 in Arabic script 1Jawi 1 and b e fore

this period Malay literature existed only in the form

of folk lit e r a t u r e (Ismail, 1983:35). However, the

proposition that Malay l i t e rature only came into

existence with the arrival of I s lam is subject to

argum e n t as d i s c u s s e d above.

De Casparis regards 1500 A.D. as the watershed

between the us e of durable and less durable bases of

writing. "Almost all the source materials before that

date are i n s c r i p t i o n s e n g r a v e d in stone or metal with

o nly o ne or two extant manuscripts, but a f t e r 1500 there

are only a few i n s c r iptions but a wealth of

manuscripts." The fact that the earliest known e x a mple

of Malay written in the 'Jawi' (Arabic script) of the

Trengganu Stone dates from the fourteenth century,

su p p o r t s the p o s t u l a t i o n of the f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y as the

era of the beginning of the traditional Malay Islamic

literature (Jones, 1985:3).

The 'literature of the m a n u s cript', written in

poetry and prose, str e t c h e s over a period of

 66

approximately 500 years. It covers "a wide range of

subjects from theological treatises, legal digests a nd

texts of an hist o r i c a l nature to religious fiction,

popular mythology and folklore." Copying of manuscripts

in Malay virtually came to a close by the end of the

nineteenth century with the emergence of the 'popular

literature', which was t raditional in for m but d i f f erent

in topic, associated with the introduction of the

p r i n t i n g press and the l i t h o g r a p h (Kratz, 1979:3).

Generally speaking, Malay written literature was

the product of the royal courts. Tales flourished a m ong

the common people and were narrated orally by the s t ory

teller. T h ese tales of unknown authorship were h a nded

down fro m one g e n e r a t i o n to the next without the aid of

writing. The oral t r a d i t i o n w h i c h r e f lects the blending

of different civilizations underwent a process of

adoptation which became Malay folktales (Mohd Taib,

1984:17). Folktales evolve on god and goddess in t h eir

w o r l d of mythology, ghosts and spirits, o r i g i n of animals

and plants which were contrary to I s l amic faith (Ismail,

1983:47) .

I s l a m i z a t i o n of the M a l a y world as unanimously

asserted by the Malay chronicles, began with the

 67

conversion of the rulers of the state concerned. As the

R a j a w as the primary object of loyalty, central to e v ery

aspect of Malay life and b e l i e v e d to be the o w ner of all

the land in his t e r r i t o r y (Hooker (ed.), 1988:31), it was

his duty to obtain knowledge of the latest spiritual

doctrines or techniques (Hooker (ed.), 1988:39). As the

new faith re p l a c e d the Hindu in the royal courts the

spread and inculcation of I s lam became more

significant. Writing and composing, copying, adapting

or translating the colourful romances featuring Persian,

Indian and local d r a matis pe r s o n a e were done in the

royal courts where li t e r a r y environment a nd intellectual

activity existed. It was here that b a rds and scribes

c o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d and l iterature flourished.

Religious w o rks inv o l v i n g e d i t i n g and commentaries

on Islamic lite r a t u r e w ere more frequently developed

outside the courts. In Se j a r a h Melayu, there wer e

a c c ounts of Theologians from the West such as H a m z a h

Fansuri and N u r u d d i n al-Rainiri, employed as spiritual

advisers to the Sultans. T hey c o uld be consulted on

%

matters concerning Islam but were also engaged in

literary w o rks (Mohd Taib, 1984:28). J o n e s , (Jones,

* *

1986:123-4) claims that in the early development of

 68

Traditional Malay l i t e rature both Muslim and Hindu

literature existed side by side and presumably even the

written ma t e r i a l has b een influenced by earlier oral

tradition (8) .

Kitab l i t e rature

S i nce Islamic l i t e rature that developed in the

Malay Archipelago in the fourteenth century wa s used as

'da'wa', kitab-literature or 'sastera kitab' was the

first g e nre developed f o l lowed by creative lit e r a t u r e of

legends a nd prophets (Mana Sikaria, December 1990:6) (9).

According to Kratz (1979:4), a large part of the earliest

m a n u s c r i p t s w h i c h exist t o d a y are theological t r e a tises

m a n y of w h i c h are t r a n s l a t i o n s of M i d d l e E a s t e r n sources.

They were written down and studied particularly by

theologians and r e l igious tea c h e r s who used the m for

reference. It was the reliance on the w r i t t e n w o r d w h i c h

indirectly saved manuscripts from extinction and

g u a r a n t e e d t h e i r perpetuation.

The 'sastera kitab' deals with all a s p ects of

Islam as a religion: for instance faith Al-Kur'an and

9

Hadith 'Fikh', Muslim law ’S y a r i ' a 1 and SufFsm',

Tasawwuf, together with the disciples pertaining to it.

(E n c y c l o p e d i a of Islam, 1971:1232).
 69

During the period from the sixteenth to the early

twentieth century, 'Kitab Kuning' (religious books in

Arabic script printed on yellow papers), were either

translated into or written in the Malay classical

language. This was done by local or f o r eign Muslim

s c h olars using Arabic characters 'Jawi', known as 'Kitab

Jawi ' . As a rule o nly the introduction, the conclusion

and a few passing remarks of the 'Kitab Jawi' are the

work of the 'author1 the rest being mere translation

(Mohd Noor, 1985:7). Often when translated the t i tle of

the original 'kitab' is changed. For example, kitab Umm

al-Barahin by al-SanusI (895 A.H./ 1490 A.D.) was

translated into M a l a y by M u h a m m a d Zayn b. Jalal al-D"in in

1757 A.D. under the title 'Bidayat a l - H i d a y a h ' . In 1886,

M u hv*a m m a d Badawi al-Sambawi translated it under the title

'Si raj al H u d a 1 and the t h ird translation by Zayn al-

'A b i d i n b. M u h<1 a m m a d al-FatanT in 1890 is under the

t i tle ' 'Aqidat a l - N a j T n ' .

The 'Kitab Jawi' hav e been u s e d by the M u s l i m s in

the Archipelago as a major source of Islamic knowledge.

On f a i t h 'Kitab J a w i 1 ex p l a i n s the Sunni doctrine and

when discussing 'Fikh' expounded the S h a f i ’X School of

Law. D i s c u s s i o n s of S u f i s m w e r e m a i n l y on the tea c h i n g s

 70

of 'a l - G h a z a l i '; the 'Tarikat' (Sufi order),

— * P 9

'Naqshclbandiyah' and 'Kadiriyya' (Mohd Nor, 1983:3). The

— f a-
market for these writings w ere confined to the Muslim

s c h olars w h o u se them as texts when teaching their

s t u dents in the traditional rel i g i o u s schools, the

m o s q u e s , 's u r a u f and 'p o n d o k '.

In general, the w r i ters of 'Ritab Jawi' came from

various parts of the Malay A rchipelago. Their places of

origin can be ide n t i f i e d through the names of their

hometowns and islands which are normally indicated after

their names such as al-Palembani, al-Bandjari, al-

Samatra'i, al-Fansuri, a l - B a n i ,al-MakasarT, a l - K a l a n t a n i ,

al-FatanT (R.Roolvink, in Encyclopedia of Islam 1971:

1234). Thus, in the 'Kitab Jawi' Malay l i t e rature

loses its characteristic of anonymity. Only the v ery

pious authors kept t h eir n a mes unknown. T h e y c l a i m e d that

they w r o t e for the sake of A l l a h and not for w o r l d l y gain

(Mohd Nor, 1985:6-7).

t?
W i t h the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the p r i n t i n g press in the

early ninetieth century, 'Kitab Jawi' were b e ing

p u b l i s h e d and printed in Singapore, Penang, Surabaya,

Mecca an d Cairo. According to Bruinessen, (Bruinessen,

1990:230) who did a re s e a r c h project on Indo n e s i a n

 71

'Ulama', in the late 1 8 7 0 's the activities of book

printing had already s t a rted in the Middle East. The

e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a g o v e r n m e n t press in Mecca in 1884

which p r i n t e d not onl y books in A r a b i c but also in M a l a y

w as of particular rel e v a n c e for Indonesians. He also

c l aims that although this was not the very first Malay

press, it was the first one of importance. Today 'Kitab

Jawi' are m o s t l y p r i n t e d in P e n a n g and Kelantan.

T h ese 'kitab' w e r e p u b l i s h e d s e p a r a t e l y by va r i o u s

publishers from 1300 A.H./1882 A.D. to 1390 A.H./1969

A.D. The book 'Hidayat al-Salikin' by 'Abd a l - S a m a d al-

#

FalembanT for example, was published in C a iro in 1300

A.H./1882 A.D. and rep r i n t e d in Singapore and the book

'Kashf al-Asrar' by Muhammad Salih b. 'Abdullah was

published in Singapore, in 1390 A .H . /1969 A.D. A short

treatise of Zayn ad-Din as-Sumbawi, another Jawi sc h o l a r

r e s ident in Mecca, was l i t h o g r a p h e d as e a r l y as 1876 and

several w o rks of Daud b. 'Abdallah al-Patani's, the

most famous of Patanr scholars, were printed in Bombay

b e f o r e the 1880s.

N u r u d d i n b. 'Ali H a s a n jT b. M u h a m m a d H a m i d al-Ra-
* % *

nlri who wrote 'Kitab Bad' K h alg al-Samawat wa al-Ard1

(The C r e a t i o n of the H e a v e n and the Earth) was c o n s i d e r e d

 72

as one of the earli e s t and most n o t a b l e a u t h o r s of 'Kitab

Jawi' . He did not only write many 'Fikh' b o oks of the

Shafi'i School but also w r ote m o r e tha n 23 books on other

fields suc h as 'Tauhid', S*u f i s m and 'Hadith'.

A His book

'Kitab Bad' K h alq al-Samawat wa al-Ard' was written on

the request of S u l t a n Iskandar Thani w h o re i g n e d in A c h e h

ft
between 1636 and 1641. This m a n u s c r i p t c o n t a i n s stories

pertaining to the creation of man, angels, jins and all

things in the u n i v e r s e (Mohd Nor, 1985:7).

*■
The books, Sirat a l - M u s t a q i m (The Str a i g h t Path),

Sabil al-Muhtadin (The Way of the Guided), Furu' al-

M a s a'il w e r e b a s e d on other works. A c c o r d i n g to Muhammad

*
A r s h a d b. A b d u l l a h al-Banjari, the b ook Sirat a l - M u s t a q i m

in 1054 A .H . written by NurruddFn, contained many

Achinese w o rds w h i c h wer e not fully understood by m a n y

people. The book Sabil a l - M u h t a d i n written by Muhammad

M

A r s h a d b. Abdullah al-Banjari w as b a s e d on o t her Arabic

books of the S h a f i Ti School. Furu' al-M a s a ' i l was w r i t t e n

by D a u d b . A b d u l l a h al-Fatani. He w r o t e m o r e than t w enty

books on Islamic law, 'Tauhid' or Theology and Sufism.

All his b o oks w e r e w r i t t e n in the n i n e t e e n t h century(lO).

O n Sufism, there were books in the M a l a y language

entitled 'Hidayat al-Salikin', 'Sair al-Salikin', 'Siraj

 73

al-talibin' and 'Kadiriyya wa Naqshabandiyya'. 'Hidayat

j * ,—
al-Salikin' and 'Sair al-Salikin' w e r e w r i t t e n by D a u d b.

Abdullah al-Fatanif. The book 'Hidayat al-Salik7n' written

in 1192 A. H , was mostly translated f rom the book of al-

Ghazali 'Bidayat al-Hidayah' with an edition of the

author personal views. The boo k 'Si raj al-talibin'

*

written by K . H . I h s a n b.Muhammad Dahlan of Jampes, Kedifl

r »

is a commentary on G h a z ali's 'Minhaj al-'abidin'. The

book 'Kadiriyya wa Naqshabandiyya' was written by Kyai

Muslikh of Mranggen (Muslih b. Abd ar-Rahman al-Maraqi

— * %
(d.1986) (Bruinessen, 1990:237).

Other 'Kitab Jawi' translated into the Malay

language are 'Hikam' and 'Taj al-'Arus' by Ibn ,Ata‘,u l l a h

al-Iskandari. The former was translated anonymously

w h i l e the latter was t r a n s l a t e d by 1U t h m a n al-FuntianI\

S t u d y by B r u i n e s s e n (1990:228) on ’K i t a b K u n i n g ’ used in

the pesantren in va r i o u s parts of the Archipelago shows

that out of some nine hundred different works of the

kitab, most of which are use d as textbooks, almost five

hundred or just ove r half w ere written or translated by

So u t h e a s t A s i a n M u s l i m scholars.

Ironically, the 'Kitab J a w i 1 have not received

special a t t e n t i o n from M a l a y s c h olars but m o r e by W e s t e r n

 74

sc h o l a r s despite the fact that they ca n be seen as part

of Malay l i t e rature (Matheson and Hooker, 1988:1) and

m a n y are still available in print and u s e d by M u s l i m s in

the M a l a y A r c h ipelago.

I s l amic L i t e r a t u r e in M o d e r n Malay.

The n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y s t a r t i n g w i t h the w r i t i n g s

of Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir Munsyi (1797-1854) has been

regarded by most sc h o l a r s as the beginning of modern

literature in Malay. However, some writers disagree and

regard Hamzah F a n s u r i 's as the first modern Malay

writings. Nevertheless, with A b d u l l a h ’s works Malay

literature departed from the feudal world which dwelt in

the realm of super human pr i n c e s and princesses and the

creatures of the heavenly Kingdom into a more r e a l istic

world. A b d u l l a h was c o n s i d e r e d the first M a l a y w r i t e r w ho

introduced innovation to Malay writings, expressing his

v i ews a nd criticisms on the traditional society which

prevail in his memoirs, Hikayat AbdulleTh (The Story of

r

A b d u llah) and Kesah Pelayaran Abdullah (The V o y a g e of

A b d u llah) (Muhammad (ed.), 1988:45).

Abdullah wrote freely, reporting and describing

in a s t y l e not c o n s t r i c t e d by the c o n v e n t i o n a l style. He

 75

expressed his ideas on the things and events he saw and

experienced, quoting dates for almost every event and

thus e a r n i n g the title ’the first M a l a y reporter' from

A .E . C o o p e (Mohd Taib, 1986:24). H a s h i m A w a n g claims that

O ' —

since his li t e r a r y w o r k s c o m prise c r i t i c i s m s considered

controversial, being new and foreign, it wa s dif f i c u l t

for them to be accepted by the society of his time

(Muhammad (ed.), 1988:346).

R a j a All Haji a scion of the royal h o use of Riau,

was another pro m i n e n t writer in the nineteenth century

whose writings show sign i f i c a n t innovation. His two most

outstanding texts of traditional Malay historiography

Tuhf a t al - N a f i s (The Pr e c i o u s Gift) and Silsilah Melayu

dan Bugis (Genealogy of the Malays a nd the Buginese)

reflect the changes to the M a l a y v i e w of history. Tuhfat

i
al- N a f i s though written in the tradition of classical

Malay his t o r i c a l writing, like the S e j a r a h M e l a y u or the

Hikayat Raja-raja P a s a i , has one significant difference.

Tuhfat al - N a f i s gives more emphasise on the even t s t han

the m y t h i c elements, inc l u s i o n of dates, quoting its

s o urces a nd trying to be objective. N e v e r theless, more

important is a l - G h a z a l i 1s i n f luence on Raj a Haji's

a
t h o u g h t and writing, as seen in Tuhfat al-Nafis.
 76

(Matheson, 1989:164). Silsilah Melayu dan B u gis however

still retain the classical style of using sya'ir to

rela t e the e v ents (Mohd Talb, 1986:30). Raja Ali Haji

r * *

books, a M a l a y g r a m m a r B u s t a n - u l - K a t i b i n and a d i c t i o n a r y

Kitab Pengetahuan Bahasa though unsuccessful were

si g n i f i c a n t since t hey wer e c o n s i d e r e d as the first M a l a y

a t tempt at ling u i s t i c s w o rks (Winstedt, 1939:143).

Nevertheless a c c o r d i n g to Kratz (Kratz, 1979:8) in

the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y there e m e r g e d a d i f f e r e n t k i n d of

literature in Singapore which was more topical

(journalistic) in nature using bot h hikayat and sya'Tr

A —

related to current events, issues an d gossip. This

topical kind of writing, a i med at the religious educated

readers outside the court circles, had broken away fro m

the flowery l i t erary language and its conventions to a

more col l o q u i a l idiom. Unfortunately this kind of

literature which paved the way for the new Mala y /

Malaysian/Indonesian lite r a t u r e at the beginning of the

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y has h a r d l y b e e n studied.

The printing press activities which started in

the British-controlled territories of Melaka, Penang and

S i n g a p o r e in the e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y b y m i s s i o n a r i e s

fro m the L o n d o n M i s s i o n a r y s o c i e t y and the mushrooming

 77

of new printing pr e s s e s in the s e cond half of the

nineteen twenties till approximately in 1941 (Muhammad

tf

(ed.)/ 1 9 8 8 :xvi) r e s ulted in great numbers of Malay

literary works being published. There were dozens of

newspapers and magazines (11) w h i c h put t h eir readers

in c o ntact with contemporary events, sharing knowledge

and experience and for the first tim e introducing

criticism of customary religious and social practises.

(Matheson and Hooker, 1992:4-5) This lead to a n ew

development in M a l a y literature. Young poets who saw

the decline of the traditional verse genre grandeur

t u r n e d to w r i t i n g novels. As M u h a m m a d H j . S a l l e h says, in
* *
the early thirties Harun Moh d Amin (Harun AmFnurrashTd)

and M o h d Y a s s F n M a k m u r b e g a n to break away fro m b oth the

'pantun' and 'sya'ir' (Muhammad (ed.), 1 9 8 8 :xvi).

The introduction of p r i n t i n g p r e s s did not onl y

in c rease the number of l i t erary works published, but it

also improved the development of education in Malaya.

S i nce then, Malay n o vels translated from f o r eign

l a n g uages such as English, Arabic, French, Persian and

Hindi, collections of essays, b o oks on Islam, books on

grammar, dictionaries, newspapers and magazines were

p u b l i s h e d and sold throughout Malaya (Li, 1970:1). The

 78

M a l a y T r a i n i n g co l l e g e for t e a c h e r s b u ilt in Malacca in

1900, wa s the foundation for modern, secular, Malay

education. A number of teacher trainees and teachers

graduated from this college and later took part in the

w r i t i n g and p u b l i s h i n g of M a l a y books, particularly the

school text-books (Winstedt, 1939:148). Writing

activities flourished when Malay training colleges w ere

established at Matang, Perak in 1913 and later at

Ta n j u n g Malim. This c o n t i n u e d in Perak in 1922 w h e n the

two former colleges were replaced. IsmaTl, (Ismail,

1987:45) claims that during these decades, though there

were Isl'amic v a l u e s in M a l a y literature, t h ere was not

m u c h I s l amic l i t e rature in m o d e r n M a l a y literature.

Within the printing press age of the early

twentieth century books infl u e n c e d by Islam or Arabic

li t e r a t u r e flourished. The evidence for this influence

c o uld be seen in their titles or contents. Examples of

books influenced by Islam are 'Kitab Kiliran B u d i 1,

'Kitab Gemala H i k m a t ', 'Islam dan T a m a d d u n ', 'Miftah

Pengenalan'. Books with Arabic titl e s are H i k a y a t Saif

D h u ’l Yazan', 'Hikayat Bustamam', 1K a mus Mahmiudiyyah',

’K i t a b 'Ilmu Dunia' and the boo k 'B a b 1s - S i h a t '

(Winstedt, 1939:142-151).
 79

The period between the nineteen-twenties and the

outbreak of the Pacific war w as the real beginning of

modern Malay literature. N ew li t e r a r y forms like novel

a nd short stories a p p e a r e d on the M a l a y literary scene.

According to M o h d Talb, modern Malay literature within

9 O

this period did not achieve a high literary standard.

This w as because the lite r a t u r e was used as a platform

to di s c u s s and moralise on contemporary pro b l e m s

particularly those a r i sing fro m the social changes

brought about by the West. L i t e r a t u r e was not re g a r d e d

as a form of cre a t i v e art (Muhammad

i
(ed.), 1988:291).

The r e l igious educated elite, particularly those

who sojourned to Egypt and o t her Arab countries for

higher education res o r t e d to Islamic reformism. This was

as a defence a g a inst the r a pid westernization taking

place in the Malay Peninsula. Infl u e n c e d by the Islamic

reformism of Egypt and Turkey t h ese religious writers

took the task of exhorting the Muslims to work for

progress by following the p a t h of Islam. Newspapers and

magazines were u sed as a m e ans to express and deba t e

t h eir ideas and views. Newspapers were i nstrumental in

encouraging li t e r a r y productivity, fo r e m o s t amongst

which were al-Imam (1906-1909), later al-Ikhwan, (1926-

 80

1931) and S a u d a r a (1928-1941), (Ungku Maimunah, 1987:21).

Literary w o rks whether original, translated or

a d a p t e d wer e i n t r o d u c e d to the M u s l i m s t h r o u g h the m e d i u m

of the newspapers. Most of the st o r i e s and articles,

particularly those which appeared in the Egyptian

newspapers and periodicals, in the 1 9 2 0 's, were at first

serialised in the newspapers and later compiled to be

sold as novels. Thus, it was m o d e r n E g y p t i a n lit e r a t u r e

that exerted a great i n f l uence on the e a r l y modern Malay

literary activity. By 1929, novels and short stories

featuring local characters and background were being

published in the n e w s p a p e r s and p e r i o d i c a l s and like the

novels these short stories wer e also u s e d as a m e d i u m for

expressing and moralising social and religious issues

(Mohd Talb, 1987:286-7).

•

In general b e t w e e n 1920 and 1942 M a l a y p r ose gave

priority to the question of emancipation of women,

principles of life, I s lamic values, economics, politics

and general social development as a whole. Though the

t h eme may have a straightforward love story the true

message was didactic in nature. Writers often remind the

readers that m o d e r n i s a t i o n brought by the W e s t h ad to be

modified according to M a l a y and I s l amic socio- c u l t u r a l

 81

ethos. Religious fe r v o u r of the Malay writers was

c o m b i n e d w i t h a d e s i r e for social revival. As M u h a m m a d Hj

Salleh says, "Hundreds of titles were published,

•
especially in the for m of novels a nd religious

t reatis es" (Muhammad (ed.), 1 9 8 8 :xvi). W i n s t e d t gives a

good overview of the M a l a y t r a d itional literature of the

1 9 2 0 's and 1930's. (12) In the 1939 e d i t i o n of Winstedt,

History of Classical Malay Literature, there is a very

g o o d o v e r v i e w w h i c h is also given by Za'aba, on the

d e v e l o p m e n t of M a l a y literature. In the f o l l o w i n g I base

my discussion mostly on this and I will be focussing on

w r i t i n g s w i t h a r e l i gious content.

Th e forerunner in the development of the Malay

l i t e r a t u r e w as the author, Syed S h a i k h b i n A h m a d al-Hadi.

In 1922 he brought out the first par t of his Malay

history of Islam, ( al-TarTkh ul-IslamT), and wrote the

first novel in Malay 'Hikayat S e tia 'Ashlk kapada

M a'ashoknya' or 'Hikayat F a r i d a h Hanum' w h i c h is a c t u a l l y

an adoptation f rom an Egyptian work (Mohd TaTb, 1986:

t f

284). The novel p u b l i s h e d in 1926 was m o r e of a result of

a socio-religious awakening in the society. The novel is

not o n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h the social problems faced by the

Malay society at that time but a lso i n t r o d u c e d the

 82

Islamic c o n cept of progress and modernism (Muhammad

*
(ed.), 1988:285 ). In this novel, a c c o r d i n g to M o h d TaTb,
> *
questions like the emancipation of women, the role of

women in modern society and premarital code of conduct

between young Muslim men and women are e n t w i n e d around

the central love t h eme (Muhammad (ed.)/ 1988:285).

B e i n g a r e l i gious leader b e l o n g i n g to a mov e m e n t

of Islamic reformism, Syed Sheikh al-Hadi tried to show

the Muslim society the p ath it should follow in

r e a d j u s t i n g its cultural and rel i g i o u s values to the

n e eds of modern time, in line with the ideas of Islam.

Generally, these too wer e the them e s chosen by the

religious educated writers d u r i n g his period, reflecting

their concern for the social and moral crises which they

t h o ught w e r e c o n f r o n t i n g the Muslim s o c i e t y as a result

of Western influence (Wang G u n g w u (ed.), 1964: 216).

A monthly journal called 'a l - I k h w a n 1 p u b l i s h e d in

September 1926 by the same author, i n c lude articles on

the need to purify Islam, on the progress of more

advanced Muslim countries, on t h eir staggering reforms

and m o d e r n isation, and on the elasticity of Islam for

adjustment to modern conditions. This journal also

c o n t a i n e d the e d i t o r ' s c o m m e n t a r y on the s h o r t e r chapt e r s

 83

of the Al-Kur'an, translations from the Arabic on

the emancipation of women and the feminist movement in

Egypt and the h i s t o r y of Islam.

T h ere are many novels written by Syed Shaikh bin

A h m a d al-Hadi with m o d e r n Islamic and A r a b i c b a c k g r o u n d

a d a p t e d f r o m m o d e r n w o r k s of A r a b i c literature. Examples

of t h ese are his his t o r i c a l r o m ance novel call e d the

'Hikayat Anak D a r a Ghassan' or 'Hindun dengan Ham m a d ' , a

love story between a Muslim and a Christian d u ring the

time of the Prophet and a Turkish tale called the

'Hikayat C h e r m i n Kehidupan' w h i c h st r e s s e s the i m p o rtance

of c h a s t i t y upon youth. His o t her novel the 'Hikayat

Puteri Nur ul-'Ain' r i d i c u l e d the p r a c t i c e of m a r r y i n g a

temporary husband 'kahwin cina buta' in o r d e r to l e g alise

re-marriage between former hu s b a n d s and w i ves a f ter

t h r e e - f o l d divorces.

A more serious w ork of Syed Shaikh published in

1928 was 'Tafsir al-Fatihah', the translation of the

first c h a p t e r of the Al-Kur'an. He als o p u b l i s h e d 'Tafsir

Juz 'Amma' in 1927 w h i c h is a t r a n s l a t i o n w i t h c o m m e n t a r y

of the chapters in the last (thirtieth) part of the Al-

Kur'an, from the w o rks of his teacher Shaikh Muhammad

t — '— *
'Abduh of Egypt. He also t r a n s l a t e d the book c a l l e d 'Slam
 84

Perempuan' or 'The F e m i n i n e World' from about half of the

famous work 'Tahrir ul-Mar'ah' (The Emancipation of

Women) by Kasim Amin Bey of Egypt. In ad d i t i o n he

*

published 'Kitab Ugama I s lam da n Akal1 (On Islam and

Rational) in 1931 and e d i t e d 'Kitab Ugama Islam: I'tiqad

d an I b a d a t 1 f r o m an earlier translation by Raja Muhammad

Sa'id bin Raja Muhammad T a hir of Riau. He further

* •
translated two a r t icles 'True Praise' and 'Honour' from

Shaikh Muhammad 'Abduh.

At the instigation of the Malay translation

B u r e a u set up by the British Government in Malaya in

1924, t r a n s l a t e d w o r k s w e r e c a r r i e d out w h i c h co m p r i s e of

w o rks translated from Egyptian sources and popular

Western literature. For example, the book 'C h e r m i n

Muslimin' (The Muslims' Mirror) which contained articles

on various u n l s l a m i c b e liefs and p r a c t i c e s and the n eed

for reformation, was published in 1920. In 1922, 'Tunas

Islam' (Islamic Shoots) which discourses on a s pects of

religion in the light of modern adjustments in India,

Arabia and Egypt was published. A boo k 'Tarikh Orang-

orang Mashhor Islam' (Dates of Famous Islamic Figures)

published in 1929, contains the biographies of some

historic Muslim celebrities compiled f rom various

 85

English works on the History of Islam and Arabic

literature.

In 1932 the book 'Umbi Kemajuan' (The Shoot of

Progress) and 1S u k a t a n Azali1 (The Measurement of

Eternity) w e r e published. The d i s c u s s i o n w as b a s e d on the

Al--Kur’‘an, and was about perennial religious problem of

Free Will and Predestiny. It was translated and e x p a n d e d

f rom I s l amic writings in English and Arabic. In 1934

t h ere was a pamphlet entitled 'P e n d a p a t a n Bahath' Ulania1

* ""
(Result of the Islamic Scholars' Debate) published. It

was translated from extracts taken from various Arabic

books of acknowledged standing, which gave

pronouncements on the freedom of human will. These

pronouncements wer e by celebrated ancient and modern

writers and leaders in the Sunni School s u c h as the Imam

ul-Haramain, al-Ghazali, al-Nasafi, Ibn Taimiyyah, Ibn

al-Kayyim, al-TaftazanT and Shaikh Muhammad 'Abduh. Its

translation w as c a r r i e d out by a noted ' 'alim' of the

modern school S—h a i k h T* a h i r Jal'alu'd - d i n . However, the

book w as b a n n e d by the Perak religious authorities.

The Asasiyyah Press Kelantan translated modern

Arabic literature of Egypt into Malay. This in c l u d e d the

b ook 'Selamat Tinggal Ayohai T i m o r 1 1 (Goodbye D ear East)

 86

published in 1931 w h i c h tells the s t o r y of h o w the Turks

a b o l i s h e d the CalTphate, h o w B o l s h e v i k R u s s i a was w o r k i n g

for the u n d o i n g of E a s t e r n nations, and h o w the r e f orming

movement represented by Kamal and his group f o rged its

w a y a m o n g the people.

'Tarikh Perjalanan Mustapha Kamal Basha1 (The

Travel Diary of Mustapha Kamal Basha) a biography of

Mustapha Kamal w as published in the same year. A long

hi s t o r i c a l novel, 'Puteri M a s i r d e n g a n P a h l a w a n R aja R u m ’

(The Egyptian Princess and the R o m a n King's Warrior) was

published in 1932 narrating the conquest of Egypt and

Alexandria by the Muslim general 'Amru b in 'As and

describing the conditions of life a m ong the Arabs, the

Copts and the R o mans in those days.

In 1927, the b o oks w r i t t e n by Za'aba, 'P e n d a p a t a n

Perbahasan Ulama/ Berkenaan Dengan Kadha d an Kadar' (The

Results of Muslim Scholars' Debate on Al-Kada' w"a'1

Kadar) published in Penang, and 'Falsafah Takdir' V o l .I

(The P h i l o s o p h y of Fate V o l .I ) w e r e o p p o s e d or b a n n e d by

the Perak I s l amic Affairs Department. This was because

t h ese books were considered to be a g a inst the religious

teachings of the state or it fav o u r e d the teaching of

'mu'tazilTs' w h i c h was against the t e a c h i n g of the then

 87

state 'Mufti' (Baharuddin and others (comp.)/

1985:304)(13).

In journalism, the first decade of the twentieth

century saw a r t icles and n e w s p a p e r s giving more priority

to the contemporary issues on I si Urn s u c h as the q u e s t i o n

of bank interest, usury 'riba' and the d o c t r i n e s of M i r z a

GhulcTm Ahmad of QadianI (Winstedt, 1939:151). According

to W i n s t e d t (Winstedt, 1939:155) in 1933 the C o o p e r a t i v e

Department published the views of Syed She~Tkh on 'riba'

or usury in which he says that interest from banks,

shares and cooperative s o c i eties were religiously

permissible. This was against the views majority of the

Muslim scholars. Regarding this, Mohd Talb, (1986:42)

f *
says, "It is noteworthy that among the religiously

learned, the 'Ulama' , the str u g g l e w as not against the

corrupting i n f l uences of the West alone but against the

c o n s e r v a t i s m of t h eir o w n people, e s p e c i a l l y in looking

at I s l a m in the w r o n g light. A l - I m a m w as a m a g a z i n e w h i c h

propounded I s lamic thoughts which were considered to

be in line w i t h c u r rent needs."

In the t h i r t i e s w r i t e r s t e n d to be m o r e p e r c e p t i v e

and more analytical in their approach when discussing

social issues and n a t i o n a l i s m (Muhammad (ed), 1988:xvii).

0
 88

Many writers felt that p r e s e r v i n g the v a l u a b l e practises,

standards and ideals of the past against the impact of

W e s t e r n c u l t u r e was vital w h i l e o t h e r s felt the ideal wa y

wa s the Islamic w a y and all ' 'adat' must c o n f o r m to this

ideal.

The i n f luence of Arabic language on Malay

l i t e r a t u r e w i t h i n this p e r i o d is c l e a r l y d i s t i n guishable.

Zainal 'AbidTn b in Ahmad (Za'aba) claimed that the

boo k 'P e r t u t u r a n Melayu' (Malay Speech) written by

Abdullah bin Abdur R a h9 m a n of Muar also reflect the

same Arabic inf l u e n c e (Harimurti, 1983/84:2). Regarding

this, Winstedt claimed that most Malay authors' writings

who received education in A r a b i a and Egypt, were full of

ArabTsms, " marked less by the u se of Arabic words t han

by A r a b i c style and construction" (Winstedt, 1950:155).

During the printing period, though some Malay

writers h a d w r i t t e n on issues w i t h the a i m to b e t t e r the

life of the society, t h eir writings are not considered

Islamic b e c a u s e of their content. Regarding this, Mana

Sikaria" (1988:90) says, "Mengakhiri dengan taubat atau

keinsafan itu k a d a n g k a l a begitu mudah sekali d an s e m a c a m

sengaja diada-adakan oleh penulisnya bagi menunjukkan ia

sebagai k a r y a c e rpen b e r u n s u r Islam. Hal ini m a s i h belum

 89

dapat menjanjikan k a rya k r e atif yang mengesankan kerana

dari segi kandungannya, peratus kejahatan lebih banyak

digambarkan daripada kebaikan dalam kebanyakan karya

cerpin berunsur Islam", (To e nd a novel with the

fe e l i n g of repent or regret sometimes seems too easy or

written deliberately by its authors in an attempt to

produce works with an Islamic element. This does not

ensure impressive creative writing s i nce from its

content, the p e r c e n t a g e of evil portrayed is larger than

the good in m ost of the short stories with IsrSmic

e l e m e n t s ).

Generally in the early post-war years most

literary works depicted the social problems in the

society, e r o s i o n of moral standards, poverty, and liberal

at t i t u d e s towards religious teachings. They also

p u r p o r t e d to c a r r y social c o m ments m o r a l i s i n g on the ills

b e s e t t i n g the M a l a y society.

Within this period, t h ere were short stories

w h i c h w h i l e d i s c u s s i n g the a t t i t u d e of th e M u s l i m so c i e t y

also p o int out the immorality of women an d friends w ho

endanger the individual and society. T he stories

highlighted the importance of advice, on pious man and

the w a y to Heaven: d i s c u s s i o n on divorce, rebellious sons

 90

and family life in a Muslim society. P l ays and poems

called upon the readers to strengthen their belief in

’God' and the life hereafter.

Between the y e ars 1949 to 1951 many novels wer e

written by Syed Abdullah bin Haji Abdul Hamid al-Edrus.

* ®

T h e s e books b l u n t l y c r i t i c i s e d the c o n t e m p o r a r y issues in

the Muslim society such as cruelty of husbands, the

misbehaviour of pious men and women, hypocritical men,

fa i lure in c h i l d r e n s ’ up-bringing, the issue of a p o s t a s y

and untrusworthy friends. Za' a b a ' s two books, 'Rahsia

Ejaan Jawi' (The S e c rets of Jawi Spelling) in 1952 and

'Asuhan Budi Menerusi Islam' (Islamic U p b r i n g i n g ) in 1957

are informative, giving effective advice and ideas to

its readers.

From the years 1960 to 1970 there are other

literary w o rks s uch as poems, short stories, plays,

novels a nd text literature which discuss t he reality of

life, Islamic history, the relationship between Allah

(God) a nd H is servants, the relationship between

individuals in life and the responsibilities of the

Muslims. Contemporary issues in M u s l i m society discussed

i n c lude m a t t e r s suc h as Islamic religious women teachers

and 'cina buta' (illegal r e - m a r r i a g e to e x - w i f e after the

 91

third divorce) . An e l e m e n t of a d v i c e is common in these

novels, poems and short stories w h i c h is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

of l i t e r a t u r e w i t h Islamic element.

At least three M u s l i m writers, Mohd N o o r GhanT,

V --

Awang Had b in S a l l e h and Anl s binti SabirTn (Baharuddin

and othe r s (comp.), 1 9 85:108,117 and 393) clearly opposed

M a l a y l i t e r a r y w o r k s w h i c h d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y e x p loit

sex in t h eir writings.

In the y e a r 1967, there was a t r a n s l a t i o n w o r k on

Islamic h i s t o r y 'Ikhtisar S e j a r a h Islam' (A B r ief Islamic

History) by R u s t a m bi n A b d u l l a h (Baharuddin and others

t

(comp.), 1985:240).

According to Mana Sikaria m ost literary works

before 1970 are not r e c o g n i z e d as Islamic literature. He

says that stories published in these years normally

reflects m o r e on the evil d e eds of their characters

ra ther t h a n on the part w h e r e the y c h a n g e d and repent.

" S e l alunya pengolahan tentang cerita kemungkaran yan g

dilakukan oleh watak-wataknya lebih panjang jika

d i b a n d i n g k a n d e n g a n b a h a g i a n di m a n a w a t a k - w a t a k tersebut

b e r u b a h d an insaf" (Normally, the s t o r y of evil a c t e d by

the actors are written longer compared to their c h a nces

and r e p e n t a n c e ) ( M a n a Sikana, 1988:86). In contrast, Ungku

 92

Maimunah (Ungku Maimunah, 1987:65), c l aims that the

position of I s lam as an e l e ment in M a l a y l i t e r a t u r e was

ev i d e n t earlier, but b e c o m e m o r e p r o n o u n c e d in the 1970s.

In their novels in the 1960s, t he writers argued

that moral decay of the Muslims was actually caused by

the absence of r e l i gious u p b r i n g i n g and the i n f l uence of

the m o r a l l y d e c a d e n t West. In the 1970s t he numbers of

Malay writers of novels, poetry, short stories, critics

and e s s a y s i n c r e a s e d rapidly. T h e r e w e r e two themes w h i c h

la r g e l y characterized the literature during t h e s e years,

the p l i g h t of the p o o r and the conduct of leaders of the

country (Ungku Maimunah, 1987:53). Malay Civil S e r vice

officers working as local bureaucrats a nd w ho were

English or W e s t e r n educated adversely gave rise to a new

life-style of vice and moral depravity. They were

described as 'berkiblat ke B a r a t ' ( w o r s h i p p i n g the West)

and 'bukan Melayu l a g i ’ (no longer Malay). The 'Wakil

Rakyat’ (The Members of P a r l i a m e n t )(14) w e r e perceived

by the writers as ’i r r e s p o n s i b l e and devious leaders'

since t h e y put t h e i r interests a b ove t h o s e of the masses.

They were seen as distrusted persons, corrupted leaders

and as h a v i n g p r o p e n s i t y for illicit sex.

The novels during these y e a r s too focused on

 93

the headmen and r e l i gious leaders as the former wer e

apt to a b use power and the latter for their polygamous

inclinations. Apparently, these writers were sympathetic

to one masses who remained neglected, poo r and

disadvantaged (Ungku Maimunah, 1987:54).

At the same time, there w e r e w r i t e r s w h o w r o t e the

so-called pornographic n o vels which were defined as

obscene. Supardi, (S u p a r d i , 1978-79:170) says of t h ese

" g a m baran sejelas-jelasnya perlakuan seks yang berlaku

d an diungkap sejelas mungkin dalam cerita, semata-mata

untuk tujuan perangsang nafsu dan perniagaan "(15) (sex

sc enes were clearly depicted and described in the s t ory

with the sole ai m to arouse the sexual desire of the

readers or for the sake of profit). These novels were

later criticized by some Malay writers as 'non-

literature' (Ungku Maimunah, 1987:54).

Consequently, there were suggestions among

the w r i t e r s to p r o d u c e l i t e rature i n c o r p o r a t i n g el e m e n t s

of Islam in M a l a y society. The Islamic R e l i g i o u s Af f a i r s

Division of the P r ime Minister's Department st a r t e d a

competition for short stories incorporating Islamic

values, while the F e d e r a t i o n of M a l a y s i a n I s l amic W r i t e r s

(GAPIM) which was f o u nded on 30 May 1976 t r ied to

 94

promote similar objectives. C oncomitant, va r i o u s

magazines made efforts to produce, what they considered

to be Islamic lit e r a t u r e (Ungku Maimunah, 1987:56).

Such magazines are ' D i a n !, 'a l - I s l a m ’,'a l - I s l a h ', 'Warta

Jabatan Agama Islam Johore', 'Menara* and 'Dakwah1 which

made it a p o l i c y to publish only works r e c o g n i z e d to

be Islamic oriented.

In line with the ' D a ’wa* movement va r i o u s

articles on Islamic lit e r a t u r e were written where

different c o n cepts and views were given by individual

s c h olars as mentioned before (Ungku Maimunah, 1987:57).

The F e d e r a t i o n of M a l a y s i a n N a t ional Writers' Association

(GAPENA) which w as founded on 23 October 1970. In the

following year during 'Hari Sastera' it c a r r i e d the theme

'Islam as a S o urce of Literature' (Islam sebagai sumber

sastera). The book 'K e s u s a s t e r a a n d an Etika Islam'

(Islamic ethi c s and literature) written by Shahnon Ahmad

discussed in detail his own view on Islamic

li t e r a t u r e (16).

General D e f i n i t i o n of an Islamic Literary.

The discussion on Isl’amic literature focuses on

matters re l a t i n g to its definition, basic principles,

 95

purposes an d general characters of the literary works.

However, as Kratz says, with ref e r e n c e to Indonesia, the

question that arises is "whether an Islamic lite r a t u r e

was to be defined dogmatically as a literature s o lely

serving a da'wa purpose-the p r o p a g a t i o n and d i s s e m i n a t i o n

of the Faith on the basis of received theo l o g i c a l

opinion-or whether it was suf f i c i e n t to call literature

I s l amic if it w as root e d in Islam and took its w o r l d - v i e w

and moral principles from Islamic ethics w i t hout

curtailing an au t h o r ' s creativity, imagination and

fac i l i t i e s of (self) doubt and (self) criticism."

Theological issues become the core issues and the

question of whether an anthropomorphic, satirical and

human portrayal of God, the prophets and the angels in

literary works are permitted by Al-Kur'an and Hadith^ is

still a matter of dispute among Muslim writers (Kratz,

1986:61)( 17) .

Mana Sikana defines Islamic literature as the

lit e r a t u r e which creates civilization and culture and as

a manifestation of devotion (Mana Sikana, 1991:5)(18).

According to A hft m a d Is k a n d a r (Ahmad

& Iskandar, 1977:95)

Isl'amic literature is the expression of the inner soul

of the 'muqarrabin' (those who are n ear to Allah) and its

 96

m a i n aim is to s t r e n g t h e n the faith and to raise moral

standards: the ultimate a i m of w h i c h is to save m a n ’s

worldly life and his life h e r e a f t e r (Mana Sikana, 1991:5-

6 ).

There are v e rses in Al-Kur'an and Sunna

*

which clarify the f e a tures of Islamic l i t e r a t u r e (19).

Islam p l a c e s p r i o r i t y on language that is beautiful,

clear and instructive and is against vague, confusing

w o rds and incongruous symbols that can mislead its

readers (Kassim and Shahnon, 1987:15). Thus, l iterature

that breathes Islam, which can unite a nd merge the

beautiful, the good and the true, a manifestation of

Allah's qualities is encouraged by Islam. Islamic

lit e r a t u r e that is truthful to the Islamic view, pr a c t i s e

and way of life but fails to fulfil aesthetic condition

re q uired in literature will be classed as preaching

rather t h a n a r t i s t i c w r i t i n g (Bada.wT, M.M. , 1992: 123).

From another point of view, the art of Islamic

literature is the art which gives a picture on the

existence of thin g s from the Islamic w orld-view; u s ing

b e a u tiful words, discussing life and th e people. To

Hamka, "Art m e ans beauty. Allah enjo y s beauty, provided

this b e a u t y does not v i o l a t e the law of religion" (Kratz,

 97

1986:65). In Islamic literature there is a point where

both beauty and truth meet perfectly (Kassim

o
a nd

Shahnon, 1987: 23-24).

Muslim scholars and writers (of fiction) held

d if f e r e n t views on the q u e stion of I s l amic literature.

There are Muslim 'scholars who belief that Islam is

against literature (Mana Sikana, 1983:41), that all poets

are evil and possessed by the devil (Kratz, 1986:62)

an d that lit e r a t u r e is not a part of Islamic religion.

T h ere are o t h e r s who put great effort to i n t r o d u c e to t he

world what they c o n sider the true c o n c e p t of Islamic

literature. At the same time there are M u s l i m w r i ters w h o

claim that all li t e r a r y works are -Islamic since they

believe that literature and Islam both deal with society

a nd aim at g i v i n g s o c i e t y a better life.

According to Nurazmi Kuntum, (1979:14-15)

'Sastera Kitab' and books written on Islamic knowledge

such as books on 'Fikh,

»
Tauhid,
«
Nahu, Tafsir, Hadith,
m — *

Tasawwuf' have been ac c e p t e d as Islamic literature. In

Malaysia literary works c o n s idered Islamic, according to

Nurazmi, emerged only in the nineteenth century- in

Trengganu and Patani in the form of 'kiifab falsafah and

tasawwlaf' . In fact, t h ere are other similar 'kitab'

 98

written by H a m z a h Fansuri, Nuruddin al-Raniri, Syamsuddin

al-Sumatr'ani and others b e f o r e the n i n e t e e n t h century.

The modern Islamic books are equivalent to the

1S a s t e r a K i t a b 1 b o t h being t h e o logical texts or non­

fiction writings. Up to the 1 9 7 0 ’s theological writings

were almo s t e x c l u s i v e l y the interest of M u s l i m scholars.

The general public was not interested in reading them.

However, from the 1970s onwards a large n u m b e r of modern

Islamic books were published for general re a d i n g which

became popular with their audience. These books

are written in Rumi (the Romanized script of the Malay

language) and in 'modern' Malay la n g u a g e but their

co n t e n t s are not very dif f e r e n t f rom the 'Sastera Kitab'

(Mohd Nor, 1 9 8 3 :vii). This will be the m a i n focus of m y

s t udy in c h a p t e r three, c h a pter four and c h a p t e r five.

In Malaysia, the popularity of 'Sastera Kitab'

ceased at the end of the nineteenth century, one of the

r easons being the introduction of new literary genres:

novel, short story, p o e t r y and p lay (drama) f r o m the West

which became more popular in the twentieth century. Some

of these literary works have Is l a m i c el e m e n t s

incorporated within them (NurazmT, 1991:15-16) and are

w r i t t e n b y n o n - M u s l i m w r i t e r s as well.
 99

Among the p r e sent liter a r y works produced in

Indonesia and in Malaysia also is a particular brand of

p r ose fiction known in I n d o nesia as 'roman picisan' or

'dime novel 1, 'sastera lucah' in Malaysia, which has

c aught the public interest. Its writers considered them

as Islamic, however t r a d itional Muslim scholars who do

not want the lite r a t u r e to be considered I s l amic br a n d e d

'sastera lucah' as obscene. To o t her writers 'sastera

lucah' is trivial, melodramatic in nature and has little

l i t e r a r y value.

In Indonesia, the d e b a t e on the 'roman p i c i s a n 1

issue began since the late 1 9 3 0 's when Hamka and other

reformists wrote 'obscene' novels a nd Hamka allowed his

journals to publish them. Fro m then the opponents argue,

no v e l s that contradict the te a c h i n g s of Islam, and h a d a

bad and demoralizing e f fect on the youth are to be

f o r b i d d e n and considered unlslamic (Kratz, 1986:64-65).

In Malaysia, the d i s c u s s i o n on the same issue which was

evident in the p r e - w a r y e ars become more assertive in

the 1 9 7 0 ' s (U. Maimunah, 1987:65).

On this subject, Shahnon Ahmad shares the same

view with t h ese writers. To him profane l i t e r a t u r e is

t e c h n i c a l l y ag a i n s t Islam. T he t e c h n i q u e f o u n d in p r o f a n e
 100

literature is u s e d in s uch a w ay that what is w r o n g o v e r ­

shadows w hat is goo d and right, or wha t is despicable is

g i ven m o r e p r o m i n e n c e than what is h o n o u r a b l e (Kassim and

Shahnon, 1987:12)(20). To him, in Islamic literature the

truth is mad e manifest, the goo d e m p h a s i z e d and the

honourable asserted over the dishonourable (Mohammad

■j

(ed. ) 1988:394). Mana Sikana, Shahnon (Shahnon, 1983:32)

believe that "Islamic l i t e rature is literature which is

dedicated to Allah, moral l i t e rature based on religious

principles" and is based on good and noble criteria,

written with sincerity, truth, and free f r o m shame, doubt

and uncertainties (Mohammad (ed.) 1988 :391-398)(21).

H o w e v e r Suhaimi (Suhaimi, 1988:80-81), feels that the w a y

Islamic lit e r a t u r e is written is not an imp o r t a n t issue.

The crucial factor is that its content mus t not d e viate

from the teachings of I s lam and its objective, intention

and creation are because of Allah. To him this is the

p r i n c i p l e of Islamic writing.

Islamic l i t e rature a c c o r d i n g to Shahnon, must be

written by a Muslim since as a devotional exercise, a

writer, besides observing his obligatory d u ties as

prescribed by Islam, his k n o w l e d g e on I s lamic t h e o l o g y

and h i s t o r y is important to ensure that the devotional

 101

exercise is correct and legitimate. He v i e w e d the concept

of I s l amic l i t e r a t u r e as far d i f f e r e n t f r o m othe r s since

the f o rmer emerge from the inner self because its basic

c o m m u n i c a t i o n is b e t w e e n the a u thor and A l l a h w h e r e a s the

latter is between the a u thor and his readers (Kassim and

S h a h n o n , 1987:31-33,47).

In other words, Shahnon as well as Hamka (Kratz,

1986:72) viewed Islamic lite r a t u r e as "Literature

produced in the nam e of A l l a h and for mankind . The two

expressions, 'in the nam e of AlleLh' and 'for mankind' are

closely interrelated, for when we produce l i t e rature in

the name of Alllih, we be l i e v e automatically without any

doubt, that everything which Allah commands of us

(through the Al-Kur'“an and the Sunna) is for the well­

being and happiness of h u man beings" (Shahnon 1981:

3)(22). Furthermore, it is an accepted fact that

the writer's literary creativity is the gift of Allah.

Thus, it s h o u l d be u s e d for the good of mankind.

According to Ismai1,(1987:X )I s l amic lit e r a t u r e

discusses and emphasises Islamic values in life, such as

fear of A l l a h and obedience to Allah. To M a n a Sikana,

Islamic writing teaches its readers to be good natured

and to a v oid evil deeds. It not o nly e d u c a t e s the soul

 102

but apparently relates to h u man development too (Mana

Sikana", 1991:5-6). Thus Islamic lit e r a t u r e is literature

of d e v o t i o n to o b t a i n the b l e s s i n g s of Allah, emphasising

ri g h t e o u s c o n duct based on Al-Kur'an and Hadith. It is

l i t e rature that aims to strengthen Islamic brotherhood

a m ong Muslims and to give man guidance to become a

pe r f e c t or u n i v ersal man 'insan kamil'. Mana Sikana"

agrees that Islamic literature is confined not o nly to

certain subjects but d i s c usses every aspect of the life

of Muslim 'Ummah' (Mana Sikana, 1991:9)(23). S i nce in

Islamic literature moral clarity is a crucial

consideration, the writers should be geared towards

highlighting morals which are regarded as superior

aesthetics (U.Maimunah, 1987:67).

Concurrent with this, v a r ious articles on Islamic

literature were written by individual scholars giving

different co n c e p t s and views. Dewan Sastera's August 1977

issue c o m p i l e d several critics' o p i n i o n on the subject in

its special f e a ture ’F o r u m Sastra Islam1 (Forum on

Islamic L i t e r a t u r e ) .

Further discussions on the subject of Islamic

lit e r a t u r e inv o l v i n g the literature incorporating the

e l e m e n t s of I s lam (sastera ber u n s u r Islam) f o l l o w e d suit,

 103

most s i g n i f i c a n t of w h i c h was the p o l e m i c b e t w e e n S h a hnon

Ahmad and K a s s i m Ahmad. K a s s i m agrees w i t h S h a h n o n that

* m '<r —

Islamic lit e r a t u r e is literature d e d i c a t e d to Allah,

moral l i t e r a t u r e b a s e d on inviolate principles, an act of

religious devotion (^ahnon, 1988:391). Kassim a c c epted

S h a h n o n 1s ideas that Islamic l i t e rature is literature for

the sake of Allah and intended for man, a moral

literature as determined by 1a l - K h a l i k 1 (The Creator), a

literature with clear writing and written as a religious

duty (S h a h n o n , 1988:393).

Nevertheless Kassim rejects S h a h n o n ’s definition

0 —

of Islamic l i t e rature as too narrow and in many

cases a m o u n t i n g to v a g u e g e n e r a l i t i e s (U. Maimunah, 1987

:67). To Kassim though some of the literary w o rks are

not c o n s i d e r e d as Islamic literature in the n a r r o w sense,

t he y should not be regarded as against I s lam since these

w o rks uphold moral valu e s as encouraged in Islam. The

e x i s t e n c e of u n l s l a m i c el e m e n t s in t h ese works such as

infidelity, superstition, adultery and others merely

depict reality in life (Kassim and Shahncm, 1987:5).

• — ■
Hamka w h e n d e f e n d i n g crit i c i s m s on the m o d e r n l i t e rature

in M a l a y or I n d o n e s i a n says, that t o d a y ’s s t o ries talk

about man, m a n ' s character, his struggles, his inner m i n d

 104

and his behaviour as ordinary people. The a u t hor's aim

is to c r i t i c i s e the de f e c t s in the society. To this

Hamka argu e s that if the author writes about someone

w ho commits a sin, it does not mean that the author

hi m s e l f co m m i t s that sin. To h im the p u r p o s e and intent

of the author are importa nt to ensure the direction of

the a im of the w r i t i n g and re l i g i o n does not prohibit it.

According to Hamka, I s lam is 1mubah' towards the q u e s t i o n

of l i t e r a t u r e (Kratz, 1986:64-65).

Shahnon stresses that the prerequisites of w r i t i n g

as an act of devotion are that the writer's intent must

be true, si n c e r e and its o b j e c t i v e s a c c e p t a b l e by Isl"amic

principles and carried according to the rules of Islam

(Shahnon, 1988:392).

Kassimconcludes that in general all Malay

literary works uphold moral values. Their ideals are

sa c r e d to I s lam since t h e se liter a r y works are for the

society, championing to improve people's thinking

corresponding with the ideals of a just society,

prosperity and peace, even though these works do not

begin with the n ame of Allah ( K a ssim and Shahnon,

0 — *

1987:7). U n l i k e Shahnon, K a s s i m a r gues that the q u e s t i o n

of m o r a l i t y in l i t e r a t u r e is not a matter of technique

 105

but of content. He believes as long as a writer d e p icts

the true w a y of life that u p h o l d s moral standards not

opposed by Islam, it cannot be against I s lam (Shahnon,

1988:394,396). Kassim even goes to the extent of

#

r e c o g n i z i n g the liter a r y w o r k of n o n - M u s l i m s as Islamic

and non-Muslims considered as Muslims s i nce their deeds

and thinking is relevant to Islam (Kassim and Shahnon,

1987: 23). Hamka agrees with this as long as their

w r i t i n g does not c o n t r a d i c t Islam (Kratz, 1986:65).

Kassim with his theory and concepts of a

progressive literature viewed I s l amic literature as

literature with I s l amic aesthetics, p r o d u c e d by m a n for

m an and the art of Islamic literature is the art of

li t e r a t u r e produced by using language encompassing

beauty, t r u t h and g o o d n e s s (24). However, Kassim in his

definition of fictional and non-fictional literature,

says that r e l igious writing (karangan yang berco r a k

agama) is a type of l i t e r a t u r e that is not a c r e a t i v e or

imaginative literature. To him I s l amic l i t e rature

(k e s u s a s t e r a a n yang bercorak agama) is not theo l o g i c a l

writing (Kassim and Shahnon, 1987:64).

A*

The y a r d s t i c k in Islamic criticism according to

Kassim is that, it portrays true situation either

%
 106

realistic or symbolic, it gives pleasure and benefits

emotionally, intellectually, morally and spiritually,

created with strength in character, t h eme and structure

using perfect language and f i n ally using su i t a b l e and

relevant l i t e r a t u r e conventions.

Mana Sikana d i v ides Islamic literature into two

categories; the lit e r a t u r e that totally fulfils the

concept of Islamic l i t e rature and the literature which

displays certain criteria or elements of Islamic

lit e r a t u r e (Mana Sikana, 1991:6). SuhaimT on the other

£
hand, divided li t e r a r y w o rks into three categories;

Islamic literature, unlslamic lite r a t u r e and lite r a t u r e

which is not against Islam. To him I s l amic literature

should be about Islamic faith, law, spirit and values

(Mana Sikana, 1988: 75-77).

Thus, based on the above definitions of Islamic

lit e r a t u r e M u s l i m w r i t e r s c l a s s i f i e d the classical and

modern literary works into Islamic literature or

lite r a t u r e w i t h Islamic elements.

For the pu r p o s e of this s t udy I view Islamic

lite r a t u r e as li t e r a r y w o r k s on Is rain or in a c c o r d a n c e to

the t e a c h i n g s of Islam for the b e n efit of mankind. It is

u sed for d i s s e m i n a t i n g the Islamic f a ith and Islamic way

 107

of life a m ong the p e o p l e explicitly, to strengthen the

M u s l i m ’s f a ith and guide t h e m on the rightful pat h in

life. It is written by a Muslim with sincere and true

intention as a devotional ex e r c i s e dedicated to Allah.

The language used is beautiful, clear and instructive,

its a p p r o a c h w i s e and effective and concurrently to

e n sure that the holiness and purity of A l - K u r ’an and

Hadxth are maintained and protected. However, literary

wo r k s incorporating some of the elements of Islam

written without meeting the co m p l e t e criteria mentioned

above are not c o n s i d e r e d as Islamic literature.

At p r e s e n t there is no real d i s c u s s i o n of the

Islamic nature of non-fiction. N e v e r theless, I suggest

that Is l a m i c nature of n o n - f i c t i o n has the f o l l owing

criteria:

1. To e x p l a i n about Islam and Islamic m a t t e r s from

all as p e c t s inc l u d i n g politics, economics, social,

science, e d u c a t i o n and culture.

2. To call man to e m b race and to practise the

tea c h i n g s of Islam.

3. To advice and to r e mind m a n to re f r a i n from

ac t i v i t i e s not p e r m i t t e d in Islam.

4. To solve problems in the society based on

 108

Islamic principles.

5. To give clear i n f o r m a t i o n and c o n c r e t e e v i d e n c e

from authoritative sources 'Al-Kur'an, Hadith, Id.jma 1 and

► » —

1K i y a s ’ an d recognized school of law, a l - S h a f i 1i ,

Hanafites, M a l i k i s and Hanbali.

6. To use Islamic terminology a nd an Islamic

s y s t e m of teaching.

For the p u r p o s e of m y study, I h a v e c r i t i c a l l y read

the modern Islamic texts cla i m i n g or purporting to be

I slamic and a n a l y s e d their comp o n e n t s in c h a p t e r five, to

see h ow far t h e y have ac h i e v e d the n o r m a t i v e criteria

of the d e f i n i t i o n of Isl amic lite r a t u r e as g i v e n above.

In general, most of the c h a r a c t e r s either in

novels or short stories are unsuitable in the eyes of

I s lam s i nce these evil cha r a c t e r s which were discussed

have deviated fro m true Islamic teachings, e v e n though

these characters are ended positively in line with

Islamic p r i n c i p l e s (Mana Sikana^ 1988:90).

As mentioned earlier, Ismail, (Ismail, 1987:36)

believed Islamic values were frequently used in modern

Malay literature but that very little could be termed

Islamic literature. Exceptions to this were poetry

w r i t t e n by Zulkifli Muhammad, Adi R u m i , B a d a r u d d i n H.O.,

 109

Marhan and Nahmar Jamil. This view is supported by Syed

Otjimah b i n S y e d O mar in his e s s a y 'Kita K e k u r a n g a n Karya-

Karya Agong Islam' (We lack Great Is l a m i c Works).

(Bah a r u d d l n and othe r s (comp.), 1985: 275).

Yusuf Zak T Y a a k o b a nd M a n a S i k a n a d i s a g r e e on this

*
v i e w a nd b o t h c l a i m that Islamic l i t e r a t u r e does not m e a n

that the whole literary w o rks mus t be re l a t e d to

religion. In fact, Maria SikaneT claims that t h ere is m u c h

Isl"amic l i t e r a t u r e in M a l a y t o d a y (Maria Sikana, 1983:53).

It m i g h t be true to say that t h e r e w e r e liter a r y

works with I s l amic e l e ment in the 1970s but M a l a y w r i t e r s

may have different ideas when claiming these w o rks as

Islamic. For e x a m p l e s the short stories, novels, poems,

translations, text literature, dialogues, w o r k i n g papers,

e s says or c r i t i c i s m w r i t t e n are e v i d e n c e that the a u t hors

were very keen to w r i t e on the c o n cept of Heaven, God,

parents, sins, responsibility, traditional Muslim

scholars, Islamic politics, adminis t r a t i o n , history,

literature, holy war, unlsl'amic w a y of life, and others

w i t h Isl'amic elements.

There are many Malay writers with Islamic

education backgrounds suc h as Abdul Rahim bin Haji

■* *
Salleh, w ho read Arabic and I s l amic studies and Syed
 110

Abdullah b in Haji Abdul Hamid al-Edrus, Harun Mohammed

*• *
Hassan, Mohd Ghazali b in Abdul Samad, Na'aman b in Haji

M o hVa m m a d flawi, Za k a r i a b in Ahmad, A h*•m a d M u r a d N a sra r u d d i n

and B a c h t i a r D j a m i l y w ho studied Isl'amic knowledge. Some

of t h e m also st u d i e d Arabic. Azizx b in Haji Abdullah is

*

a rel i g i o u s teacher. Even though they wrote li t e r a r y

works which emphasised el e m e n t s of I s lam t h e y wer e also

involved in writing texts which were considered

p o rnographic. Another writer, Na'aman, has of late

a c q u i r e d a n e w interest, that of t r a n s l a t i n g A r a b i c w o rks

into the Malay language. His translations h ave been

published. Na'aman is among the few creative writers

engaged in the discussions of the I s l a m i c a s pects of

literature ( Baharuddin and o t h e r s , ( c o m p . ) 1985:230).

It is true that there w ere many l i t e r a r y w o rks in

Malay especially after independence and after 1970 w h i c h

discussed o t her topics such as nation building,

development, brotherhood, integrity, cooperation,

security, n e i g h b ourhood, solidarity, economy, politics,

i n t e r national affairs, f o reign policy, welfare,

pollution, health and cleanliness but since the y were

based on platforms o t her t han Islam, these writings were

not c o n s i d e r e d Islamic or h a v i n g I s l amic element.

 Ill

Mana Sikana claims that at present non e of the

Malay novels themes are sole l y based on religion and

according to A. Wahab AlT not even one important

rel i g i o u s c h a r a c t e r has b e e n found in a M a l a y novel (Mana

S i k a n a -, 1983:39).

Thus, since the advent of print Muslim scholars

and M u s l i m w r i t e r s have p r o d u c e d l i t e r a t u r e of d i f f erent

genre. Muslim scholars were not interested in producing

creative l i t e r a t u r e but have f o c u s e d m o r e on n on c r e a t i v e

literature such as Islamic r e l i gious t e xts and r e ading

m a t e r i a l s b e t t e r k n o w n as 'Sastera K i t a b M o d e n '.

For the purpose of my study, I have critically

read the modern Islamic texts claiming or purporting to

be Islamic and a n a l y s e d their c o m p o n e n t s in chapter five

to see h o w far t h e y h a v e achieved the normative criteria

of the definition of Islamic literature. Their vigourous

effort will be examined f u r ther in the following

chapters.
 112

Notes

(1) See also M a n a S i k a n a 1983:26,39. _

(2) The M u s l i m w r i t e r s suc h as Y u suf Zaki Yaakob, Mohd
T a i b Osman, M o h a m m a d Haji Sail eh, R a h m a n S h a !cir1,
AbU B a kar Hamid, Ramil I sin, BaharudTn AJjmad,
Emaduddin ghalTl, HasjQiim Awang, Rosihan Anwar,
S h a f i e Abu_Bakar, H a m d a n Hassan, A b d u l Rahman al-
A h m a d i , Aziz Deraman, Hashim Musa, Sidi *Gazalba,
Ismail Ibrahim, Ungku Maimunah Mohd Tahir, ManS
Sikan§, M o h d A f f a n d X ^assan, M o h d JNor* bin Ngah,
NurazmT Kuntum and Wahab All too di s c u s s the
d e f i n i t i o n of the concept of Islamic literature.
(3) For e x a m p l e Kratz, 1986:61 m e n t i o n s several cases.
(4) For e x a m p l e in Madrasah, Persantren and other
tr a d i tional i n s t i t u t i o n s of r e l i g i o u s learning, the
t e a c h i n g of lit e r a t u r e was not included in their
curicula. See also A u d a h "Apresiasi s a s t r a Ind o n e s i a
dimadrasah d an pesantren" in Panii M a s v a r a k a t 21
(283) 1979:105-6.
(5) See also Winstedt, 1981:139.
(6) On the c o m i n g of Islam to the M a l a y A r c h i p e l a g o see
Fatimi, S.Q. Islam comes to Malaysia, Singapore:
M a l a y s i a n S o c i o logical R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e ; 1963,
(7) See also R i d d l e in I n d o nesia Circle, 1990(51):10
(8) Jones v i e w is c o n t r a r y to the conventional view
w h i c h p l a c e the d e v e l o p m e n t of Traditional Malay
l i t e r a t u r e in t he choronological order of folk
literature, a H i n d u p e r i o d and f i n a l l y the Islamic
period.
(9) According to Martin V an Bruinessen, there are
fourteen of his w o rks in recent reprint. See
M a r t i n V a n Bruinessen, 1990: 236.
(10) See also Lanman, Ingelise Lamont, 1988:227-251.
(11) See Kratz,E.U., R e v i e w Winstedt, R.O. A history of
C l a s sical M a l a y Literature. Y.A, T’alib, revised,
e d i t e d and i n t r o d u c e d by K u a l a Lumpur: M B R A S ; 1992;
L X V (2): 103-105.
(12) See also H o o k e r ,1992:7
(13) Za'aba, a contr o v e r s i a l Islamic personality, a
r e f o rmist supporter, was accused to had deviated
f r o m the tea c h i n g s of Islam and belonged to the
 113

Q adiani group, a group outlawed in Many Muslim

countries. Z a 'aba c l a i m e d that he was not k n o w n for
his Islamic contribution because he was secular
trained. H u s s i n M u t a l i b , 1993:24.
(14) Wakil rakyat l i t e r a l l y m e a n s P e o p l e Representatives
T hi s t e r m u s e d to refer to both parliamentarians
and state councillors. B o t h serve as policy-making
bodies.
(15) U n g k u M a i m u n a h t r a n s l a t e s this d e f i n i t i o n as, " The
e x p l i c i t portrayal of sexual acts in the story
w h i c h is couched in the c l e arest terms possible,
solely with the a im to a r ouse desire and for
p u r p o s e s of commercial gains." As q u o t e d by Ungku
Maimunah, 1987: 52
(16) See page 99-100 and 103-109.
(17) For detail discussion see Netti (1977), Hardj.ana
(1981) A h a r 1 9 6 3 : 8 1 - 9 0 , Toer (1956), H a r t o k o (1958),
WirHatmadjja (1958), H u t o m o (1979), T e e u w (1982).
(18) See also a l - A k k a d 1974:4.
(19) For the A l - K u r ’anic use of language and its
rhetorical inimitability (i'jaz), see Islamic
l i t e r a t u r e B e t w e e n T h e o r y and Practice, M.M. Badawl,
in Islamic V i s i o n I, No. I, 1992j_22. __
(20) S u r a h L u q m a n v e r s e 6, and Hadi-Ui Bukhari n a r r a t e d
fro m Saidiria A l T r.a. *
(21)" t e k n i k m e n e r a p k a n sifat riak d an t a k b u r itu d i o l a h
dengan cara pendedahan sehingga yang mungkar
m e n e n g g e l a m i y a n g makr u f atau yang hina tertonjol
lebih dari y a n g mulia."
(22) See also in D e w a n S a stera Januari, 1983:47-50.
(23) See also U n g k u M a i m u n a h 1987:66.
(24) See also Mana Sikana, 1983:27, 30, 55. Kassim,
Shahnon, 1987:1-5 and Shahnon, 1981:3-6, 7* and
64, M u h a m m a d (ed.), 1988:391-398, in D e w a n S a s t e r a
Januari, 1983:47-50.
CHAPTER THREE
 CHAPTER THREE

Sc o p e of Islamic W r i t i n g s on C o n t e m p o r a r y
Issues and T h eir O b j e c t i v e s F r o m 1975 - 1992

I s lam is p r e s e n t e d to the Muslims in Malaysia

t o day through the law and in the formal and informal

teaching and l e a rning sessi o n s in schools, 'madrasah',

'surau' and 'masjid'. T h ese sessions generally emphasise

limited matters pertaining to personal and f a mily laws

which deal with devotion, marriage, divorce, death and

inheritance. This is because since the C o l onial period

the M u s l i m s c h olars hav e bee n l e g ally g i v e n permission,

'tauliah', only to teach and to write on these

m atters(l). Generally, the government at the Federal

level, administers the civil and criminal laws, which

are considered as e c u l a r matter a nd are based on the

E n g l i s h legal s y s t e m and c u s t o m a r y laws (Wu, 1978:18-19).

Si nce the Islamic resurgence of the 1 9 7 0 's,

Muslim scholars, h ave discussed other s ubstantial

issues f rom an Islamic perspective besides the

traditional issues which are of personal concern. These

are issues which are more of public or general concern

such as the state, law, politics, economics, social,

development, education, culture, philosophy, medicine,

architecture, counselling, i n ternational affairs and

 115

Islamic literature (2). T h e y address the 'Ummah' at large

and do not concern exclusively the private life of the

individual. Lately, the forbidden issue of C o n s t i t u t i o n a l

Monarchy has b een openly and widely discussed among

Muslim writers in the daily, weekly and monthly

newspapers, magazines, bulletins and in Islamic books in

Malay (See Yahya", 1993; M o h d SayutT", 1989) .

« o it

The changes in the scope of the teachings of

I s lam brought about a fresh and rising consciousness and

commitment a m ong the Muslims to conform to the Islamic

w a y of life. The M u s l i m s demanded from the g o v e r n m e n t to

guarantee that food is produced and medicines are

manufactured in a manner prescribed by Islam and that

economic practices are in line with Islamic law (Sobri,

D

1988:90-130; C h a n d r a Muzaffar, 1987:3).

They urged the gov e r n m e n t to implement Islamic law

in all as p e c t s of everyday life i n c l uding dress, working

h o urs during prayer times, television p r o g r a m m e s (3) and

cultural activities. They appealed to the g o v e r n m e n t to

take m o r e d r a s t i c a c t i o n to o v e r c o m e crime, immoral and

illegal practices, corruption, gambling, drinking,

malpractices, injustice, dru g abuse and a d d i c t i o n (Haron

 116

and Sobri, 1988:72). T h o u g h at present the government is

a gainst t h ese a nti-social activities, unfortunately the

laws imposed see m i n e f f ective at controlling these

crimes.

The g o v e r n m e n t c o n tinues to issue licences for the

premises that provide f acilities for t h ese immoral

activities. For ex a m p l e they a l low films w i t h o b s c e n e and

v i o lent scenes to be shown on television and in cinema,

and books and magazines with ob s c e n e photographs to be

sold in the market. It is argued that this indirectly

encourages c r ime and sex abuses particularly among the

youth. Muslim writers likewise u rge the gove r n m e n t to

abolish the Internal S e c u r i t y Act and that all

convictions and prosecutions are b r o ught to court to

ensure justice advocated by Islam is practiced. The

i n c r eased number of detainees w h o are se n t e n c e d

wi t h o u t court hearing, is considered an ap p a l l i n g

practise for a country that pronounces itself as an

Isl'amic and a democratic c o untry (Ibnu Hasyim, 1993:122;

Yahya, 1993:83).

The Muslims furthermore want an Islamic education

system (See for e x a mple H a r o n and Sobri, 1988:72) and

*

b e tter welfare s e r vices for the poor. At present,

 117

t h o u g h the M u s l i m s a p p r e c i a t e the recent I s lamic emphasis

on education, t he establishment of I s l amic banking,

Islamic ins u r a n c e t h r o u g h the ’T a k a f u l ’ s y s t e m and the

s e t ting up of the International Islamic U n i v ersity. T hey

b e l i e v e m o r e swift ch a n g e s are needed.

The growing consciousness and fervour among the

Muslims of their responsibilities t o w ards I s lam on one

hand a nd the lack of religious theo l o g i c a l knowledge

among some Muslims on the other, a c c ount for a growing

de m a n d for books w i t h the right u n d e r s t a n d i n g of Islam.

Muslims need to learn which is right path against wha t

are considered or perceived to be the enormous and

d e s t r u c t i v e false doc t r i n e s of today.

Many M u s l i m s are 'Muslim' by virtue of their

parentage only and not by the w a y they lead their lives.

Many Muslim writers feel that these so called Muslims,

particularly the younger generation need to be guided

t o w ards the attainment of Islam's ultimate objective in

life. This would mean their total commitment and

su b m i s s i o n to A l l a h and p e r f e c t i o n individual life

physically, morally and spiritually in order to create a

better world. These induced Muslim writers draw into a

detailed discussion on contemporary matters r e l ating

 118

particularly to f a ith and on mor e scholarly subjects

including the position of Hadith, Sufism, 'tarikat',

leadership, the democratic system, poligamy, family

life, school of thought, 'madhhab', and ’bid'a' from

the Islamic p o int of view.

On the one hand the wor k of the Muslim wr i t e r s

shows their interest in the affairs of t he society and

t h eir at t e m p t to st i m u l a t e awareness a m ong the people

of the d a n g e r of the irret r i e v a b l e decadence that

thr e a t e n s future generation. Simultaneously, these books

reflect the pr o b l e m s and the c o n cerns of the country.

On the o t her hand, some of these b o oks can be view e d

as h a v i n g the potential to be d e s t r u c t i v e to the society,

nation an d relig i o n when the issues discussed cause

confusion and m i s a p p r e h e n s i o n among Muslims. This could

undermine t h eir unity and faith, threatening the

i n tellectual growth, the economic development and the

creation of a moral society. Such b o oks focus on

controversial issues, highlighting views which are not

accepted by or contradict the majority of Muslims

scholars.

To examine the scope of I s l amic books on

c o n t e m p o r a r y issues I will divide t h e m into t h ree main

 119

t o pics as follows; Theology, Islamic laws or

jurisprudence and general topics. When talking about

Islamic principle in general I based my statements on my

study and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the Holy al-Kur'an (4).

1. T h e o l o g y

Theology or 'TawhTd' is the I s l amic doctrine of

unity, the fundamental basis of the r e l i g i o n of Islam. It

is man's commitment to Allah no other, the focus of all

his reverence and gratitude, to rec o g n i z e no a u t h o r i t y

except His and accept no g u i dance other than His. The

co m m i t m e n t is total which involves love and worship,

o b e d i e n c e and s u b m i s s i o n and a sense of o b l i g a t i o n which

all are directed towards A l l a h alone, to W h o m man owes

everything even his own existence (Muhammad N e j a t u l l a h

(ed.) 1989:1-2).

Man's g e n u i n e com m i t m e n t to A i r a h involves faith,

the b e l i e f of the heart and the c o n f e s s i o n of the lips to

the truth, the Six Cardinal Articles of Faith. The y are

the belief in the oneness and unity of Allah, His

Apostles, His Angels, the Prophetic Books, the Day of

Ju d g e m e n t or Resurrection and in the Predestination of

w o r l d l y affairs by A l l a h 'al-Kada' w a'l-Kadar'.

 120

Faith includes the practise of, 'Amal' and all

that belongs to the religious life, avoidance of

i n v o lvement in a ny activities which can deflect a

Muslim's faith from the true teachings of Islam, as Islam

is against the u n b e l i e v e r 'k u f u r ', polytheism 'syirik',

hypocracy 'muriafiq1 and false doctrines which are the

g r e a t e s t of all sins.

T he scope and objectives of the modern Malay

Islamic b o oks on f a ith do not diff e r from the 'Kitab

Jawi ' or the 'Kitab Kuning' which were widely used as a

source of Islamic knowledge in the t e a c h i n g s of Isl'am

before the War (Mohd Nor, 1983:6). Besides imparting

Islamic knowledge both are written with the aim to

strengthen the Muslims' faith and to guide them on the

rightful path. However, unlike the 'Kitab Jawi' which

l argely c o nsist of translations, adaptations and

commentaries of Arabic books of past Muslim scholars,

(Bruinessen, 1990:235) the modern Muslim s c h olars give

e xplanations, using their own personal approach and put

forward their o wn r e s p e c t i v e views in r e gard to issues of

faith.

Such issues are: Islam b r o ught by the Prophets,

the e x i s t e n c e of Allah, man's relationship to Allah,

 121

Allah objectives in sending the Prophets, and the

Messengers, the Holy Books, Hadlth, the life history of

P r o p h e t Muhammad, the D a y Hereafter, on the d i s a p p e a r a n c e

of the Al-Kur'anic verses. Imam Mahdi, Heaven and Hell,

♦
' 'Alam K u b u f 1 (The Gr a v e ' s World), 'al-Kada' wa'l-Kadar',
♦ • t
polytheism, ' b i d ,’a', fiction, 'khurafat', the false

teachings, the teachings of Naqsha b a n d r a h , Islamic

tr a d i t i o n a l medicine, Schools of Law, !Ahl' Al-Sunna'

(SunnT) who believe that man's destiny thou g h

predetermined by Allah, one has to try to understand and

that man has to find his way before l e a ving his fate to

destiny, S h 1 'i , Qadiani, 'zikir' (chanting Allah's N a mes

and Attributes), conferring rewards to o t hers and

'usrah' (religious i n s t r u c t i o n in f a m i l y circle).

W r i t i n g of IsLamic books b e s i d e s p a r t i c i p a t i n g in

talks, discussions, seminars and conferences is a very

effective way of 'da'wa', (the act of inviting a person

to the true faith) particularly among the literates in

the urban areas. The boo ks written not onl y preach on

Islam as a whole but also a im to call the Muslims to

participate in the 'da'wa' acti v i t i e s personally or in

groups.

Generally, Muslim authors give their opini o n s

 122

ba s e d on the ’Ahl' al-Sunn^’' v i ews (the large sect of

Muslims who acknowledge the first four 'K h a l T f a ' to have

been the rightful successors of Muhammad and based their

opinion regarding Islamic law on Al-Kur'an, Hadith,

'Idjma' a nd 1K i y a s 1) and do not differ fro m e a c h other

on most basic Islamic p r i n c i p l e s e x cept on m i n o r Isl'amic

issues which are vaguely and not fully explained in

the 'Kitab J a w i ' or on co n t r o v e r s i a l issues which I will

d i s cuss f u r ther in C h a p t e r Four.

As 'Kit*ab J a w i 1, the books w r i t t e n e x p o u n d on the

SunnT doctrine in terms of Theology (Tauhid) and on the

9

S h a f T ’I School of law in terms of the Islamic Law (Fikh).

*

The fact that the views of M u s l i m scholars or w r i t e r s on

certain Islamic issues do var y and at times can be

contradictory, is a t t r i b u t e d to t h eir d i s t i n c t a c a demic

background, way of life and p o l i tical outlook. These

criteria a f fect t h eir p e r s o n a l i t i e s and t h e i r credibility

as Muslim scholars ' 'Ulama' ' which is occasionally

q u e s t i o n e d and d o u b t e d b y other Muslims.

The disagreement on Islamic m a t t e r s in the books

does so m e t i m e s i n f luence Isl'amic practices a m ong the

Muslim readers, which may further lead to the act of

accusing one another of b e i n g polytheist or ’bid^a'

 123

or 'khureTfat' or practising false teachings.

To strengthen the Muslims' faith and unity,

several b o oks were written discussing directly these

issues such as the accusation or branding of being

infidel, 'takfir' (For example see Wan Zahid, 1987),

apostasy, 'murtad', (See Amran, 1988), martyrdom,

(BAHEIS, n.d.) anti-Hadith, (Abdul Halim, 1991),

* G
sainthood, holy places, 'keramat', Sufism, Imam Mahdi,
*■
Islamic traditional medicine, on repentance, (For ex a m p l e

S*iti Faridah, n.d.) the existence of Allah, syirk,

'bid'ef', ’k h u r a f a t * , the false teaching, N a qshabandiah,

inv i s i b l e beings, Islamic trad i t i o n a l medicine, on the

devil, the g e nie and the p r a c t i s e of t r a n c e 1m e n u r u n 1.

B i d 1a!

Bid'a m e a n s the originating new matters of

worshipping Allah with the intention that it is

rewardful. The ancient M u s l i m Sc h o l a r s were often faced

with the problem of categorizing and characterizing the

'bid'"a' practises since they frequently r e fer to Hadith

*

narrated fro m different sources w h i c h v a r y in authority

and quality. They g ive different views and

in t e r p r e t a t i o n s of ' b id'a7 .Some limit 'bid'"a7 to

 124

practices which concern only devotion service 'ibada'.

Others claim ’B i d ' a Hasanah' that is d one with a goo d

aim is a l l o w e d by Islam w h e r e a s ’Bid'"a SaTTah' done with

a b ad intention is prohibited by Islam. A more rigid

view clai m s that any for m of 'bid'a’ is forbidden in

Islam since Allah has perfected the religion (Al-

Maidah:3) and as such there is no need for a ny a d d i tions

or d e l e t i o n s to or from Islam.

Many Muslims in Malaysia rely totally on the

'Kitab' an d the Muslim scholars opinions (without clear

evidence and proof), for Islamic knowledge. Their

k n o w l e d g e on I s l a m was then learnt and p r a c t i s e d blindly,

'taklid' without question and w i t h o u t t h e m r e a l i s i n g that

some of t h ese p r a c t i s e s are c o n s i d e r e d 'bid'a'.

The H o l y Prophet M u h a m m a d says that innovation in

0

matters of Islamic religion is 'bid'a' and whoever

practices 'bid'a is to go a s tray(Ahmad Yusuf, 1987:16).

c<
Every bid'a is a deviation from the right p a t h and e v e r y

deviation will lead to the fire of Hell (Hadith n a r r a t e d

by A h m a d ) . Whoever practises o t her than the practises of

<8

the Holy Prophet will be r e j ected by Allah(5). Since

'bid'a itself is an e r r o r and misguidance, t hen there is

 125

no such thing as a good 'bid'a' or 'Bid'a Hasanah'.

The leader of the 1Ittiba"1 al-Sunna' (The

followers of al-Sunna) movement, a movement which

r ejects the four s c h ools of law is Hashim A. GlTanT. In

his boo k of questions and answers 'G a y u n g Bersambut

Pertama' (First S t r i k i n g Arguement) published in 1981 he

discusses the issues of 'bid'a' commonly practised among

Muslims such as 'wird', uttering the word '£amien', the

twenty Attributes of Allah 'sifat dua puluh' and other

issues on faith.

Hashim Abd. Ghani in his b ook 'Gelanggang

Soal Jawab' (Question and Answer Forum) published in

1984, continued to discuss several contemporary issues

on 'bid'a'. These covered 'bid'a' in devotion services

which involves reciting prayers, 'du'a', in a g r oup or

congregation, unobligatory p r ayer following the Friday

prayer and p r a yers for the well-being of parents during

prostration, 'sudjud'. These practices are not found in

the Haditb and were practised by the Muslims onl y after

the d e a t h of the H o l y Prophet.

The book 'Bid'ah1 written by Ahmad Y u suf (who

su p p o r t s 'Ittiba' al-Sunna' movement's view) in 1987

e x p l a i n s to its readers the d i f f e r e n c e s between 'S u n n a '

 126

and 'bid'a'. This book aims to help M u s l i m s to repent and

to p r a c t i s e the true SunnT's dev o t i o n a l services. O t her

topics d i s c u s s e d include the d e f i n i t i o n of 'bid'a', the

the d i f f e r e n c e s between 'bid'a', 'S u n n a ' an d 'idjtihad',

the different types of 'bid'a', ’b i d ’a in the Muslim

society, controversial issues which are considered

' b i d ’a' such as disregard for the authority, to take

photographs and to mak e sculptures 'seni ukir',

't a w a s s u l '(6) and the festival hel d on P r o p h e t Muhammad's

-* s
b i r t h d a y (7).

Some Muslims of wea k faith ask Allah for their

n e eds and favours by entreating to Him through the

dignity, rank and honour of Muhammad a nd other goo d and

0
p i ous people of the Muslim 'Ummah' . Some eve n go to the

grav e s of pious people and ask them to entreat All"ah to

fulfil their needs and desires, believing that they can

listen to t h eir pleas and help them. All these kinds of

'wasilah' are 'bi'da' and considered to be 'Syirk-e-

A k b a r ', i.e. the most serious sin (Yunus: 106, al-Syura:

2 1 ).

In the light of the Al-Kur'an and the Sunna,

m

Muslims can e n t reat Allah only through the permitted

wasilah, by m a k i n g a fervent plea to H i m and mentioning

f-
 127

Allah's glorious Names and beautiful Attributes, His

mercy and kindness (A l - A 'a r a f :180, Al-Maidah:35 and a

n u m b e r of H a d l t h n a r r a t e d by A h m a d and M u s l i m ) .
* — — r

Th ere are some books published which introduce

certain teachings or practices based on a particular

school of law w h i c h have bee n rejected and considered

'bid'a' by others. E x a m p l e s of suc h b o o k s are those w h i c h

encourage Muslims to recite the 'talkin' during burial

(YaalT Dahaman, 1979:38-48),(8) reciting prayers for the

dead, to be invol v e d in SufT

*
activities (9) and to use

v e r s e s f r o m the A l - K u r ' a n in curing i l l nesses (10).

According to Yahya Zakri, every Muslim is allowed

♦

to confer the rewards of their recitation to Prophet

Muhammad and the dead and to read v e r s e s of the A l - K u r ' a n

beside the grave. The reciters are permitted to receive

payments f r o m those w h o m a k e the request to read the Al-

Kur'an for the dead. In his book 'Risalah Yang Bernama

Hadiah Yang diKirimkan Daripada Orang Yang Hidup Kepada

Orang Yang Mati' (Pamphlet Titled Present Sent By the

L i v i n g To the Dead) published in 1988, he m e n t i o n s the

four matters left behind by the dea d for which the soul

is rewarded; they are righteous children, useful

knowledge, d o n a t i o n s and p l a n t e d trees. He claims to be

 128

in agreement with the m a j o r i t y of Muslim scholars on the

matter.

Other practises of interest mentioned in his

book i n c lude v i s i t i n g the cemetery by women, prayers

for the d e a d a nd for the reciter, v i s i t i n g the cemetery

at B h q i ' (cemetery for Companions of the Prophet in

Madinah), v i s i t i n g the grav e s of P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d and His

i
two Companions (the Caliphs of A b u B a k a r and Umar),

reciting the 's a l a w a t '(praises for the P r o p h e t Muhammad),

* *
seeking forgiveness from Allah for oneself and one's

parents, a list of prayers, 'du'a', that should be read

after the five daily prayers, 'salat', and other non-

obligatory prayers, and the procedure of 'Salat Hadjat1

(Prayer with a s p e cific intention). All these practises

a c c o r d i n g to 'I t t i b a 7 al-Sunna' are 'bi'da'.

The book 'Doa'- D o a 1 Dari al-Quran & Hadis' (The

P r a yers From Al-Kur'an and HadlthJ by Ishak D"in (1991),

is inten d e d to help Muslims to understand prayers

commonly practised by Muslims. It points out that they

s h o u l d w o r s h i p A l l a h t h r o u g h hope as well as t h r o u g h fear

(A l - S a d j d j a d a h : 16). Aspects of praying are highlighted

suc h as the w i s d o m and a d v a n t a g e s of prayers, the v a rious

rules r e l a t i n g to it and the manner of praying.

 129

Selected prayers from the A l - K u r ' a h and Hadith with

its t r a n s l a t i o n in M a l a y are also included.

Some Muslims do not take the initiative to

memorize the Arabic pr a y e r s 'du'a' from Al-Kur'an and

Hadith knowing that Allah hears them even though their

p r a yers are in the M a l a y language. Some of the M u s l i m s do

not r e a l i z e that to say t h e i r p r a y e r s in A r a b i c will gain

greater r e w a r d s .

Apostasy

Apostacy is the act of going back to u n b e l i e f from

Islam. According to Hadith Sahlh narrated by Asmah bin

• — * # f
Malik apostasy or 'murtad' is a very s e rious sin. The

offender ca n be s e n t e n c e d to death or k i l l e d (10) if he

fails to r e turn to Islam after he has b e e n given three

ch a n c e s to repent. In Islam this law is call ’Hud"ud law'

M
and t he punishments are fixed in the Al-Kur'an and

irreplacable by 'ta'zTr'. Though in the Al-Kur'lTn the

a

ap o s t a t e is threatened with punishment in the next world

only, the p e n a l t y b e ing eternal damnation and the inmates

of fire in Hell (A l - B a q a r a h : 217) . It is the d u t y of e v e r y

Muslim to believe and to put into practice whatever is

m e n t i o n e d in an a u t h e n t i c H a d i t h since it is the Sunna

 130

w h i c h specifies, explains, clarifies and determines

the purport of the Al-Kur'an (Al-Nahl:44) (Mohammad

H a s h i m , 1991:60-61).

The provision of 'Hudud L a w 1 is not found in the

pr e sent laws in Malaysia and is considered

un c o n s t i t u t i o n a l . When the Kelantan S t ate Assembly

e n a c t e d the p r a c t i s e of 'Hudud Law' among Muslims in that

*
state it was rejected by the Federal G o v e r n m e n t (11).

Kelantan State Gov e r n m e n t can not implement the 'Hudud

Law' in the state as long as the the Federal Government

does not a m end the provision concerned in the Malaysian

Constitution. This is be c a u s e when the state law

c o n flicts with the Federal law the S t ate law will be

null and void as far as it c o n flicts with the Federal

law (Article 6 [75] M a l a y s i a n Constitution).

Though the number of Muslims w ho commit

apostasy, convert to other rel i g i o n s or b e came

polytheist is considered small, it has led to the c l aim

that the Malays at present are not one hundred percent

Muslim. Nevertheless, the books written about this issue

are to remind the Muslims, particularly the youth, to

a v oid apostacy in order not to be punished by Allah in

the life Hereafter.

 131

Amran KasimTn's book 1Satu analisa mengenai

Murtad' (An Analysis of Apostasy) discusses the

definition of apostasy 'murtad', factors which lead to

apostasy, the impo r t a n c e of rel i g i o u s education in

curtailing the numbers of a p o states and apostasy from

the legal p o int of v i e w and t he Islamic law.

Polytheism ’S y i r k 1

The gr a v e s t of all sins is to commit 'syirk'. This

means to ascribe any k ind of association or partnership

with Allah or setting up other de i t i e s besides Allah or

the denial of His obsolute co m m a n d of the universe (Al-

Luqman: 13). Th e most severe 'syirk' is called 'syirk-e-

A k b a r ’ (the s e r ious polytheism) which is an u n f o r g i v e a b l e

sin and the penalty is eternal damnation unless man asks

for forgiveness from A l l a h (Al-Maidah: 72). A person who

performs an act of w o r s h i p or does a good deed but his

intention is not entirely for the sake of Allah has

commited 1s y i r k - e - A s g h a r 1 (not a serious polytheism). The

g ood deed of a person w ho committed 'syirk' does not

benefit him and will not be accepted by Allah (Al-

A n 'a a m :8 8).

In M u s l i m s o c i e t y today, wearing a chord or a

 132

pendant around the neck, w r ist or any part of the body,

or an a m ulet or any o t her m e t a l l i c items w i t h the belief

that they will p r otect them s e l v e s fro m the evil eye or

i n v i sible evil powe r s is c o mmon but is clearly against

Islam. In H a d i t h n a r r a t e d by Ahmad, Pr o p h e t M u h a m m a d o nce

1 ■o

said that a n yone w h o h u n g or w ore an amulet, c o m m i t t e d an

action of ’syirk'. Islam too warns Muslims to avoid the

practise of magic (A l - B a q a r a h : 102) or to believe in

fortune tellers and those w h o p r e dict the f u t u r e or claim

that t h e y have the exact k n o w l e d g e of the future, because

only Allah has the knowledge of the 'al ghayba1 (Al-

N a m l :65).

On polytheism, Ab. Aziz Bin Mohd Zin in 1989

wrote the book 'SyirTk' (Polytheism) using authoritative

references. In this boo k d i s c u s s i o n s on ’s y i r k ’ are b a sed

on the opinion of authentic ' 'UlamlT' ' of the d i f ferent

schools. It examines the differences between polytheism

and agnosticism, factors which lead to polytheism, the

danger of polytheism and its significant effects and the

d i v i s i o n s and the c a t e g o r i e s of polytheism.

Traditional Medicine

The p r a c t i c e of t raditional medicine a m ong the

M u s l i m s can lead to a Muslim b e ing ’s y i r k ’ and going

 133

astray. M u s l i m s w ho belief in the power of the

supernatural, the p o w e r of ghosts, genies a n d the devils,

of inflicting harm upon human bein g s often resort to the

h elp of the 'b o m o h 1 . A 'b o m o h ' is a person w ho is

believed to be able to serve as a go-between or as a

m i d d l e m a n b e t w e e n m a n and the forces of the supernatural.

They are called upon to pacify the supernatural powers

from fra c t i o u s babies, pregn a n t women and the sick

(Mokhtar, 1979:viii), to diagnose illness and to locate

lost property.

Some even seek the s u p e r natural being through

these h u m a n intermediaries to help the sick to recover or

even to obtain i m m u n i t y from legal prosecution, from

diseases and in extreme cases from death as re p o r t e d in

the murder case of the Paha n g S t ate Assemblyman in

1993(12). It is thought that through conducting certain

ceremonies and feasting, cases of hysteria, p o s s e s s i o n by

evil spirits can be averted. The apparent success of

some 'bomoh' to heal ai l m e n t s to w h i c h m o d e r n medicine

has f o und no cure, to exorcize evil spirits from homes,

acc o u n t s for the continuous relia n c e of the Muslims on

the ' b o m o h ' . The beli e f in the power of the 'bomoh' and

the i n v i s i b l e cr e a t u r e s is h o w ever against the doctrine

 134

of faith in God, the b e lief in the U n i t y of God.

I s l amic trad i t i o n a l M e d i c i n e p r a c t i s e d b y Prophet

Muhammad a i med to seek hel p from Allah through re c i t i n g

tf

Al-Kur'ahic verses and prayers to Allah. It is obvious

»
that in the Muslimsociety there are a few w ho might

confuse the Malay t r a d itional medicine with the Islamic

traditional medicine since at p r e sent some 'bomoh' misuse

A l - K u r ’^ n i c verses in t h eir task to pacify the

supernatural powers. This can be seen f r o m the ex a m p l e s

of recitation used by the 'bomoh' in some of the books

published (See Amran, 1987; AzaharlT,n.d) . A few lines of

the Al-Kur'an are uttered, fo l l o w e d by the incantations

a nd recitation of some m a gical words (Mokhtar, 1979:23).

The book ’R a w a t a n Pesakit M e n u r u t a l - Q u r a n dan al-

Sunnah' (Treatment of Pa t i e n t s A c c o r d i n g to A l - K u r ' a n and

Sunna) e d i t e d by A m r a n K a s i m i n a s c h o l a r w h o lectures at
k
National U n i v e r s i t y of Malaysia, highlights tre a t m e n t for

various i l l nesses using se l e c t e d verses from the Al-

K u r ' a n and pr a y e r s p r a c t i s e d by the Prophet. Published

4
in 1987, this book is a compilation of lectures on

Islamic traditional medicine, by Haron Din, also a

l e c turer at the same u n i v e r s i t y fro m 1980 to his students

i n c l u d i n g the editor himself. The book describes the

 135

learning and teaching of Islamic knowledge on medicine

and the treatment of illness, the responsibilities of

m e d ical specialists in curing illness and the rights of

pa t i e n t s in Islam. The pa y m e n t and o f f icial c o m p l e t i o n of

the h e a l i n g p r o cess 'pemutus u b a t 1 are also discussed.

The Al-Kur'ahic verses that can be used in the

v
tr e a t m e n t of va r i o u s illnesses are f u rther stated in the

book 'Rawatan Gangguan Makhluk H a lus Menurut al-Quran

dan Sunnah' (Treatment of Disturbances Caused by

In v isible Creatures According to A l - K u r ’an a nd Sunna).

This b ook edited by Amrin Kasimlh in 1987 is also a

c o m p i l a t i o n of lectures by H a r o n D i n w i t h the a d d i t i o n of

the editor's observation and experience when giving

tr e a t m e n t to his patients. These treatments are used for

curing several illnesses caused by t he invisible

creatures, 'Makhluk Halus', such as 'Qarin', ' I f r i t 1,

'Iblis' a nd 'Syaitan', or the devil. According to the

authors, o t her problems that can also be solved by

prayers are the ghostly whisperings, harrassment by

'Makhluk Halus', nightmares, hysteria, disturbance,

1r a s u k ', by the devil, madness, asthma, impotence, 1lemah

tenaga batin', instability in ma r i t a l relationship,

re l u c t a n c e to p ay debts, high-blood pressure and

 136

poisoning, ' s a n t a u ' . The weakness and the f a i l u r e of the

devil to destroy the Muslims' faith by tricks are

highlighted.

According to H a r o n Din, (1987:viii) using Islamic

traditional medicine in the treatment of illnesses

p a r t i c u l a r l y t h ose c a u s e d by the evil spirit is p e r m i t t e d

in Islam (A l - I s r a :82). Similar to modern medicine,

practised by Muslims, the treatment given is o nly an

initiative 'ikhti"ar' for the p o wer to c ure is the will of

Allah. N e vertheless, knowing and understanding the

meaning of Al-Kur'anic verses and prayers read by the

Prophet and u s i n g t h e m to cure ill n e s s e s i n d i r e c t l y helps

to s t r e n g h t e n M u s l i m f a ith towards the g r e a t n e s s of A l l a h

and the m i r a c l e s 'm u 'j i z a t ' of the A1-Qur'an.

AzharT Ibrahim wrote about similar issues in his

book 'Ubat-ubatan Tradisional Melayu, Doa-doa" Pe n a w a r

Penyakit Rahsia, Kebaikan Surah al-Fatihah' (The

Traditional Malay Cures, Prayers for Curing Hidden

Illnesses, the Benefit of the Al-F a t i h a h ) (A z h a r T , n .d .).

Amran Kasimin's b ook 'Darussyifa' published in 1991,

discusses several issues dealing with prayers ’du' a -',

'zikir', the principles of I s l amic medical ethics,

'ijazah', Islamic me d i c a l treatment as an alternative,

 137

the use of 'jampi m e n t e r a and serapah' in the treatment

of i l l n esses and the u se of incantations according to

Hadith.
* —
Amran Kasimin discussed the devil's strategy and
f
st r u g g l e to deceive m an particularly through trance,

' m e n u r u n 1 w h e n he w r o t e 'Liku-liku Iblis M e n i p u Manusia'

(The Devil's Plots To Deceive Man) in 1992. Other

interesting topics discussed are the definition of g e nie

' j i n 1, the various types of genie, its dwelling place,

its food and drink, its duty a nd its death, the

differences between g e nie and devil 's v a i t a n '. the

*

animosity between man and devil, the d e v i l ' s a im in

deviating man, the d e v il's s t r a tegies to deceive man,

'menurun', different o p i nions on 'menurun', the spirit of

the dea d and the p r a c t i c e of 'menurun'.

Muslim schol a r s write b o oks exposing these

deviating practises to ensu r e that the 'b o m o h ' s p r a c tises

follow the Islamic teachings. At present, there are

Muslims who openly oppose and declare tha t reciting Al-

Kur'anic verses in curi n g illnesses and some religious

*
practices suc h as the 'wird', 'talkin' (the final

exhortation at a funeral), 'tasbih' (glorification of

God), the b e lief in 'wali' and their 'syafa'at'.

 138

'tawassul' (indirect s u r r e n d e r i n g or s u b m i t t i n g to Allah)

is 'khurafat' or ’b i d ' a ”1 . T h e y say t h o s e w h o f o l l o w t h ese

practices are c o n s i d e r e d to h ave d e v i a t e d from the true

teachings of Islam an d are often accused as infidels

(kafir) or h a v i n g gon e astray. The a t t i t u d e of o p p o s s i n g

a nd a c c u s i n g o t hers as 'khurafat' a nd infidel hampers the

u n i t y of the Muslims.

There are many books written w h i c h di s c u s s

various issues that can u n d e r m i n e one's faith such as

'SyirTk Dosa Yang T i dak Diampun' ( P o l y t h e i s m The

Unforgiven Sin) written by Mohd Naim Zainal Abidin in

1990 and 1M a n u s i a d an Islam' (Man and Islam) by Haron Din

in 1988. B o t h b o oks remi n d their re a d e r s to repent and to

ask G o d ' s forgiveness. In the b ook 'Syirik Dosa Yang

Tidak Diampun1 (Polytheism T he Unforgiven Sin) published

in 1990, Mohd Naim Zainal Abidin wrote that a Muslim's

f a ith ca n be destroyed either directly by polytheism or

indirectly by other activities which to him are ag a i n s t

faith. These activities are such things as 1t a w a s s u l ',

e i

't a s a w w u f ', 'tarlkat', 'khurafat', 'bid'a', chanting

'jampi' used in the t r a d i t i o n a l medical treatment, giving

r e w a r d to the d e a d 'S e d e k a h k e p a d a arwah' an d ’zikir'.

H a r o n D i n in the b ook 'M a n u s i a d a n Islam' (Man and

 139

Islam) p u b l i s h e d in 1988 w r o t e on several issues d e a l i n g

with religion, man a nd the Islamic faith. He gives both

the d i v i n e and logical e v i d e n c e to p r o v e the e x i s t e n c e of

the Day Hereafter and the Last Day. Other topics include

the conc ept of soul 'roh', 'al-Kada'

u
w a ’l - K* a d a r ’, life

based on faith, m a n ’s a t t itude and v i e w t o w ards each

other, m a n ’s attitude t o w ards life, wealth and invisible

creatures, the original faith founded by Allah's

Messengers, f a ith a m ong the Companions and the

n e eds of tru e f a ith to solve the p r o b l e m s of life.

Numerous books were also written explaining and

discussing topics such as the development of the

theological schools of thought, the v a r i o u s practices and

beliefs in accordance with or against Islamic faith

with the a im of either to impart knowledge, to call upon

the people to believe in Islam, to urge the Muslims to

hold f irm to t h eir b e lief in Islam or to w a r n t h e m of the

d a n g e r of false doctrines.

False D o c t r i n e

It would appear fro m the number of books that,

q u i t e a few false d o c t r i n e s w h i c h are in total co n f l i c t

with I s l amic teachings an d impose g r a v e d a n g e r to the

 140

Muslim's f a ith are being spread in Malaysia. There

are about four hundred and thirty seven 'da'wa' and

't a r i k a t ' g r o u p s which have bee n identified as d e v iants

and actively call the people to p r a c t i s e their te a c h i n g s

w h i c h do not f o l l o w the true Islamic t e a c h i n g (13).

This is countered by concerned Muslim scholars,

Muslim writers and the Islamic rel i g i o u s departments who

publish corrective books. Abdul Fatah Haron Ibrahim for

example, in 'Ajaran S e s a t ' (False Doct r i n e s ) in 1985

e x p oses the fact that the false doctrines existing in

this c o u n t r y are b a s e d on the SufT's t h e o r y of 'wahdatul-

wujud' which is spread by an a n t i - I s T Smic movement, the

'BatanTah's movement. These false doctrines are also

k n o w n as 'ilmu hakikat, ilmu isi, ilmu bat in' and 'agama'

Taslim (Abdul Fatah Haron, 1 9 9 2 :vii). The book claims

that the m o v e m e n t as well as 'Zindik' (Atheism) have been

openly discussed and c o n s i d e r e d by Imam a l - G h a z a l F in his

books as b l a s p h e m o u s (Abdul F a t a h Haron, 1992:v).

O t h e r topics d i s c u s s e d in this book include the

definition of Sufism, S u f F s m d u r i n g the tim e of Prophet

* *
Muhammad, s a l a f 1, z u h u d ' and 'm u j a h a d a h ', f r o m 'z u h d ' to

philosophy, the inf l u e n c e of Hinduism and Neoplatonisme,

e x a m p l e s of 'Martabat T u j u h ' s Doctrine, the t e a c h i n g s of

 141

H a m z a h Fansuri a nd S h a m s u d d i n al-SumatranT, the concept

of 'Tanazul' and 'Taraqqi"' , self recognization, h u man

wanting to be God, hiding Allah's teachings 'kufur',

's h a t a h a t 1 and the secrets of the A r a b i c script.

On the subject of 'Batiniah', topics discussed in

this book are on the h i s t o r y of ’B a t i n i a h ' s movement, its

inf l u e n c e in politics, 'Batiniah's teachings, the two

types of 'takwilan' and 'B a t i n i a h ' s motives, deviating

practices and the d a nger of 'Batiniah' movement in the

•'
N u s a n t a r a region.

In its later chapters, the author gives a

comprehensive account of several topics re l a t i n g to

Sufism which I will discuss in detail in Chapter Four.

However, the auth o r p o ints out other contemporary issues

pr e s e n t in the Muslim society in Malaysia such as the

philosophy of Wujudiah, misinterpretations in the

philosophy of Wujudiah and how people c an go astray

because of belief in the philosophy, the secret

solemnised marriage ’n i k a h batin’ an d 'majlis zikir'

0 •

p r a c t i s e a m ong the followers of the Wujudiah.

The same book also dis c u s s e s the n o r m s of S u f i s m ,

W

the origin of the creation of Muhammad's light, the

or i g i n of the c r e a t i o n of the P r o phets M u h a m m a d and Adam,

 142

the origin of the creation of the human body, the

te a c h i n g s of Faqrullah QadirT, on the daily prayers,

d i s b e l i e v i n g the Last Day, claiming oneself as God,

claiming oneself to be Prophet Isa and nullification of

F r i d a y prayer.

QadianT

In Malaysia the number of Muslims who foll o w the

doctrine of the QadiaifT t e a c hings are very few. The

members of the Qadiani" group consider themselves as

Muslims. However some of its teaching is a g a inst the

a c c e p t e d t e a c h i n g of Islam. It's fol l o w e r s c l a i m that the

founder of this doctrine, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad wh o died in

""" *
1908, is a 'prophet'. Q a d f a n i , the n ame of the doctrine

is t a ken fro m Qadyan, a place in the district of Punjab,

where Mirza Ghulam Ahmad onc e lived (Siddiq, 1983:14).

— s> *
According to a fatwa- issued fro m the State of

Johore a Muslim w ho proclaims h i m self as a pr o p h e t and

t h o s e w h o support h i m are unbelievers, they have gon e

astray and must be sentenced to death by the gov e r n m e n t

(Fatwa-fatwa" Mufti Kerajaan Johore 1936-1961, 1981:373.

See also A l - M a i d a h : 33). The government, through the

M a l a y s i a n N a t ional Council of Isl'amic R e l i g i o u s Affairs,

 143

the I s l amic R e l i g i o u s C o u n c i l s and the National Fatwa"

Committees declare the g r oup following the Qadiani"

teachings as to hav e g one a s t r a y and calls its m e m b e r s to

r e turn to Islam and leave the o r g a n i zation. They decree

that "Puak QiTdi aril / A h m a d i ah adal a h puak yang t e r k eluar

3)
daripada I s lam d an tidak boleh menerima hak-hak sebagai

seorang Islam termasuk pengkebumian dalam t a nah

perkuburan Islam". When translated this m e ans

QadianF/Ahmadiah f o l l owers have deviated from Islam and

therefore have no rights as a Muslim a nd this includes

burial in the Muslim cemetery (The 18th Meeting of the

Fatw*iT Committee Members held on 14 May 1980).

Nevertheless, this organisation continues its teaching

a m ong its m e m b e r s in its o wn m o s q u e in K a m p o n g N a k h o d a in

the state of Selangor (Majlis Kebangsaan Bagi Hal Ehwal

U g a m a I s lam M a l a y s i a , 1983:23).

The issue of the false teachings of QadianT, has

not c a ught the interest of the Muslim writers. To

date not a single book has been published on the

QadianT group, either to explain or to c l a r i f y its

teaching to the public. However in the y e a r 1981, a book

'Ajaran QadianT1 (QadianT Teachings) w as p u b l i s h e d by

t he Malaysian N a t ional Council of I s l amic Religious

 144

A f f a i r s w a r n i n g the Muslims from being influenced by

Ahmadiah QadianT teachings which deviate from the

*

t e a c h i n g s of Islam. In this book the b a c k g r o u n d and the

history of Ahmadiah QadianT, its founder Mirza Ghul"am

o

Ahmad QadianiTj the inf l u e n c e of N u r u d d i n to M i r z a Ghulam

Ahmad, Qadiarii teachings and its d e v e l o p m e n t in M a l a y s i a

are presented.

With the aim to strengthen the M u s l i m s ’ belief

and faith, to i m prove t h eir d e v o t i o n t o w a r d s A l l a h and to

encourage them to fulfil t h eir d u ties as M u s l i m s many

b o oks h ave been written. They remi n d Muslims of life

after death and the suffering that awaits them in the

after-life, unless, in the pr e s e n t life they lead a

r i g h teous life. Examples of these b o oks are 'Azab Di

Neraka1 (The Torment in Hell) written by Ibnu IdrTs in

1987, 'Adakah T u h a n 1 (Does God Exist) by A. Hasan in

4

1975, ’M e n g e n a l Rukun Iman dan R u k u n I s l a m 1 (Intro d u c t i o n

to the Six C a r dinal A r t i c l e s and the Fiv e Pillars of

Islam) by Hj . S a l l e h in 1977, 'Risalah U s r a h 1 (Notes of

Religion Instruction) by A b u 'Urwah in 1986 1'Alam Q u bur

'Alam B a r z a k h diGali Dari a l - Q u r a n d an H a d i s ’ (The World

*
of the Grave, The World of Life B e t w e e n D e a t h and The
 145

D a y of Jud g e m e n t E x t r a c t e d F r o m A l - K u r ' a n and Hadith) by

M. All in 1982, 'Rahsia Mengenal Diri' (The Secret of

Self Recognition) by Hal A z w a n in 1992.

The E x i s t e n c e of A l l a h

In I s lam e v e r y M u s l i m be l i e v e s in t he e x i s t e n c e of

All'ah, the Almighty God based on the evidence from al-

K u r 'ah and Hadith and the law of rational 'hukum akal'

B * — 4

which p r oves the existence of a Su p r e m e Being who is the

Creator and the Controller of this universe, even though

He is not v i s i b l e in their w o r l d l y life.

Muslims are to know but are prohibited to

question Allah's Names and Attributes, which are beyond

their capacity to understand. In a book 'Adakah Tuhan1

(Does G o d exist) published in 1975 the author, A. H a s s a n

gives evidences on the existence of Allah the Creator

from a scientific point of view. He discusses reasons

for the changing of the h u m a n m i n d f r o m an u n b e l i e v e r to

a believer. To p r o v e the e x i s t e n c e of A l l a h he discusses

the c o n cept of cells and atoms, the first evolution

of nature, the c r e a t i o n of man fro m clay, the existence

of Go d (AlIHh) without a c r e ator and Allah's justice to

His creatures. The a u t h o r q u e s t i o n s t h ose who d eny the

e x i s t e n c e of A l T S h and gives answers to the questions

 146

c o m m o n l y a s ked c o n c e r n i n g the t r uth of His existence.

In 1986 A b u 'Urwah w r o t e a boo k 'Ris*alah U s r a h 1

(Notes of Religious Instruction) explaining the

definition of the word ’shahada' (two limbs of the

shahada: the unity of God and the mission of Muhammad,

' L>

the P r o phet of God). O t her topics of inter e s t include

I s lamic faith, I s l a m as a w a y of life, the a i m of w o r l d l y

life, devotion in Isl'am, the true c o n cept of belief in

Allah and His Messengers, the role of f a ith in reforming

the 'Ummah', moral ethi c s in Islam, sending of the

Prophets, guiding man on the right path to hinder them

from f o l l o w i n g the w r o n g p a t h 'Amar M a 'ruf N a h T M u n g k a r ',

the life history of the Prophet, the importance of

'da'wa' as the core for the resurgence of ' U m m a h 1,

Isl'amic reforms 'TajdFd Islami"' and the struggle to kee p

to the p a t h of A l l a h 'Jihad fT S a b l l i l l a h ' .

A detailed d i s c u s s i o n on the Six Ca r d i n a l Articles

of Isl'amic Faith is further established in Hj . S a l l e h b.

Osman's book 'Mengenal Rukun Tman d an Rukun Islam' (An

Introduction The Six Cardinal Articles and the Five

Pi l l a r s of Islam) published in 1977. He ex p l a i n s that

Islam is the true and the o n l y r e l i g i o n a c c e p t e d by

Allah. The book states that all Isl'amic t e a c h i n g s can be

 147

f o und in A l - K u r ' a n w i t h f a ith and law b e i n g the basis of

*
Isllamic religion.

It is the duty of every Muslim to rigourously

practice the d e v o t i o n s e r vices 'Amal S o l e h ’, zealously

performing the Five P i l lars of Islam: 'shahaTda', praying

's a l a t ', paying the tithe tax, f a s ting during the month
*

of Ramadhan, and performing Hadjdj in Makkah. In fact

"one who has faith and does righteous deeds is the best

c r e a t u r e s " (A 1 - B a i n a h :7).

The importance of faith to the individual Muslim

and the ways to strengthen f a ith are s h own by Hal Azwan

in his book 'Rahsia Me n g e n a l D i r i 1 (The S e cret of K n o w i n g

Oneself) published in 1992. To him, the personality,

habits, activities, w a y of thinking, the a t t i t u d e and a

person's way of life are determined by the indiv i d u a l ' s

stage of faith. R e g a r d i n g this the M u s l i m s are called

upon to e x a m i n e the stages of their faith (Hal Azwan,

1992) .

The w o rst stage according to the author is

'A m a r a h ' , a stage where a man's heart is corrupt and

without purifying it he faces difficulties communicating

with Allah. The s u p reme stages are 'L a w a m a h ', 'M u l h a m a h 1 ,

' M u t m a i n n a h ', 'R a d h i a h 1, 'Mardhiah' an d 'Kamaliah' which

 148

c an be achieved through spiritual e x e r c i s e s e s p e c i a l l y

the co n s t a n t remembrance of Allah. This enables man to

free hi m s e l f from evil i nfluences and to achieve piety

'taqwln .
Later, man will be able to comb a t a g a inst the

desires of his inner self 'nafsu' to p r e v e n t hi m s e l f from

committing evils and crimes. He finally re p e n t s for his

past offences. W h e n his heart is pure he will rem e m b e r no

one but Allah. He even forgets about himself. He learns

new knowledge directly from Allah 'Ilmu LadunT' , 'Ilmu

a l - G h a y b 1 through true drea m s and intuition 'mata h a t i 1.

He faces life patiently and peacefully and lives as a

'maqam wali kecil' and a c h ieves anything he n e eds and

asks for from Allah. In fact, he has the a b i l i t y to

see 'alam kubur' and to d i s o w n his e x i s t e n c e in life.

To him, o n l y A l l a h exists forever physically and

spiritually 'a w a l , akhir, zahir dan batin'. He lives like

* ¥
a hermit and is uninterested in worldly life which

c auses othe r s to regard him as insane or abnormal.

Leading the life of a Sufi, as shown by Azwan, as a way

to s t r e n g t h e n a M u s l i m ’s faith. This is u n d i s p u t e d a m ong

the Muslim writers nevertheless some of them co n s i d e r

Sufism 'Tasawwuf' does not originate fro m the Islamic

* *
 149

religion.

Lately, t h ere are books in M a l a y w h i c h ind i r e c t l y

criticise the practices of the Sufi in Malaysia. They

a c cuse the al-Arqam group which advocates the l ife-style

of the Sufi and the 1wali' who is involved in Islamic

*

Traditional Medicine (14). Moreover, there are some

Muslims today w ho are unable to understand the eternal

truth embodied in the A l - K u r ' a n and lack k n o w l e d g e about

p

the life of the companions of the Prophet Muhammad

'A s h a b - u s - S u f f a ' who had re n o u n c e d the world, departed

from their homes and fled from their companions (Brohi,

1975:169-170).

At p r esent t h ere are a n u m b e r of M u s l i m s who are

still u n f a m i l i a r w i t h the subject of faith. Some of t hem

do not know Allah's Attributes, the differences between

P r o phets and Messengers, all the S a c r e d B o o k s r e v e a l e d to

A l l a h ' s M e s s e n g e r s and w i t h o u t total b e l i e f in the Last

Day, life a f t e r d e a t h and p r e d e s tination. This is proven

when some brides and bridegrooms fail in t he special

written and oral e x a m on IsliTmic knowledge which is h eld

by the State Islamic Rel i g i o u s Departments (introduced

w i t h the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of the M u s l i m F a m i l y L aw in these

states in M a l aysia) as a requirement for marriage

 150

approval.

T he M u s l i m ' s i g n o rance on the I s l amic f a i t h often

leads to their failure to fulfil t h eir responsibilities

as a Muslim, they can easily be deviated from Islamic

teaching by false doctrine, they are reluctant to obey

A l l a h ’s command or p r a c t i c e His recommendation but will

abide with the forbidden and denounce the t rue Islamic

teachings.

Islam, the r e l i g i o n b r o u g h t by A1 lari’s M e s s e n g e r s and the

P rophets

According to Islamic teachings the Muslims are to

believe and to know the twenty five Messengers (Rasul)

and t h ree h u n d r e d and t h i r t e e n P r o phets (Nabi). They were

sent by Allah to their people to give information

concerning His Unity a nd to whom He revealed secrets of

the future and to i m p arted the knowledge that he is His

Prophet (Maularia Muhammad 'AlT, nd: 219). Very few

A
Muslims r e a l i s e that "before the Seal of the Prophets,

prior prophets already h ad b r o ught to men the same

message, calling them to the same religion of love

directed towards the divine Face that their prophetic

inspirations h ad revealed to the p r o phets" (Seyyed

Hosein, 1988:172).
 151

A book was g r a n t e d to e v e r y Pr o p h e t of God and

only certain books are m e n t i o n e d by their special names,

the T a u r a t or T o r a h (book of Moses) and the InjTl or

m *
Gospel (book of Jesus). ZabTTT, a s c r i p t u r e g i v e n to D a v i d

and the scripture suhuf of I b r aham a nd Moses are also

mentioned in the Al-Kur'an. Al-Kur'ah brings religion to

perfection, m a k i n g p l a i n what was o b s c u r e in the pre v i o u s

scriptures, the Holy Al-Kur'an being the guardian over

those scriptures, guarding the original teachings of the

prophets of God (Maulana M u h a m m a d 'Ali, nd: 209-210). The

Muslims believe that every p r ophet of Go d mentioned in

the Holy Al-Kur'an is Muslim and that Muhammad is the

* o
Last P r o phet for all nations and that all the great

r el i g i o n s of the world that preceded Islam have b een

revealed by God. This is a belief which is re j e c t e d by

non-Muslims and w h i c h causes endless conflict a m ong the

followers of other religions. Thus, through the

u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the h i s t orical background of Allah's

Pr o p h e t s and Messengers and the great world religions

people be u n i t e d and respect e a c h other.

In this aspect, Muslim writers have written on

various t o pics to explain and to e m p h a s i z e that I s l a m is

the true r e l i g i o n for the w h o l e of humanity. They believe

 152

it is the last of the great rel i g i o n s a nd the only

religion accepted by Allah (See for example Salleh,

1977). They discuss the Holy Books revealed by God

(Allah): Taurat, Zabur, Injil and Al-Kur'an, (See

* *
Abdulfah al-QarT, 1982) to e x p l a i n the m e a n i n g of faith,

Islam and the concept of the infidels and to a f f i r m that

Islam is the religion embraced by every Prophet and

Allah's Messengers (See M o h d Sulaiman, 1985).

♦
The book 'Islam dan Aqfdah' (Islam and Theology)

published in 1985 and written by Mohd Sulaiman bin Haji

YasTn c l a r ifies the disputed knowledge about these

divine r e l i gions which causes its followers to c o n tinue

b e i n g d e v i a t e d f r o m the t r u t h of the religion.

By way of general comment, it may be a d ded that

in b o oks such as the last one the a u t h o r s include other

topics as well. For ex a m p l e the differentiation between

'akida', id e o l o g y and theology, about the re a l i t y of

life, the t rue m e a n i n g of knowledge, b o oks c r e a t e d by m e n

or false 'prophets', books read by the devils 'IblTs',

man's responsibilities to recite and to follow Al-

K u r ' a n i c tea c h i n g s and the effects of reading 'holy'

books c r e a t e d by m a n w h i c h are against IsTam (See also

A b d u l l a h al-Qari, 1982)^
 153

A l - K u r 1an

Every Muslim believes in the t r u t h of the H o l y Al-

K u r ’an re v e a l e d to Muhammad. It is the real foun d a t i o n

on w h i c h the whole super-structure of Islam rests and

is the sole source from which all the teachings and

practices of I s lam are drawn. In it Allah mentions the

laws of every aspect of life and I s l amic teachings

(Salleh, 1977). Though reading the Al-Kur'an is an

important part of Muslim religious devotion an d Muslim

children start l e a rning it at an early age, many Muslims

particularly a m ong the youth, are still unable to recite

the A l - K u r ’an correctly or to u n d e r s t a n d its meanings.

Their incompetence in reading the 1J a w i ' script and

understanding the Arabic language, the la n g u a g e of the

A l - K u r ’an, are said to be due to the emphasis on the use

of the R o m a n i s e d script in the school c u r r i c u l u m and the

lack of c o n s c i o u s n e s s among p a r ents of the impo r t a n c e of

the A r a b i c language.

To o v e r c o m e the p r o b l e m m a n y b o oks w r i t t e n in this

country deal with the ’tajwid', ’t a h f i z ’ and ’t a f s i r ’

(for ex a m p l e see Hassan, 1987, A h m a d Sanhaji, 1983, Abdul

9

Q a dir Leong, 1989, Said, 1991 and Abdullah al-QarT,

1983). Muslim writers also w r ite on the history and

 154

development of the exegesis of Al-Kur'ah, the importance

of memorising the Al-Kur'an and the status of it's

memorizers and enthusiasts in the Muslim society, method

of r e c i t i n g A l - K0u r ' a n and the b e n efit of regular reading

and understanding the Al-Kur'an. To promote the

memorising of the Al-Kur'an there are regular Al-Kur'an

recital competitions for all levels of ability. Exa m p l e s

of books written about ex e g e s i s are 'TafsTr Juzu'

1 'A m m a 1 (Exegesis of the Ch a p t e r 'Amma) by Abi Lukm a n

in 1976, 'al-Fatihah T a f s i r al-Hidayah' (al-Fatihah the

t> *

Exegesis of the Guidance) written by Abu”* ZakT* Fadzil in

1979/1980 and 'P e n g a n t a r Tafsir Ayat-ayat Hukum'

(Introduction to the Exegesis of the sentences of the

Law) w r i t t e n by Mat S a ' a d A b d R a h m a n in 1983.

In the boo k 'al-Fatihah Tafsir al-Hidayah' (Al-

*

Fatihah the Exegesis of Guidance) Abu Zaki Fadhil gives

an explanation on S u rah al-Feitihah.

ft which cove r s the

definition of 'B i s m i 1 l a h i r - r a h m a n i r r a h i m ', the five

o •

chapters of Al-Kur'an which begin with 'A l h a m d u l i l l a h ' ,

•** &

the first chapter which was revealed to M u hfta m m a d at

Mecca, other names for Surah Al-Fatihah and the basic

■9

teachings in this 'Surah'.

The boo k also defines the word 'Hidayah'

 155

(guidance), the dif f e r e n t types of 'Hidayah', Muslim

scholars' views on the w o r d 'S i r a t u l - M u s t a q i m ', the g r oup

of people who are given Al l a h ' s ’nikmat', the different

types of human kinds mentioned in the Al-Kur'ah, and

S y e ikh Muhammad S h a l t u t 1s (15) view on the word 'al-

Munafiqun, a l - K a f i r u n and a l - M u 'm i n u n '.

This book stresses the i m p o r t a n c e of r e c iting Al-

Fatihah as the basis, 's e n d i ' , to prayer, the law of

9

re c iting Al-Fatihah, r e c i t i n g A l - F a t i h a h w i t h the Imam in

9 £
a p r a y e r and the M u s l i m scholars' v i ews on this issue,

the proper time of reciting Al-Fatihah, reciting ’A a m T n ’

*
after Al-Fahihah, the Muslim scholars views on the issue
p
of r e c i t i n g ’A a m T h ’ (Abu Zaki~, 1979/1980).

In 1989 'Majlis F a twa Kebangsaan' (The National

Fa twa Committee) b a n n e d the w r i t i n g of A l - K u r ' a n i c v e rses

t

in the Romanised script and authorised such writings to

be burnt or destroyed. This includes Al-Kur'an in the

*
Romanised script published o u t side Malaysia. The action

wa s taken to pr o t e c t the Divine authorship of the Al-

K u r ' a n and the q u a l i t y of the w r i t i n g (24)_^

Hadith

Among Muslims b e s ides the Al-Kur'ah, the HadTth

 156

or Sunnah for m the secondary s o u rces of Islamic Law.

This is e s p e c i a l l y the case for S u n n T Muslims. H a d i t h are

the sayings of the Holy Prophet ( T r a d itions of the

Prophet) as reported by his Companions a nd o t hers while

S u nna tells of the things he did and which Muslims want

to emulate. Lately, there are few Muslims in Malaysia

wh o call the people to r e c o gnize only the Al-Kur'an and

to reject Hadith_ as a source of I s l amic teaching and

law. This I will discuss further in Chapter Four.

However, most a u t hors in their books e x p r e s s stro n g v i ews

on the v a l i d i t y of Hadith.

The novel 'the Sa t a n i c V e r s e s ' (17) written by

Salman Rushdie and published in September 1988 (Abdul

Halim, 1991:146) caused world wide outrage a m o n g Muslims.

The author was condemned to death for blasphemy by the

Ayathollah Ruhollah KhomenT in 1989 an d the condemnation

continues a f ter K h o m e n i 's d e ath by his successor HashemT*

RafsanjamT. A y a t h o l l a h issued a fatwa c a l l i n g on faithful

M u s l i m s to m u r d e r this author.

The author of the book entitled 'I s lam dan al-

Hadith' (Islam and Hadith) published in 1991, Abdul Halim

» * — »
ftl-Muhammadi condemned Salman Rushdi" a nd his novel

'Satanic Verses' for t r y i n g to dama g e the p e r s o n a l i t y and

 157

the authority of Prophet Muhammad. According to Islam,

any f o r m of insult, slander and b a c k b i t i n g particularly

toward Prophet Muhammad is a s e rious offence and a

crime which makes the perpetrator an apostate 'murtadd'

and the penalty for such crime is none o t her than

death sentence u n less he repents (Al-Nisa'a: 115).

Life A f t e r D e a t h (A k h i r a t )

Faith or beli e f in Isl'S'm req u i r e s the acceptance

of things that cannot be perceived by the senses. These

are t h ings s uch as the existence of Allah, The Day

Hereafter and The Last Day which are beyond the pe r s o n ' s

knowledge and sighting and these 'secrets' shall be m ade

k n o w n a c c o r d i n g to the H o l y A l - K u r ' a h only a f ter death

p
(Yaasin:52). T he l i m ited knowledge revealed in the Al-

Kur'an and H a d i t h on life after d e a t h has b e e n dealt w i t h

by m a n y M u s l i m w r i t e r s in their books.

T he idea of requital deeds undoubtedly encourage

M u s l i m s to t r y to be goo d and n o b l e and the h e lps t h e m to

have great restraint against performing evil or

irresponsible deeds. In some books Muslim writers give

detailed descriptions of the experiences of the dead at

the time of death with the a im of strengthening the

M u s l i m s 'faith.
 158

The W o r l d of the Grave

A book in Jawi entitled ' 'Alam Q u b u r ’A l a m B a r z a k h

Di Gali Dari a l - Q u r a h dan Hadis' (The W o r l d of the Grave,

The World Between Death and Resurrection Extracted From

the Al-Kur'ah and Hadith) was published in 1982. Its

o —
a uthor M.Ali Hassan Omar writes on various topics

d e a l i n g w i t h the fearful and blissful situation of life

after death. Discussions on s i milar issues followed later

on by o t h e r authors (18).

The book t e a ches M u slims about the dut y of the

living to the dea d which includes paying respect by

visiting, bathing, shrouding 'kafan', praying and b u r y i n g

them in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h Islamic teachings. Several verses

of the A l - K u r ’an and H a d i t h d e a l i n g w i t h the grave-world,

the dialogue between the Angel and the soul 'roh', the

s p e e c h and d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n the dead and the two Ange l s

'Mungkar' and 'Nakir' and the fate of the dead in the

grave are c l e a r l y p o r t r a y e d in this book.

In 1985, Yazid Jaafar in his boo k 'Panggilan

Ke p a d a Mayat' (A Call to The Dead) describes man's

experiences following his death. It evolves on the

d ead's appeal to his mourners to handle him gently when

he is bathed, shrouded, 'kafan', brought upo n the

carrier, ' u s u n g a n ' , b e i n g put b e s i d e his g r a v e and w h i l e

 159

he is laid into the grave, 'lubang k u b u r '. Regarding

this, the readers particularly Muslim leaders are w a r n e d

to a v oid m i s u s i n g their power and wealth for immoral

activities and to ensure that any gains achieved are

b l e s s e d by All*Sh.

A s i m i l a r boo k on life after d e a t h wa s w r i t t e n by

the same auth o r and entitled 'Kehidupan Manusia DiAlam

A k h i r a t 1 (Men's Life in the A f t e r World) in 1988. The

book d e als with matters pertaining to the Day Hereafter

such as the concept of the Last Day, the signs of the

coming of the Last Day and s i m ilar t o pics pertaining to

the Last Day as discussed in the previous books (19).

The translation of "Surah Al-Waqi'ah' and information on

the position of the de v o t e e s an d the rebels, the

different g r oups of people on the Day Hereafter (20) are

also given.

T he book 'Hari Kiamat Hari Akhir Hari Pembalasan'

(Judgement Day The Final Day The Day of Retribution. ) by

Abdul Aziz published in 1986 specifically discusses the

D a y Hereafter. It d e p icts the c a t a s t r o p h i c e v e n t s and the

atmosphere on the Last Day. It says the destruction of

the world following the world disaster, will be

a c c o m p a n i e d by the R e s u r r e c t i o n of the dead f rom the

 160

graves. It also co n t a i n s description of the Day of

Reckoning and Judgement, the assembly at 'P a d a n g

M a h s y a r ', 'Muaqif Dhulmah' where the d e a d will remain in

darkness,'Muaqif His’ab' through which their ac t i o n s in

his worldly life will be examined and accounted for,

and 'Sirotul Mustaqim' an o v e r h e a d b r i d g e that every dead

pe r s o n has to cross ove r to get to Heaven, Muhammad's

intercession 'Shafa'a, Hell, H e a v e n and the n a m e of the

D a y H e r e a f t e r are also given.

Hell and H e a v e n

The life after death takes two forms, a life in

Heaven for the r i g hteous or in Hell for the evil. A book

called 'Azab Di N e r a k a ' ( T h e To r m e n t in Hell) was written

by Ibnu IdrTs in the y ear 1987. The boo k f o c uses on the

penalty and punishment as promised by Allah for those

who deny H i m and His Messengers. Based on Al-Kur'efn and

*
Hadith, this book gives a clear description of Hell: its
r

inmates, their appearance, their sufferings, their

dressings a nd food, the names of Hell, the stages of

Hell, and the conditions in Hell. A list of Hadith

► “““
dealingwith Hell, Hell of 'Jahim' and the Angel of

'Zabariiah' are included.

 161

Regarding the com f o r t s of Heaven or Paradise, the

book 'Nikmat Syurga' (The Blessings of Heaven) was

written by N o r a i n Ishak in the year 1988. The book gives

the definition of Heaven, its names, its lo c a t i o n and

condition, a description of the life of its occupants,

their sexual life, the houris, food a nd t r a n s p o r t a t i o n in

Heaven. Heaven is d e p i c t e d as a p l a c e of bliss, p e ace

and t r a n q u i l l i t y and it says A l l a h will reveal H i m s e l f to

the inhabitants of the Heaven of Firdaus. It goes on to

say that m a n e n joys satisfaction in sexual relationships

without fear of conceiving, aging and d e p l e t i o n of e n e r g y

(Norain, 1988:10 and 33).

In the A l - K u r ' a n there is no suggestion of sexual

■
relationship and procreation as understood in this life,

since it says the relationship of men and women in the

life after death is as companions. Both are equal in the

sight of Allah and enjoy the higher life in the

R esurrection. However, Prophet Muhammmad is re p o r t e d to

have sai d that in the new life of R e s u r r ection, women

shall all be virgins and equal in age (Muhammad Ali,

n d :295-298).

D i s a p p e a r a n c e of A l - K u r ' a n i c V e rses
P

In 1987, the a l a r m i n g news of the disappearance

 162

of Al-Kur'anic v e rses from the Holy Al-Kur'an caused

* *
pa n i c among the Muslims in Malaysia. T he issue was

highlighted in the newspapers and magazines. The

Malaysian Muslims hold two views on this incident. One

c on s i d e r s this phenomenon as the sign of the advancing

of the Last Day while others b l ame printing errors and

poor p a p e r quality.

Consequently, a few books were published in the

same yea r to o v e r c o m e the d i s pute that a r o s e among the

Muslims country wide. One of these b o oks is 'Peristiwa

Hilangnya Ayat-ayat Suci A1-Quran Adakah Itu Pe t a n d a

Kiamat' (The Disappearance of the Verses of the Al-

Kur'Hn, Is It the S ign of the Last Day), written by an

a n o n y m o u s w r i t e r w h o calls himself P u t e r a Sunni”. His pen-

name portrays that he is a f o l lower of 'Ahl al-Sunna'.

His book d e als with the disappearance of the Al-Kur'"anic

m

verses as reported in several daily n e w s papers. It says

that at the same time as the disappearance of the Al-

Ku r ' a n i c verses, it was discovered that memorizers also

could n ot remember certain verses of the Al-Kur'an. The

*
a u thor lists evidence and proof f rom A l - K u r ' a n i c e x e gesis

book 'tafsir' and Hadith_ which correlate the

d i s a p p e a r a n c e of the Al-Kur'~anic v e r s e s to the sign of

 163

the close p r o x i m i t y of the Last Day. The a u t h o r explains

his disappointment ove r the statements made by other

Muslim schol a r s and several Islamic religious auth o r i t i e s

w h o d e c l a r e that this incident h ad no c o n n e c t i o n w i t h any

sign of the c o m i n g of the Last Day.

Regarding the disappearing verses of the Al-

Kur'an, the author a d v ises every Muslim to improve his

faith, his devotion to Allah, to repent, to incre a s e his

welfare activities and to avoid committing a ny sinful

act. According to the book, the incident of the

disappearing Al-Kur'anic verses is significant proof of

%
the power of Almighty Allah and Allah's warning to the

Muslims who misused Al-Kur'an for their o wn advantage,

who refused to practise its teachings and laws and to

recite its verses only for competition purposes. The

author admits that though the coming of the Last Day is

beyond human knowledge it is clear that the Last D ay will

o c cur when not a s i ngle M u s l i m is able to reci t e a v e rse

from the Al-Kur'an. He bases this j u d g ement on several

Hadith.

T he verses of A l - K u r ' a n too will disappear from

the h e a r t of the M u s l i m scholars. However, the auth o r

admits that t h e r e have been many inc i d e n t s occurring

 164

w h i c h are c o n s i d e r e d as the signs of the f o r t h - c o m i n g of

the Last Day. Furthermore, Muslims believe that the Last

Day will o c cur o n l y after the Resurrection of Imam

MahdT and P r o p h e t TsaT an d w h e n not a single man on e a r t h

is a Muslim (Putera SunnT^ 1987:84-96). These confusing

v i ews give assurance to the people that the Last Day

will not o c cur at pr e s e n t since the Resurrection of

b o t h hav e not t a k e n p l a c e and m i l l i o n s of M u s l i m s inhabit

the world. In fact the coming of the last day is beyond

m a n's k n o w l e d g e and it will happen at a ny time

determined by All"ah's will. Furthermore, Allah is the

o n l y one w h o can i d e n t i f y the actual M u s l i m s w h o exist in

this w o r l d b e f o r e the coming of the Last Day.

Imam Mahdi

The coming of Imam Mahdi is a well k n o w n issue

am o n g the M u s l i m s in Malaysia. The m a j o r i t y of the M u s l i m

s c h olars fro m the Sunni or the Shi 'IT groups agree that

the issue of I mam Mahdi is part of Islamic f a i t h and the

be lief in Imam Mahdi is obligatory. Ever s i nce 128 H i j r a h

there h ave b e e n m a n y w ho have c l a i m e d to be Imam MahdTT

The M u s l i m s o c i e t y c o n t i n u e s to b e l i e v e in the D a y of the

R e s u r r e c t i o n of Ima m Mahdi. H o w e v e r belief or r e j e ction

 165

of the truth of the Resurrection of InfSm M a h d T w e r e not

highlighted until recently when a group of Muslims

claimed that the d ay of the Resurrection of Imam Mahdi

was drawing nea r and warned Muslims to be prepared for

it. This claim is disputed and rejected by other Mu s l i m s

on the ground that the claim will hamper the economic

p r o g r e s s and d e v e l o p m e n t of Muslims.

In the 'F a t w a - f a t w a “ Mufti" Kerajaan Johore 1936-

1961 ' it is stat e d that Imam M a h d T is a decendent of the

daughter of Pr o p h e t Muhamad, Fatimah Alzahra' and her

husband AlT. It is said he will appear in Madinah and

Mu s l i m s will for m a confederation supporting him. T h ose

who previously claimed themselves as Ima m Mahdi w ere

false (Fatw"a-fatwa" Mufti Kerajaan Johore 1936-1961,1981:

395-396 )_^

Even though the g o v e rnment is against the act of

p r o c l a i m i n g o n e self as Imam Mahdi at present t h ere is no

clear f a twa issued by the Fatwa Committee to reject the

idea of the Resurrection of Imam M a h d T as a sign of the

co m i n g of the Last Day. On the o t her hand public opinion

considers that to be l i e v e or to deny the truth of

the R e s u r r e c t i o n of Imam Mahdi" will not affect the

one's faith.
 166

Concerning the belief in Imam Mahdi" some M u s lims

c l a i m that it is re l a t e d mor e to the I s l amic Republic of

Iran or Shiism, QadianT, and v i ews among Christianity

and Jewdaism (21). They argue that the issue of Imam

MahdT is disputable among Muslims since it m i ght have

bee n manipulated by certain groups for their political

interest.

To avoid confusion among Muslims re l a t i n g to the

issue of Im5m MahdT, a book 'Imam M a h d T Pro dan Kontra'

(Imam Mahdi Pros and Cons) was w r i t t e n by Ibnu Idris in

1991. It dis c u s s e s topics such as the M u s l i m scholars'

views on Imam MahdT, manipulation on the existence of

Imam MahdT for political motive, Imam MahdT as a

'khurafat' (fable of myth) of Jews and Christians, the

problems arising from the issue of Imam MahdT and the

R e s u r r e c t i o n of Imam Mahdi in the future.

A l - K a d a 1 Wa'1-Kadar
* °
The Muslims in Malaysia follow the "Ahl Al-

S u n n a ' group who be l i e v e that though man's destiny is

predetermined by Allah, he has to find his way b e fore

leaving his fate to destiny. However, a g r eat deal of

m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g exists as to the r e l a t i o n of D i v i n e will

 167

and the will of man. T h ose who work h ard in their

economic activities and practise t h eir devotion services

vigourously to All'ah but fail in t h eir life m i ght accuse

Allah as being unfair to them for offering His grace and

favour to the u n b e l i e v e r s and to i r r e s p o n s i b l e men.

This indirect s uch fru s t r a t e d Muslims to hol d on

to the belief that 'Rezeki secupak tak akan menjadi

segantang' (A bowl of the l i v e l i h o o d will not increase to

a bigger size of bowl) (22) which is a g ainst Isl"amic

teachings and which encourages people to wor k har d and

not to rely on fate. The m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the relation

of Divine will to the will of man c an undermine Mu s l i m s

faith. Muslim authors wrote books to explain and give a

clear interpretation on the concept of 'Al-Kada' Wa'l-

»

Kadar' so that a Muslim will face all adve r s i t i e s

m a n f u l l y and n e v e r d e s p a i r of the m e r c y of God.

In the book 'Masaalah Qadha"’ dan Qadar di Dal am

Islam' (The Pr o b l e m s of Predestination in Islam) this

issue is discussed. W r i t t e n by L u tpT IbrahTm in 1981, the

book gives the d e f i n i t i o n and the Isfamic concept of the

words ' A l - K a d a ' ’ and ' A1-Kadar'.

» *

On the concept of 'Al-Kada'' and 'Al-Kadar',

 168

Muslims are d i v i d e d into several groups or sects(23).

These are the 'Jabariah', the 'Kadariyya' and the 'Ahl

Al-Sunna w ho all hold d i f ferent views. T he ’Kadariyya'

g r oup believes that Allah has given m an control of his

a c t ions (good or bad), reasons and code of life to c h oose

and therefore man is responsible for all his actions.

The Jab a r i a h ' s view of 'Al-Kada'' and 'Al-Kadar' is

however, a sort of fatalism. Man is not free. In fact

his destiny is p r e o r d a i n e d by A l l a h and therefore man's

wishes and a c t ions are bent according to Allah's will.

Fate t h e r e f o r e is fixed.

T h ese g r oups likewise give different explanations

and interpretations on A l l ah's Attributes, Hadith, Al-

a
Kur'anic exegesis, the issue on the Resurrection of Imam
r
MahdT, the signs of the c o m i n g of the D a y Hereafter, the

relationship a m ong Muslims after death, conferring

r ewards by Muslims to the dead a f ter t h eir death,

the c o n cept of 'W a l i ', i n t e r c e s s i o n on the D ay of

J u d gement 'Shafa'a', remembering Allah, 't a w a s s u l ', the

rewards for re c i t i n g Al-Kur'an, 'zikir', association with

t-

the genies and o t her false doctrines, polytheism and

fabricated r e l igious activities which deviate from the

true I s l amic beli e f and teachings.

The p o s i t i o n on t h ese issues are in fact clear in

 169

Islam. For example on the issue of intercession (the

supplication of the Prophet for any Muslim from the fire

of Hell), Allah says that the nature of intercession

'shafa'a of the m e s s e n g e r on the D a y of J u d g e m e n t will be

in the f o r m of a special prayer, 'du'a' w h i c h A l l a h will

al l o w him to make. The Muslims can hope for the

intecession of the Messenger by obeying Allah and his

Messenger throughout t h eir lives to the best of their

abilities. T hey also have to die without commiting

'syirk' and have to ask Allah to provide the m the

intercession of the Messenger. However, no one can

i nt e r c e d e e x cept w i t h the permission of Allah (Al-

Z u m a r :43-44).

The Muslims in M a l a y s i a believe that the 'Shafa'a

of the Prophet M u h a m m a d will be e x e r c i s e d o n l y on the D ay

9

of Judgement. In actual fact the changes he brings about

in the life of man are the c l e arest evidence of the

'shafa'a' of the Prophet. It is also a m i s t a k e to suppose

that the Shafa'a" is g i ven to the fo l l o w e r s of the Prophet

Muhammad a l one since the f o l l owers of the other P r o phets

are also b e s t o w e d the 'shafa'a' of t h eir own Prophets.

 170

Ahl A l - S u n n a

In M a l a y s i a eve n t h o u g h almost all Muslims claim

to be the followers of t he 'Ahl Al-Sunna' group, many

misunderstand the true concept of t his group. Fro m a

theological aspect 'Ahl Al-Sunna' f o l lows the idea of Abu

Hassan A s y - Sya'ari and Abu M a n s u r al-Ma t a d a r i . World-wide

Muslims follow either 'madl^hab' 'Ahl Al-Sunna', 'SJii'ah'

or ' W a h a b i 1. B a s i c a l l y the original concept of 'Ahl Al-

Sunna' (Sunni) is more c l o s e l y related to the t heological

aspect rather than the Islamic jurisprudence and

law (Abdul Halim, 1 9 8 9 : 2 0 5 ) . Since then, some of the

Sunni Muslim claim t h e m selve as ahl al-sunna even their

a t t i t u d e toward Al-Kada' w a l - K a d a r are different.

In Malaysia one group claims that they are 'Ahl

Al-Sunna' and followers of the A l - K•u r ' a h and Hadith,

Q •---
(Hashim,
—* 1985; and Ahmad
o Yusuf, 1987) but at the same

time they do not believe H a d i t h to be a s e cond s o u r c e of

Islamic law (for example see Kassim, 1986:13). Another

group including some of the past Muslim scholars

accepted the four great Muslim Schools of Law;

Hanafites, Maliki, Hanbali and al-Shafi'i sects as the

0 •

Sunni. Ho w e v e r t h e y accused t h e i r followers of p r a c t i s i n g

'bid'a' and to h a v e gone a s t r a y (for e x a m p l e see Hcishim,

1985; and Ahmad Yusuf, 1987). The appearance of t he new

ideas for the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and a p p l i c a t i o n of I s l amic

 171

law has disrupted the unity of both t he law and the

Muslims in Malaysia.

Th e National Fatwa Committee at its fourteenth

meeting in October 1985, discussed this issue. They

announced that the followers of the authentic school of

law 1m a d h h a b 1 was to be called 'Ahl A l - S unna'. Her e they

fail to distinguish between theological and ju r i s p r u d e n c e

aspects on 'Ahl A l - S u n n a 1.This group refers to Al-Kur'an,

Hadith, Idjma' and Kiyas as the sources of Islamic law.

K n o w l e d g e of I s l amic Law and Jurisprudence itself a n d the

difference of opinion among th e legal Muslim scholars in

interpreting Al-Kur'anic verses and Hadith texts are

considered to be the main factors which led to the

existence of the four popular d i f ferent 'm a d h h a b s 1 and

different opinions in the M u s l i m world. These popular and

acceptable schools of law are Hanafites, MalTkT, al-

Shaf i 1i and Hanbali. Muslims who are not qualified in

Islamic law are not to give t h e i r o p i n i o n on this matter.

-Those w h o do not follow any 'm a d h h a b 1 h a v e to choose any

of the four 1m a d h h a b ' and to follow a nd believe it

blindly, 'taklid'.

The same com m i t t e e agre e s that fatwa in e v ery

state m u s t follow t h e 'Madhhab Shafi'i'. A n y state m a y

 172

follow other 1m a d h h a b ' with the approval of the Sultan

of the s t a t e concerned. M a l a y s i a n Muslims a r e a l l o w e d to

learn or to practise any of the other three *m a d h h a b 1;

ganafites, Malik!*, Hambali, as long as t h e y do not a c c u s e

others who practise ’Ma d h h a b al-Shaf i ' i ' of being

infidels or give lectures on other 1m a d h h a b 1 publicly.

However, all Muslims must follow the fatwa" issued by

State governments which is based on 1M a d h h a b al-

S h a f i 'i ’ ( Himpunan Keputusan Muzakarah Jawatankuasa

Fatwa T a h u n 1970-1990:88-90).

All Muslims in Ma l a y s i a accepted the

interpretation, fatwa and a p p l ication of the al- S h a f i ' i

School f or the a p p l i c a t i o n of Islamic law except Muslims

in the State of Ferlis. These Muslims rejected the four

' m a d h h a b 1 and b a sed the appl i c a t i o n of I s l a m i c law o n Al-

K u r 1an and Hadith alone. The ambiguity of the m e a n i n g of

• « —

the term 'Ahl A l - S u n n a 1 and its applicaton on Islamic law

is said to be one of the reasons for rejection. Some

Muslims even c l aim that they are free from any 1m a d h h a b 1

(Abdul Halim, 1989:204).

Thus, to clarify and to answer t he ta c c u s a t i o n s

and criticisms made by the opposers of the 'Ahl Al-

S u n n a 1, Hashim. A.Ghani in 1985 wrote the book 'As-

Sunnah Membela Diri1 (Al-Sunna's Defends Itself). The

author s a y s that the 'Ahl Al-Sunna’ group has been

 173

accused of g o ing astray and that the 'Kharidj i s 1 and

'K a u m WahabT' h ave deviated from I s lam for not zealously

following a ny specific 'madhhab'. 'Kaum Muda' also

accused as deviated from Islam for not following any

specific 1m a d h h a b 1 e s p e c i a l l y the ’M a d h h a b S h a f i 1i 1 w h i c h

is accepted as an established school of law in this

country. As a s o urce of Islamic law the 'Ahl Al-Sunna’

refers only to A l - K u r ’an and Hadith. To them other

» * *— *”

beliefs and practices are considered 'bid'a*1 since they

are not found in b o t h the above sources.

In addition to this claim, the book 'As-Sunnah

Membela Diri' announces that the daily newspaper

'Utusan Melayu' has deviated from I s lam and thus is an

enemy of the 'Ahl A l - S u n n a ’. E v e r y Muslim is advised to

stop reading it (Hashim, 1985:89). Further, Negeri

Sembilan Religious Department is accused as an

u n a u t h o r i z e d rel i g i o u s b o d y (Hashim, 1985:40).

Even though the majority of the Muslims in this

country are 'Ahl Al-Sunna' other v i ews h ave infl u e n c e d

some of them on c e r t a i n issues s u c h as on 'a n t i - H a d i t h ',

SufTsm, 'bid'ah', Imam M a h d i , Islamic state, the concept

of d e v e l o p m e n t and the schools of law ' m a d h h a b 1. M u s l i m s

w ho f a n a t i c a l l y f o l l o w their gr o u p ' s opinion on these

 174

issues and c l a i m that onl y their opinion and practices

are tru e and accu s e others as having gone astray,

'bid*a' and b e i n g unlslamic. This attitude, w h i c h h a mpers

Muslims' unity, is found prominently among individuals,

members of the Muslim political parties a nd the Islamic

m o v e m e n t o r g a n isations.

Generally, n e w v i ew s and op i n i o n s without reasons

and concrete support from Islamic sources; Al-Kur'an,

Hadith, Idjma' and Kiyas which are eminently different

from the b a sic of traditional I s lamic teachings might

be rejected by the some M u s l i m s in Malaysia. Thus, o f ten

the government's rules, fatwa, or decisions on

contemporary issues are disputed. This is because the

reasons emphasised are mainly based on the advantages,

the needs a nd the urgency of the c u r rent conditions of

the Muslim ummah 'Maslahah 'a m m a h ', 'd h a r u r a h 1 and

’M a s a l i h a l - M u r s a l a h ’(24).
*

Shi 1ism

S h f * ism like S u n n X s m is another branch of the

Islamic orthodoxy. However, ShT'ism is rejected by the

Malaysian Administrative of Isl~amic Law with the

exception of certain groups of this 'madhhab* like

 175

'Zaidiah' which is considered closest to the t e a chings

of the 'Ahl A l - S u n n a 1 (25).

The issues of S h i 1ism, Iran and Persian are

interrelated and are not considered new a m ong M u s l i m s

in Malaysia g i v e n the influence of the Pe r s i a n s and

ShT'ism a m ong Muslims in this country with the

introduction of Islam in the Malay Archipelago (Hassan,

a

1967:498). In fact, n u m e r o u s M a l a y w o r d s of the court

l a n guage and some of the Malay Rulers' customs are

adopted f rom the Persian language and culture (Hooker,

(ed.) 1988:13).

Nevertheless, the f o r m a t i o n of the Islamic

Republic of T r a n in the late nineteen seventies (1979)

and the w o r l d l y Islamic revival lead to new developments

in the p o l i t i c a l o r der among the M u s l i m s today. The great

contribution of S h i 'a scholars to philosophy, science,

art, culture, education (Seyyed Hussein, 1988:3-6) have

o
undoubtably i n f l u e n c e d the w a y of t h i n k i n g of the young

generation and members of the I s l amic organisations who

do not fanatically follow the al- S h a f i ' i School of Law

(See Nagata, 1992:52). A number of S h i 1T scholars

recently became well-known among the Islamic youth

leaders c a u s i n g the g o v e r n m e n t to be suspicious of the

 176

s p r e a d of the K h o m e X n T sy n d r o m e (26).

T he contentious issues which a r ise a m ong Muslims

in M a l a y s i a lately include the concept of Islamic State,

1i m a m a h 1, m a r t y r s , 'j i h a d ' , marriage 'mut'ah', SufTsm,

#

dispensation 'taqiyyah', Imam Mahdi a nd the second

arrival of Messiah (Prophet Isa* al-Masih) which are

in t e r r e l a t e d to Shi'ism. The M u s l i m S c h o l a r s Organisation

'P e r s a t u a n Ulama”' Malaysia' and the P an M a l a y s i a n Islamic

Party (PMIP) or PAS wer e ac c u s e d by the g o v e r n m e n t and by

s c h olars as being influenced by Sh'iism (27). E ven

though al-Arqam is against the government's Islamization

programme, it still s u p ports the government's action to

b an Sytii 'ism a m ong M u s l i m s in this c o u n t r y (28).

With the i n t ention of uniting a nd inculcating

Muslims respect for e a c h other, the book 'Aliran Syi'ah'

(The Shi'ism) w r i t t e n b y W a n A l ias b in A b d u l l a h in 1981,

e x p l a i n s to its readers, p a r t i c u l a r l y the Muslims, about

Shi'ism. T he d i s u n i t y among Muslims, the similarity and

differences between 'S u n n a ' and 1ShT'a', the n a mes of the

Shi~*a g r oups and the political history of the S h i 'a are

o t her issues emphasized.

 177

2. Islam ic Law and J u r i s p r u d e n c e

The laws in Islam are k n own as 'hukm'. Generally

A

I s l amic Law also known as 'shari 'a' refers to the rules

and regulations of the Al-Kur'an and the Sunna. They

*

cover worship and rites, moral and society, economy and

government, together with the elaborations and

applications of these rules by s c h olars which agree w i t h

the Al-Kur'an and ' S u n n a 1 such as 'al-idjmsT' and 'K i y a s '

ft — ft

( Muhammad Abdul H aq Ans"ari, 1986:71). Basically it m e a n s

the rules, orders, prohibitions and sy s t e m s cover e v ery

aspect of life and originally came from A l l a h as a guide

for man to attain a b e tter w o r l d l y and hereafter

l i f e ( 37).

In the trad i t i o n a l Islamic education system,

Islamic law was better known as 'al-Fikh' which deals

ft
with ' i b a d a 1, 'mu'amalat', marriage system 'muriakahat'
O

and c r imes 'jinayah' ( B a s s a m , 1991:41-43). In a wider

sense Islamic law e v e n includes 'faith and belief, v a lues

and ideals, as well as the Pro p h e t ' s way to cul t i v a t e

piety a nd achieve God's pleasure' (Muhammad Abdul H aq

Ans”afT, 1986: 71). However at present, the scope of the

a

Islamic law emphasises m o r e f a m i l y and m a r r i a g e rather

 178

tha n o t her m a t t e r s since the Islamic legal s y s t e m has not

been f u lly implemented in the I s l amic cou n t r i e s or

states of M a l a y s i a (Salem, (ed.) 1982:224-225).

Briefly, Islamic laws consist of t h ree main

categories: laws on believe 'i'tiqad', moral, 'akhlak'

and practice 1 'amali'. ' 'Amali' is divided into 'ibadah'

and 'mu'‘amal'at' . At present 'mu'amalat' includes

perso n a l matters, wealth, criminal, evidence and justice,

constitutional and administration laws and international

law (O.K. Rahmat, 1988:196).

*
In Malaysia, the term 'law' usually refers to

acts, rules, enactments, ordinance enforced by the

government to the Muslims and non-Muslims alike. In

dealing with the civil and criminal cases the laws are

b a s i c a l l y b a s e d on the E n g l i s h legal system (Wu, 1978:18-

19). Islamic laws enforced are only the I s l amic personal

and family laws which are based primarily on the al-

S h a f T 'i school of law, Al-Kur'an a nd Sunna and are

■ •

imposed only on the Muslims. N e vertheless, not all

Islamic states fully implement the Is l a m i c legal system

(Salem,(ed.) 1982:224-225) (Abdul Aziz, 1976:10).

T he s u b jects of Islamic economy and Islamic

 179

criminal law have been taught in the Arabic schools and

in some Islamic rel i g i o u s schools particularly in the

upper s e c o n d a r y and at pr e s e n t even at u n i v e r s i t y level.

Until 1970 Isramic law was a s u b ject taught in the

Department of Islamic Studies at the University of

Malaya. However, the n u m b e r of sc h o l a r s w h o are expert in

this subject is r e l a t i v e l y small and mos t of them are

graduates from Islamic U n i v e r s i t i e s abroad.

Concomitant w i t h the revival of Islam in the e a rly

1 9 7 0 's in Malaysia, the M u s l i m s became interested and

mor e aware of the i m p o r t a n c e of k n o w l e d g e of Islamic law.

Several formal a nd informal courses on Islamic law are

offered by government and semi-government institutions.

I slamic law is considered no longer as a subject in

Islamic studies but as a subject in the F a c u l t y of Law in

many universities and in other higher institutions. To

assist in the effort of giving more knowledge to the

M u s l i m s on the l e g i s l a t i o n of Islamic laws, reasons that

led to the f o r m a t i o n of the dif f e r e n t s c h ools of thought

and r e a sons for the difference in opinion a m ong the

Muslim sch o l a r s on the laws c o n c e r n i n g contemporary

issues became t o pics of studied. Muslim scholars wrote a

n u m b e r of Islamic books discussing jurisprudence, law,

 180

economy, family, criminal and others sub j e c t s of interest

to I slim.

In 1976, a book 'Ilmu Usui al-Feqh' (Isllmic

Jurisprudence), in the Jawi script was written by Abdul

AzTz Andik Acuk. The book gives explanations on Isllmic

jurisprudence, the sources of Islamic law and the

di f f e r e n t interpretations of Al-Kur'anic v e rses and

%

H a d i t h ' s versions.
* —
To e n a b l e people to u n d e r s t a n d m o r e about Islamic

law and Islamic jurisprudence, O.K. R a hmat wrote a book

*

’S u m b e r dan Prinsip Hukum Islam' (The Source and The

Principles of Islamic Law) in 1983, which discussed the

same topics. This book gives a detailed explaination of

the meaning of several contr o v e r s i a l terms such as

'maslahah', necessities 'dharuraTt' , needs 'hajjiyat',

* # • — •
improvement 'al-tahsihat', 'rukhsah1, 'azTmah', the types
» 1” t
of Hadith which are not considered as the source of

Islamic laws, exertion or diligence 1id j t i h a d 1,

imitation 'taklid' (the a c c e p t e n c e of religions authority

blindly), consensus of opinion 'i d j m a ' 1, a n a l o g y 'kiyas'

and c u s t o m 'al-'urf'.

T he book e x p l a i n s that Islam gives c o n s i d e r a t i o n

to customs and h u m a n needs. Necessity is more serious

 181

than needs. I s lam w a nts M u s l i m s to care for others, to

live in harmony and practise tol e r a n c e within family

life. Religion is more important than self-protection,

but the latter is more important than protecting the

human mind. This m e ans that in a case when Islam is

threatened Muslims are obliged to fight to the death. On

the other hand Islam relaxes the prohibition of dr i n k i n g

alcohol, which affects the sanity of the h u m a n mind, in

e m e r g e n c y cases w h i c h involve s u r v i v a l .

Furthermore according to the boo k 'S u m b e r dan

Prinsip H u k u m Islam', Islam is against the act of

injuring o t hers b a s e d on the extent of d a m a g e caused. In

Islam, preventing d a mage is more important than the

benefits gained from it. A Muslim is prohibited to

participate in profitable activities if it endangers

others. Islam gives several principles of s o lving

difficulty; I s l a m gives full consideration on emergency

1darurat:' to the extent of permitting the forbidden,

'haram' behaviour in times of emergency. For example,

eating of pork by a Muslim is permitted when it is the

onl y m e a n s of s u r v i v a l .

According to the book the p r e sent Muslims are

freed f r o m the h a r s h n e s s of the past law. For example

 182

the c a t e g o r y of w o m e n that can be m a r r i e d u n d e r the law

of m a r r i a g e has b een widend, and the l e n g t h of the ar m

and han d which can be amputated in 1h u d u d 1 law have

been determined.

This book mentions the position of Hadith as a

% --

source of Islamic law and examples of laws p r o d u c e d only

from HadT-yi. On this, all Muslim s c h olars agree on the

a u t h e n t i c i t y of H a d T t h to e i ther formulate law similar to

Al-Kur'an or to give a more definite interpretation of

the general concept of law in the Al-Kur'an and to

formulate laws that do not exist in the Al-Kur''an. This

book lists the categories of Hadith which are not

recognized as a source of Islamic law. Even though Muslim

sch o l a r s disagree and hold dif f e r e n t opinions on the

categories of Hadith t hey all accept Hadl^i as a source

of Islamic law. They consensusly believe that Hadith is

not the P r o p h e t ' s o wn v i e w or an a d d i t i o n to the law. In

fact, H• a d i t»■■h■■■ are b a sed on either Al-K

*■u r ’an, inspiration,

Allah's guidance or his own d i l i g e n c e w h i c h are c e r t a i n l y

based on A l l a h ' s revelation. (Al-Najm:3) This book does

not only recognize diligence, but it declares that the

door of fatwa is still open until today since t h ere are

m a n y c o n t e m p o r a r y issues w h i c h need clarification (30).

 183

The normal characteristic of b o oks on law is the

topics on Islamic law are often combined with other

topi c s on law. The book 'Makalah Undang-undang

Menghormati Ahmad Ibrahim' (Articles on L aw in Honour of

Ahmad IbrahFm) ( 31), p u b l i s h e d by D e w a n B a h a s a dan Pu s t a k a

in 1988 for example, is a compilation of several essays

on I s l amic Law and Malaysian Law in general. Ahmad

*
Ibrahim is a w e l l - k n o w n M a l a y s i a n legal expert, Em e r i t u s

Professor and Dean of Law at the Inter n a t i o n a l Isfamic

University of Malaysia. Topics covered in this book

related to Islamic law include the liability and the

rights of Muslim women in marriage, the Islamic Criminal

Procedure Code, Islamic Bank and the role of the Islamic

Legal system in solving p r o blems in a plural society

and towards the Islamization of the Natio n a l Land

Code. This book also me n t i o n s the weaknesses of the

current M a l a y s i a n law in d e a l i n g w i t h H u m a n Rights, motor

Insurance, credit cards, c o m p anies and 'jual janji'

(contract of sale by advance) from Is l a m i c point of view.

On the issue of Human Rights for example the

book g i ves the supporting and opposing views of the

Internal Security Act of 1960 which permits detention

wi t h o u t trial in court. E ven though I s lam is against

 184

those who threaten the stability of the society and the

state, it p r o h i b i t s arrest or d e t e n t i o n or i m p r i sonment

w i t h o u t trial (Mohd. A k h i r dan lai n - l a i n 1983:2-10).

Regarding the rights of Muslim women in marriage,

according to the book 'M a k a l a h Undang-undang Meng h o r m a t i

Ahmad I b r a h i m 1, I s lam p e r mits marriage between couples

wh o have r e a ched 'akil baligh' (puberty and maturity).

1W a l T Mujbir' (an authoritative guardian recognized by

I slamic law) a c c o r d i n g to the S h a f i 'T School of Law, has

the right to force his daughter into m a r r i a g e unless she

is a widow. This law is against the Hanafites and Shi 'i

School of Law. In the a b s e n c e of 'Wali Nasab' (A g u a r d i a n

descendent from the father's side) or w h e n a father

disapproved and r e f used to give his co n s e n t to the

marriage, a woman has the right to appeal to (SharF' a

Court) to o b t a i n p e r m i s s i o n of m a r r i a g e from 'Wali Hakim'

*
(Judge a p p o i n t e d as a g u a r d i a n in the n a m e of Ruler).

Under the Muslim Family law, a woman who married

under a ny established school of law is lawfully wedded

even though the marriage may be against the provision

under the Shafi'i School of Law. Marriage in So u t h e r n

Thailand could not be registered in any states in

 185

Malaysia unless it follows the regulation and the rule

of the law concerned. In fact in I s lam race, sect, colour

and nationality are no b a r riers to a marriage provided

the c o u p l e are Muslims.

In the same year, Abdul Rahman Mustafa” published

«•
'P r i n s i p - p r i n s i p Undang-undang Keterangan I s lam Satu

Pendekatan Perbandingan' (The Principles of Islamic

Evidence Law A Comparative Approach) w h i c h dis c u s s e s

the burden of proof, the facts that require proof (facts

evidence) or facts that do not require proof, witness

burden of proof in Islam and modern law and the

d i f f e r e n c e and s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n Islam and m o d e r n law.

As an introduction to a programme commemorating

Muslim sch o l a r s in Jurisprudence, Bahagian Hal Ehwal

Islam, J a b a t a n P e r d a n a Menteri (Islamic A f f a i r s Division,

Prime M i n i s t e r Department) compiled several a r t icles in a

book "Hijrah M e m a j u k a n U m m a h S e m inar P e m i k i r a n Isl"am (The

M i g r a t i o n of The Prophet in Development of the Muslim

Community, S e m i n a r on Islamic Law) p u b l i s h e d in 1989. The

a r t icles concern the life history of Imam Shafi'i, his

ideas and c o n t r i b u t i o n s in T h e o l o g y ,language, literature,

c o n cepts of al-Maslahah, crime and waqf, his w r i t i n g s and

his m e t h o d o l o g y in Islamic law, his e x p l o r a t i o n into the

 186

scope of H a d i t h and his u n c e r t a i n t y on ’H a d i t h A h a d ’(32).

* -— * — ~

This boo k also d i s c u s s e s the i n f l uence of the Shafi'i

school of law on the Malaysian Muslim society and the

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of Islamic law in Malaysia.

A book 'Undang-undang Jenayah I s l a m 1(Islamic

Criminal Law) written b y P a i z a h Haji Ismail in 1991 aims

to erase the feeling of uncertainty and doubt among

M u s l i m s of the c a p a b i l i t y of Islamic law and Islamic

criminal law to solve the present crimi n a l cases. The

book discusses in detail e v e r y aspect of I s l amic criminal

law. It highlights certain topics considered new among

the lay M u s l i m s in M a l a y s i a such as to p r o v o k i n g a person

b e ing a crime, creating a condition which leads to an act

of c r ime b e i n g a crime "menjadi syarat adalah satu bentuk

perlakuan jahat dalam jenayah", the difference between

intention and motivation, murder and inju r y with

permission, and extreme punishment in the prevention of

evil. Thi s book also dis c u s s e s sport from an Islamic

point of view. To the writer all types of sport are

permissable s i nce participation in these games leads to

the impr o v e m e n t of skill and strength which benefits the

society.
 187

School of Law (Madhhab)

The M u s l i m s are di v i d e d into several groups or

sects either in theology, law or SufTsm. Basically they

believe in Six Cardinal Art i c a l s of Is l a m i c faith. But

after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, they t h e m selves

ft
interpret Al-Kur'anic verses and Hadith texts reg a r d i n g
• *
w i t h A l l a h ' s names, His at tributes and the o r i gins of the

w o r l d - w i d e creatures.

Later, these groups are divided into several

ot her groups s uch as Ahl Al-Sunna, S h i 'i , Kharidjis,

Murdji'T, Mu'tazills, Kadiriyya, Jabarlah, NajarFah,

— *

Musyabbihah, Wahabi and Bahaiyah. Infact, a m ong the S h i 'i

and S u n n T too t h ere are m a n y sub-groups. The total n u m b e r

of t h ese groups are about seventy-three. Bahaiyah was

rejected by majority of the Muslim sc h o l a r s and was

accused as unbeliever 'kufur' (Horrie and Chippindale,

1993:116-137) .

After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, the

0

Muslims also divided into other groups when they

interpret the laws on contemporary issues based on the

o t her sources; 1i d j m a ^ a ' ( C o n s e n s u s e s ) , 'Kiyas' (analogy)

and t h eir o wn 'idjtihad' when the Al-Kur'"anic v e rses and

H a d i t h do not s p e c i f i c a l l y m e n t i o n the laws concerned.

 188

(Muhammad Hashim, 1991:366)

•> *—
T he Indian and Pakistani" M u s l i m s in Malaysia are

followers of the Hanifiyya School of Law. Though there

are only minor differences in the practises of the

S>hafT' 1“ and Hanifiyya School of Law, t he f o l l owers of

these 1m a d h h a b 1 b u i l d separate mosques s i nce the y p r efer

to f o llow their o wn 'Imam' during t h eir prayers. Today

the f o l l owers of the 1M a d h h a b H a n a f i ' p r o v i d e special

religious instruction for their children, in their own

mosques or schools, under the supervision of t h eir own

t e a c h e r s w h o come f r o m India and Pakistan.

In the past, the separation between the different

'madhhab1 a m ong Muslims in Malaysia wa s so significant

that m a r r i a g e b e t w e e n the followers of the di f f e r e n t

'madhhab' were considered illegal unless the marriage

candidates were willing to change their 1m a d h h a b 1 (See

Hooker, 1976:19 and Salmah @ Fatimah v Soo Long (1878)

IKy. 421). In addition the 'Kadi' will hea r the cases of

the co u p l e s b a s e d on t h e i r own 'madhhab'.

The issue on the schools of law w as openly

discussed in 1985 between Nahmar JamTl in his book

'B e r m a z h a b H a r a m d an S e s a t ? ' (Following a School of Law,

 189

Is It F o r b i d d e n and D e v i a n t ?) and H a s h i m A. Ghani in his

book 'Sesat dan Haram Bermazhab1 (Deviant and Forbidden

0

to follow a School of Law). Nahmar w ho follows the

S h a f i ' i 1 School of Law claims that every lay M u s l i m w i t h

i n a d equate knowledge of legal or theological law is

unable to 'idjtihad' and must f o llow one of the four

established 'madhhab'.

Hashim disagrees with Nahmar's view and argues

that there is a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n 'taklid'

*
and 'ittiba*' '

(to follow based on or without reason and proof) and

every Muslim is a l l o w e d to follow any school 'M a d h h a b ' by

'i t tiba’1 ' and not by 'taklid'. In his b ook 'Sesat dan

Haram Bermazhab' Hashim further asserts that, based on

A l - K• u r ' a n and Hadith,

v —
fo l l o w i n g other than A l - K* u r ' a n

and Sunnah is prohibited in Islam (Hashim, 1985:90). To

him following a 'm a d h h a b ' is deviance. Other issues

discussed in this book are the c o n cept of 'Ahl Al-Sunna',

'Ahli Dhalalah' and 'A s - S a l a f i y e e n 1 (The Companions of

the Pr o p h e t Muhammad) .
*
In the boo k 'P e n g a r u h Madhhab S h a f i ' T d an M a s a l a h

Kaum Muda di Malaysia' (The I n f l uence of the Shafi'T

School of Law and the Problems of Youth in Malaysia),

w r i t t e n by Abdul H a l i m El M u h a m m a d y ” in 1982, the change

 190

in attitude a m ong Muslim writers particularly on the

issue of the school of law is portrayed. T he book gives

an account of the influence of the .Shafi'i School in

education and Islamic law since the pre-colonial period,

during the days of the British Empire and after

Independence. It also gives a detailed description of the

Isl"ah m o v e m e n t which opposes the traditional group 'Kaum

#

T u a ! who is a strict f o l lower of the S h a f 1 11 School of

Law. The former movement was initiated by Malay Muslim

sc h o l a r s who graduated from the Middle Eas t Universities

and who were influenced by the Wahabi's leaders who

accepted Ibn Taimiyyah and Ibn Al-Qayyim Al-Juzziyyah

ideas based on HanTffyya School of Law (See also Ahmad

Amin, 1979:20-21, Moh. Ben Cheneb in E n c y c l o p e d i a of

Islam: 421) S h e i kh Waliullah Al-Dahlavi in India, the

Islah g r o u p led by M u h a m m a d A b d u h in E g y p t and K a m l u d d f h

9

Khawaja from Lahore in the e a rly nineteenth century. The

Islah g r o u p calls the M u s l i m s to refer to the laws in the

*
Al-Kur'an and Sunna and to practise 'idjtihad'. They are

ag a inst ’m a d h h a b ’, ’t a k l i d 1 and ’b i d ’ah (Abdul HalTm,

1982:37).
 191

D e v o t i o n S e r vices

Generally, the scope, the topics, the a p p r o a c h and

the lit e r a r y style chosen by M u s l i m w r i t e r s when writing

on d e v o t i o n services are b a s e d on the p r e s u m e d b a c k g r o u n d

knowledge and p r a c t i s e of their target group of readers.

There are d e v o t e d M u s l i m s w i t h a w i d e k n o w l e d g e of Islam.

On the o t her hand there are Muslims with a limited or

poor knowledge of IslSm, particularly regarding personal

and family matters. Nevertheless, mor e recently topics

w h i c h are m o r e relevant to the needs of m o d e r n day life

such as the economy and the ba n k i n g system have caught

the interest of Muslim writers. For example, the Family

Law Act, S
——y a r i 'a Court's Judge 'Kadi',
* the power of the

Syari'a Court, 'Hudud', Isl'amic Criminal laws, Islamic

t i the on wages, the position of w o m e n in society and the

fatw"a on c o n t e m p o r a r y issues rather than c o m m o n topics of

Islamic devotion. However, c o ntroversial topics such as

non-compulsary prayers 'salat-salat s u n n a 1(For ex a m p l e

* *

see KamaruddTn, n.d., M.Said, 1976) ' b i d ’a h 1, marriage

institution in the Muslim so c i e t y and polygamy c o n tinue

to be d i s c u s s e d .(33)

From 1975 onwards books written on devotion

 192

services generally discuss similar topics as Islamic

rel i g i o u s books published ea r l i e r in this country.

Favourite topics written about revolve around the Five

Pillars of Islam: the ’shatiada’, the daily obligatory

prayers, fasting, alms and p i l g r i m a g e to M e c c a . (34)

Most writers focus on each s u b ject separately.

However, there are books which besides giving general

explanation (See for example Udah, 1987) added o t her

t opics such as: the significance of the Islamic months,

the secrets of devotion services, non-obligatory p r a yers

(See KamaruddFn, n .d . :v i i )(35) , visiting the sick and

paying last r e s pects to the dead, praying, meditating and

chanting Allah Names and Attributes as practised by

P r o phet Muhammad (for ex a m p l e M . H . Ikhlas, 1990), the

» — *
s e c rets of concentration during praying (for example

Mustafa", 1987), ethi c s in the mosque, recitation of the

’T a l k i n ’, Qiran' and unobligatory s a c r ifices

'Qurban' and 'Aqiqah' (for e x a mple Kamarul ShukrT", 1990).

All b e l i e v e r s of Islamic faith m u s t s h o w to A l l a h

their s i n c e r e and total sub m i s s i o n or obedience (to the

will and laws of A l l a h as set down in the Al-Kur'an)

t h r o u g h r i g o r o u s l y o b s e r v i n g the D i v i n e Laws and Rules in

all a s p e cts of life. Muslims must a c cept and perform

 193

devotion services; duties and responsibilities in the

name of Allah for the good of the individual as well as

for the goo d of the c o m m u n i t y as a whole.

These se r v i c e s can be divided into 'ibadah

khususP (specified devotion) better known as the Five

Islamic Principles or the Five P i l lars of Islam, an

obligation to be strictly observed by e v e r y Muslim, and

the 'ibadah umum' (general devotion) which involves the

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of a M u s l i m towards e v e r y m e m b e r of his

family, his c o m m u n i t y and his c o u n t r y as a whole, his

participation and transactions in politics, 'mu'amalat',

marriage 'muriakahat', education and welfare fol l o w i n g

Islamic laws and rules.

B o oks w r i t t e n since 1975 call upon and e n c o u r a g e

the M u s l i m s to improve their devotional practices through

exercising non-compulsory duties (for example see Hal

Azwan, 1992:53; Sheikh All", 1977:101-102) besides

rigorously practising the basic Five I s l amic Principles.

The Muslims are re m i n d e d to remember Allah ceaselessly,

irrespective of time an d place, and to strive to obtain

the best rewards through congregational pr a y e r s and

p e r fect d e v o t i o n services.

S i nce f a mily members share certain mutual

 194

commitments, the books encourage all c l ose re l a t i v e s and

fa m i l y members to d e e p e n their k n o w l e d g e of every

rel i g i o u s d u t y relating to f a mily affairs, such as

re c i t i n g the 1Azan' and 'Iqamat' at the birth of t h eir

new-born baby, giving a beautiful a nd meaningful name

that is r e l evant to Islam, and p e r f o r m i n g the final

ser v i c e s for the dead, particularly for their family

members.

Today's younger generation lacks knowledge and

experience of these practices, especially those who

rarely attend the informal religious teaching sessions in

the mosque and 'surau' . In schools, lessons on these

particular t o pics hav e not been f u lly taught, and in

higher education the em p h a s i s is mor e on the t h e o retical

a s p ects of 'F a r d u 'ATh', the d uty w h i c h is o b l i g a t o r y on

every Muslim, rather t han the theory and practices of

non-compulsory devotion services and 'Fardu K i f a y a h ' , the

duty which is obligatory for at least o ne person in the

M u s l i m community.

There are books which focus on controversial

issues regarding d e v o tional services. Such issues are

'Bid'ah' (Ahmad Yusuf, 1987:9; Hashim, 1985: 172; Abdul

Halim, 1982:37), 'Haji Qirah' (Hashim, 1989: 47), 'Zakat

 195

on w a g e s ’ (Hassan, 1 9 8 9 : i x ; )(36), the n u m b e r s of 'r a k a a t '

a
in the ’T a r a w e h prayer' (M.Sa'Id, 1976:18; Ainul Bashar,

n.d.:81; S y e i k h AlTT 1977:75), the c h oice between 'his'ab'

or ’falaq', and si g h t i n g of the moon to determine the

first day of Ramadan (Bahagian Penerbitan Jabatan Agama

Johor, 1981:75).

Nevertheless, the v i ews on 'Bid'ah' in the book

'G a y u n g Bersambut ke-2 As-Sunnah Membela Diri' are

against the t r a d i tional practices a m ong Muslims in this

country, and are irrelevant to the S h a f i 'i School of Law,

the statements made by the authoritative body and the

Ministry concerned (Hashim, 1985:227,134,155, and 204).

The scope of writing and the objectives of the IslSITiic

books published since 1975 will be shown clearly in all

the books m e n t i o n e d below.

A book 'Kitab Tuntutan Ibadat1 (Islamic B ook on

C o m p u l s o r y Devotion) by S y e i k h A l T b. Abdullah Baldram

Ali Baldram published in 1977, discusses several topics

re l a t i n g to faith and theology followed by topics on

Islamic laws 1syari"’a 1 and devotion services. ’Z i k i r ’

(37), ’u r u s a n jenazah’ (The last se r v i c e for the dead),

’t a l k i n ’ (38), ’t a h l i l ’ and ’d u ’a a r w a h ’ (for e x a m p l e see

o

Yahya* Z a k r i ,1988:33) and the life h i s t o r y of a n u m b e r of

c>
 196

Messengers are also discussed, although they are

o b v i o u s l y not r e l a t e d to the title of the book.

Ins t i t u t e D a k w a h dan Latihan IslUm, B a h a g i a n U g ama

Jabatan Perdana M e n teri (Islamic Dakwah and Training

Institute, Prime M i n i s t e r ' s Department) p u b l i s h e d a book

1P r i n s i p - p r i n s i p Ibadat' (The Principles of Devotion),

w h i c h was a compilation of articles on the philosophy of

Islam, jurisprudence, the concept of the 1s y a h a d a 1, the

i mp o r t a n c e of tithe, prayers, and 'R a m a d h a n '.

On a s i m ilar subject, Bahagian Ugama Kementerian

Pelajaran (Islamic Division, Ministry of Education)

published a book 'P a n d u a n Fardhu Ain' (The G u ide to

O bligation) discussing the final s e rvice for the dead

and prayers of a traveller 'S e m b a h y a n g JamaT' da n Qasar'.

*

O t her topics d i s c u s s e d w h i c h are u n r e l a t e d to the book's

title are 'tauhid' (theology), 'H u k u m 'Akal' (Law of

rational), SufTsm, Isl"amic concepts on man's r e l ation to

God, Allah's objective for sending the P r o phets and

Messengers, the relationship between knowledge and Islam,

'al-Kada' wa'1-Kadar' and morals. The book d e s c r i b e s the

« *

concept of devotion, 'ibadah' in Islam, as: 'Dari istilah

a g ama ibadat berarti tindakan, menurut, mengikut dan

mengikat diri d e n g a n sepenuhnya kepada segala perkara

 197

yang disyariatkan oleh Allah dan diseru oleh para Rasul,

sama ada ia berbentuk su r u h a n atau larangan' (In

r e l i gious terms devotion means action, obedience,

following and total submission to Allah's revelation and

the Prophet's call either in the form of co m m a n d or

p r o h i bition) (Bahagian Ugama Kementerian Pelajaran

n .d .219) .

The definition of 'T a s a w w u f ' is also g i ven in a

verysimple way as: 'Dari segi syarak, Tasauf diertikan

mencari jalan u n tuk m e m p e r o l e h k e c i n t a a n d an k e s e m p u r n a a n

rohani serta menja u h i diri daripada melakukan ma k s i a t

zahir d an batin' (In the law of Islam, Sufism means

» * •

finding the way to gai n love and spiritual perfection,

and to avoid commiting physical an d spiritual

i m m o r a l i t y ) . Le a d i n g on from this, the book mentions ten

good and ten b ad c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that every Muslim must

practise and prevent as appropriate respectively

(Bahagian U g a m a K e m e n t e r i a n Pelajaran, n . d : 168-169).

S i nce prayer is of par a m o u n t importance in the

r e l i gious act, issues r e l ating to 'Salat Berjama"ah'

*
(Congregational Prayer), 'Salat Masbuq’ (prayer for one

w h o ar r i v e s late for a congre g a t i o n a l prayer, after the

'Imam' has s t a r t e d praying) 'Djama'a da n Q a s a r ' and the

 198

prayer of a traveller, 'salat musafir' beca m e

particularly important arou n d the y ear 1985 (Ismail,

1987:iii). For example the book 'P a n d u a n Fardu Ain' (The

Guide to Obligation) written by Ismail Kamus was

p u b l i s h e d t h ree times b e t w e e n the y e ars 1985 and 1987.

Devotion is also discussed in a book 'Risalah

Usrah' (Note On Religious Instruction) written by A bu

'Urwah in 1986 (39). Bahagian Istinbat, Jabatan Agama

»
Isl'am W i l a y a h Persekutuan in a book 'Panduan Tata-Tertib

Di Masjid’ (A G u i d e to Proper Behaviour in the Mosque)

also published in 1986, listed superogatory activities,

devotion services, and prohibited behaviour when going,

entering, s t a y i n g inside and leaving the mosque.

The e f f e c t of d e v o t i o n services on o n e's b e h a v i o u r

can be seen as mentioned by Udah Mohsin in his book

r,

'K e s a n Ibad a h D a l a m P e m b e n t u k a n Akhlak Seorang Muslim;

*
Sembahyang, Puasa, Zakat, Haji' (The Effects of Devotion

S e r vices in Sh a p i n g A Muslim's Morality; Praying,

Fasting, G i v i n g Alms, Pilgrimage) published in 1986.

Prayer is spoken of as 'munajat' or c o n f idential

c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h the D i v i n e Spirit, Allah. To beco m e

imbued w i t h All”ah is to be free f r o m w o r l d l y tr a m m e l s for

 199

a while. To overcome the problem of 'khusyu1'

(concentration) during prayer, several b o oks have

been published. In his book 'Rahsia Khusyu1 Dal am

Sembahyang' (The Secret of Concentration During Prayers)

published in 1987, Mustafa" Suhaimi discusses the ways to

f* *
attain concentration and reasons for the lack of

concentration during prayers. However, the inclusion

of several other topics detracts from the issue. Abdullah

A l-Qari b Hi S a l leh's approach on concentration during

p r a yers in a book with a similar title 'Rahsia KhusyiH

Dalam Sembahyang' (The S ecrets of Concentration During

Prayers) is more comprehensive since he writes

specifically on the matter. The book discusses the

definition and kinds of concentration, concentration in

time of prayer, the factors that in f l u e n c e concentration,

constraints t o w ards achieving concentration, sugg e s t i o n s

of w a y s to a c h ieve co m p l e t e concentration in prayer.

In this book the readers are in f o r m e d of the P r o p het's

pray e r and the various v i ews on achieving concentration

practised a m ong the C o m p a n i o n s and the e s t a b l i s h e d M u s l i m

scholars, such as Assy-Syaikh. Mustafa Al-Maraghi, Imam

Ar- R a a z i an d Al-GhazalT.

Besides observing their prayers, Haron (Haron,

 200

1988: 318-401) encourages the M u s l i m s to c l e a n their soul

and t h eir w e a l t h either through fasting, giving alms,

pilgrimage to Mecca or by suppressing their inner most

desires of evil tendencies, and by participating in the

'da'wa' activities and the H o l y - W a r ,'J i had fi sabllillah’

(See also M o h d Akhfr, 1986 and Haron, 1988:348).

To clarify the pr o b l e m s and issues on devotions,

IsmaTl b in Kamus wrote a book in the for m of qu e s t i o n s

#

and answers, 'Soal Jawab K e m u s y k i l a n A g a m a 1 (Question and

An s w e r s on Islamic Problems) in 1989. T he boo k answers

questions pertaining to d e v o t i o n and Islamic law which

include marriage to a genie, p r a yers for non-Muslims,

pr a y e r s of love, pornography, the donation of cornea of

the eyes, and marriage to a 1khunseT1 (hermaphrodite).

Th ese p r a c t i c e s are p r o h i b i t e d in Isl'am.

In Hal A z w a n ’s book ’P e r s o a l a n dan Rahsia

*

S e m b a h y a n g ’ (Issues and the Secrets of Prayers) published

in 1992, matters on ’wudu'' (ablution), ’tayammum'

'Azan' and the time when prayer is ’makruh' are

e x p l a i n e d ( 40).

Thus when a Muslim is unable to find water, or

when the u se of water or taking of a bath is harmful,

a b l u t i o n u s i n g pure e a r t h is a m e a n s of p u r i f i c a t i o n - m o r e
 201

of purification of the soul than of bodily purificaton.

The knowledge about 'Tayammum’ is important. Lack of

knowledge and experience in practising 'Tayammum' causes

many Muslims in Malaysia to omit praying when they are

sick or injured be c a u s e t hey feel it is inconvenient for

them to pray e ven though they know that praying is a

compulsory dut y to every Muslim and is to be observed

strictly (A l - N i s a ' :102 ) .

Islamic E c o n o m y

Working following the Divine instruction is a

devotion service. Earning a living through d e cent labour

is not only a duty but a great virtue as well. Honest

trade and har d e n d e a v o u r is b l e s s e d by God. Thus, books

on Islamic economy have frequently inspired the Muslims,

whose livelihood is b a sed on subsistence e c o nomic

activities such as f a r m i n g and fishing, to p a r t i c i p a t e

in Islamic business where interest 'riba', fraud,

injustice, fr e e z i n g monetary circulation, speculation,

confiscation, bribery, cheating, blackmailing,

exploitation, force and monopolizing are strictly

prohibited (Haron, 1988:452-453, Ab Rashid, 1985:11,19

and 27, Sobri, 1988:23-26).

*
 202

As part of a society which is undergoing fast

economic growth, the Muslim writers criticised the

i n e f f i c i e n c y of the 1B a i t u l - M a l ’ and the E n d o w m e n t ’Wakf'

Administration and Management (HailanT, 1982: 6 3 , 1 0 5 , and

160; K a m a r u d d i n , 1992 :39-56) in d e a l i n g w i t h capital: the

*
increasing amount of zakat collections, donations, gifts,

u n d i s t r i b u t e d share of inhe r i t a n c e and 1w a s i a t 1 .

*
In 1983, Haj i A b d u l - Q a d i r Haji Ismail wrote a book

in the Jawi script, 'Sistem Pusa k a I s l a m 1 (Islamic S y s t e m

of Inheritance), introducing the Islamic i n h e ritance

system which is not completely practised at p r e sent by

all Muslims. T he boo k discusses the issue on i n h e ritance

from a hist o r i c a l point of view: the law of i n h e ritance

p r a c t i s e d in a n c ient Egypt, Gree c e and the E a s t e r n World,

inheritance among the Jews, R o mans and in the modern

world.

Explanations are given on the inheritance law in

socialism, the inhe r i t a n c e law of the Arabs b e fore the

co m i n g of Islam, and the society which practices the

'Adat Perpatih'. In a d d i t i o n detailed description is

gi ven of the i n h e r i t a n c e law in Islam, where in p r i n c i p l e

b ot h men and women are equally entitled to inherit the

p r o p e r t y of d e c e a s e d r e l a tions but the p o r t i o n m a y vary.

 203

A male heir is g i ven m ore than a woman. A man receives

two shares w h e r e a s a w o m a n gets o n l y one.

Today, most Muslims divide the wealth of the

deceased equally between both men and women but allott

more sha r e s for widows, unmarried ladies, minors, and the

disabled and mentally r e t arded heirs irrespective of

their sexes. This sometimes causes the male heirs to

fail to fulfil their dut y by Law as the provider and a

leader to the female m e m b e r s of their family. The sisters

pay less respect to the m ale heirs since the latter get

m ore share of the deceased's property but g ive less care

to t h e m than to his family.

A book 'Institusi Pasar Perniagaan Islam' (The

Institution of the Islamic M a r k e t Trade) written in 1985

by Ab. Rashid Bin Haji Dail, focuses on the importance

*
of the free market s y stem in Islam which deals with

economic commodities i n v olving p u b l i c utilities or c o m m o n

property, and the extent of the government's role in

controlling it. This will allow the existence of a

profitable and a stable market w h i c h specifically fulfils

the n e e d s of e v e r y m a r k e t and the needs of the s o c i e t y in

general (Ab. RashTd, 1985:1-3).

The e c o n o m i c s y s t e m of Islam is not drawn in the

 204

light of arith m e t i c a l calculation and capacities of

p r o d u c t i o n alone. Rather it is d r awn and c o n c e i v e d in the

light of a comprehensive s y s t e m of m o ral principles.

A c c o r d i n g to this book, I s lam is a g a inst the system where

the middle men h ave the p o wer to determine the p r ice of

co m m o d i t i e s which usually differs from the normal mark e t

price. Every cus t o m e r must know about market price

before involving himself in any b u s i n e s s transactions.

This is e s s ential to avoid dis h o n e s t economic practices.

In fact, not e ven the gov e r n m e n t has the right to fix

prices, which is against the law of d e m a n d and supply.

Islam d e tests the p r a c t i c e of d e s t r o y i n g a commodity with

the aim of stabiling price, and it becomes the

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the government to control the mark e t

when the public interest is threatened (Ab. Rashid,

1985:38) .

In the book 'Perniagaan Menurut Pandangan

I s l a m ’ (Business Fro m an Isfamic Point of View) published

in 1988, the author Sobri Salamon stres s e s the i mportance

of understanding the Islamic business system. In

Malaysia, the n u m b e r of M u s l i m b u s i n e s s m e n are few when

compared to other races and most Muslim businessmen are

u n a w a r e of the i m p o r t a n c e of bu s i n e s s in strengthening
 205

their f u ture economic growth and t h eir political power.

T he b oo k w a rns the government of the necessity to

abolish business systems that contradict Islamic values

and n o r m s .

In addition, the book highlights t he life history

of Prophet Muhammad as a successful businessman and an

entrepreneur in international import export enterprises

pr i o r to his appointment as A l l a h ’s M e s s enger. Islamic

bu s i n e s s p r i n c i p l e s p ay a great deal of a t t e n t i o n to free

trade, the ab s e n c e of interest, good service, protection

of rights for both dealer and customer, sincerity and

trust-worthiness, dedication and patience (Sobri, 1988:

*

23-51). According to the author, business was among the

main factors that led to the w o r l d - w i d e s p read of Islamic

cu l t u r e in the past (Sobri, 1988:20).

The a u thor is against the practice of usury in

business transactions and questions the sincerity of

those, who by making a simple justification, permit and

practice it. This is c l e a r l y against the strong views

expressed by Muslim and other scholars world-wide

(Sobri, 1988:30). Usury, he says, promotes the habit of

idleness because the usurer, instead of doing any hard

w o r k or m a nual labour, be c o m e s like a p a r a s i t e living on

 206

others.

Some argue that today's economic world is in a

state of e m e r g e n c y w h i c h p e r m i t s the t a k i n g of interest

in business. T he author too laid out the arg u m e n t s m a d e

by e s t a b l i s h e d M u s l i m and n o n M u s l i m s c h o l a r s w ho w a r n of

the danger of i m p osing 'interest' on the commercial

community and the society as a whole. The pra c t i c e

of 'interest' may lead one to ex e r c i s e n e g a t i v e a t t itudes

and behaviour, selfishness, egoism, boastfulness,

obstinacy, cruelty, laziness, greediness and materialism.

It a b o l i s h e s the p o s i t i v e values of brotherhood, justice,

democracy, e q u a l i t y and peace.

The book conde m n s the m o d e r n b u s i n e s s system where

the c u s t o m e r ' s or client's risk is n o r m a l l y g r e a t e r than

the dealer's. Li k e w i s e it focuses on the danger of the

monopolies s y s t e m since the limited amount of a commodity

in the market prevents the b u yer from fulfilling his

n ee d at a reasonable p r ice (Sobri, 1988:54-55). It

appears today that the giant holding companies, their

joint v e n t u r e com p a n i e s and the share holders, in order

to o b t a i n m a x i m u m profit, d e s t r o y or h o a r d their products

for a c e r t a i n p e r i o d of time leading to lack of s u p p l y in

the m a r k e t .
 207

Regarding this, the author appeals to the

authoritative bodies (Fatwa“ committees) to issue a

specific fatwa prohibiting these un-Islamic practices to

maintain a prosperous and peaceful society. In c e r t a i n

circumstances, the role of the government is n e c e s s a r y

in enforcing the law, to control the non-fixed mark e t

price to a certain level. This book encourages Muslim

entrepreneurs to deal with other e n t e r p r i s i n g comm u n i t i e s

as long as the business follows I s l amic principles. The

Muslims are persuaded to manage credit transactions or

contracts through legal procedure in the f orm of w r i t t e n

documents, in the p r e s e n c e of e l i g i b l e witnesses.

Compared to other Islamic economy systems,

'Wadi'ah' and 'D z a m a n ', the a u thor c l aims that the

c u r rent banking system is un-Islamic since the bank has

legal right to invest its depositor's money without his

p ermission. The Islamic b u s iness systems: 'm u d a r a b a h ',

'murabahah' and 'syarikah' are g i v e n as an a l t e r n a t i v e to

replace the m o d e r n e c o n o m i c s y s t e m in the M u s l i m society.

Islam encourages the entrepreneur to manage inve s t m e n t s

and p r o j e c t s to an u n l i m i t e d d e g r e e and period of time

and the profit must be distributed between both the

investors (capital owner) and the e n t r e p r e n e u r based on

 208

their agreement.

Islam also permits the sale of goods, even if it

is m o r e e x p e n s i v e than its cost price, on c o n d i t i o n the

profitable rate is accepted by both party. When he

discusses companies 'syarikat', he clearly states that

Islam permits joint-venture bu s i n e s s provided it is free

fro m any form of fraud, force and false b u s iness

transaction.

The auth o r criticised the c u r rent free enterprise

system, the 'New Economic Policy', as violating f r eedom

of individual ownership, the system of wages, as

inv o l v i n g elements of bribery, p o wer abuse, malpractice,

fraudulency, breach of trust, exploitation, intoxication

and interest w h i c h o p p o s e Islamic moral values (SobrT,

1988:108-130).

3. General Scope

Other t o pics of interest from an Is l a m i c point of

view written about by Muslim writers are science and

modern medicine (For e x a m p l e see M u h a m m a d ,1987), disunity

of the M u s l i m s (See for example Mahyuddln, 1984), the

4

I slamic m o v e m e n t in M a l a y s i a (41), geography (See Amriah,

1984), education (See Haron and others, 1988), the

 209

life history of the P r o phets and the Messengers, Isra'

M i 1raj (for ex a m p l e see Amaluddin, 1980), Isl'amic

History (for example see MahyuddTn, 1984), and others

(42).

In 1979, S u l a i m a h Hj Noordin wrote a book entitled

'Sains Barat Moden dan Percanggahannya Dengan Islam'

(Modern Western Science and Its Contradictions with

I s l a m ) . It d i s c u s s e s science from an Islamic point of

view, the philosophy of modern Western science, the

development of s c ience in Islamic civilisation, test tube

babies and va r i o u s isms such as Isl"amic socialism,

Darwinism and Islamic pragmatism. The author disagrees

with the view of Western s c i e ntists particularly on the

o r i g i n of man, the c r e a t i o n of the world and nature

because t h ese views cannot be scientifically proved. In

fact these v i ews led to the emergence of isms that

co n f l i c t with I s lam such as socialism, materialism,

s e c u l a r i s m and c a p i t a l i s m among man as well as AtheTsm.

Sulaimah Hj Ndordih opposes the experiments on

test tube b a bies carried out by modern scientiests, and

p r o g r a m m e s of d i c t a t o r i a l So c i a l i s t g o v e r n m e n t s such as

boarding schools, kindergartens, nurseries and their

 210

invo l v e m e n t in the misuse of drugs. These activities

according to Sulaimah will only destroy 'family

instituitions' and c r eate a society that relies t o t ally

on the g o v e r n m e n t and w h i c h supports all its ideologies.

I slamic G e o g r a p h y

The book 'Pencapaian G e o grafi Islam’ (The

Achievements of an Islamic Geography) by Amriah Buang,

published in 1984, is considered to be the only book on

geography written fro m an Islamic point of view. Written

in Malay, the book discusses several matters re g a r d i n g

Islamic geography, suc h as the beginning of the Islamic

geography i n s pired f rom Al-Kur'an, Muslims' achievements

in sailing and exploration, research don e by Muslims in

the field of physical geography, human geography,

mathematical geography, ca r t o g r a p h i c a l g e o g r a p h y and the

inf l u e n c e of Islamic g e o g r a p h y on W e s t e r n geography.

I s l amic R e l i g i o u s K n o w l e d g e

The book 'Pengatahuan Agama Islam Menengah 2'

(Islamic Religious Knowledge for the Second Year

Secondary School) written by Haji Dasuki b in Haji Ahmad

<* * * «
published in 1979, gives a general overview of Islamic

rel i g i o u s knowledge. This book is u s e d in sc h o o l s by the

s tudents in f o r m two at s e c o n d a r y level for the Isl“amic

 211

r e l igious knowledge subject. The basic Islamic teachings

in theology, devotion service, I s l amic history, Al-

K u r ' a n i c v e rses and H a d i t h are introduced to the pupils

at a young age. They are also taught knowledge on the

different views of the Companions 'sahabah', which the

author considers as 'opinion' issues unrelated to the

issue of faith (DasukT, 1979:73).

The book 'P e n g e t a h u a n Islam' (Islamic Knowledge)

written by Abdul Aziz Umar & Ishak Abbas, published in

• *
1979, also d i s c u s s e s Islamic t e a c h i n g s and is u s e d by the

form three students at secondary school l e v e l . The book

includes a presentation of the i m p ortant role of

'Kharidjis' and 'Shi 1a 1 in Islamic history (Abdul Aziz

and other, 1979:178-183).

The book n a r r a t e s the e x i s t e n c e of the 'Kharidjis'

gr oup of Muslims wh o opposed Saydina" A l i ' s decision to

accept the ceasefire proposed by Muawiyah during the

civil w ar fought at the Saffin valley. They later became

an e x t r e m i s t g r o u p w ho created disorder in the state and

had great inf l u e n c e in p o l itics and the judiciary. The

g r oup refused to r e c o g n i s e all the 'Khalifa' except Ab u

Ba k a r and U m a r (Abdul Aziz and other, 1979:178).

A book 'Asas-asas P e n d i d i k a n Islam' (The B a s i c s of

 212

I slamic Education) w r i t t e n by Abdul Rauf Dalip, published

in 1989, discusses faith and d e v o t i o n services. This book

is a g a inst the tea c h i n g s which deviate from Islam such as

'khurafat', and emphasises the importance of 'da'wa'1

among new c o n verts particularly former Christians and

Jews (Abdul Rauf, 1989:15-16).

The book t e a ches the methodology of delivering

speeches, memorizing, answering questions and

discussions. It warns the reader of the danger of other

outside inf l u e n c e s such as J e wish and C h r i s t i a n way s

of thinking, Zoroastrianism, Madzak, Hinduism and

B u d d h i s m ( 43). This book e x p lains the reasons that b r o ught

about the confrontation between 'Shi'a' and 'Ahl Al-

S u n n a 1 (Abdul Rauf, 1989:20-25).

The book 'Kebangkitan Pendidikan Pra-Sekolah

Islam' (The Awakening of Islamic Pre-School Education)

written by Roselan H j . Mohammad Tahar published in 1989,

* *

discusses the p r e sent development of the various types

of kindergarten, particularly in Wilayah Persekutuan.

These kindergarten are organised either by private

institutions, the Dakwah Movement Organisations like the

'Angkatan B e l i a I s l a m M a l a y s i a ( A B I M ) , or by the Islamic

R e l i g i o u s D e p a r t m e n t of W i l a y a h P e r s e k u t u a n (JAWI). These
 213

kindergarten include the 'Taman Asuhan Kanak-Kanak1

(TASUKA), 'Taman D i d i k a n K a n a k - K a n a k ’ (TADIKA) and 'Taman

Asuhan Kanak-Kanak Islam' (TASKI).

T he book st r e s s e s the responsibilities of parents

to give a basic Islamic education to their children, to

care and to bring up t h eir children according to the

teachings of Islam (Roselan, 1989:1,9-14). The

characteristics of a goo d child fro m an I s l amic point of

view are given in this book, l o o king at the aspects of

health, physical fitness, obedience to Allah, knowledge,

morality and ambitions. O t her issues discussed are an

I slamic education system for children, the imp o r t a n c e of

faith, ethics, physical and mental development, the roles

of kindergarten and p a r ents for their children. The

Prophet M u h a m m a d ' s love for children, the p r o s p e c t s of an

Islamic kindergarten in the Federal Territory, 'Wilayah

Persekutuan' and its constraints, the impo r t a n c e of

le a r n i n g Jawi script and the A r a b i c la n g u a g e in reading

and understanding Al-Kur'an, 'Akta Taman Asuhan Kanak-

kanak 1984' (The K i n d e r g a r t e n Act, 1984) a nd the author's

optimistic views on the future Muslim youths in the

Federal Territory 'Wilayah Persekutuan' are also included

(Abdul Rauf, 1989:15-41).

 214

The S t o ries of the P r o phets

S t ories about Prophets, from Pr o p h e t Adam to

P r o phet Muhammad and the other Messengers, are other

a

a s pects w h i c h c a pture the interest of the M u s l i m writers.

T h ese stories are b a s e d on the A l - K*u r ' a n i c verses, H*a d i t h

and the opinions of the M u s l i m scholars (See for e x a mple

A b d Rani, 1986:3-5 and 27) particularly, the experts in

Islamic History. Their writings are c o n s i d e r e d to be v e r y

important by reviewers of books by past Muslim scholars

(Abd RanT, 1986: 15). Some of the stories are untrue. It

is hoped that stories of the Pr o p h e t s strengthen the

Muslims' belief in the Prophets and the Messengers, as

well as t h eir faith in Islam.

Th e s e books are greatly appreciated by Muslims

since at p r e sent r e ading m a t e r i a l s on Islam, particularly

in the form of stories for the children, are limited.

The y are an a l t e r n a t i v e to the secular books and comics

that f l o u r i s h in the m a r k e t today.

The book 'Siri Cerita 25 Nabi Adam Hingga IsmaTl'

(The S e ries of Stories A b o u t the Twenty-Five Prophets

from A d a m to IsmaTl) w r i t t e n by Haji A b d R*anT Mustafa* and

9 *

published in 1986, gives a n u m b e r of false facts. For

e x a m p l e a c c o r d i n g to the writer, b a s e d on o t h e r sources:

 215

Ilyas and IdrTs are the same Prophet (Abd Rarii, 1986:1),

the companions of Prophet Isa eat greedily (Abd RanT,

1986:51), the tea c h i n g s of Prophet Muhammad are similar

to the teachings of Prophet Isa” (Abd Rani, 1986:54),

P rophet Muhammad and his w ife KhadFjah lived in luxury

(Abd RanT, 1986:81). From the authentic historical

sources t h ese facts are obviously false. The stories of

the Pro p h e t s and the Messengers must be written

a c c u r a t e l y to guarantee their c r e d i b i l i t y as the selec t e d

human beings wh o possess the highest moral qualities and

piety. This will ensure that their leadership qua l i t i e s

are m a i n t a i n e d (A l - A h z a b : 21).
©

Islamic H i s t o r y

In 1991, a book 'Pemerintah Bani Umaiyah1 (The

Reign of the Umaiyah Dynasty) written by Mahyuddin Hj

Yahaya" was published. It d e s cribes the r e ign of Bani

Umaiyah particularly during the time of Abu Sufyah and

»
Marwan dynasties. The book also states the status of the

M a w a T F tribe u n d e r the BariX U m a i y y a h government. The book

claims that m a n y of the Bani U m a i y y a h h i s t o r i c a l sources

are written by the Shi 1a followers who usually support

the A b b ^ s i y y a h g o v e r n m e n t rather t han the Umaiyyah.

 216

Orientalists like J .Weilhanson, G o l d z i h e r and B a l y a e r are

said to have reported negative features of the Mawali

tribe. The members of this tribe w ere not permitted to

hold any important posts in the judiciary, politics or

military. In fact, the y are not permitted to pray

together with the o t her M u s l i m s of the Arab tribes. The

book says that all the caliphs were appointed from

m e m b e r s of the B a n T U m a i y y a h except C a l T p h Y a z T d II.

M u s l i m scholars in S o uth East A s i a

A book 'K h a z a h a h Karya Pusaka Asia T e n g g a r a 1 (The

Treasure of the L i t e r a r y H e r i t a g e of S o u t h East Asia)

w r i t t e n by W. M o h d S h a g h i r A b d u l l a h published in 1991,

discusses books written by S o uth East Asian Muslim

Sch o l a r s like SyeTkh A b d u l l a h Arif, and Syiekh F a qih Ali

b in Wan Muhammad Wan Syeikh Shafiuddin Al-AbbasT Al-

FathariX. T h ese books which are text editions almost like

the modern 'K i t a b Kuning1 are noted for discussing

important p e r p etual issues which g u ide today's Muslim

s c h olars in f o r m u l a t i n g o p i nions on s i milar c o n t e m p o r a r y

issues.

A book 'Syeikh Daud bin Abdullah Al-Fatani Ulama'

dan P e n g a r a n g T e r u l u n g A s i a Tenggara' (Syeikh Daud bin

 217

Abdullah Al-Fatani the M u s l i m s c h olar and G r a n d W r i t e r in

»

S o uth East Asia) written by W. Mohd Shaghir Abdullah

* —
p u b l i s h e d in 1990, tells stories about Syeikh Daud bi n

Abdullah Al-Fatani, his s a c r edness 'kerainat', his v i ews

0

on politics and HadXth, his recital of Th a r i q a t

# —
Syathariyah, his p r a y e r s and chantings, 1w i r i d - w i r i d 1.

According to the book 'Syeikh D a u d bin Abdullah

Al-Fat'ani UlamiT' d an P e n g a r a n g T e r u l u n g Asia Tenggara',

«
stories of the Muslim scholars are usually connected to

their sacredness. The knowledge that mus t be s p read to

'Tanah Jawi’ according to Syeikh Daud, are ‘air susu'

(milk) meaning sufism 'ilmu T a s a w w u f ', 'air putih' (plain

* •
water) or Islamic law 'Ilmu Fikh' a nd 'air kopi '
r

(coffee) r e f e r i n g to U s u l u d d i n w h i c h is a c o m b i n a t i o n of
0

Islamic law 'syari'a' and t r u t h 'hakTka'. According to

« * •

the same book w r i t t e n by W. M o h d S h a g h T r Abdullah, Syeikh

Daud b in Abdul lah Al-FatanT's view on Hadith is 'Jika

r • --
t e r dapat Hadist didalamnya jarang-jarang sekali

membicarakan sanad dan rawT, kerana bagi beliau cukup

memadai i s tilah 'Hadist' ata u 'b e r s a b d a Nabi s.a.w.'

< —
sahaja, orang dizaman beliau tidaklah banyak takwTl itu

dan ini saperti zaman itu cukup percaya kepada

ulamanya'). (If a Hadith is mentioned in a book,

 218

discussions of its n a r r a t o r and the compiler of the

Hadith are rare. To him, m e n t i o n i n g the word Hadith or

Prophet sayings is enough, the p e ople d u r i n g his time did

not question much since t hey completely believed the

M u s l i m scholars).

The book 'Syeikh D a u d bin Abdullah Al-FatanT"

v— —1 *

Ulama”’ d an Pengarang Terulung Asia Tenggara* states that

in his book 'Jami'ul F a w a i d * , Syeikh Daud bin Abdullah

A l - F atani
# says that pr a c t i c e s b a sed on ’H a d i t h “ Dhaif
— *

(Weak Hadith) even 1H a d X t h Batil* (Null H a d i th) will gai n

rewards as long as t hey are considered an ex c e l l e n t

devotion service *f a d a i l - a ' m a l * (Shaghir, 1990:115-116).

This book includes S y e i k h Daud b in Abdullah al-

F a t a n i *s view on sacr e d n e s s 'keramat' which is as

*

follows; 'Wajib k i t a i'ti q a d k a n keramat bagi Wali t e lah

menjadi keputusan miiafakat Jumhur Ahlus-Sunnah Wal-

Jama~T"ah. Saperti te r s e b u t d i d a l a m al-Quran c e rita

menge n a i SitX Maryam. Yang dimaksudkan dengan Wali itu

ialah 'Arif Billah* y ang berusaha memperkenalkan

kepatuhan terhadap AlTah dan menjauhkan diri dari segala

bentuk ma'siat. Hati m e r e k a b e r p a l i n g dari dunia dengan

memuaskan nafsu syahwat yang haus. Mereka adalah o r ang

y a n g d i p e r i n t a h k a n ole h A l l a h d e n g a n p e k e r j a a n y a n g khas
 219

untuknya. Mereka bertujuan membersihkan hati dari

kekeruhan yang bersifat d u n l a w ! . Alad Dawam / berkekalan

mereka itu mempertinggi 'Mushahadah' dan 'Muraqabah'

terhadap Allah S.W.T. setiap p e kerjaannya, yang

dijalankannya bukan u n tuk dirinya aka n tetapi a d alah

un tuk Tuhan sahaja. Adalah 'keramat irkhas' dan

'mu'jiz’at' itu yang men y a l a h i kebiasaan, kalau tidak

mengaku dirinya sebagai Nabi maka 'keramat* lah namanya.

(Shaghir, 1990,50-54.) (It is o b l i g a t o r y to believe the

sacredness of the Saint as a g reed upon by a con s e n s u s

decision by the majority of the Ahl Al-Sunna as

mentioned in the s t ory of Siti Maryam in the Al-Kur'an.

*

Wali are '"Arif Billah' (knowing Allah) who obey Allah

a nd a v oid any forms of sin. T h eir h e a r t s are deflected

from worldly sexual desire. Allah assigns them wit h

special duties. Their a im is to purify their hearts fro m

worldly desires. They f o r ever try to im p r o v e t h eir creed

towards Allah, wor k they did is not for themselves but

done for the sake of Allah. 'Keramat Irkhas' and

'miracles' are given by Allah to a person and if he is

not a Pr o p h e t he is c o n s i d e r e d a Saint).

This book also dis c u s s e s several other books:

'FawaTdul Fikri Fil Imamil M a h d i ', 'Jami'ul Fawaid',

 220

'Tuhfat Al-Raghibin II, Kaifi y a t SoIat Tarawih' and

'Kifayat Al-Mubtadi @ Irsyad A l - A t f a l ', a nd 'Qisah Nabi

Y u s u f ’. T he book 'Fawaidul Fikri Fil Imamil M a h d i 1 is

said to be t r a n s l a t e d fro m the book 'Fawaidul Fikri Fil

Imamil Mahdi~' written by Syeikh al-Allamat M a r 1i bin

Yusuf. In the book 'Fawaidul Fikri Fil Imamil M a h d i 1,

discussions r e v olve arou n d the actual Resurrection of

MahdT*, his name and characters, the sign of his

R e surrection, the p l ace of 'mubaya'ah' (homage) and his

Resurrection, the sl a n d e r about Mahdi before his

Resurrection, his m e e t i n g w i t h P r o phet IsaT] his d e a t h and

the period of his stay in this world (Shaghir, 1990:91-

92) .

The book 'Jami'ul fawaid' is said to hav e

m e n t i o n e d several m a j o r events that take p l a c e d u r i n g the

m o n t h of Z u l h i j j a h and on w h i c h the superogatory fastings

can be practised until the ninth d ay of the month

(ShaghTr, 1990:76). The book 'Tuhfat Al-Raghibln II' in

its conclusion, u r ges a c o m plete implementation of

Islamic law in the Muslims' life (Shaghir, 1990:73).

The book 'Kaifiyat Solat TarawTh' ex p l a i n s in

detail the prayer of 'Taraweh' in particular on the

tw e l v e 'raka'cTt pr a y e r s on the t w e n t y s e v e n t h night of

 221

Ramadtian. On the other hand, the book 'Kifayat al-Mubtadi

Irsyad al-Atfal' discusses the ten conditions ’s y a r a t '

of faith and the ten reasons that destroy faith. In

conclusion this book u r ges the Muslims to live in

justice, united, and to vigorously practice the

Islamic teachings. They are to free themselves from

following, practising or liking actions of the u n b e l i v e r s

such as wearing neckties, despairing 'p u tus asa',

avoiding facing the ' K a ' a b a h 1, being a polytheist,

c o n t i n u o u s l y c o m m i t i n g sins and d e s t r o y i n g faith.

T he book 'S y e i k h D aud bin Abdullah Al-Fat'ani

Ulama' also gives d e f i n i t i o n s of v a r i o u s t e rms (ShaghTr,

1990:53-145) which are important for t h ose wh o are

inte r e s t e d in s t u d y i n g Islam. All t h ese t e rms are u n k n o w n

among the Malay Muslims, particularly t h o s e w ho are

illiterate in Arabic language. Even today the Muslim

politicians often misuse some of the I s lamic terms, for

it is in t h eir political interest to manipulate publ i c

opinion. For ex a m p l e the ter m ’S y u r a 1 is translated as a

d e m o c r a t i c system, 'asabiyah' m e ans to love the nation.

Some Muslim groups misuse the terms 'bid'ah',

'p e n d i a y a h ', 't a q i y a h ', 'zuhud' and 'ahl al-Bait' e i ther

to a c cuse others of b e ing Islamic d e v i a n t s or to purify

 222

t h e m s e l v e s and c l a i m to be good Muslims.

H.N.M. ShaghTr reveals his appreciation of the

p r e c i o u s w r i t i n g s and great c o n t r i b u t i o n s of t h e s e M u s l i m

scholars in publishing Islamic books when in his book

'Kisah N a b T Y u s u f ' (The S t ory of P r ophet Yusuf) he claims

m *
that Al-FatfanX is recognised as a Malay Muslim writer.
#
(Shaghir, 1990:63)

There are o t her Islamic w r i t i n g s on c o n t e m p o r a r y

issues which are contr o v e r s i a l in nature. These include

the c u r rent issues of anti Kadlth, al-Arqam, family,

T

women, ’tasawwuf', administration and rule in Malaysia

w h i c h will be d i s c u s s e d in the next chapter.

 223

Notes

(1) See the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of Islamic L aw in every

state in Malaysia.
(2) For example the books ’S a s t e r a dan^ Agama'
(Literature and Religion) w r i t t e n by Ismail H u s s e i n
(1986), the book 'Beberapa A s pek S a s t e r a Islam'
e d i t e d by by Maria S i k a n a and others (1982), 'Asas
K e s u s a s t e r a a n Islam' w r i t t e n by IsmaTl (1990). See
also page 57-74 above.
(3) See the b o o k s 'Televisyen Sebagai S a t u A l a t Iblis
Bagi M e r o s a k k a n K e h i d u p a n ' ( T e l e v i s i o n a_tool of the
Devil tp D e s t r o y Life) written by Thoifah Minal
M u s l i m i n (1987),' K e s a n - K e s a n Keganasan TV Keatas
K a n a k - K a n a k Malaysia' (The effect of T V V i o l e n c e on
M a l a y s i a n children) p u b l i s h e d by P e r s a t u a n Pe n g g u n a
P u l a u Pinang, 1985. w „
(4) I have u s e d the t r a n s l a t i o n by Abdullah Yusuf Ali,
1946.
(5) F u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of 'B i d 'a '.^See for e x a m p l e s Anak
Tok Janggut (1980), Y a h y a Z a k r T (1988), Ismail, 1989:
5-8, A z w a n (1991) and Ishak (1991).
(6) This issue is d i s c u s s e d u n der the title of 'Al-
Arqam' in ch a p t e r Four. _
(7) Amrah, 1991:132, Amran and other, (1987), Ikhlas,
M. H. 1990:38 and Awang, 1992j26.
(8) See also 'Fatwa Ulama Iraq' from Majallah^al-
SircTtol Mustaqim issued by Hidayah Islamiah
§a£hdad. F a t w a of the four schools of lawjof the
S u nnT doctrine in S y r i a and Iraq and F a t w a of the
ghiaT in Iraq, F a twa in Egypt 1945.
(9) Hashim, 1987:90, B A H E I S , 1986:15,51,53, Abdul F a f a h
H a r S h 1992.
(10) See Fatwji Mufti K e r a j a a n Johor, 1981:371. See also
Al-Kasani, 1328H:3.
(11) U t u s a n Malaysia, 16 Ogos,1992.
(12) U t u s a n Malaysia, 22 O k t o b e r ,1992.
(13) U t u s a n Malaysia, 17 D i s e m b e r , 1992.
(14) See also John B o u s f i e l d in So j o u r n V o l u m e 8 N u mber
2: 340-343 ^
(15) S h e i k h M a h m u d Shaltut is a p o p ular Egyptian Muslim
sc h o l a r and a po p u l a r w r i t e r w h o has written books
on c o n t e m p o r a r y issues from Islamic p o i n t of view.
(16) S u a r a Ulama', A u g u s t 1989.
(17) See also H o r r i e and Chippindale, 1993:22-23.
(18) Suc h as the r e s u r r e c t i o n of the dead and the D a y of
Judgement. See Abdul Aziz (1986).
 224

(19) Such as Yazid (1985), Ibnu Idris (1987) Norain

(1988), Abdul Aziz (1993).
(20) A f t e r the Last Day 1Kiamat' m a n k i n d will be divided
into three main groups; 'Ashabul Maimanah' (The
righteous group), 'Ashabul Mas'amah' (The
Mi s f o r t u n a t e group) and 'As-Sabiqun' or 'Al-
M u q a r r a b u n '(T h e front line or the n e a r e s t group').
(21) John B o u s f i e l d in S o j o u r n V o lume 8 Number 2:338,
F a t w a - f a t w a Mufti K e r a j a a n Johore 1936-1961, 1981:
396 and Abdul-Rahman, 1984:229., Thomas, 1979:305,
and Amaluddin, 1981:104)
(22) *A lazy man refuses to w o r k hard to gain more income
for the reason that his fate is f i xed by Allah.
(23) Later these groups were subdivided into several
other groups such as Ahl Al-Sunna, Syi'e, Kharidji,
Murjiah, Muktazilah, Kadariyya, Jabariah, Najariah,
Mushabbihah, Wahabi and B a h a i y a h . I n fact, a m o n g the
Shi ’i and Sunni also there are man y subgroups.
Th e total n u m b e r of t h e s e groups are about seventy-
three. B a h a i y a h was r e j ected .by a m a j o r i t y of
M u s l i m s c h olars and is considered an unbeliever
'kufur'. See Hughes, 1979:565-569, Horrie and
Chippindale, 1993:116-137.
(24) For example see Hirapunan Keputusan Muzakarah
J a w a t a n k u a s a Fatwa T a hun 1970-1990: 244-288
(25) See A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of.- Islamic Law Enactments in
e v e r y state in Malaysia.
(26) S e e Utusan M a l a y s i a 22 June 1993.
(27) U t u s a n M a l a y s i a 17 A u g u s t 1989 and 26 June 1993.
(28) H i m p u n a n Kep u t u s a n Muzakarah Jawatankuasa Fatwa
T a h u n 1970-1990: 38.
(29) Se e Abdul Aziz, 1976:11.
(30) See also A y a t u l l a h al-Uzma, 1989, 1989:xv, 622-650.
(31) For the autobiography and lists of works by
P r o fessor A h m a d Ibrahim see Fakulti Undang-undang
Universiti Malaya, ( e d . ) 1988:x v i i - x x i x .
(32) 'Hadith Ahad' means H a d i t h w h i c h tex t is narrated
from Prophet Mu h a m m a d by one or m ore of his
companions but this H a d i t h does not reach to Hadith
Mu t a w a t i r ' s level.
(33) T h e wide s p r e a d of p r a c t i c e of poligamy among al-
A r q a m m e m b e r s causes t h e m o v ement to be espised by
th e M u s l i m so c i e t y in Malaysia.
 225

(34) For e x a m p l e see B a h a g i a n Istinbat,

Is lam W i l a y a h Persekutuan, 1986, Abdul H a d i ,

(35) S e v eral b o oks and p a m p h l e t s w e r e F u b l ^ ® f - f ^ o n a ^ h !

to 1992. T h e s e p a m p h l e t e s w e r e c i r c u l a t e d among the
M u s l i m s b y the g o v e r n m e n t a u t h o r i t a t i v e b > d l .
esSs'ue of
(36) S ee M i n g g u a n M a l a y s i a 14 Julai, • other
Zakat c o l l e c t i o n is also discussed in the otner
rtailv newspapers. See B e r i t a Harian, 5 O g o s v 1993.
(37) O n t he same subject Abdul Q b a n T S g a m s u d d i n writes
( ’ a b o o k J K e a r a h Memahami a l - M a 't i u r a t ' (A1 W a z h i f a h

(38) ^ T a l k i n ’5 m e a n s i nstructions to the d e c e a s e d at his

( } gravl regarding his c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h the A n g e l s of

(39) This^1"author explains, among others topics o n Islam

( ’ as a w a y of life, the essential of f a ith in forming
the 'Ummah, moral in Islam, the reve l a ion
the Prophets, p r a c t i s i n g good and p r e v e n t i n g the
evil the h i s t o r y of the P r o p h e t s , 'd a ' w a a ctivities
as a' vital task to revive the *h® x r
h i s t o r y of Islamic r e f o r m and J i had (Holy W a r ) .
(40) O t h e r b o oks m e n t i o n t h ese _forbidden times ®
and c o n s i d e r _them as 'harem' rather t h a n makruh .

(41) Thesl^are?four" ^'dakwah1 groups. Among others are

A B I M and th e I s l amic Representative Council. But
D a rul A r q a m a nd T a b l i g h s i g n i f i c a n t l y differ fro m
all the o t h e r s s i nce they at the b e g i n i n g ..
p a r t i c i p a t e in all aspects of society including
politics. See Zainah, 1987:55. See also H u s s m , 1 9 9 0 .
gg_____________________________________ _
(42) O t h e r topics d i s c u s s e d from an Islamic point of vie w
(42) Other * p s architecture, p h i l o s o p h y and
t h o u g h t , 1d a 'w a 1 , h u m a n rights,. labour,
of M u s l i m scholars, m a j o r ^ I s l a m i c books, the H o l y
W a r 'Jihad', dress and 'a u r a t ' and Christianity.
(43) See also A m a l u d d i n (1979), K a m a r u z z a m a n (1987).
CHAPTER FOUR
 C H A P T E R F OUR

Islamic B o o k s on Controversial Issues

The issues in Ch a p t e r Four arise in the midst of

the awakening of the Islamic ’Ummah' of Malaysia, and I

consider t h e m to be crucial in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the issues

discussed earlier. U n less explained, clarified, and

rectified these' issues may undermine the Muslims' faith,

t h r e a t e n t h eir lives, s e c u r i t y and unity, m a y b l e m i s h the

image of Islam, and m a y e n d a n g e r the c o u n t r y as a whole.

For example, unless the issue of 'a n t i - H a d i t h ' is

explained, it may lead M u s l i m s to lose f a ith in Hadith

« "

and to abandon its guidance in Islamic teaching. The

Muslims will reject the rules and regulations set by the

Islamic Religious Departments and the fatwa" issued by

the 'Mufti'. This might lead to co n f l i c t between faith

and Islamic laws, and Mu s l i m s with weak f a ith could

ea s i l y become an apostates. Unless solved the issue of

al-Arqam(l) m i ght eventually lead to p o l i tical and

ideological conflict, because for both th e al-Arqam and

the anti-Arqam group try to p r o tect a nd j u s tify their

id e ology a nd co n d e m n each other. Being militant in

nature the al-Arqam g r oup might eve n resort to arms. The

issue of liberation for women could u p set Isfamic life

and the i n s t i t u i t i o n of m a r r i a g e u n l e s s it is guided by

 227

I slamic principles.

At pr e s e n t the call for renewal, c h ange and

progress is h e a r d everywhere. There are Muslims who

reject t h e o l o g y as b e i n g comp a t i b l e w i t h d e v e l o p m e n t and

modernity, and feel that in this w o r l d l y life M u s l i m s are

to u t i l i z e God-given resouces for m a t e r i a l well-being and

enhancement of the human condition. For them, the m o d e r n

world is rapidly changing in its technology, s c i ence and

knowledge, and thus Muslims must have a secular outlook,

be fle x i b l e and utilitarian, to cope with the n ew

challenges.

Other Muslims, particularly Muslim scholars,

reject this view ou t r i g h t as being meaningless and

preposterous. They see the loss of Islamic ide n t i t y as

deviation from the 'True Path'. For them, I s lam is the

total source of knowledge and any departure from its

teachings can onl y lead to confusion. They believe that

the d eep trouble and d i s tress in t o d ay's world is due to

a s i mple root cause: that man has not properly o b eyed

God's essential i n s t r uctions and thereby has missed his

main goal which is a g e n uine commitment to Allah (Ozay,

1990:9-11) .

M u s l i m w r i t e r s w ho are s u p p orters of t h ese views

 228

often arouse a lot of controversy and cause a stir among

the Muslims when writing books on contemporary issues.

Examples of t h ese issues are: moral decadence, false

doctrine, a c c u s a t i o n of infidelity 'takfir', the co l l a p s e

of family life and social order. Thus, the role of M u s l i m

scholars and writers, and the 'Mufti' wh o are experts on

such issues is of special i m p o rtance in clarifying and

offering alternative sugg e s t i o n s to avoid social chaos,

moral degeneration, intellectual stagnation, economic

backwardness, p o l i tical disintegration and spiritual

d e c a y of the M u s l i m s in the future. These issues are as

f o l l o w s :-

1. Anti H a d T t h

H a d i t h or S u n n a h is the second s o urce of M u s l i m law

next to Al-Kur'an. Hadith (tradition) is the narration

^ C- ""

and reco r d of the Prophet Muhammad's actions, practices

and sayings, as well as various prophetical and

h i s t orical elements. The Holy A l - K u r ’an generally deals

with the broad principles and essentials of religion.

Hadith ex p l a i n s and c l a rifies the ambivalencies (mujmal)

of the Al-Kur'an, qualifies its a b s o l u t e statements, and

»
s p e c i f i e s the general terms of the A l - K u r ’an (Mohammad
 229

Hashim, 1991:61).

A Muslim must resort to the Hadith for a

• -
solution to a particular problem only when he fails to

find a ny g u i d a n c e in the Al-Kur'an, or in cases w h e r e the

Al-Kur'an is silent. This is s t ated in the Al-Kur'an

4

itself (Al-Nis"a: 58; Al-Nis“a:80; A 1 :M a i d a h :92) where the

Hadith "is a proof next to the A l - K u r ' a n in all 's h a r 'i ’

matters and that conformity to the terms of Prophetic

legislation is a Kur'anic obligation on all Muslims". In

more than one p l ace (Al-Hashr:7; A l - N i s a 58-59) the Al-

Kur'an enjoins the M u s l i m s to obe y the Prophet and makes

it a duty to submit to his judgement and his authority

without question (Mohammad Hashim, 1991:49,63).

V '
T he recording of Hadith was not encouraged in
T *
the early days of Islam by the H o l y P r o p h e t himself, for

fear that the su p r e m e a u t h o r i t y of the A l - K u r ' a n m i g h t be

*
impugned. Thus H a d i t h was mainly retained in memory by
a ' '
the Companions, except for a small n u m b e r of H a d i t h w h i c h

they w r o t e and kept in t h eir pr i v a t e collection. However,

after the death of the Prophet, the forging of Hadith by

rival Muslims (Mohammad Hashim, 1991:58,61) made it

n e c e s s a r y to c o l lect and sift t h r o u g h t h e s e Hadith.

Actual adherence, d e v o t i o n and m e m o r y h ad been

 230

strong guarantees for the authority of Hadith

(Muhammad AlT, n.d:58). Hadith may be rejected when the

* * *
report contradicts the A l - K u r ’an, or contradicts the

established Sunna practice b a sed on the 'mutawatir' or

the 'm a s h h o r 1 traditions, or when it has been denounced

by the Companions. The tradition may be rejected when a

transmitter is u n k n o w n 'mastur', impious, 'fasiq' or w h e n

he has not attained the age of majority, or is not

endowed with complete understanding; as in the case of

minors, the careless, he r e t i c s and the w e a k - m i n d e d (Ahmad

f
Ibrahim, 1965:13).

Ba s e d on the above criteria, Hadith are

classified into three categories, according to the

character of the transmitter: Haa d i t—h S* a h i h or authentic,

Hadith Hasan which falls between SahTh and Daif and

* — *j *
H a d i t h Daif or weak. Reliable Hadith are those which can

be traced back to the Prophet through a continuous chain

of narrators whose piety and reputation are beyond

reproach. An Haditdi that fails these requirements is not

ac c e p t e d and H a d i t h Daif are g e n e r a l l y rejected. A person

wh o refuses to accept the teaching of 'mutawatir'

t r a d i t i o n is g u i l t y of unbelief, 'k u f u r 1 (Ahmad Ibrahim,

nr

1965:18) .
 231

All Islamic revivalist and reformist movements

emphasised a ' r e t u r n 1 to pristine Islam in t e r m s of the

A l - K£ u r ' a n and the Sunna, The Sunna refers to the

pra c t i s e or the doctrines w o r k e d out by the earliest

g e n e rations of Muslims (Holt,(ed), 1970:640).

Nevertheless, famous leaders of the Muslim

Modernist T h i nkers of the nineteenth and twe n t i e t h

centuries h ave different opinions on o Hadi t *h . M u h a m m a d

Abduh of Eqypt for example, maintains that a Muslim is

not unfaithful to Islam if he doubts any given Hadith,

but that Hadi'Ui must be accepted on p r i n c i p l e and in

general. However, on the other hand, Syyid Al^mad Khan and

his colleague Maulavi C h irgh Ali of the^- I n d o - P a k i s t a n

s u b c o ntinent reject all Hadith, (Holt,(ed), 1970:645-646).

In 1985 the theological i s s u e of 'a n t i - H a d i t h ' in

Kassim Ahmad's book 'Hadis Satu Penilaian S e m u l a 1 (gadis

A Review) caused a stir among Muslims in Malaysia. T he

book was banned. In his book K a s s i m who w a s known as

the University lecturer and Malaysian Socialist People

Party leader urges the Muslims to review Hadith as a

second source of Islamic Law. . K a s s i m (1986:13) claims

that Hadith is a false teaching and should be totally

rejec t e d by all Muslims. Kassim (1986:18) declares that,

s>

"Ajaran T u h a n yang sebenar dalam z a m a n nabi terakhir,

 232

Nabi Muhammad, dan yang dibawa oleh Beliau al-Quran dan

tidak yang lain daripada al-Qurah. HadTs atau S u nna Nabi

satu ajaran palsu yan g muncul antara 200-250 tahun

kemudian dan yang dik a i t k a n dengan Nabi Muhammad." (The

true teaching of God is within t he period of the last

Prophet, Prophet Muljammad, and Al-Kur'an brought by him

and none o t her than Al-Kur'an. Prophet's H a d T t h or Sunna

o « —•
is a false d o c t r i n e that emerged 200-250 y e a r s later and

is b e ing c o n n e c t e d to Prophet M u h a m m a d ) .

A g r o u p of M u s lims known as the 'Kur'ahiyah' or

'InkeTrus 'Sunna' who rejected Hadith, are known to have

existed since the time of the Pr o p h e t Muhammad, and

■O

initiated their aims to manipulate, the issue of HadTth

long before Kassim forwarded his theory. During the time

of the Prophet this group was lead by Abdullah bin Ubai

Ibnu Salul. The initiative to prove that Hadith is not

authentic has since been o r g a nised by numerous groups,

starting between two hundred and two hundred a nd fifty

years after t he time of Prophet Muhammad. For example, I.

Goldziher, J. Schacht, W. Muir, A. Guillaume rejected

the a u t h e n t i c i t y of H a d T t h and r e g a r d e d it as a creation

b e g u n after t he death of the Prophet. Leone Caetani and

A. S p r enger c l a i m that the chain of n a r r a t o r s of H a dTth

 233

were not the Arabs (Abdul Halim El-Muhammady, 1991:38-

45). Rashad Khalifa who championed the cause of anti-

Hadith in his b o o k 'The Compu t e r Speech: God's M e s s a g e to

the W o r l d 1 , o p e n l y claims that H a d i t h de v i a t e s from Islam

( H a s h i m , n d ( 3): 9,16), and K a s s i m h i mself admitted that he

r e j ected Hadith after reading Rashad Khalifa's book

(Kassim, 1986:13).
*
There is probably little disagreement between

Kassim and other Muslim scholars on the issue of the

existence of distortion and f o r gery of Hadith. As

Mohammad Hashim says, " There is no d i spute over the

occurrence of extensive forgery in the H a d i t h literature.

The u l e m a of H a d i t h are un a n i m o u s on this, and some have

gone so far as to affirm that in no other branch of

Islamic sciences has there been so m u c h f o r gery as in the

JtadTth. The very existence of a bulk of literature and

works of p r o m i n e n t ulema be a r i n g the t i t l e al M a w d u 'at or

'fabricated H a d i t h ’, bears witness to extensive forgery

in thi s area" (Mohammad H a s h i m 1991:65). However K a s s i m ’s

h u m i l i a t i n g c r i t i c i s m of t he Prophet a n d M u s l i m scholars,

particularly Imam S h a f i *i , follows his reasons for

rej e c t i n g HadTth. This infuriates the Muslims. Kassim

is c o n s i d e r e d a 1mulhid* for he never m e n t i o n s the word

*
 234

'Allah' , neither does he give the respect due to

Prophet Muhammad by saying '^alawat' to him. He a c c epts

him o n l y as a n o r m a l leader (Hashim, n.d(3):35).

Ko a s s i m claims that H• a d i t—h■ or Sunna is a pious

c
forgery of teachings of t he Prophet Muhammad (Kassim,

198 6 : 1 3 , 1 8 , 2 0 , 6 2 , 1 1 7 ) He accuses all Muslims to have

deviated from t he true t e a c hings of Allah, which are

con f i n e d to the actual teachings during the t ime of

Prophet M u h a m m a d and from Al-Kur'an, the revelation from

Allah (Kassim, 1986:121). Hadith is a false power w h ich

has controlled the majority of the M u slims for thousands

of years (Kassim, 1986:20), leading to c o n f u s i o n and

d i s u n i t y amongst them.

Kabsim argues that to respect Prophet Muhammad

O o

does not mean to recognize his words and practices as

higher or equal to Al-Kur'"an (Kassim, 1986:22). To Kassim

the interpretation of the word ' h i k m a h c, found in the

verse of the Al-Kur'an ( B a q a r a h : 129), as Sunna or Hadith

• e —

by Imam S y a f i 1i is inaccurate, sub j e c t i v e and should be

rej e c t e d (Kassim, 1986:31). He feels that it ' fs

irrational and ill o g i c a l for A l lah to order the Muslims

to f o l l o w the P r o p h e t ' s actions and to practise them

wholly. He points to the p e n a l t y for a d u l t e r y in t h e Al-

 235

K u r 'an as c o n t r a d i c t o r y to the p e n a l t y imposed in Hadith

♦ *
as an e x a m p l e (Kassim, 1986:96,99). The d e a t h p e n a l t y for

’murtad' is m e n t i o n e d o n l y in Hadith. O t h e r w i s e Allah, in

the Al-Kur'an, pr o m i s e s the penalty will be c a r r i e d

out on T he Last Day (Kassim, 1986:41,98). He claims that

Pr o p h e t Muhammad has no miracle o t her than Al-Kur'an

* *

(Kassim, 1986:97-98), neither has he inte r c e s s i o n

'shafa'at' as mentioned in Hadith for no one has the

p o wer of intercession unless with Allah's permission

(Kassim, 1986:98,100).
*
In his book K a s s i m (1986:56) argues that the ideas

of Ibn Hazm and other H a d T t h s c h olars are weak and

m •--------
useless. He m e n t i o n s the verses in Al-Kur'"an w h i c h in his
*
view reject Sunna, such as Surah as S y u r a :21, Al-

A n a 1a m : 21-24, A l - Z u m a r :29,45, and S u r a h A l - M u 'm i n :12. He

tries to distinguish Al-Kur'anic laws fro m human m ade

laws which include 1rules and regulations made by

Muhammad', by saying that the former are absolute and

uni v e r s a l and the latter r e l ative and local (Kassim,

0

1986:42).

Kassim (1986:19) d e c lares that he is reverting

c o m p l e t e l y to Islam as p r e a c h e d by the P r o p h e t Muhammad,

<■
and he believes that Al-Kur'an is totally co m p l e t e
 236

without the nee d of H a d i t h as its complementary. In his

book he argues that Hadith is not absolutely right since

it is influenced by m a n ’s ideas which are subject to

assumptions and suppositions. Hadibh is also unnecessary,

since all devotions such as prayer, fasting, alms tax and

pilgrimage are Allah's r evelations which are hav e b een

traditionally inherited since the tim e of Prophet

Ibrahim. In o t her words, Kassim deni e s that H a d i t h gives

- «# «— 3
detailed illustrations on ways to practise these

devotions (Kassim,
* 1986:112). To Kassim,
* H* a d T t h— or S u n n a

can onl y be accepted as historical evidence, which is

important to researchers and historians in understanding

and evaluating the period concerned (Kassim, 1986:24,57,

11 2 ) .

Kassim says he rejects HadTth because o nly the

false H a d i t h (Hadith Palsu), made up of false innovations

and superstitions 1k h u rafat dan bid'ah d h a l a l a h 1, exist

(Kassim, 1986:63,81) since the true HadTth was destroyed

<!> * *
in a fire d u r i n g the time of C a l i p h A b u B a k a r (Mahyuddln,

1986: 31). However, he later changes his m i n d saying that

only the false Hadith s h ould be rejected, while others

can be accepted as a second sour c e of Islamic law

(Kassim, 1992:49).
*
 237

M u s l i m scholars co n d e m n Kassim's book 'Hadis

/ *
Satu Penilaian S e m u l a 1 (Hadith A Review), for they feel
» —

it does not only e n d a n g e r the a u t h o r ' s f a i t h but also

the faith of the M u s l i m society (Said, 1987:1) and Islam

as a whole. According to Abdul Halim El-Muhammady in his

# <*
book 'Islam dan Al-Hadith1 (Islam and Hadith) published

in 1991, a writer like K a s s i m w ho is illiterate in A r a b i c

<r

language and on the m e t h o d o l o g y of Islamic knowledge, has

not fulfilled the requirements to enable him to give an

academic and i n t e l lectual v i e w on HadiWi. K a s s i m fails to

<r ©

understand the idea of Imam Shafi'i, the concept of

'Wahyu', the role of P r o phets and the d i f f e r e n c e s between

method and practise of devotion services. His a r g uments

are based on logic and not on the aspects of intellect,

history and d i vine inspiration. In fact his w r i t i n g will

onl y undermine the Muslims' faith, and c a use confusion

and u n r e s t a m ong Muslims.

Muslim scholars in Malaysia do not question

Hadi'tti, since as 'Ahl A1-Sunna' they strongly be l i e v e

»
that Hadith is the second source of Is l a m i c law. After
f
1986, several books were published which present

arg u m e n t s o p p o s i n g Ka s s i m ' s v i e w w i t h the objective of

#
saving the Muslims' faith from b e ing u ndermined. Examples
 238

of b o oks written to oppo s e Kassim's ar g u m e n t are:

r

'Penjelasan Me n g e n a i H a d i t h d an Ko d 1 9 ’ ( C l a r i f i c a t i o n on
• —

HadTth and Code 19) (2) by M a h a y u d d i n Haji Yahyif in 1986,

m ■**** *

’P e r a n a n dan Metodologi Hadis' (The Function and

Methodology of Hadith) by Mohd Napiah bin Abdullah in

1986, 'Penolakan Terhadap Penilaian Semula Hadith'

( Rejecti on To w a r d s the R e v i e w of Hadith) by Haji Said bin

m — •

Haji Ibrahim in 1987, 'B a h a y a Turun Dari Menara' (The

*

Danger of Descending F r o m a Minaret) and 'Kembali Kepada

Fitrah' (Return to Nature) by Hashim A. GhanT in the

following yea r (3). In 1989, another b ook 'Terbongkar

Rashad Khalifa Rasul Agama Kod 19' (R a s h a d Khalifa the

Messenger of the Religion Code 19 Unveiled) was written

by Mustafa Suhaimi opposing Ka s s i m ' s view on Hadith.

0 * n * I

Several organizations, government bodies, associations,

indi v i d u a l s and m ass media also made attempts to r e s pond

to the above issues.

Based on Al-Kur'an and historical facts, the

weaknesses of the theory of anti-Hadith_ were revealed

(Mahyuddfh, 1986:23). When Kassim rejected HadTth

» i « —
scholars, he denied the authenticity of t h ese scholars

and thus i n d i r e c t l y r e j e c t e d the v e r s e f r o m the A l - K* u r ' a n

which commands the p e o p l e to learn from the e x p erts who

 239

p o s s e s s the k n o w l e d g e of c e r t a i n fields (A l - N a h l :43).

*

Th e boo k 'Penjelasan Me n g e n a i Hadith dan K od 19'

• —*
(Clarification on Hadith^ and Cod e 19) gave eleven

conclusions with regard to Kassim's book ’H a d T s Satu

«

Penilaian Semula ’(Hadith a Review). Examples of these

conclusions are as follows: the so u r c e s used in writing

the book are not primary, ambiguity exists r e g a r d i n g its

h ist o r i c a l facts, the approach used is e m p irical and

secular, it d i s r e g a r d s spiritual aspects and the field of

Hadith, the book is against the Islamic f a ith and its

true history, it does not comply w i t h the rules and the

law of knowledge, this book discourages the development

of k n o w l e d g e and h u man civilization.

In the view of Malaysian Muslims, Kas s i m ' s book

9

cannot be considered as a source of knowledge since it

manipulates the facts regarding the existence of Hadith.

Moreover, it leads to disunity among Muslim traditional

scholars, secularist intellectual Muslims, and o t her

Muslim scholars. In fact, this b ook can be considered

m or e harmful t han books written by Western

o r i e n t a l i s t s ( 4), for although these reject H a d i th they

show m o r e respect to Muslim scholars. Kassim claimed

that all Muslims in the past w ere w r o n g and w e r e m i s l e a d

 240

since t hey believed in Hadith. To him this belief is a

catastrophe and c o n s i d e r e d s t upid ( M a h yuddin (ed.), 1986:

r

35) .

To prove the authenticity of H a d i th, Huda gives a

t
detailed explanation of the cha r a c t e r and qualifications

of the narrators and signs of false Hadith (Mahyuddin

0 *
(ed.), 1986:53-54,59-60). In his conclusion, H u d a claims

that w i t h o u t H a d i t h the c h r o n o l o g y of the v e r s e s in e v e r y

S'

Chapter 'Sura' of the A l - K u r ' a n w o u l d not exist. Thus, to

9

reject H a d i t h m e a n s to reject the e x i s t i n g feature of the

'mashaf', or to reject the Al-Kur'an itself (Mahyuddin,

/ O it

1986:68).

Mohd Napiah (1986:45), clarifies ce r t a i n

contro v e r s i a l s t a t ements made by Kassim concerning the

narration of Hadit h . He explained that, although some

Muslim s c h olars state that at the beginning Hadith was

narrated through oral transmission a hundred y e ars after

the death of Prophet Muhammad, letters sent by the

Prophet to foreign non Muslim rulers, governors and

commanders of the army as part of His propagation work,

also became part of Hadith. Thus he b e l i e v e s that HadT t h

was sometimes written down during the lifetime of

M u h a m m a d for a p a r t i c u l a r reason and at a particular

 241

time. During the period following the Prophet, the

compilation of Hadith was c a r ried out continuously by

trad i t i o n a l scholars. Today academic Muslim r e s e a rchers

of Hadith_ have succeeded in d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g the a u t h e n t i c

*

Hadith from the inauthentic, and the a u t h e n t i c Hadith. are

» »
u s e d to solve c o n t e m p o r a r y issues in society. M o h{> d N a p i a h

( 1986:vii), w a rns the Mu s l i m s of the danger of the anti-

H a d i t h m o v e m e n t w h i c h aims to d i s c o u r a g e the M u s l i m s fro m

*
u s i n g H a d i t h as a source of Islamic teachings.

Muslim writers accuse K a s s i m of evaluating Hadith

_ ► —
following the books written by Rashad Khalifa; 'The

Computer Speaks: God's Message to the W o r l d 1 and 'Quran,

Hadith and Islam' . R a s h a d Khalifa declares that he is a

►

new 'messenger' and that Al-Kur'an, and o n l y Al-Kur'an,

o- «
is protected by Code 19 (5) . R a s h a d Khalifa claims that

Hadith or the Muslim scholars' v i ews are pervaded by

evil, are false, and cannot be a c c e p t e d e v e n w i t h Al l a h ' s

consent, and he says that those who believe Hadith are

polytheists 's y i r k ' (6). Rashad Khalifa claims that Code

19 is Allah's miracle g i ven to him, His 'messenger', as

found in five chapt e r s in the Al-Kur'an: Surai. Al-Qalam,

r
Al-Muzammil, A 1 - M u d a t h t h i r , Iqra'a and Al-Nasr. His name
*

'Rashad' a nd 'Khalifa”' is mentioned t w ice in the

 242

A l - K* u r ' a n i c verses and Cod e 19 comes f rom Allah as

mentioned in the A l - K u r ’an. The year of the Day of

Resurrection, according to him, is 2280 M based on his

calculation of the 14 out of 16 abbreviated letters

'Muqatta'at' (Yusuf, 1946:17) at the b e g i n n i n g of the Al-

ICur'an's chapt e r s (Mustafa, 1989:40-41), and that

* * *

Muhammad is the last Prophet but not the last Messenger.

There are also Messengers appointed among the Angels.

Rashad Khalifa asserts that his duty is only to continue

and rectify the Syari'at of Prophet Muhammad, which

• k

according to h i m has been deviated from the t r uth by the

Prophet's followers through Hadith (Mustafa, 1989:21,52;

* 9r
Abdul Halim, 1991 :136).
«r
Mustafa (Mustafa, 1989:23), rejects Cod e 19 as an
r t » *■

Al-Kur'anic miracle or as a m i r a c l e for the n e w 'prophet'

for it is not free from disputes. He (Mustafa, 1989:81-

*• 1

87) clai m s that Rashad Khalifa r e s e mbles t h ose who reject

Hadith as a second source of Islamic teaching such as

Musailamah al-Kazzab and others(7). Mustafa (Mustafa,

►* **k
1989:57-87) also gives a detailed history of the anti-

HadT-yi movement during the time of Imam Syafi'i, the

S a yid Rasyid Ridha period in Egypt (8), the anti-HadTth

movement a m ong the S y T ' a h Rafidhah, the c r e a t i o n of the

 243

false Hadith by the S y i 'ah A l i ’s supporters, and the

history of HadTth c o l l ections a m ong the Companions

(Sahabah).
*
To him, R a s h* a d Khalifa...
——
uses Code 19 to

reject Muhammad as the last Messenger in order to

de c l a r e hi m s e l f as his successor. M u s*tra f a also claims

that the recent anti-HadTth movement in Malaysia is

infl u e n c e d by W e s t e r n orientalists.

The book 'Terbongkar Rashad Khalifa" Rasul Agama

Kod 19’ (Rashad K h a lifa- the Messenger of the Religion

Code 19 Unvieled) has at least clarified some of the

current contr o v e r s i a l issues amongst the majority of

Muslims, who believe that there is not a single person

w ho has knowledge on the invisible things beyond their

abi1ities.

To counteract the i n f luence of anti-Hadith

literature, Muslim scholars published more books on

HadTth to educate readers on the importance of Hadith

as g u i d a n c e in line w i t h the t e a c h i n g s in Al-Kur'an, and

the p o s i t i o n of H a d T t h in Islam (9). H a s h i m A. G h a n T and

HudlT M u h s T n became the p i o neer Muslim writers on Hadith

when t h eir books 1K e n a p a Mesti Menurut a l - S u n n a h 1 (Why

One Must F o l l o w Sunna) (10), ’W a j i b B e r amal Dengan Sunnah

Rasul dan P e n g i n g k a r n y a Kafir' (It Is a Compulsary Deed

 244

to Practise the S u nna of the Prophet a nd T h ose who

Disobey an Infidel), 'G a y u n g Bersambut Sunnah Membela

Diri' (The First Striking Argument Sunnah Defends Itself)

(Hashim, n.d), and 'Pengenalan Kitab H a d i th al-Sunnah

— *
al-Sittah' (An Introduction to HadTth Sunna Sittah) wer e

published in 1985(11), after H a d i th became a hotly

d i s c u s s e d issue in M u s l i m society.

The Malaysian g o v e rnment continously urges and

encourages Muslim scholars to write more a r t icles and

books on H a d i th to strengthen the Muslims’ b e lief in

HadTth, and to counteract the recent activities of the

anti Hadith group (Mohd Napiah, 1 9 8 6 :i). A Muslim who

# -
disbelieves or rejects H* a d i t_ h_ is considered an infidel,

and is not c o n s i d e r e d a M u s l i m in the c o n s t i t u t i o n of all

the states or in the Administration of Islamic Law

E nactments. The Malaysian government r e a lizes that

lecturers in certain universities in the country are

among the anti-HadTth group followers. In 1992 their

numbers are sai d to have increased to approximately 300

people (12).

T he 'Mufti' in every state have discussed the

a n t i - H a d i t h issue and c o n c l u d e d that K a s s i m A h m a d is an

9 -- - * r

infidel and all his books dealing with anti-HadTth must

 245

be r e j ected • a n d banned. Keeping, reading, buying,

publishing and distributing these books throughout the

country is prohibited.

Furthermore, several meetings and discussions by

various groups and a u t h o r i t a t i v e bodies w e r e held w h e r e b y

Kassim and the Muslim sc h o l a r s were invited to clarify

their o p i nions in the di s p u t e (Kassim, 1992:186-187). All

books w r i tten by the Muslim s c h olars stress the

importance of H« a d T t—h and accuse mK a s s i m A ho m a d ' s book

'Hadis Satu Penilaian Semula' (HadTth A Review) of not

mere l y challenging the Prophet Muhammad, but also of

being against A l l a h and Islam itself (Masrhhah, 1992:16).

They listed or forwarded at least ten arguments against

Kass i m A h m a d ' s b o o k as follows:

• o

1. A l -•K u r ' a n c o m mands the M u s l i m s to h o l d on to H a d i t

— h or
Sunna based on its order to be obedient and loyal to the

Messenger.

2. The duty of Prophet Muhammad was not confined to

teaching Al-Kur'an but also to explain the Holy Book

through H a d T t h or Sunna.
© •— -

3. T he guidance of Hadith or Sunna is essential to

O
Muslims if they a r e to p e r f o r m their d e v o t i o n and daily

ritual duti e s correctly.

 246

4. All M u s l i m s must hol d on to H a d i t h or S u n n a as long as

it is A l l a h ' s revelation and its e x i s t e n c e is guaranteed

by G o d .

5. Hadith wa s written and re c o r d e d from the earliest

p e r i o d of Islam, and not onl y two h u n d r e d y e a r s after the

d e a t h of Prophet M u h a m m a d as K a s s i m claimed.

6. The rejection of H a d T t h will i n f luence the Muslims to

reject A l - K u r ' a n and Islam.

7. The issue of Hadith had been settled in the past and

it is not worthwhile to renew the d e bate on a similar

issue.

8. The methodology used by Kassim to deny the

authenticity of Hadith is weak and does not follow

Islamic r e s e a r c h methods.

9. In his research work, Kassim r e f ered to i nauthentic

sources which include Western orientalists' work. Thus,

his r e s e a r c h cannot be accepted.

10. His research is further rejected as he is illiterate

in Arabic (Kassim, 1992:17-18; New St r a i t s Times, 29th

June 1986; Mahyuddin, 1986:23-33; Said, 1987:3-24 and

H a s h i m , n . d . :14-88) .

To M u s t a f a (1989:2-3), Kassim's book 'Hadis

*e » •
Satu P e n i l a i a n S e m u l a 1 (HadTth A Review) deviates from
 247

the Islamic faith. ABIM criticises the book as

unacademic.

A c c o r d i n g to Abdul Halim El-Muhammady~(Abdul Halim

i i •

E 1- M u h a m m a d y , 1991:171) a study and writing on Hadith

* *
should be encouraged. Nevertheless, research which is

not b a s e d on m o d e r n social science methodology, w h i c h has

confusing conclusion and ideas, negative proposals, and

which carries the p o t ential of undermining the Muslims'

Isfamic w a y of life must be rejected.

Kassim, however, continues to defend his

c o n t r oversial view rej e c t i n g Hadith. In 1992, with the

aim of answering the above accusations, di s p u t e s and

misunderstandings, Kassim wrote another book, 'Hadis

© *
Jawapan Kepada Pengkeritik1 (Hadith an Answer to
0

Critics). The publisher of the book c l aims that, 'Kassim

*

dalam bukunya ini menyeru kembali kepada Quran, seol a h

ada s e m angat u n tuk memurnikan Islam, tanpa menolak H a dis

*
atau Sunnah atau apa saja y ang tidak bercanggah dengan

Quran' (In this book K a s s i m calls the p e o p l e to return to

a
Al-Kur'an, with the intention to honour I s lam wi t h o u t
*

rejecting Hadi^yi or Sunna or whatever that does not

conflict w i t h Islam) (Kassim, 1992:9).

Kassim (Kassim, 1992:11) admits that there is

•>
 248

some ambiguity in his book 'Hadis Sat u Penilaian Semula'

to
(H a d i t h A Review) regarding his s t and on Hadith, the
<3 P

concept of the Al-Kur'an as a source of SyarT"1a, and

the difference between history and Hadith. Kassim

(Kassim, 1992:12) says, 'Dan b a h a w a ajaran HadTs/ Sunnah

6 "
sebagai s u mber hukum merupakan satu perkembangan dan

aj a r a n bar u yang muncul kira-kira tig a ratus tahun

setelah Nabi Muhammad wafat, tanpa izin N a b i , d an tidak

mempunyai autoriti dalam Quran d an Sejarah' ('And that

the t e a c h i n g s of H a d i t h / S u n n a as a sour c e of law is a n e w

*
development that emerged about three hundred y e ars after

the death of Prophet Muhammad, without his consent, and

*
without bearing any a u t h o r i t y in A l - K u r ' a n a nd h i s t o r y 1).

Nevertheless, it is clear from this statement that

Kassim continues to reject Hadith as a sour c e of

« 9 -
Islamic law which is disapproved of by Prophet Muhammad

and Al-Kur'an. He says that he believes in A l - K u r ' a n but

* *
rejects others which are against this Holy book. Kassim
_ d
(Kassim, 1992:12) a c c epts Hadith as long as they are in
* * —
line with Al-Kur'an. Kassim says, "Oleh itu saya
* m
menyarankan supaya uma t Islam kembali kepada ajaran

Quran, t a n p a m e n o l a k Hadis/Sunnah, malah tanpa menolak

a p a - a p a juga ajaran, y a n g tidak b e r c a n g g a h d e n g a n Q u r a n " .

 249

Kassim is dissatisfied w i t h the con t i n u o u s

cr

c r i t i c i s m m a d e by the M u s l i m authors on issues similar to

those which he answers in his first book, 'H a dTs S atu

Penilaian Semula' (HadTth A Review). K a s s i m (Kassim,

« * c
1992:19) claims that the t r u t h on H a d i t h is p e r s i s t e n t l y

argued by the Muslims especially a m ong the 'M u k t a z i l a h ’

philosophers and scientists. Kassim blames the M u s l i m

s c h olars who f a iled to cl a r i f y the difference between

H a d i t h and Al-Kur'an.
<3 - <*

In his book Kassim argues that Pr o p h e t M u h a m m a d

c *
performed two different roles: as a Messenger appointed

by Allah, and as leader or pre s i d e n t of the n a t i o n c ity

of Madinah. The H a d i t h and his p o s i t i o n as leader will be

j —
accepted by Muslims as long as it is similar to Al-

Kur'an. He s t r esses that the weaknesses and backwardness

of the Muslims come fro m fol l o w i n g the teachings which

have d e v i a t e d f r o m Al-Kur'ah. T h e y are u n a w a r e that their

d
re l i g i o n had been blended with o t her doctrines which are

against I s Tam (Kassim, 1992:22). At the end of the first

c h a pter of this book K a s s i m (Kassim, 1992:23-25), gives

* %
his v i ews on the a u t h e n t i c sources of his r e s e a r c h and

the irrelevance of b e ing literate in Arabic language

to w ards u n d e r s t a n d i n g the A l - K u r ' a h (13).

 250

In general the book 'Hadis Satu P e n i l a i a n Semula'

(Hadith A Review) raises confused issues such as:

p

the meaning of the verse of the A l - K u r ’ah 'Ta'atilah

Allah d an T a ’a t i l a h Rasul’ (To obey Allah and the

Prophet), the person responsible for explaining the

meaning of the Al-Kur'an, the issue on prayer ’Salat',

0

the true p o s i t i o n of Hadith, Code 19, the p r o b l e m s of Al-

e
Kur'anic exegesation, the collapse of Islamic

civilisation, 'Dajjal' and the reappearance of the

Prophet Isa.

Ba s e d on the books written by M u s l i m scholars on

Hadith it is c l ear that two major groups exist in the

Muslim society in M a l a y s i a w i t h regard to the issues of

Hadith: the m a j o r i t y M u s l i m s k n o w n as ’Ahl Al-Sunna' who

be l i e v e Al-Kur'an and Hadith as a source of Islamic

P m
teachings, and the scholars who are a g ainst Hadith as

well as other Muslim scholars' views which they consider

to d i f f e r f r o m the t e a c h i n g of the A l - K u r ’an.

9
As yet the Malaysian government has not taken

any action on Kassim and his fol l o w e r s who disbelieve

e
H a d i th, even though the 'Mufti' of all the states in

Malaysia declare Kassim and his followers to be

unbelievers. It is p r o b a b l e that the anti-Hadith. g r oup

 251

will secretly c o n tinue their e f forts to denounce the

authenticity of Hadith. Though the group does not

directly threaten the stability of the country, it is

perceived to pose a threat to the unity of the Muslim

'u m m a h ' and the Muslims' faith as a whole (S u ara Masjid

Negara Bil. 12, 8 hb. Safar 1413 H (7 hb. Ogos 1992),

(Suara Persatuan Ulama Malaysia, B i l . 31 (Thn. 3. J.'Awal

1413H (Nov.1 9 9 2 ) :4).

2. A l - A r q a m

Al-Arqam was f o unded in 1968 (14). Thi s 'd a 'w a 1

movement, which is reputed to be the mos t radical and

fundamental of all the 1d a 1wa"1 m o v e m e n t s s t a r t e d to c a rry

out its activities at Sungai Pencala, Wilayah

Persekutuan. Its aim is to call upon th e Muslims to

practise Islam as a way of life. This organisation has

succeeded in i n f l u e n c i n g the Muslims, particularly youth

in the urban areas. Al-Arqam repeatedly criticised

government policies on law, culture, education, economy,

s o c i e t y and customs w h i c h the y c l aim are not Islamic.

As a rel i g i o u s movement, al-Arqam initially

declared itself free f rom an y political aims but later

a d m i t t e d that the g r o u p has its o wn p o l i t i c a l v i ews and

goals. A l - A r q a m claims that its membership in Malaysia

 252

has inc r e a s e d to ten thousand, and its b r a n c h e s are also

found in other parts of the w o rld (Abdul Khaliq,

1993:111). As a self-r e l i a n c e body al-Arqam's activities

involve all aspects of life.

Some of the activities of al-Arqam have been

criticised by other Muslims, even its ex-members, who

accuse t h e movement of having g o n e astray. Recently, the

Malaysian government, followed by Indonesia, B r u n e i (15)

and Singapore, banned all books and magazines published

and cas s e t t e s produced by al-Arqam when the organisation

o p enly discussed a number of controversial issues of

popular interest. Examp l e s of these i s s u e are 'the

Resurrection of Imam M a h d i , the life a f t e r death of

B^eikli Muhammad Suhaimi, the founder of Aurad

Muhammadiah, his meeting life, 1a l - y a q z a h ', with Prophet

Muhammad in the Al-Haram Mosque, 'Masjidil Haram', the

• m •

date of t he Resurrection Day and on the issue of the

'Auracl Muhammadiah'
0
.

Al-Arqam summons the Muslims to wear robes, a

garment worn by the Prophet, and has recently encouraged

its f o l l owers to practise polygamy which, though

permitted in Isl'am, is against the Muslim Family Law

Enac t m e n t s (16).
 253

M u s l i m p a r e n t s u r g e the g o v e r n m e n t to control al-Arqam's

activities, which have successfully inf l u e n c e d their

daughters to join the group a nd later to marry its

members without their consent. Malaysia, Indonesia,

Brunei and Singapore recently declared this organisation

to be illegal since, in the case of Malaysia, the

movement was f o rmed against the S o c i e t i e s Act 1966 (17).

Al-Arq'am retaliated by challenging the government to

practise Islamic law and to abolish unlawful activities

in society.

With the aim of explaining their views, ideas

and p r a c t i s e s on Islam, the a l - A r q § m leader, Ashaari and

his f o l l owers have written more t han fifty I s l amic b o oks

in Malay. Topics written about cover faith, devotion

services, women, I s l amic law, Islamic dressing, marriage,

family, society, education, economy, politics, SufTsm,

Al-Kur'ah, ffadith. Islamic history, morality, I s l amic

stories for children, current issues and I s l amic

i n ternational affairs. As h a a r i als o published his public

speeches, a novel and several poems (Khadijah, 1989:236-

237)(18).

Several books published by al-Arqam accuse the

g o v e r n m e n t of b e i n g u n j u s t w h e n it m a d e their a c t i v i t i e s
 254

illegal without any court hearing or p r o p e r judicial

proceedings. In t h e s e books a l - A r q a m gives an e x p l a n a t i o n

of the disputes over the practises of al-Arqam, and

claims that all the ambiguities that a r i s e from the

practises cannot be considered as the basis of Islamic

teachings. T h e y argue that past M u s l i m s c h o l a r s also have

different ideas concerning these matters. To them a

Muslim is free to c h oose eith e r to b e l i e v e or to reject

t h e m accordingly.

Concerning faith, in his book 'Iman dan

P e r s o a l a n n y a ' (Faith and Its Questions) AshaarT stresses

the importance of faith as a base for the establishment

of a M u s l i m personality. E v e r y M u s l i m mus t strive for the

f o urth stage of faith, 'Tman H a k ', true f a ith (19). A

Muslim w ho reaches this stage is k n o w n as 'Al-

M u q a r r a b T n 1, a pious person, a ’Waliullah' who possesses

holy qualities s uch as devoutness, 'zuhTTd', sincerity,

'i k h f a s ’, and piousness, ' w a r a ' 1. He practises Allah's

command obediently and dilligently, willingly accepts

Al l a h ' s calamity, ’b a l a 1, is forever gr a t e f u l towards

Allah's blessings, 'n i k m a t ',('Tidak takut dengan bala

Allah dan tidak gembira dengan nikmat Allah'), is

unaffected by p r aise and unhumilated by criticisms

 255

(Ashaari, 1989:64-67). AshaarT explains that to

s t r e n g h t e n one's faith is to fight and d e f e a t bad d e s ires

'nafsu' a nd to h ave onl y the minimum s t age of ’n a f s u ’,

'Nafsu M u t m a i n n a h ' , w h i c h is p o s s e s s e d u s u a l l y by one who

has attained 'Iman A y a n '. According to him, in SufTsm

there are sixteen bad desires, known as 'Sifat

M a z m u m a h '(20). To remove these negative characteristics

one n e eds int e n s i v e training and effective guidance from

a 'mursyTd', which means a guide or a director (21)

(AshaarT, 1989:82).

AshaarT c l aims that that P r o phet Muhammad once

said that t o day there are m a n y p r e a c h e r s ,' mubal 1 icfh' , but

non e a ' m u r s y T d ’. He summons the Muslims to fill their

h e arts with g ood moral qualities such as: honesty

'jujur', sincerity, 'i k h l a s 1, humbleness, 't a w a d h u k ',

t r u stworthiness, 'amanah', repentence, 'taubah', trust,

's a n g k a baik', God f e a r i n g , 't a k u t k a n Allah', forgiveness,

'p e m a a f 1, generosity, 'pemurah', t h a n k f u l n e s s ,'s y u k u r 1,

devotion, 'zuhud', t o l e r a n c e , 'tolak a n s u r ', acceptance,

'r e d h a ', patience, ' s a b a r ' , diligence, 'raj in', bravery,

'berani', gentleness, 'lemah l e m b u t ', b e n e v o l e n c e t o w ards

the believers, 'kasih s e sama mukmin', always remembering

death, 'selalu i n g a t k a n m a t i ', and reliance on Allah

 256

't a w a k k a l ' (AshaarT, 1989: 93).

A c c o r d i n g to A s h a a r T ways to p o s s e s s faith(22),

beside supererogatory prayers, 's e m b a h y a n g s u n a t ',

include: remembering Allah, 'zikruHah', recit i n g Al-

Kur'ah, praying 'du'a', discussion, 'b e r m u z a k a r a h 1, and

' t a h l T l 1, to meditate, 't a f a k u r 1, to remember Allah's

blessing, to look at the world as a sign of A l lah's

greatness, to p o n d e r over one's sin to A l l a h and to other

human beings, to visualise the world in the grave, to

practise supererogatory fasting, to fight for Islam, to

donate generously, to visit the sick and the dead, to

a v oid sinful a c t ions and to repent (A s h a a r T , 1989:98-

109) .

The effective way for the apostates to repent and

to pr o t e c t their faith is through the five factors which

are: to be convinced, 'yakin', sincere, to pr a c t i s e

A
supererogatory duties, to be consistent in devotion, to

be disciplined and to be c o u rteous in devotion (Ashaari,

1989:114-134). A s h a a r T w a rns the M u s l i m s of the d a n g e r of

participating in o t her r e l igious ceremonies and the

d a n g e r of p r o h i b i t i n g the p r a c t i c e of p o l y g a m y (23).

Several al-Arqam b a sic teachings and pra c t i s e s

p a r t i c u l a r l y those by its leader As h a a r i and his close

 257

subordinate leaders, are found in the boo k 'Aurad

Muhammadiah Pegangan Darul-Arqam' (Aurad Muhammadiah

Darul Arqam's Guide) written by AshaarT in 1986. T h ese

b a sic teachings include 1M a n a q i b '(24) a nd 'SalaTsilah1

'Aurad M u h a m m a d i a h ' , ' T a h l T l ', 'Maulud B e r z a n j i ', 'Maulud

*
DaiblP i ' and 'Nazam' p r a c t i s e d by SyeTkh Muhammad
■" - "

SuhaimT, and the pra c t i s e s of Pencak Sunda or Silat

G h aib (invisible art of self-defence) which are i n c luded

in the 'tarikat' c a lled 'Tarikat Mu h a m m a d i a h ' . The t e r m

• « • ♦ 4
'Aurad' w h i c h m e a n s continual m o t i o n is u s e d instead of

'Tarikat' to sho w that A u r a d M u h a m m a d i a h does not have a

continual lineage ('S a l a s i l a h 1) to Pr o p h e t Muhammad

(B A H E I S , 1986:2).

As h aari claims that w h e n S y e T k h M u h a m m a d Suhaimi

■ 0 0

met ' W alT Allah Habib Noh' and Prophet Muhammad,

V J

Rasulallah, in his dreams he was rebuked by Rasulallah

for reciting the 'Maulud a l - N a b T 1 irregularly, from w h i c h

he gets spiritual guidance, 1p a n d u a n b a t i n ’. Later, he

*

was called upon a g ain by the Prophet to meet Him in the

'Ka'aba' where he was taught by Rasulallah to read the

'Aurad M u h a m m a d T a h ' and was shown the way to pr a c t i s e

it. (AshaarT, 1986:33-35)

AshaarT lists miracles performed by S y eTkh

 258

Muhammad SuhaimT" such as: producing money from his hand

* *
and g r a p e s f rom his 's o n g k o k 1 spontaneously, not ge t t i n g

wet in the rain, a motor-boat s i n king into the w a t e r for

re f u s i n g to a l l o w h i m to board, b e i n g a s s i s t e d b y the red

fish w h e n about to d r own in the sea, being present at two

or three places simultaneously, helping o ne w ho was in

danger or d i f f i c u l t y w h e n his nam e was called, practising

the art of self-defence without learning from an

instructor (AshaarT, 1986:36-55)(25).

A s h a a r T rec o g n i z e s S y e i k h Muhammad SuhaimT as the

“ “-------------------- --- a a

fifth Caliph of the Rasul all*ah and as Ima m M a h d T who is

clearly mentioned in the a l - A r q a m 's h a h a d a 1". H o w e v e r this

is not part of al-Arq'am official teachings. Concerning

Imam Mahdi, he explains that Ima m Mahdi is an Arab

whose name is Muhammad,

«c
but does not giv e detailed

information about him. AshaarT claims that Imam BukharT

h ad also been enthusiastically waiting for the c o ming of

Imam Mahdi (AshaarT, 1986:95-96).

In the book, 'Aurad MuhammadTah Pegangan Darul-

ArqaiiT (Aur^d Muhammadiah Darul Arqam's Guide), AshaarT

« '
f u r ther states that m a n can seek hel p f r o m Allah, th r o u g h

't a w a s s u l ' or 'Wall All"ah' . 'Wali Allah' is Al l a h ' s

rt
'mediator', to give Allah's help indirectly (Ashaari,
 259

1986:149). According to Ashaari, man can also seek help

from a servant of Allah 1ktia d i m 1, either an angel

'mal'aikat' or a genie 'jin'. The hel p r e n d e r e d is thus

considered as a gift fro m All"ah t h o u g h is not desired by

th ose who have reached the position of 'Wall’ or who

constantly recite the Al-Kur'ah or the name of Allah

through 'wirid' and 'zikir' (AshaarT, 1986:158).

According to AshaarT, the declaration of Imam

MahdT does not involve the issue of faith, and everyone

has the right either to believe or disbelieve. However,

a m ong Muslims in Malaysia, the issue of Imam MahdT has

become a c o n t r o v e r s i a l issue, 'klfi 1 a f T a h ' , w hen the

author clai m s that he himself has the right to declare

anyone as Imafn M a h d T (AshaarT, 1986:167-171). Furthermore,

he says that the truth of the 'i d j t i H a d ' (26) is not

rigid, 'd z a n n i ' (AshaarT, 1986:184).

""
Syelkh— m
Muhammad
#
Suhaimi
m is claimed to be immortal

and will be rebo r n as Ima m MahdT. The argument g i ven by

A s h a a r T to support this claim is that Syeikh is a 'WalT'

('Qutubul AuliyfT) and Allah has given him 'K a r a m a h 1

(AshaarT, 1986:182).

T he a m b i g u i t i e s and fallacies n a t u r e f o und in the

book 'Aurad MuhammadTah Pe g a n g a n Darul Arqam' (Aurad

 260

Muhammadiah Darul Arqam's Guide) written by AshaarT

i m p elled the Islamic Affairs Division of the Prime

Minister's Department 'Bahagian Hal Ehwal IslaTn J a batan

P e r d a n a M e n t e r i ' (B A H E I S ) to publish, in t he same year, a

book, 'Penjelasan terhadap Buku Aur'ctd MuhammadTah

Pegangan Darul Arqam' ( C larification on the Book Aurad

M u h a m m a d i a h Darul A r q a m ' s Guide) to r e c t i f y the issue. An

explanation is considered crucial by the goverment to

p r event Muslims from being influenced by AshaarT views

and their f a ith undermined by those who hav e limited

religious knowledge in c e r tain fields or w ho h ave

confined t h eir views on 'absolute spiritual' (BAHEIS,

1986:v , v i ) .

BA H E I S accused AshaarT of making a false

sta t e m e n t in his magazine r e l ating to the issue of the

de a t h of S y e T k h M u h a m m a d SuhaimT and the issue of S y e T k h

Muhammad S u h aimT as Imam MahdT. BAHEIS p o ints to the

inconsistency of A s h a a r T 1s stand t o wards ’Manaqib'. At

first in 'Aurad Muhammadiah', AshaarT de c l a r e s his

belief but later states his dis b e l i e f in b o t h 'Manaqibs',

either written in Romanised, 'Rumi', or in Jawi scripts

and admits that he is not resp o n s i b l e for the a d d itions

and a l t e r a t i o n s m a d e in bot h 'Manaqibs'. BAHEIS blames

 261

AshaarT for emphasising on 'Aurad' m ore than 'S y a r T ' a '

and for making two contradictory statements concerning

his relationship with 'jin' or getting h elp f rom 'jin'.

The book 'Penjelasan terhadap Buku Aurad Muhammadiah

Pegangan Dcfrul Arqam' ( C l a r i fication on the Book A u rad

MuhammadTah Darul Arq'am's Guide) reveals that one of

AshaarT's teacher's, Muhammad Abdullah b in Muhammad

— * %

Khairullah As-SuhaimX or b e t t e r k n o w n as 'Pak Mat Kelang'

wears shorts which is considered immoral for a religious

teacher. AshaarT was also rebuked when he did not

i d e n t i f y his spiritual teachers to the public.

As told by AshaarT's former friend Akhbar Anang,

an ex-Arq*Sm leader, various Muslim scholars accuse the

members of al-Arqam of b e ing polytheistic or 'syirk'.

BAHEIS accuses A s h a a r T of b e ing ins i n c e r e and tryi n g to

conceal the actual nature of al-Arqam's b e l iefs and

practises (BAHEIS, 1986:7-16).

BAHEIS rejects the basic teachings of a l - A r q a m and

criticises many issues for example SyeTkh Muhammad

S uh a i m T ' s meeting with Rasulaliah and RasulalTah giving

'Aurad' in the K a 'abah in a dream, punishment to those

who oppose him, the superiority and the immortality of

SyeT k h M u h a m m a d SuhaimT, the benef i t s and a d v a n t a g e s of

 262

'Aurad Muhammadiah', the Resurrection of Imam Mahdi,

St

se e king help from Allah through a mediator 'tawassul',

'invisible wali', 'karamah', inv i s i b l e art of self-

defence, getting h elp from 'khadam' through serious

recitation of the verses in the Al-Kur'an, and declaring

o
Imam Mahdi and his Resurrection, as not an issue of

faith.

With rega r d to the above issues, and p a r t i c u l a r l y

issues dealing with the death of Pr o p h e t Muhammad, his

►
life in the grave, the death of the martyr and the

termination of the dead's relationship with the worldly

life, the decisions made by the Islamic World

Organization 'Rabitah 'Alam a l - I slami' were r e f erred to

*
and were found to be totally against al-Arqam's views.

BAHEIS f u r ther argues that the actual 'idjtihad' is

convinced 'yakin' as long as it fo l l o w s the normal

process of e l a b o r a t i o n and e x p l a n a t i o n of the S y a riTa law

which is based on proofs and clear evidences from Al-

Kur ran and Hadith.

* * “
BAHEIS criticises AshaarT for declaring publicly

that he and a few s e l e c t e d p e r sons obtained 'karamah' and

'Ma'*uhah', which is against the original Islamic concept

of bot h m a t t e r s and gives the m e a n i n g of 'Karamah' and

 263

Ma'unah'. Thus, though there is no apparent proof, it

cannot be doubted that AsiiaarT also believes in

'manaqib', in the romanised edition edited by T aha

Suhaimi, and in the f a ith and practises proposed

in'Tarikat M u h a m m a d i a h 1. Finally BAHEIS, in t he book

* * 6

' Penjelasan terhadap Buku Aurad Muhammadiah Pegangan

#•

Darul A r q a m 1 ( C l a r i f i c a t i o n on the Book A u r a d M u h a m m a d r a h

Darul Arqam's Guide), advises the Muslims to uphold

Islamic faith, to kee p it free from unlslamic i nfluences

and to refer sincerely to both Al-Kur'ah and S u nna when

t h e y e n c o u n t e r any p r o b l e m s (BAHEIS, 1986:17-96).

In 1987, Hashim A. GhanT in his book 'Aurad

Muhammadiah Menyeleweng' (Aurad Muhammadrah Deviates)

« *

accused al-Arqam members of having gon e astray and

claimed that 'Aurad Muhammadiah' deviates from the true

Islamic teachings. He questioned the truth of va r i o u s

practises and beliefs of al-Arqam, such as: 'wirid'

through singing, 'T a h l i l 1(27), 'Maulud BerzanjT' (Songs

of the Prophet Muhammad's birthday anniversary), 'Maulud

Diba', 'Nazam', devotion on Friday night, re c i t i n g the

poem 'Nazam' in the mosque, the light of P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d

'Nur Muhammad', SufTsm, prayers 'Safawat B a d w T ', an angel

* *■ 4
as a s e rvant 'khadam' to A l l a h ' s men, Jesus and ShF'a
 264

(Hashim, 1987:3).

Hashim denounces 'wirid Arqam' as 'bid'a-1,

1t a w a s s u l ' as polytheistic ’s y i r k ’, and reciting ’N a z a m ’

in the mosque also as 'bid'a'. He declares Aurad

M u h a m m a d i a h 's practices are polytheistic, 'bid'a' and

'k h u r d f a t ' . He condemns al-Arqam as anti Al-Kur'"an and

anti Sunna, even though al-Arqam denies it (Hashim,

1987:19,46,57, 137 and 156).

AshaarT Muhammad in his book 'Inilah Pandanganku1

(My Views) published in 1988, e d i t e d b y his w i f e K h a d T j a h

(28), discusses several contemporary issues relevent to

Muslims (29). Ashaairi claims that the b a s i c t e a c h i n g s of

al-Arqam are based s o le ly on Al-Kur'an and Sunna. Its

aim is to guide Muslims in the p r a c t i s e s of Sunna, 'fard

' a i n 1, fard k i f a y a h 1, in e v ery aspect of life such as

politics, economics, socio-culture, the s o l i d a r i t y of the

'u m m a h 1, Islamic survival, and to create a pure and

prosperous world with Allah's grace. He encourages

Muslims to participate in the Holy War and to die as

martyrs. AshaarT declares al-Arqam to be also known as

1d j a m a T a M u h a m m a d r a h 1. In this book AshaarT once again

as s erts his b e lief that —

S y a y k h M u h*a m m a d Suhaimi
t w as the

fo u nder of 'Aurad MuhammadTah' w h o he p r e d i c t e d to be the

 265

future Imam Mahdi (KhadTjah, 1988:x-xiv).

The M u s l i m s are e n c o u r a g e d to e d u c a t e an d to t r ain

themselves, their family and the society, 'd j a ma~l'a1 , on

a c o l l e c t i v e basis. According to A s h a a r T M u s l i m s should

have t h eir own systems in the economy, education,

medicine, mass-media, food production and other basic

needs. Concomitantly, sample villages, ’k a m p o n g c o n t o h 1,

are to be set up and preacher grou p s formed to p r e a c h to

non-Muslims and to convert them to Islam. A s h a a r T claims

that the p r e sent people are being corrupted by unjust

leaders. Islhmic knowledge taught by Muslim s c h olars is

for worldly purposes. The rich misuse t h eir wealth and

indulge in bribery instead of donating to the poor, and

the poor on the o t her hand are dissatisfied with their

poverty, husbands are irresponsible an d w i ves are

disobedient (Khadijah, 1988:1-14,118). Thus, the role of

al-Arqam is to save the people and to u n i t e their hearts

and minds in the name of Allah. To achieve this aim

Muslims must prepare themselves, to work sincerely for

the sake of AlTah, f o l l o w i n g the P r o p h e t ' s w a y of life as

shown in Sunna.

AshaarT acknowledges that the vital role of the

government is to implement Islamic law in the country.

 266

Disputes among Muslims to gai n p o l i tical power must be

avoided. Infact, the d i s u n i t y among M u s l i m sc h o l a r s will

lead to acts w h i c h are against Islamic teachings, such

as accusing each o t her as infidels. Thi s will threaten

the u n i t y of M u s l i m s o c i e t y as a whole. He calls u p o n the

Muslims to begin practising Islamic teachings at home,

individually, among fami l y members, in the villages,

di s t r i c t s and state communities. Later thi s is to be

extended to the na t i o n a l and i n t e r n ational level. Mu s l i m s

mus t donate all fac i l i t i e s o w ned to social services

particularly to those w h i c h involve widows, orphans, the

poor, new c o n verts and the needy (Khadijah, 1988:119-

1 2 1 ).

AshaarT reminds women that obedient wives, who

worship Allah and giv e loyal se r v i c e to t h eir husbands,

s om e t i m e s fail to e n ter H e a v e n due to their lack of love

and disobedience to Allah. According to AshaarT Al T a h ' s

grace is o b t a i n e d by: visiting the religious men 1orang-

orang soleh' and 'ahli-ahli syurga1 (those assured by

All"ah a p l a c e in heaven), p r a c t i s i n g the d e v o t i o n service

of 'ahli-ahli syurga' and b e i n g a 1solehah' wife who not

o nl y g i ves genuine love to her husband but to help

improve his faith and to fight for Islam in the path

 267

shown by All*ah ’fi sabTLillah' (Khadijah, 1988:124-132).

He complains that at present there are wives who prefer

t h eir husbands to stay at home with t h eir families and

discourage them fro m ca r r y i n g out religious duties

o u t s i d e the home.

In T n i l a h Pandanganku' (My Views), A s h a a r T warns

individuals, husbands, leaders and businessmen who

p o s sess w eak souls and who are engrossed in the worldly

life in s t e a d of remembering Allah to fulfil t h eir duties

and responsibilities to their wives and others. They are

reminded to cast off their negative attitudes and

characters. They must discard t h eir desire to g ain

m a t erial wealth which can finally make them forget that

the y are All“ah's servants, to become t h eir wives'

fol l o w e r s instead of b e i n g a leader in t h e i r homes and to

get involved in business s e l ling prohibited goods. It is

t h ose with weak souls who, whe n they fail to ov e r c o m e

problems that arise, will easily become frustrated,

contemptuous, worried and disappointed (Khadijah, 1988:

136-144).

A s h a a r T summons the M u s l i m s to w o r k har d 'iltizam'

and to u n d i v i d e d l y fight for Islam 1s y u m u l ', t h r o u g h well

o r g a n i s e d p r o g r a m m e s s uch as 'usrah', training 'tamfTn',

 268

education and u p b r i n g i n g 'tarbiah', reforms 'tajdid', and

movement 'harakah' in an effort to introduce world-wide

I s lamic th o u g h t 'fikrah Isl'amiah1. He criticises the

Muslim sc h o l a r s for their failure and inability to

i m p l emen t a total Islamic wa y of life in their own

families, and their chi l d r e n ' s education, or even to

influence a small group in their society (KhadFjah,

1988:146-152) .

According to AshaarF the disunity among the

various Islamic grou p s in M a l a y s i a has adverse effects on

the Muslims and Islam in this country. Is l a m i c revival

which began twenty years ago, with Malaysia as its

centre, is recently considered to have failed to have

achieved its target. Eac h 1d a 'w 3 ' group asserts its

e f fort to p r o p a g a t e I s lam and claims that its a p p r o a c h is

better and more effective t han others, without r e a lizing

that its a t t i t u d e and ideas can be questioned.

The government's programmes of implementing

I s l amic v a l u e s in the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n is q u e s t i o n e d since,

at the same time, the government discourages mentioning

the word Islam to the people, fearing it might be

r e j e c t e d by the n o n-Muslims. It m i ght be j u s t i f i e d to say

that in reality al-Arq'am and the government hav e

 269

different goals. The former aims to p r o p a g a t e Isl'am among

the people and the latter aims to call the people to

p r a c t i s e goo d v a l u e s irre s p e c t i v e of religion.

Nevertheless AshaarT disapproves of those who

refuse to inculcate the Islamic system in every aspect

of life and wh o claim that the existing system is

suf f i c i e n t and ready to be Isfamized. Though some claim

that certain aspects of Muslim tradition a nd culture are

mor e Arabic than Islamic, the fact that these practises

are Islamic is clearly stated in al-HadTth (Khadrjah,

1988:155-170).

AshcfarT c l aims that there are groups which do not

acknowledge others and claim t h eir activities and

achievements are false, but w h i c h later c a r r y out similar

activities but c l aim them as different. In the author's

opinion, t h ere is no effective way to strengthen the

Muslim society other than through the spiritual power

which the Prophet, the Sufl~ teachers and 1w a l r y u l l a h ’

used to cure and enrich their souls. These are faith

'iman' and good moral ’m a h m u d a h 1 . At present it is

ft
crucial to save society from destruction c a used by

frustration, psychosomatic suicidal tendencies, crime,

AIDS, d r u g abuse and a p o s t a s y (KhadTjah, 1988:172-191).

 270

Relating to politics in Islam, AshaarT claims

that the current p o l itical atmosphere is un-Islamic and

po l i t i c s is considered a d i rty game. It is against Islam

to force the people to practice religion by imposing

Acts, Enactments and Laws w hen t h eir belief, knowledge

and u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the r e l igion is limited.

To al-Arqam, nation building must be b a sed on

faith. The people must be guided on the path of piety

'Taqwa"1 , through Allah's laws based on: ps y c h o l o g i c a l

knowledge 'ilmu p s i k o l o g i ', physiognomy 'ilmu firasat'

and vision 'ilmu k a s y a f ', whereby its secret can be

learnt through intuition 'ilham' or 'gerak h a t i ’,

enabling one to see the actual spirit world. 'Kasyaf' is

given to the Messengers, Prophets, and 1W a l i y u l l a h 1, or

given in o r der to strengthen the believers' faith in

Allah's greatness and His Hol y existence 'k e e s a a n n y a ',

or as a result of the 'barakah' blessings of the teachers

or parents, or the sincerity and consistency of certain

devotions accomplished by i n d i viduals to Allah, or can

eve n be given by Allah to test his servant's faith unto

Him.

However, AshaArT warns his followers who get

spiritual experiences 'p a n d a n g a n kerohanian' to remain

 271

loyal to their community ’jama'ah' and to evaluate its

leaders mor e a c c u r a t e l y and openly. He reminds the m that

egoism should be a v o ide d and s h ould be re p l a c e d by

humility 'tawacluk'. He stresses that Islamic SufFsm is

A
the o n l y e f f e c t i v e cure for spiritual s i c k n e s s .(30)

On the issue of Imam M a h d i , Ashaari g i ves the year

1415 H as the year of his resurrection. He asserts that

e v e r y M u s l i m is re q u i r e d to be l i e v e an d to g i v e absolute

loyalty to Imam M a h d i , who will revive Islamic glory and

faith in o r der to save the M u s lims and to clean the e a r t h

from sins and crime (KhadFjah, 1988:193-260).

In 1989, Mohd Sayuti Omar in his book 'Rahsia

>
Ustaz As h a a r i Terbongkar d i Luar N e g e r i ' (Ustaz A s h a a r i 1s

Secret unveiled Overseas) d i s cusses his experiences

to u r i n g several cou n t r i e s with Ashaari and o t her m e m bers

of al-Arqam. In this b ook he exposes problems faced by

al-Arqam and the secret of its founder and leader

Ashaari. He also discusses Islamic journalism (Mohd

Sayuti, 1 9 8 9 :iv).

Mohd. Sayuti claims that al-Arqam is the most

t
popular Islamic movement in Malaysia (Mohd Sayuti,

1989:124), even though ABIM and PAS h ave both asserted

publicly that they strive for an I s lamic State. He

 272

condemns those who accuse al-Arqam as the betrayer of

Islam and of deviating the Muslims from the true

te a c h i n g s of Islam with their wea k arguments which are

against Al-Kur'an and Sunna. He declares his respect for

AshaarPs attitude and s t r uggle and reveals al- A r q a m ' s

secrets w h i c h he a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h his p ast e x p e r i e n c e of

travelling together with him (Mohd SayutT, 1989:v - v i i i ).

* ft
However, to strenghten al-Arqam's activities and

to in c r e a s e al-Arqam members in the future he a d v ises the

al-Arqam members to kee p their strategy a secret, to

arrange t h eir programmes, and to pla n a proper 'da'wa7

activities schedule with topics which are appropriate

with time, place and the background of the audience.

Furthermore, members are advised to maintain close

association with other Islamic movements in terms of

ideas and actions. Members shou l d be less fanatic and

minimize controversial issues concerning minor matters

(Mohd Sayutr, 1989:98-114, 128-129).

O %
Mohd Sayuti co n d e m n s Muslim scholars who have

recently graduated f rom Cairo for f a i ling to m a i n t a i n the

respected status of those former graduates who played

such a vital role in bringing about i ntellectual

reformation among the Muslims. They are accused of

 273

misusing their knowledge and destroying the intellectual

developments that h a v e been achieved (Mohd Sayuti,

* 4

1989:211-214).

In this book M o h d Sayuti gives the fo r m u l a and

* *
rules of Al-Kur'anic writing followed by a l - A r q a m
#
writers, which in the au t h o r ' s view is th e best method

and forms the basis for Islamic journalism. T h ese rules

include: to write or to state nothing but the truth, to

g ive the c o r rect and exact exegesis to any message or

statement, to w r i t e in simple lan g u a g e w h i c h is e a s y to

u nderstand, to ensu r e that the facts and so u r c e s quot e d

are true, to a v oid a d d i n g or erasing facts when writing,

to thoroughly check all writing, to write at an

appropriate time, and f i n ally to remember Allah

ceaselessly.

Writers are advised to seek Allah's assistance in

seeking tru e ideas and inspirations. To attain this,

Muslim journalists m ust start t h e i r w r i t i n g s by r e c iting

the n a m e of Allah 'Bismillahir r a h m a n i r rahim' and by

1 T*

a s k i n g All'ah's forgiveness. This is to e n s u r e that their

writings benefits readers and pacify t h eir souls.

A c c o r d i n g to M o h d Sayuti", not a s i ngle M u s l i m w r i t e r can

produce g o o d w r i t i n g unle s s he real l y loves Islam, is

 274

willing to s t rive to uphold the laws of Allah, and is

sincere. To him, writing is a sacrifice if it is

considered as a means to a c h ieve an end. Thus, w r i ters

should realise their influencial role in shaping a

society (Mohd Sayuti, 1989:281-290).

Mohd Sayuti co n d e m n s the authorities for banning

al-Arqam publications. He regards this ban as

c o n t r a d i c t o r y to M a h a t h i r ' s recent p r o g r a m m e s to infuse

Islamic v a l u e s a m o ngst the p e ople in Malaysia. Several

arguments to support AshaarT's stand in his movement are

given and, according to Mohd SayutT, there is no valid

* »
reas o n for the government to detain As h a a r i since he is

a Muslim scholar who calls the people to embrace Islam.

He has never bee n in v o l v e d in any subversive activities

or broken t h ose laws which affect the p o l i tical and

economic stability of the country (Mohd SayutT", 1989:

4 *

316-332).

In 1989, Khadijah wrote a book 'B e r h a t i - h a t i

Membuat Tuduhan' (Be Ca u t i o u s When Making Accu s a t i o n s )

defending al-Arqam and answering the accusations mad e by

the I s l amic Affairs Division of the P r ime Minister's

Department (Bahagian Hal Ehwal Jabatan Perdana Menteri)

( B A H E I S ) (31), the K e l a n t a n Islamic R e l i g i o u s Council, the

 275

Federal Teritory Isl'amic Religious Council and the

'Utusan Melayu' Newspaper g r oup (Khadijah, 1 9 8 9 : v i ,v i i ).

KhadTjah defended 'Aurad Muhammadiah' as b e ing

•>
true and free of mistakes, disputes and deviances. She

summoned al-Arqam's members to strengthen a nd defend

their stand, their faith, practises a nd s t r uggles

(KhadTj a h , 1989:175 and 196-204). She a r gues that Imam

Akhbar Mahmud Sy a l t u t and Muhammad Nasaruddin Al-Bani

whom BAHE1S used as re f e r e n c e s are questionable, since

the former claims that Jesus is dea d which is against

Islamic belief, and the latter is the 'father of

Wahabism' and is infl u e n c e d by Western ideology.

According to KhadTjah, Wahabis' t h o ughts on the issue of

'tawassul' go against 'Ahl Al-Sunna's doctrine. This is

*f
because the WahabT group claim that not a s i ngle Al-

Kur'anic verse mentions the 'wali' and their duties,

9

whereas the 'Ahl Al-Sunna' recognised their existence.

Thus, Khadijah claims that BAHEIS is b e i n g influenced by

Wahabism (KhadTjah, 1989:27-28,42,44). Furthermore, she

c laims that the verses of the Al-Kur'an c an cure

9

i llnesses through their ' B a r a k a h ' . She s t ates that Al-

K u r ^ n gives several benefits, 'khasiat', as well as

* — «
g u i d a n c e to the people.
 276

As r eferences for her arg u m e n t s Khadijah uses

va r i o u s Islamic books, all from the 'Ahl Al-Sunna' school

of thought. The views of Muslim schol a r s worldwide are

also referred to in support of her arguments. For

example, re f e r e n c e books in M a l a y written by the local

Muslim s c h olars and Muslim scholars in Atjeh, books

translated from Arabic to Malay by Muslim scholars in

Patani, and va r i o u s Arabic books written by Muslim

scholars. On e of the authors is Syeikh Abu Hassan A1

' A

SyazalT who is an 'Ahl Al-Sunna' scholar who be l i e v e s

in the issue of 'a l - y a q a z a h ' . A book 'Aliran Syiah'

written by W a n A l ias b in A b d u l l a h is also used as one of

her references. In her book she gives a comprehensive

list of Ahl A l - S u n n a 1s scholars who su p p o r t the S h i 1a

idea of the issue of the existence of Imam Mahdi and his

present invisibility (Khadijah, 1989:45).

K h a d i j a h accuses Datuk Dr. Y u s u f Noor, M i n i s t e r of

the P r i m e M i n i s t e r ' s Department at that time, the Islamic

Centre, 'Pusat Islam' and 'Utusan Malaysia' (a daily

newspaper in Malay) of being a g a inst the Isramie

movement, of discouraging the Islamic 'da'wa-’ movement,

and of a c t i v e l y s u p p o r t i n g the 'anti-da'wa' movement and

immoral activities, 'maksiat' (KhadTjah, 1989: 123, 143,

 277

153 and 164).

KhadTjah in the book 'B e r h a t i - h a t i Membuat

Tuduhan1 (Be Ca u t i o u s When Making Accusations) gives a

detailed list of the S u f T scholars who have been ac c u s e d

9

as infidels, polytheists, extremists, Shi'a, 'zindiq',

against the government, introducing 'bid'a' activities

and ’Hindus'. Further, the y have been accused of

fo l l o w i n g the tea c h i n g s of Per s i a n ' s orthodoxy and

negative philosophical elements. She discusses the great

Muslim scholars who support SufT scholarship, the

historical development of local and world wide SufT

«

scholars, the secret of a l - A r q a m 1s struggle and t h eir

1h a r a k a h 1, as well as the past w e l l - k n o w n local Shfi s uch

* i

as Tok Kenali fro m Kelantan, Tuan Haji HussTn f r o m Kedah,

* *
Tuan Syeikh S aid f rom Negeri Sembilan, Tok Ku Paloh from

Trengganu and Tua n Habib Noh from Singapore (KhadTjah,

1989:187, 188, 190, 196-204).

In 1990 a book on al-Arqam 'Darul Arqam Antara

Kebenaran d an Kekeliruan' (Darul Arqam Between Truth

and C onfusion) was published. In this book written by

Mohd Rushdi Yusoff, a former al-Arqam leader, he

c l a r i f i e s the issues of a l - A r q a m f r o m his p o i n t of vie w

and experience. He b l a m e s the supp o r t e r s as well as the

 278

opponents of al-Arqam wh o give false statements, wrong

ideas, misleading decisions, wea k arguments, and

illogical v i e w s on al-Arqam.

M o h d Rushdi relates to the M u s l i m s Syeikh Muhammad

S u h a i m i 's wish 1a m a n a t ' for Muslims to remember death,

to repent w h o l e h e a r t e d l y and s i n c e r e l y to All'ah, to b l ame

oneself instead of bl a m i n g others, to prevent oneself

f rom falling in debt and to pra y to Allah at a peaceful

time and place. He advises women not to control their

hu s b a n d s (Mohd Rushdi, 1990:221-224).

Mohd R u s h d i 1s
— —
arg u m e n t s in his book are based on

several authoritative works and he refers to a n u m b e r of

well-known Muslim scholars (See Mohd Rushdi, 1990:161-

195); particularly when discussing the disputable issues

of Syeikh Muhammad Suhaimi (32), Imam MahdT, the date of

the Resurrection of Imam Mahdi, 'al-yaqzah', 'silat

s u n d a ', ' k a s y a f ’, the proclaimation of the members of

H e a v e n and those wh o live wi t h o u t the b l e s s i n g s of All'ah,

disloyalty to the leaders, and believing totally in

1k a s y a f 1 w h i c h he c o n s i d e r s to be a great sin.

Mohd Rushdi informs the readers about those who

have p r o c l a i m e d t h e m s e l v e s as Imam Mahdi or Mahdi al-

Muntazar since the year 128 Hijrah. Based on the

 279

majority of the Muslim scholars' views either from

'Shi 'a ' or 'Ahl Al-Sunna' he clai m s that the issue of

Imam Mahdi“ is part of Islamic faith (Mohd Rushdi,

1990 :180,183 and 196).

He complained that the socio-economic system

practised by al-Arqam was a soc i a l i s t system (Mohd

R u shdTT 1990:55), but he argues that all ’w i r i d ’ in

'Aurad M uhammadiah' are practised by most Muslims after

their daily prayers. He proposes that every Muslim and

even government authorities coo p e r a t e to h e l p solve t h ese

ambiguities, in order to e n sure the success of the

Islamization programmes in this country through strong

organisation (Mohd Rushdi, 1990:5,234).

In 1992 Khadijah wrote a boo k 'Ulama” D a l a m

Pandangan Islam' (Muslim S c h olars in the Eye s of Islam)

which f o c uses on the p r e s e n t M u s l i m s c h o l a r s and c o m pares

them to Muslim s c h olars of the past, after the time of

Muhammad's companions 'Sahabah'. She categorises Muslim

sc h o l a r s 'Ulama7 into v a r i o u s groups such as official and

unofficial Muslim scholars, Muslim schol a r s who pr a c t i c e

Isl'am superficially 'Ulama1 l a h i r 1, wicked or worldly

Muslim scholars 'Ulama' suk or dunia', and the Hereafter

Muslim s c h olars 'Ulama' akhirat', reforming Muslim

 280

scholars 'Ulama“r mujaddid' and 'WalT A l l T h ’ .

Khadijah clearly states her stand to w a r d s the

g o v e r n m e n t ’s Muslim schol a r s ’U l a m a ’ k e r a j a a n ’ whe n she

a c cuses them of being sinners, against Allah 1m u n g k a r ’,

and the creators of a new feature in religious matters,

’b i d ’T . As well as mentioning the responsibilities of

the Muslim scholars, t h eir characters and background

knowledge, she com p a r e s knowledge a m ong Muslim

legislators in Islamic law ’M u j t a h i d 1 of the past and the

pr e s e n t g o v e r n m e n t ’s M u s l i m scholars of today.

KhadTjah gives her a r g u ments about the causes of

different ideas a m ong the great M u s l i m sc h o l a r s and gives

reasons w h i c h account for the Muslims' d e c i s i o n to follow

th eir different school of laws (KhadTjah, 1992 :n.p). The

book mentions that its aim is not to directly co n d e m n

those who are against al-Arq'am. However, in va r i o u s

statements the author obviously gives a good image of

the al-Arqam, and c o m ments on disordered features of

ot her s c h olars in terms of their individual

personalities, t h eir garments, knowledge, activities,

str u g g l e s and their systems in life. She c l aims that al-

A r q a m leaders are s i m i l a r to the p i ous M u s l i m scholars of

the past, and claims that their e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m fulfils

 281

the requirements of the pe r f e c t Islamic education

(KhadTj ah 19 9 2 :i i ) .

Khadijah co n d e m n s t h ose Muslim scholars w ho are

r e l u ctant to be called as such, w ho get salaries and

allowances without doing much for I s lam a nd the Muslims,

wh o have unlslamic personalities, garments, families,

way s of life, children's upbringing a nd education

(KhadTjah, 1992:69, 138). The M u s l i m s c h o l a r s are accused

of b e i n g in v o l v e d in b u s iness or of u s i n g t h eir religious

knowledge for worldly p u r poses (Khadijah, 1992:85).

She c o n c l u d e s that the b ad M u s l i m s c h olars 'Ulamak suk or

Ulamak dunia' made wrong decisions and false accusations

towards others and tried to interfere in the spre a d of

Islam in this c o u n t r y (Khadijah, 1992:111).

Recently in 1993, Abdul Khaliq wrote a book

'Senjata Makan Tuan' (The Weapon that k i lls its Owner)

which totally supports a l - A r q a m and is ag a i n s t those w ho

disagree with the organisation's views, stand, practices

and struggles. He claims that those who make irrational

accusations of a l - A r q a m include several I s l amic religious

authorities which impose a verdict through improper

p r o c e d u r e and w i t h o u t v a l i d evidence. However, he claims

that all these accusations, verdicts a nd slanders

 282

'fitnah' resulted in al-Arqam becoming more popular and

increased the number of its sympathizers (Abdul Khaliq,

1993:60,61 and 63).

In this book Abdul Khaliq focuses his rebuke on

the Islamic C e ntre or Islamic Affairs Division of the

Prime Minister's Department, the Federal and S t ate

r e l i g i o u s officers, ex al-Arq'am members and other M u s l i m

scholars who publicly a n n ounce t h eir disagreement with

al-Arq'am t h r o u g h o u t the country. He does not o n l y address

t he m as paid Muslim scholars 'Ulamak upahan1 (Abdul

Khaliq, 1993:67), but to a certain e x tent also e x p oses

embarrassing issues r e l ated to their family lives,

scandals, qualifications and social activities. These are

said to be a g a inst Isl’am and their identities as Muslim

s c h olars (Abdul Khaliq, 1993:68,86 and 113). All these

accusations have been made public, but jprosecution in

court has not b e e n m a d e by e i t h e r party.

Abdul K h a l iq states that Khadijah discloses the

disharmonious relationship between al-Arqam and PAS, even

though both are a i med at establishing an I s l amic state.

KhadTjah blames PAS as well as UMN O for fa i l i n g to

strive for I s l amic development. In her opinion, PAS m a d e

a mistake in t r y i n g to implement 'Hudud L a w ’ by force in

 283

Kelantan. In addition, Abdul Khaliq condemns PAS for

b e ing p o l i t i c a l l y a g a inst a l - A r q a m and for s u p p o r t i n g the

Federal Government merely b e c ause of t h eir financial and

economic interest (Abdul Khaliq, 1993 : 9 9 - 1 0 5 and 108).

3.The Status and P o s i t i o n of M u s l i m W o m e n

B o oks d i s c u s s i n g Muslim women a g ree that Islam

places women in the par a m o u n t stratum. As h u m a n beings,

they have equal status to m e n though basically t hey have

dif f e r e n t roles, responsibilities, material, spiritual

and social rights. Like m e n they h ave the right to c l aim

and to appeal, are e n t i t l e d to freedom of expression,

and to ac q u i r e education. (HussXn, 1993:9-12) In the

presence of t h eir Creator, their basic duties are the

same. Daily prayers, fasting and p i l g r i m a g e are incumbent

upon them. Men and women are a l ike in t h eir hop e of

p a r a d i s e and c e r t a i n t y of judgement.

The Al-Kur'an (Baqara:187) and HadTth state the

* f
rights men and w o m e n have as hu s b a n d s and wives. Islamic

law g r ants w o m e n the right to contract, to be i n v olved in

enterprise, to earn and p o s sess property independently,

and e ven to run their own business without their

husband's permission. Nevertheless, men have duties

 284

towards their family. A wife must be maintained by her

husband eve n if she has means of h er own. That is her

privilege. That is the reason why men get a double share

according to the Islamic law of inheritance. A w i fe's

d u ties on the o t her hand are towards her husband, her

c h i l d r e n a nd her parents.

H a d l t h al-Bukharl" states that a dutiful wife is

one w ho contributes to the success and blissfulness of

the marriage as much as possible. She is obedient and

r e s pects her husband; she avoids o f f e n d i n g h i m or h u r t i n g

his feelings, or de n y i n g h e r self to her husband, or

leaving home without his consent, or i n c u rring

expenditure he disapproves of. A good wife is faithful,

capable of making her husband happy, is a ble to protect

his property from loss or waste, and is a l ways able to

p r o tect her h o n o u r (Muhammad Ali, n.d.:648).

£
As a mother, a w o m a n has great r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for

passing on tradition and culture. Thus, in a family the

mother's role is undoubtedly the m ost i nfluencial and

significant, b e c a u s e she is the first teacher to her

children. So it is important to giv e the chidren the

right examples. As a mother she mus t understand the

physical and mental d e v e l o p m e n t s of her children, which

 285

are influenced by the fulfilment of t h eir b a sic needs

such as food, cl o t h i n g and others (33).

Teaching the ch i l d r e n r e l igion is considered as

one of the most important aspects of a Muslim family

life. This is p r i m a r i l y the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of parents. To

enable the children to have good moral and religious

upbringing, a mother has to furnish herself with good

conduct and w i d e Isrsmic k n o w l e d g e (Sfti" Zulaikhah, 1981:

1,14). She must p r a c t i s e good b e h a v i o u r as an example

for the c h i l d r e n to follow. It is a g a i n s t the Islamic

system of education for parents to surrender their

c hil d r e n ' s upbringing to an improper nursery or

k i n d e r g a r t e n or to a b a b y sitter.

A w o m a n too has the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to love and to

be kin d to her parents. Nevertheless, her responsibility

as a w o m e n (34) also involves giving more attention and

care to her own morality, behaviour and dress. She must

always be aware that her b e a u t y and a p p e a r a n c e are s o lely

for her husband. Thus a woman is a s s e r t e d to be more

strictly b o u n d by Islamic law than a man, p a r t i c u l a r l y in

respect of d r e s s . (35)* Islam forbids the male adult to

look at an y parts of the body of a woman who is

'stranger' to him, except her face and palms. Women are

 286

given due respect. Eve n the servants and m i n o r s or pre­

ado l e s c e n t children are prohibited from entering t h eir

mistress's or mother's bedroom during three rest-times;

early morning prayer, midday and after midnight prayer.

In Islam a m a n and w o m a n to w h o m m a r r i a g e is p r o h i b i t e d

'mahram1 are not al l o w e d to be together without the

presence of a n o ther person who is a 'mahram' (Muhammad

AlT, n.d.:661). In fact, the y are not eve n permitted

to shake hands for what ever reasons or purposes. Women

are e n c o u r a g e d to p r a cti se the d evotional services at

home rather than in the mosque. Adult m a les who are

not a 'mahram' or e ven women are not permitted to

e n ter the h o use w i t h o u t its owner's permission. The aims

of the regu l a t i o n s of I s lam were not d e s i g n e d to restrict

the l i b erty of women, but to minimise the possibility of

illicit sexual relations and to p r o tect them from harm

and molestation, the v a l u e w h i c h M u s l i m s o c i e t y t r e a sures

and seeks to maintain. H i g h among these v a l u e s are honour

and g ood faith, pre-marital chastity and fidelity in

marriage. A woman may enter Paradise more easily than a

ma n on the condition that she fulfils her duty to Allah

and to her husband, otherwise she will be punished in

the life Hereafter.

 287

During the pre Islamic period, women in society

wer e considered to be insig n i f i c a n t and unproductive.

I s lam has g i ven w o m e n a b e tter position. T h e y h ave their

rights and roles as members of society. W o m e n had p l ayed

an important part in s o c i e t y since the e a r l y days of the

Pr o phet's mission. When seeking their present role in

society, and as a g u ide to achieving success in e v ery

field of life, the Prophet Muhammad's wives and many

o t her o u t s t a n d i n g w o m e n who p l a y e d a part in Islamic life

and civilization hav e become ex a m p l e s for Muslim women

to day (Akmal, 1988; Nurul Basri, 1990; Ibnu Yakin, 1992).

In Malaysia, the position of women has improved

since independence particularly in terms of greater

opportunities in education and employment. Women are

graduating from many universities and colleges, b oth at

home and abroad, and the numb e r of women entering the

labour market has increased. T h ere is a growing body of

s k i lled professional women: doctors, nurses, lawyers,

teachers, arc h i t e c t s and engineers. Due the fact that

e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t s t r a t e g i e s of the c o u n t r y emphasise

industrialisation, particularly in the s e r vice and

m a n u f a c t u r i n g industries, m o r e and m o r e w o m e n are b e ing

employed. Pr o b l e m s arise, however, because most women

 288

working in the formal sector find that their double d uty

of w o r k i n g in the 'office' and at home makes t h e m unable

to cope with the m a n a g e m e n t of the hom e a nd b r i n g i n g up

of the c h i l d r e n (Ng and Yong, 1990:12).

Muslim women in M a l a y s i a t o d a y face the d i l e m m a of

what should be 'women's correct role in society. They

seem to be a s ked to p lay several roles e i t h e r at the same

time, or at different periods of their lives. The

go v e r n m e n t requires their contribution to the economy,

and the y are provided with relatively vast

educational opportunities. Thus, they have become more

assertive and i n d e pendent as they take on mor e

responsibilities in their jobs (Ng and Yong, 1990:11).

Conservative religious r evivalists say that t h eir place

is at home, which is led by the male head of household,

since the y are primarily wives and mothers. If w o m e n are

to participate in the public arena at all, they should

always be s u b o r d i n a t e to men. Thus, tensions a r ise among

Muslim women as they try to give maximum service to the

community without disrupting the pattern of family life,

without losing prized traditions and identity, and

wi t h o u t eroding the i mportance of motherhood or of

loyalty to Islam.
 289

When the United Na t i o n s Organisation declared

The Inter n a t i o n a l Women's Year in 1975, women's groups

s t a rted to campaign on the issue of women's liberty and

h u man rights, demanding concessions from within the

existing system (Rohana", 1986:235). Likewise, urban

Muslim women in Malaysia focused on similar views in

their campaign. Though they were s u c c essful in o b t a i n i n g

some of their demands they claimed that women

participating in public life are still not treated on a

par with men. At work, women are subjected to

discrimination in the areas of training and promotion.

Very few w o m e n are given key decision making positions

in politics, government, the private sector or trade

organisations (Ng and Yong, 1990: 7-9).

On the role of Muslim women, particularly as

leaders in s o c i e t y and the e x t e n s i o n of t h eir i n v o l vement

permitted by Islam, Siti Zalikhah in her book 'K e d u d u k a n

dan Peranan Wanita Islam' (The Position a nd Role of

M u s l i m Women) shares a similar o p i n i o n w i t h H u s s X n in his

book 'Panggilan W a n i t a ke S y u r g a ' published in 1983. She

h o lds the view that the position of women is

complementary to men's, even though the latter is the

p r o t e c t o r to the former. According to her, Allah has

 290

given men the strength which women do not possess which

ma kes men more ca p a b l e of enduring greater hardships and

faci n g g r e a t e r d a n g e r t han w o m e n (A l - N i s H 1":34) . Women, on

the other hand, have been endowed with the qualities of

love and affection suit e d to their duty of bringing up

children. However though Islam sets some rules and

limitations for women, it does not m e a n t hey are e x c l u d e d

from other k i nds of activities. In t h eir submission to

A l l a h w o m e n can p a r t i c i p a t e just like m e n in 'Aid P r a y e r ’

and are permitted to attend the sermon provided they are

d e c e n t l y dressed, covering their 'a u r a t '. Moreover, they

are allowed to participate in 1d a 1w a ' I s l a m as far as

their capability and a b i l i t y permit it.

Though the husband is the k i n g wh o supervises and

controls household affairs, the w i f e is the q u een and a

husband is som e t i m e s considered a guest of his wife.

However, it is the hus b a n d ' s responsibility to pr o v i d e

shelter, clothing, food, health care and assistance if

necessary, for his wife. Furthermore, if a hu s b a n d

practises polygamy, he must be just to his w i ves and

treat t h e m equally, in a loving manner.

The author stresses that the o b j e c t i v e of learning

among m e n and w o m e n is similar but the su b j e c t s they

 291

st udy should correspond to their responsibility. To

educate is a vital task, especially for a mother who is

responsible for the u p b r i n g i n g of her chidren. The author

admits that it is important for w o m e n to be educated and

knowledgeable in order to pr o v i d e sufficent qualified

teachers to t e a c h the y o u n g generation, and m e d ical staff

to give medical treatment, particularly to M u s l i m women.

She also states that the a b i l i t y of w o m e n is limited w h e n

compared to that of men, in m a n a g i n g po l i t i c a l and state

government affairs. Nevertheless, women s h ould have

'political c o n c i o u s n e s s ' to e n able them to contribute

views to the government in p o wer when enacting and

enforcing laws. Nevertheless, one mus t realise that the

protection given by men to women is a responsibility

rather tha n a d i s c r i m i n a t i o n against women, as is c l a imed

by w o m e n ' s l i b e r a t i o n organisations.

To further clarify the above, Siti Z a l i khah gives

a detailed explanation of the definition of leadership,

its duties, and the physical and spiritual guidance a

leader has to provide for his followers. She c r i t icises

those who condemn Islam and its system on polygamy as

unjust, bride's guardianship in a marriage and the

d i s t r i b u t i o n of w e a l t h among w o m e n i n h e ritors as a form

 292

of d i c r i m i n a t i o n against women.

She criticises the concept of ’development*,

which encourages women to work, as it leads to various

pr o b l e m s such as abortion and baby care. The author

feels it is s u f f icient for women to become a 'self-

leader* and a 1f a m i l y - l e a d e r 1 w h i c h is an o b l i g a t o r y d u t y

*f ard a*in' rather than a 'society's leader* which in

Islam is a collective du t y 'fard kifayah' (36). Whe n a

woman concentrates on the latter it means she leaves her

primary duties to others. Nevertheless, the auth o r admits

that it was proven from Isl"amic history that women too

possessed the b a sic l e a d ership criteria, and had

succesfully assisted male leaders to g o v e r n the country,

to u n i f y the p e o p l e and to achieve material and spiritual

d e v e l o p m e n t eve n in a m u l t i - r a c i a l state.

Faisal in his book 'Kedudukan dan Peranan Wanita

%
Dalam IslSm1 (The Position and Role of Women in Islam)

agrees that w o m e n ' s status is equal to that of men. There

is nothing in the true tradition of Isl'am to hold women

back. Certain old att i t u d e s and prejudices which limited

the act i v i t i e s of women and their freedom of expression

must change. He quotes the A l - K u r ' a n ( A l - I m r a n : 195) w h i c h

says that e v e r y m a n and w o m a n must s e a r c h for knowledge,

 293

and also tells them to engage in hone s t work. He claims

that Muslims a nd M u s l i m scholars who deny the rights and

freedom of women, who confine t h eir role to the

management of c h i l d r e n and the homes and w h o a c cuse w o m e n

of being the cause of all evil, deny their status and

position in Islam. His ideas clearly violate the fatwas

and c e r t a i n 1m a d h h a b 1(see Faisal, 1993:28,68) s uch as the

9
S h a f i 1i school of law. He blames a u t h e n t i c or t h o d o x and

distinguished Islamic scholars such as H a s s a n Al-Banna,

Ismail RajT FaruqTT Abu al-'Ala" Al-Maududi", Y u suf Al-

QardawT, Hassan Al-TurabT, Muhammad Rashid Rida", S a ’T d

Haw a a nd Mahmud Shaltut, several Islamic schools

of law a nd o t her Muslim wr i t e r s and Islamic Movement

groups (Faisal, 1993:30,69) in his argument to sho w that

certain Muslims are against women's freedom. To him,

Muslim women must participate in every aspect of life,

economics, society, politics and education in line with

modern development and current thinking around the w o r l d

(Faisal, 1993:114).
r.

To Faisal Islam is a simp l e religion (Faisal,

«t •

1993:93) which respects and con s i d e r s public interest

and welfare. I s lam is natural, moderate a nd emphasises

n e c e s s i t y and equality.
 294

4. M a r r i a g e and F a m i l y Law

Marriage and fami l y affairs are considered to be

the eternal issues among M u s l i m s in this country, and the

g o v e r n m e n t h as used legal procedures to o v e r c o m e pro b l e m s

that have a r isen since 1880 when the first 'Mohammedan

Marriage Ordinance1 w as promulgated in the Malacca

Straits Settlement (37). Later, similar ordinances were

enforced in o t her states throughout Malaya. According to

the ordinance, all M u s l i m marriages and d i v o r c e s must be

registered. Those who commit an offence under this law

can be prosecuted, fined or jailed. It is o b vious that

the law i m p l e m e n t e d is not to d i s c o u r a g e m a r r i a g e but to

ensure that the sacred covenant is taken as a serious

p e r m a n e n t bond.

Islam co n s i d e r s marriage a commitment and is

against those who break their marriages without c o n crete

r easons permitted by Shari"1a . Unfortunately the

percentage of divorce am ong Muslims remains high due to

their lack of knowledge of Islamic marriage law (38).

Malaysian women c o n t i n u e to protest against irresponsible

h u s b a n d s w h o commit d o m e s t i c violence, an d wh o fail to

provide lodgings, clothing, food, general care and well

 295

being, and the protection desired by members of the

family.

Though Islamic law permits polygamy it does not

encourage it (A l - N i s a 1":3) . Nevertheless, because the

number of unmarried women has increased r e c e n t l y (39),

married Muslim women feel insecure for this situation

encourages men to practise polygamy, a nd in practice it

is shown that p e r fect equality of treatment on the part

of the husband w ho pr a c t i s e s polygamy is impossible to

achieve.

T h ere are m a n y o t h e r issues r e l a t e d to m a r r i a g e of

which the Muslims w ant a clear u n d e r s t a n d i n g (40) . For

example t h ese issues involve: marriage to 'kitabi

women',legal Islamic guardian 'wall1 , the power of

'wali', types of 'wali', unjust 'wali' (wali fasiq) and

witnesses, the power of the Kin g 'Sultan' to marry a

#

woman through 'wali tahkim1 or 'wali hakim', matching

• s
'kufu1 , d o w r y 'mahar', accusing a wife of adultery

'li'an', three divorces, meanings of divorces 'Cerai

T a l a k 1, c l e a r and unclear w o rds when pronouncing di v o r c e

's o reh and kinayah', 'Talak Ta'liq'(41), 'khul''(42),

• 6 --
'faskh'(43), ’ila'(44), 'kifarat il"a', 'zihar', 'kifarat
 296

zihar', 1r u j u 1 ' and types of 'iddah'(45).

*

Pr o b l e m s also arise concerning the legality of

marriage in cases where Muslim c o u ples performed their

marriage contract 'majlis al-'aqd' in the Southern part

of Thailand, or o t her states in Malaysia, without the

permission of the bride's guardian ' w a l i 1, and the

marriage was performed without the procedures and laws

considered p r o p e r e l s e w h e r e (46) . I l l e g i t i m a t e pregnancy,

b e ing disowned by parents, avoiding legal actions, and

the d i s a p p r o v a l of close relatives and neighbours, forced

some c o u ples to resort getting married in S o u thern

Thailand. The K e d a h Legal Committee Members ha d issued a

fatwa" declaring that marriage solemnized by unjust

guardianship 'walT fasiq' is p e r m i s s i b l e on the gr o u n d s

that a just guardianship is rare l y found in p r e sent

Muslim society (Ahmad TajuddTn, 1981:26).

Books on marriage and family law written by

many s c h olars aim to educate Muslims, particularly the

brides and bridegrooms to be and married couples. These

books teach about the Islamic marriage system, and state

that m a r r i a g e is a religious duty, a moral s a f e g u a r d and

a social commitment, w i t h the hope that cases of illegal

m a r r i a g e s and a d u l t e r y m i ght decrease. Education leading

 297

to the realization that mutual understanding and

ful f i l m e n t of couples' responsibilities and obligations

contribute to the success and blissfulness of the

marriage is hoped to hel p reduce the divorce rate and

cases of 1nusjjuz1 , the rising of the wife against her

husband or her revolt which includes resisting the

husband, and h a t i n g and d e s e r t i n g him.

Thus most b o oks on marriage a nd fami l y law

di s c u s s issues related to the m a r r i a g e c o n tract 'nik'cih’,

divorce, reconciliation 1ruju"’'1 and 'iddah' according to

the Shafi',*i school of law (Ahmad

# Tajuddin, 1981). In

addition topi c s that give gu i d a n c e towards building a

prosperous and happy fami l y are covered. For example,

reasons and ways to overcome family crisis, spiritual

improvements in s e c u r i n g family happiness, the l imitation

of social freedom among Muslim women, on 'a u r a t 1, the

parts of of the bod y that must always be concealed,

e x cept in front of spouses (for a m a n f r o m his navel down

to just below his knee and for a woman her whole body

except for her face, hands and her voice (Wilayah

Persekutuan Islamic R e l i g i o u s Department, 1983), the role

of h u s b a n d and wife, the d a n g e r of sexual p r o m i s c u i t y and

ethics d u r i n g an intimate r e l a t i o n s h i p (Md Hashim, 1986).

 298

Issues are som e t i m e s discussed such as entertaining

guests with dancing and singing at a wedding ceremony,

'mut'ah' marriage, temporary marriage for men who are

away from home for extensive period of time, desertion,

partner swapping, the rights of looking after the

c h i l d r e n after d i v o r c e and m i s c a r r i a g e s (Said, 1984).

Other issues that interest writers include

w o m e n ’s rights on shared property ’h a r t a sepencarian',

the lack of uniformity of a c tion and decision among

S h a r T ’ah cour t s in the states, the failure of the

government to a p p l y ’h u k u m h u d u d ', the l e g a l i t y of forced

f »
marriage 'kahwin paksa', the validity and invalidity of

marriage with or without a guardian's c o nsent (Mohd

A k h i r a n d sTti* Zalikhah, 1989).

Md Hashim in his book ' Kebahagian Rumahtangga

Muslim' (The B l iss of the M u s l i m Household) p u b l i s h e d in

1986, pointed out the issue of unmarried c o u ples living

together or being together in an is o l a t e d place

'khalwat'. Lately this practise of sharing an intimate

relationship before marriage has become widespread among

y o u n g Muslims, p a r t i c u l a r l y in u r b a n areas, though it is

still considered by many to be disgraceful. Islam

p r o h i b i t s t h ese acts of b e i n g t o g e t h e r an d c o n s i d e r s them

 299

to be s i n f u l .

An extremely high d o wry 'm a h r 1, a gift g i ven to

the bride at the time of contracting the marriage, is

often one of the excuses g i ven by the couple for not

marrying. Though s e t t l i n g of the d o w r y is obligatory, the

amount of dowry required in Islam should be according to

the means of the husband. T he lowest amount mentioned in

H a d i t h Bukhara" is a ring of iron, and a m a n w h o c o uld not

even procure that is to teach the Holy Al-Kur'an to his

ft
wife as practised by the al-Arqam members. In Malaysia,

the dowry is determined by both the bride's and the

b r i d e g r o o m ' s parents. In Islam it is p r o h i b i t e d to d e mand

an extremely high dowry which will discourage men from

getting married (Ahmad Tajudin, 1981:32). However, some

tt

Muslims ignore this, l e a ding their children to commit

adultery.

Mohd Manshur co n d e m n s unmarried Muslims and

parents who impose expensive d o w ries in his book 'Kursus

Perkahwinan & K e l u a r g a Bahagia' (A C o u r s e on M a r r i a g e and

A Happy Family) published in 1991. He lists the

disadvantages for men and women of being unmarried, and

even s u g gests that a w o m a n should m a k e the first ad v a n c e s

to a m a n if she finds h i m c o m p a t i b l e (Mohd Manshur, 1991:

 300

27) .

Marriage is also o f ten b e ing d i s c a r d e d b e c a u s e the

marriage c o n tract puts ce r t a i n responsibilities on bot h

parties. To a v oid marriage is to shirk these

r e s p o n s ibilities. Procreation of chilren is usually

avoided, defeating the purpose of the union of the mal e

and female. E a c h is free to leave e a c h o t h e r w h e n either

has had his or her satisfaction of the other. Children

m a y be left w i t h o u t a home. In Islam, one of the o b j ects

of marriage is the multiplication of the human race,

which makes c i v i l i z a t i o n possible. In m a r r i a g e m a n learns

of his obligations and responsibilities towards others.

If widely practised free love would s e rve no useful

p u r p o s e to humanity, but c o uld b r i n g c h aos in so c i e t y

and would destroy its foundation.

As more educated women enter into politics and

the Civil, Diplomatic and Legal Services, the issues of

personality and leadership arise. To the more

conservative Muslims Islamic doctrines h ave a c c orded

secondary leadership positions to women, and therefore

f i g h t i n g for equal rights onl y shows t h eir n a i v e t y about

the Is l a m i c concept of leadership. Islam has vested m en

and w o m e n w i t h l e a d e r s h i p and authority suited to the

 301

f u n ction with which he or she is entrusted, men as

maintainers of weman and women as leaders of the

h o u s e h o l d and the children.

Abu Hassan Din al-Hafiz in his boo k 'H a k ikat

9 ft • ft f

Kepemimpinan Dalam Rumahtangga' (The Principle of

Leadership in the Househol d) published in 1987, condemns

a wife wh o c o n trols her husband eve n though her

lead e r s h i p quality is claimed to be better than his. The

author mentions the responsibilities of husbands, their

qualifications, and capabilities which by nature are

above t h ose of women. To h i m a good husband will consort

w i t h his wif e in an e q u i t a b l e and k ind m a n n e r and will be

punished by Allah if he is cruel to her. Relating to

the l e a d e r s h i p of women, he s t r esses that the proper

sphere of women's l e a d ership is in the house and in the

care of the children.

With regard to se c u r i n g a happy and fulfilling

marriage the author stresses the i m p o r t a n c e of ch o o s i n g a

p e r fect candidate for a wife, w i t h p i e t y as the basis

for selecting a wife and not o n l y her beauty,

q u a lifications, money and nobility. Without an

u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the Islamic concept of leadership family

problems become a serious issue, particularly when

 302

working women persistently fight for equal rights with

their husbands, or s u r r e n d e r to life as s i n g l e women.

Mohd Akhir Hagi Yaacob and S i t F ZalTkhah Md Noo r

in t h eir book ’U n d a n g - u n d a n g Keluarga Islam' (Muslim

Family Law) published in 1989, proposed that 'siasah

syarTyAh' (S h a r i T a h - o r i e n t e d policy) should be applied

in the country. This comprises all measures that bring

the people close to well-being and move them f u r ther away

fro m corruption, even if no authority is found for them

in Devine revelation and the Sunna of the Prophet (Mohd

f

Harshim, 1991:151,271). Various provisions under this law

conform to the I s l amic or ShafJT1i' school of law, such as

the minimum marriage age for women, the c l ose g u a r dian's

' w a l T mujbir' consent in marriage, eloping or marriage

outside the village 'q a r i y a h '(47). In certain cases

offences committed under the Islamic Family Law can be

prosecuted though the marriages are valid according to

Islam.

The 'f a s a k h law' can be b e t t e r e n f o r c e d to r e place

the provision on 'conditional divorce', 'cerai taklik'.

r

The authors were optimistic that this law will help to

de c r e a s e the number of family problems like e l o pement

marriage 'k a h w i n lari', polygamy, underage marriage and

 303

do u btful marriage performed without the proper

authority's consent. Nevertheless, they claim that the

issue of elopement marriages 'kahwin lari' will remain

unsolved since t h ere is not a single provision against

marriage a m ong adultery offences, under the Muslim

Marriage Law. To avoid elopm e n t marriage o t her

interrelated causes such as the permission for marriage

without the guardian's consent, and permission for

polygamy without s ubstantial reason allowed by the

IslSrnic law ennacted by the Government must be revised.

Cases of e l o p e m e n t marriage in v o l v i n g young girls or

wi ves i n c reases because they are confident that, though

the y committed adultry and will be prosecuted in court,

the y will be able to marry later or their marriage can

be made legal.

According to gamTd Arshad the success and

blissfulness of a marriage is often related to sexual

intimacy. He has liberal views on several a s p ects of

sexual re l a t i o n s and sexual behaviour such as:

homosexuality and t r a n s e x s u a l i t y , p r e - m a r i t a l sex, sexual

deviation, psychosexual d e v e l o p m e n t and v e n e r a l diseases.

These v i ews caused some M u s l i m s who read his book 1Suami

dan I s t e r i ’ (Husband and Wife), which was published in

 304

1990, to see it as a p o r n o g r a p h i c book rather than a sex

e d u c a t i o n book.

Ibnu YtTsuf feels that sex is the main factor

in divorce. In his s ensational sex book 'P e r m a t a Yang

Hilang' (The Lost Jewels) published in 1992, a i med at

newly wed couples, he stresses the importance of

knowledge in 'Ilmu N a f k a h B’atin' (sex education). It is

important to attain a satisfactory i n t imate relationship

'jima-1, both physically and spiritually, s i nce it leads

to emo t i o n a l change, physical precision and the ab i l i t y

to control the mind. To him, these needs are equivalent

h u man needs to breathing, food and exercise. The author

admits that the el e m e n t s of ’magic', mysticism suc h as

’jampi' 'tangkal azimat' u sed in sex education 'ilmu

kelamin' are against Islam. However, his elaborate

explanation of 'ilmu senggama' ( knowledge on sexual

relations), sexual positions and some of the coitus

rules 1p e t u a ', is a g a inst the sexual c o n duct of intimate

relationships proposed by Islam (Ibnu Y u s o f ,1992:178“

190) .

S. Abdul rah p o i n t e d out in his book 'Bagaimana

Membentuk Rumahtangga B a h a g i a ’ (How To Create a Blissful

Household) p u b l i s h e d in 1991, that t h e r e are m a n y causes

 305

of d i v o r c e o t her t han sexual problems. These include lack

of trust, respect and understanding in the family

relationship (S. A b d u l l a h , 1991:3). To the auth o r the

duty and the responsibilities of husband and wife, and

the n o b l e characteristics of a husband, m ust be observed.

Also, unsuitable behaviour must be avoided by both

husband and wife in order to build a happy marriage (S.

Abdullah, 1991:114).

To explain her ideas about Islamic families,

£ i t T Z a l i k h a h M d Nor w r o t e a book 'Kaunseling P e r k a h w i n a n

Menurut Perspektif Isl*am' (Marriage Counselling From An

Islamic Perspective) published in 1992. She views the

achievement of a perfect Muslim family as being related

to the quality of the marriage candidates, management of

the household, the relationship and c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n

fami l y members. She stresses that in times of crisis

between the married coup l e counselling is the best

solution to a v oid the calamity of divorce, which is

p e r m i t t e d but d e s p i s e d by Allah.

The promulgation of the Islamic Family Law in

this c o u n t r y requires all m a r r i a g e c a n d i d a t e s to a t t e n d a

course and an interview se s s i o n run by the Islamic

r e l i gious a u t h o r i t y p r ior to marriage. This is to ensu r e

 306

that couples w ho enter matrimony know the

responsibilities re q u i r e d by Islam so that d i v o r c e cases,

which are on the increase particularly in urban areas,

can be avoided in the future. In Kuala Lumpur an d other

big towns marriage courses are being organised by

commercial institutions and fees are being charged. Many

books were written and published based on s y l l abuses

prepared by the Islamic Re l i g i o u s Depa r t m e n t s . T h ese are

v er y helpful to the brides and b r i d e g r o o m s to be, and to

people who do not have a background of formal Islamic

r e l i gious education.

Concerning polygamy, under e x c e ptional

circumstances Islam allows m a n only to p r a c t i s e polygamy.

As stated in the Holy Al-Kur'ah (A l - N i s a -1^ :3), " And if

y ou fear that y o u cannot act equitably t o w a r d s orphans,

then m a r r y such w o m e n as seem good to you, two and t h ree

and four; but if y ou fear that you will not do justice

(between them), then (marry) only one". This is the only

passage in the Al-Kur'an that speaks of polygamy and

9

here it is allowed onl y w h e n it involves orphans and it

is feared that they will not be d e alt with justly

otherwise. This condition relates more to the welfare of

s o c i e t y t han to the n e eds of the individual.

 307

However at p r e sent it is doubtful that Muslims who

practise polygamy follow the p r a c t i s e of p o l y g a m y set by

the Prophet. For unlike him, who married for the w e l f a r e

of society, Muslim mens' motives are often those of

individual satisfaction.

In his book 'Hikmah Poligami' (The Wisdom of

r
Polygamy) published in 1992, M u s t a f a ” Suhaimi c r i t icises
»* *

those w ho t u r n e d a g a inst Islam due to their disagreement

on the p r a c t i s e of polygamy. They a c c u s e Isllam of b e i n g a

religion that encourages discrimination against women

through the practise of polygamic marriage. According to

the author, Airah pe r m i t s polygamy only when many

c on d i t i o n s have bee n satisfied. For in s t a n c e the man's

finances must be sufficient, his intention must be to be

absolutely fair to eac h wife, his companionship and

provision for e ach must be shared equally. Man is al l o w e d

to p r a c t i s e p o l y g a m y for c e r t a i n special r e a sons such as

to have children if the wife is unable to bea r any, if

the w ife s u f fers from an illness that does not permit her

to h ave an imtim a t e relationship with her husband, an

excess in the number of women over men, extended

separation of husband and wife, and to a v oid sexual

promiscuity.
 308

Nu r S. Biedyn Beseri and Mohd Manshur B in Kiai

Ma s y h a d i share a similar view with M u s t a f a ” Suhaimi on

the needs of the practice of polygamy. In Nur S. Biedyn

Be s e r T ' s book ’K a h w i n Cara Arqam' (Arqam's Way of

Marriage) written in 1992, she co n d e m n s the s o c i e t y that

is against polygamy. Besides discussing the issues of

matching 'jodoh', marriage age, dating, 'kufu*', the

advantages of polygamy, she even gives strategies for m e n

who want to p r a c t i c e p o l y g a m y and to h a v e a h a p p y family.

To her the first wife's a g r e ement to 'polygamy' is a

valuable gift to her husband and proof of h er undivided

love for h i m . (48)

5.S u f i s m

The sufIsm 'Tasawwuf' embraces the spirituality

or mysticism of the re l i g i o n of Islam. It c o n cerns the

internal state of the soul and the purification of the

soul (Muhammad Abdul Haq AnsarT, 1986:31). SufTsm is a

t * o

controversial issue because there are some Muslims in

M a l a y s i a who c l a i m that S u f T s m does not originate fro m

9
Islam and therefore those who practises it are not

fo l l o w i n g the teaching of Islam. Some M u s l i m s c l a i m that

d u r i n g the times of the Prophet Muhammad, his companions

 309

practises SufTsm (Abdul F a t a h H a r o n , 1992:2).

Muslims in Malaysia nevertheless have to

acknowledge that S u f i s m p l a y e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e part in the

dissemination of I s lam and Sufis have bee n an important

el e m e n t in the Islamization of the Malays in Malaysia.

Sufism (Tasawwuf) has definately profoundly influenced

t
the moral, political and social life of the Malays, for

it was the Sufis who wer e the real propagators of I s lam

in this c o u n t r y (Al-Attas, 1967:98).

* •

The exact date of the introduction of SufTsm

am ong the M a l a y s cannot be a s c e r t a i n e d but it is b e l i e v e d

that it was introduced simultaneously with I s l a m into the

Eastern Archipelago ( A l - A t t a s , 1967:21). Islam seems to

have been introduced in its Sufi form. In Malaysia,

SufTsm is interrelated with 1T a r T k a t 1 , the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

aspects of the Sufi" doctrines, a method to p u r i f y or be

'chosen as a friend by God' (Stoddart, 1985:20).

Among the Muslims, the SufIs are highly respected

for leading and m a i n t a i n i n g the purest way of life,

dedicating t h eir w h o l e life to f u l f i l l i n g A l l a h ' s wishes,

and for o b e d i e n t l y following the right p a t h 'tarlqat'

Jr

(Sufi Order) so as to be united with Allah (Azlah

*
KhaITli, 1991: 10, 1 3 ,30,32,77,83 and 18).
 310

Formerly, the M u s l i m s b e l i e v e d that the Sufis were

bestowed 'k a r a m a h ' (49) . Recently, t h ose who claim to be

a saint or are r e g a r d e d as a saint or the d i c i p l e s of a

certain 'tariqat s u f i T~, were accused by som e Muslims

9 *

being involved in propagating false doctrine, teaching,

ideas and practices which deviate from the true Islamic

teaching. This d e s t r o y e d their r e p u t a t i o n and the M u slims

were no longer confident in t h eir teachings (A s h a a f i ,

1986:iv,ix and xiv). S o m e times it is difficult to

distinguish between a true Sufi~ and an i m p oster wh o uses

mysticism, 1jampi serapah' and ’tangkal azimat', when

practising t r a d i tional medicine methods which is clearly

polytheistic 's y i r k 1 (Ibnu Yusuf, 1992:180).

Ima m A l - G h a z a l T ’ b l a m e d the ignorant SufTs who are

incon v e r s a n t in, and unknowledgeable about the Sufi“

«

doctrine for causing the w e a k n e s s of the Muslims' faith.

Some fol l o w e r s of 'tarikat s u f T 1 b o l d l y c l a i m that he is

* e *•

true an d p u r e 'Aku al-Hak, A k u m a h a S u c i ' (Azlan K h a l T l i ,

1991:82,106 Ulumiddin, 1316H:330). F u r t h e r m o r e the SufTs,

t
in t h eir a t t empt to describe their intimacy with the

D i v i n e or to stress His all-perv a s i v e n e s s , will use

certain external ob j e c t s of the senses to signify the

abstract. This a p p eals mor e to the p s y c h o l o g i c a l feelings

 311

and emotions rather than to the rational f a c u lties of

man.

Muslims generally interpret a Su'fi'- as a person

*■
w ho loves silence, avoids i n t e rcourse with people, hates

to be inv o l v e d in worldly affairs and devotes himself

e x c l u s i v e l y to Allah. This m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Sufism is

due to the Muslims ignorance of A l - G h a z a l i 1s teachings.

The i n f l uence of Imam A l - G h a z ‘ai"i~, a well known Sufi,

among the Muslims in Malaysia is profound. His ideas

influence the field of Sufism, theology, devotion,

morality, and society. During Islamic revivalism in

Malaysia, his writings were use d by r e f ormist groups

such as ABIM, al-Arqam, TablTgh and the government

’da'wa"'r i n s t i t u t i o n s as references, and his p e r s o n a l i t i e s

copied. The g o v e r n m e n t has not p r o h i b i t e d a n y groups from

practising S u f i s m or fro m spr e a d i n g the t e a c h i n g s of Imam

A l-GhazalT3 Nevertheless there are p e r sonal criticisms of

his teachings as found in his 'Kitab' 'Ihya U l u m u d d i n ',

but to m y k n o w l e d g e no critical book has y et b e e n w r i t t e n

in Malay. One of the books on Al-Ghazali is 'Al-Ghazali

d an K o n s e p Nur' (A l - G h a z a l T and the Concept of Light)

w r i t t e n by A z l a n KhalillT, published in 1991.

D u r i n g his lifetime Al-Ghaz'ali achieved success

 312

even after he changed his lifestyle to being

unmaterialistic ' z u h u d 1. He was a sc h o l a r w ho st u d i e d

philosophy, HadTth, and did research on theology 'ilmu

a —
kalam' . He studied S u f i s m and continued studying in this

field until his death in 505 Hijrah. Al-GhazalT achieved

success not o n l y in his re s e a r c h w o rks on v a r i o u s fields

as mentioned earlier, but he also introduced a n ew

Islamic education system, a rational approach in the

ex e g e s i s of b a sic Islamic faith, clarifying the m i s t a k e s

of philosophers and theologians, renewing Islamic

th o u g h t s by making r e f e rences to the right sources as

guidance: A l - K u r ,'an and S u nna (Azlan Khaim, 1991:25-

29) .

He w as criticised by m a n y Muslim scholars s uch as

Ibn Taymiyah, Ibnu Rusyd and Ibnu Tufail, for his views
o

on SufTsm, condemnation of worldly life and direction

m ore and more towards e x t reme eschatological tendencies

which form e d a formidable setback towards economic and

social progress. Nevertheless, it can be clearly seen

from his life history that Al-Gh a z a l T did not lead the

live of a re c l u s e as is o f t e n done b y f o l l o w e r s of a S u f T

g r oup to-day. Al-GhazalT was a famous SufT* scholar, a

famous p hilosopher, a w r i t e r on Islamic jurisprudence and

law, SufTsm, s o c i e t y and morals. He was g i v e n the title

 313

'Hujjatul Islam' for his success in d e f e n d i n g Islam from

its attackers, who t r i e d to undermine the Muslims' faith

in I s lam (Sidik Baba, 1988:4-7).

r *

Different v i ews on 'tasaVTWhf' and 'tarikat' have

» » #
been presented, either to r e c ognise or reject t h e m as

part of Islamic discipline. However, the influence of the

Sufi or t a r ikat groups a m ong Muslims is significant,

» 9

particularly the practices of reciting Allah Names and

Attributes 'zikir' after their daily prayers (Slti

F a r i d a h , n .d ; 27), or during the 1k h e n d u r i 1 sessions

'tahlTl', or r e c iting ,d u ' a T (prayer) during the wedding

and death ceremonies. Neverthless some claim these

optional devotional s e r vices to be 'bid'a"7 (Hashim,

1985:173).

M a n y b o o k s have b een p u b l i s h e d to e x p l a i n the true

meaning of 'tasawwuf' and 'tarikat', to ensure that the

'J - c
Muslims practise rel i g i o u s duties that are only similar

to P r o phet Muhammad's, a model of a perfect Muslim, most

beloved by Allah, who ha s reached the highest q u a l i t y of

faith and devoutness, ne a r e s t in m i n d and h e art to Allah,

the true s t Sufi, t h e o l o g i a n and legal scholar among

Muslims. T his is b e c a u s e t o day there are Muslims who

 314

claim themselves to be S u f T s c h o l a r s , ' s y e i k h ' , 'murshid',

'walT' , who have created or invented new or extra forms

of rel i g i o u s deeds other than those proposed by the

Prophet Muhammad, as clearly mentioned in the Al-Kur'an

and S u nna and w h i c h d e v i a t e from the t e a c h i n g of Islam.

Furthermore the M u s l i m scholars collectively have

no idea on the true 'tarikats' practiced by the

* •

Companions and fail to establish the characteristics of

each. SufF scholars claim that most 1tarTkats' are the

r * *

permanant practices of commemoration and invocation of

Allah among the Companions. Even though Prophet Muhammad

*9

did not specify the ways of r e c iting 'du'a' and 'zikir'

when he commands the Muslims to be devout to All'ah, all

true tarFqats practised by the Companions are in line

»

with the Prophet's practices (Stoddart, 1985:12). In

fact, the Muslims are recommended to remember and to

recite All'ah's Names and Attributes a nd to recite the

vers e s of the Al-Kur'ah r e g a rdless of t ime a nd place,

and at the same time not to delay and to forget their

duties and shared tasks in t h eir daily life (Al-

Q a s a s :77).
* %

The M a l a y s i a n government is o b v i o u s l y in a d i l e m m a

of t a k i n g the right acti o n towards t h ose SufF groups

 315

w h i c h are c o n s i d e r e d to have not gone astray. T h e y do not

pose a d i rect t h reat to the government a nd the Muslim

society. They live a simple way of life, devoting their

life to G o d and not for any o t her purpose, living aloof

from, and u n i n t e r e s t e d in, the present economic,

p ol i t i c a l and social development which they consider to

be unlslamic. The S u f T ” groups, however, will pose a

threat in the future when many Muslims, w ho are

completely disenchanted with modernism, uninterested in

education, society, economics a nd tired of meaningless

talk about po l i t i c s (Abdul Rahman, 1992:31), us e SufT s m

as a for m of escapism. In a multi-racial country like

Malaysia, which practises a democratic pol i t i c a l system,

the n u m b e r of v o tes will d e t e r m i n e w ho will be the ruling

party. The lack of political consciousness amongst

members of the Suf T ” g r o u p might affect the future of

Muslim p o l itical p o wer in this country, and will

definately hamper the p r o gress and development planned

and p u r s u e d by the g o v e r n m e n t for the M u s l i m society.

G e n e r a l l y books on S u f f s m e x p l a i n v a r i o u s aspects

of S u f T s m s u c h as: the concept of G od 'K e t u h a n a n ' fro m

r

Ibn A r a b i ’s point of view, the different views of the

M u s l i m s c h olars on Ibn ArabT, poems fro m the book !A1-

 316

Insan Kamil Fi M a k r i f a t i l A w a k h i r Wal Awail' (The Perfect

Men In U n d e r s t a n d i n g The End and The Beginning), A l l ah's

essence 'z a t 1, A t t r i b u t e s and Names, the theory of t r uth

' h a k T k a t 1, M u h a m m a d and poems on Sufism (Abdul Majid,

» ' * j *>
1985), events of the Last Day.

Some b o oks give gu i d a n c e as how to a c h ieve

enlightenment, 'ma'rifah'. In 1981 Amin Nordin Bin Hj.

#

Abd Rahman, in his book 'Tafakkur Secara Islam' (IsTamic

M editation), calls u pon the M u s lims to communicate with

Allah through meditation ’T a f a k k u r ’ which e n dows more

rewards and knowledge, sharpens o n e ’s thoughts, helps to

solve problems and gai n happiness. This can be done

through referring to A l - K u r ’an, S u nna and the pra c t i c e s

of the Companions. A Muslim must have wide Islamic

knowledge, particularly in ’T h e o l o g y ’, to be able to

practice meditation with full r e s p o n sibility. Onl y by

o b s e r v i n g A l l a h ’s cr e a t u r e s can one r e a lise AllcEfT’s great

p o wer and u n d e r s t a n d the real aim of the c r e a t i o n of man.

To purify o n e ’s soul, besides setting o n e ’s

beliefs right, evil habits have to be discarded, big sins

a v o i d e d and small sins a b s t a i n e d from. Abd. R a s h i d Md D in

el Taibey in his book ’Definasi Umpat1 (The Definition

of Slander) p u b l i s h e d in 1984, w a rns the M u s l i m s of the

 317

d a n g e r of s l a nder a m ong Muslims. He notes that the

majority of the Mu s l i m s today are fond of slander, even

though they know its consequences on t h e i r good deeds in

the life Hereafter and the punishment reserved for them

by Allah.

YazTd Jaafar calls u pon the Muslims to purify

their faith in his book 'Mengingati Mati' (Remembering

Death) p u b l i s h e d in 1986. According to him, by

r e m e m b e r i n g and u n d e r s t a n d i n g d e a t h one is e n c o u r a g e d to

be optimistic, and to occupy o n e's life-time with

devotion to Allah. This involves practising good

behaviour, evading evil, r e c iting Al-Kur'ah, praying and

participating in the H o l y War to defend Islam, 'Jihad F T

Sabllillah', especially when the reward is Paradise and

the d i s a s t e r o u s p e n a l t y is Hell.

The book 'Antara Kemurahan Allah dan Kesyukuran

Hamba' (Between Allah's Grace and the S e r vant's

Th a n k fulness) written by Haji Mohd ShahTd Bin T a lib in

* * — *
1988, reminds the Muslims to be thankful to Allah for

His uncountable blessings (50). AshgarT" Muhammad who

re c e n t l y b e c a m e popular among Muslims for actively

leading al-Arqam, now an illegal organisation (51),

published 'AuraB al-Muhammadfah Pegangan Darul Arqam'

7
 318

(Aurad a 1- M u h a m m a d i“ah Darul Ar q a m ' s Guide) in 1986.

This book was discussed earlier and in the same

atmosphere. AshaarT claims that all Muslims have to

follow 't a r i k a t ' as a systematic way to dicipline their

« *

m e m o r i e s to remem b e r Allah.

In 1987, Abdul Majid Hj. Khatib produced his

j — ^
philosophical book 'B e b e r a p a Pendapat Syah Waliyull"ah'

(Some of Sya h W a l T y u l l a h 's Views) where he discusses the

v i ews of the great philosopher and well-known Suf T -

«

scholar, Syah Waliyullah, on the Creator and His

creation, Islamic Law 'H u k u m S y a r a 'i 1 and its secrets,

life a f ter d e a t h and the m e a n i n g s of every Arabic letter.

Nevertheless, the author w a rns that this b ook can o nly

be u n d e r s t o o d by a reader w ho p o s s e s s e s w i s d o m 'hikmah'.

6. Islamic A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and Rule

Malaysia is a multi racial and multi religious

country, where Islam is the Federal R e l i g i o n (52) and the

Muslims constitute about 52.9 p e r cent of the total

population (53). Political p o wer is dominantly in the

h a nds of the Muslims and it is crucial to the Muslims

that t h e y c o n t i n u o u s l y reta i n this pol i t i c a l power, since

the e c o n o m y of the c o u n t r y is in the h a nds of the non

 319

Muslims (Ozay, 1990:150). In higher education the number

of non-Muslims far out-numbers the Muslims.

U n fortunately, the Muslims themselves are disunited due

to their differences in concepts and ideologies; the y

are either ardent sup p o r t e r s of nationalism or the

zealous d e f e n d e r s of Islam.

Before Independence, a majority of the Muslim

s c h olars were supporters of Pan Islamic Party (PAS) w h ile

othe r s backed the United Malay Nat i o n a l Organisation

(UMNO). Today, UMNO leads the o t her component parties

that constitute the National Front 'Barisan N a s i o n a l 1 to

govern the country according to the democratic system.

PAS is a great Muslim opposition party in Malaysia and

currently g o v erns only Kelantan state. The political

party which wins the majority vote in the general

election, irrespective of r e l igion and race, will gove r n

the country. Customarily, UMNO candidates who contest a

seat under the 'Barisan Nasional' party banner are

assured to gain full support fro m members of the

different com p o n e n t p a r ties and easily beat PAS,

particularly in u r b a n constituencies, unless the m a j o r i t y

of the v o t e r s are Muslims. In the future, unless the

p r e sent government loses its support from the non-

Muslims, it is u n l i k e l y that PAS will be able to govern

 320

the c o u n t r y e x cept of course if all M u s l i m s v o t e PAS.

The government policy of Islamization introduced

in 1984 was an attempt to combat the pressure f rom the

'da'wa7 g r oups and organisations that demanded ’m o r e

I s l a m 1 in the country, and also attempted to combat the

Islamic Party, PAS, which seemed to be 'more Islamic'

(HussTn, 1993:34) and began to gain more support. The

O

inculcation of Islamic v a lues in government (Hussin,

1993:30) does not m e a n that the c o u n t r y has b e e n d e c l a r e d

to be b e c o m i n g an Islamic State (Anwar, 1986:6-7).

However, in 1992 w h e n the State of K e l a n t a n decided to

i ntroduce the 'HuducT law, the government in response to

the d e c i s i o n d e c l a r e d its intention and w as even prepared

to implement the ’Shari^’a' law, albeit in s t ages (HussTn,

■— ■ -j

1993:35). Although the g o v e r n m e n t has a c t u a l l y s t e p p e d up

many Islamic-related programmes in the economy,

education, and foreign policy, including 1S h a r p a ’ court

to outflank PAS and to w i n the M u s l i m vote, the p r e s s u r e

from the ’d a ’wa"7 g r oups for an Islamic S t ate which

i mplements Islamic law as r e v ealed in the Al-Kur'an and

e x p l a i n e d in H« a d i t —
h continues.

On Muslim politics, the administration and

government issues d i s c u s s e d by the M u s l i m w r i t e r s revolve

 321

mainly a r o u n d the two m a i n political parties, UMN O and

PAS, the issue of Islamization from b o t h parties' points

of view, and the Muslims unity. Both claim that their

p a r ties are more Is ramie than the other and that e v ery

Muslim must support them if Islam is to govern the

country. UMNO claims itself to be the world's biggest

Islamic political party (Rosnah, 1985:176), even thou g h

recently non-Muslims too w ere a d m i t t e d as m e m b e r s and can

be e l e c t e d as leaders(54).

At p r e sent there is not a single acceptable fatwa

on this claim that each party is more Is l a m i c than the

other. Also t h ere is no acceptable fatwa" on other

p o l i tical issues suc h as: p o l itics as part an d parcel of

Islam, j o i ning a n o n - I s l a m i c p a r t y to g o v e r n the country,

voting for non-Muslim candidates as leaders of the

Muslims, bribery in politics, the issue of two 'Imam' or

performing two F r i d a y pr a y e r s in the same mosque, and the

interference of a p o l itical party in rel i g i o u s affairs.

T h ese issues have caused much confusion and disunity

among the Muslims. Exceptions are the issue of accusing

o t her Muslims as an u n b e l i e v e r ' T a k f i r 1, and declaring a

M u s l i m has d i e d as a 'm a r t y r '(55).

As a r e s u l t , t h e M u s l i m s co n t i n u e to be p o l i t i c a l l y
 322

divided into two m a i n groups; as s u p p o r t e r s of the ruling

party which claims that Malaysia or the Malaysian

government is totally Islamic and is among the best

Muslim cou n t r i e s in its a d m inistration, economy,

education and social welfare (56) or as supporters of the

I slamic opposition party which refutes this claim. The

opposition asserts its view that eve n though Malaysia

im p l ements the infusion of an Islamic values programmes

'Penerapan nilai-nilai Islam' its constitution and laws

are nevertheless basically unlslamic s i nce these

constitution and laws are promulgated from the British

democratic parliamentary system and the English Common

and Equity Law respectively, even I s lamic Law, cannot be

p r a c t i s e d if t h e y c o n t r a d i c t the p r o v i s i o n s in place.

Dr. Mahathir has remin d e d the M u s l i m s of the

im p o rtance of UMNO in uniting the 'Malays' (Mah^thiV,

1976:134-135). Only unified Muslims can be successful in

various fields suc h as politics, the economy and

education (Mahathir, 1976:116-117).

A supporter of PAS, AmaluddTn Darus, (1979)

re j ected his view and claims that the Muslims'

retrogression is due to Independence. He q u o t e s a phra s e

'kemerdekaan Pak Kaduk, m e n a n g sorak kampong tergadai'

 323

(the independence of Pak Kaduk, he wins the cheers but

pawns his village). He argues that the 'Malays' lost

their po l i t i c a l and e c o n o m i c power to the n o n - M u s l i m s as

a result of Independence (Amaluddin, 1979:175).

Amaluddin f o c ussed on the n a i v e t y of an ano n y m o u s

UMNO leader and Islamic s c h olar who argued that the

establishment of an Islamic State and the implementation

of Islamic law will decrease the number of Muslims as

m a n y will face the death sentence for their criminal

offences if the Islamic criminal law 'H u k u m H u d u d ' is

ca r r i e d out. T he non-Muslims will rebel against the

Muslim government for impos i n g Islamic law on them. He

eve n clai m s that the word U MNO is mentioned in the Al-

Kur'ah when Allah says 'Aamariuu1 w h i c h implies UMNO, in

an example where Al-Kur'ahic verses, or religion in

general, is b e i n g m a n i p u l a t e d for pol i t i c a l end.

Without mentioning the date, the author states

that even a Chief of the Sy a r T ' a Court's Magistrate

'K a d F Besar' was involved in a campaign supporting UMNO

ft
w h e n he c l a i m e d that A l l a h will not g ive PAS the p o w e r to

govern the country, since the p a rty detests peace. O t her

UMNO leaders a c c u s e PAS of u s i n g r e l i g i o n an d sacrificing

the M u s l i m s to g a i n power. Another UMNO l e ader advises

 324

the Muslims to separate God's law from the State's law.

To UMNO, PAS is an extremist party which g i ves false

s t a t e m e n t s and causes M u s l i m s to d e v i a t e s f r o m the truth.

Amaluddin defended PAS's struggle as perfectly

true, and 'truth' is more important to him than unity

(Amaluddin, 1979:52). He claims that a Muslim w ho is

clearly against Islcfmic law can easily become a follower

of Communism (Amaluddin, 1979:64). He condemns UMNO for

practicing a system which is undemocractic during their

cam p a i g n s in several by-elections 'pilihanraya kecil'

such as illegally hiding the voters' identity cards to

prevent t h e m fro m v o t i n g on p o l l i n g day, or i n f l u e n c i n g

the voters by bribing them with material gifts, and

misusing government facilities and the mass media. He

says that UMNO can continuously govern the c o u ntry

t h r o u g h t h eir 'pragmatic ideology' f o l l o w i n g the Jews and

this is against the wishes of Prophet Muhammad

9

(Amaluddin, 1979:186).

However, UMNO leaders who reject t he Islamic way

of life a c c o r d i n g to A m c & u d d i n cannot be b l a m e d for their

i g n orance b e c a u s e they lack proper I s l amic knowledge

(Amaluddin, 1979:102). He dis a g r e e s with PAS's decision

to join 'Barisan N a s i o n a l ' since he d o u b t s the ab i l i t y

 325

of this c o o p e r a t i o n to solve racial problems. Amaluddin

co n c l u d e s that I s lam or a proper I s lamic State based on

the sovereignty of the bel i e v e r s is the only way to

govern a multi-racial country (Amaluddin, 1979:176).

A m X r H. B a h a r u d d i n in his book ’M e n j e l a n g 1990

Agenda Belum Selesai 1 (On the Eve of 1990 An Inc o m p l e t e

Agenda) published in 1983, views the unity among UMN O

members as p oor compared with the i n c rease of PAS

influence though solidarity among both party members

are s t r o n g (Amir, 1983:68,72).

Abdullah Tahir condemns those who cri t i c i s e

*■

government programmes on Islamization. In his book ’O r a n g

Melayu Dengan Cabaran Masakini' (The Malays and the

P r e sent C hallenges) published in 1984 (Abdullah,

1984:35), he claims that the modern concept of

nationalism com p l i e s with Islam and is relatively

different from the trad i t i o n a l concept. To him the true

concept of nationalism is relevent to the aspirations of

the people and positively strengthens t h eir aim of

In d e p e n d e n c e (Abdullah 1984:12-15).

Ra mil Awang, on the other hand, in his book

'Kedurjanaan Nasionalisma1 (The Evil of N a t i onalism)

p u b l i s h e d in 1985, a s s e r t e d that n a t i o n a l i s m c o r r e s p o n d s
 326

with fanaticism ''asabiah', a colonial h e r i t a g e w h i c h is

*
against Islam.

Bachtiar DjamTly*, in his book 'K e n a p a PAS boleh

jadi PAS' (How PAS comes to be PAS), r e v eals that P A S ’s

aim is to build a society and a government which

i m p l ement Islamic values and laws in politics, economics,

s o c i e t y and education (Bachtiar, 1976:21), a nd use s Islam

as its p o l i tical ideol o g y (Bachtiar, 1976:59).

To reply to t h e s e political views which insisted

on their Islamic credentials, several books wer e

published. The Malaysian goverment issu e d several

bo o k l e t s between 1977 and 1985 w h i c h e m p h a t i c a l l y stated

the government policy to p r a c t i c e I s lam a nd claimed that

Islam permits the appointment of non-Muslims as

ministers, g o v e r n m e n t e x e c u t i v e co m m i t e e members, me m b e r s

of parliament and state assemblies, representatives in

g o v e r n m e n t b o dies and g o v e r n m e n t officers.

The following year (1977) S u b k T LatTf w r o t e a book

’S i a p a Ganti Asri' (Who R e p laces A s r i)(57) where he

exposed a conflict in the PAS organisation. At the time

PAS w as faced with critical internal problems,

particularly the crisis among its leaders. Rel a t i o n s

b e t w e e n the K e l a n t a n State gov e r n m e n t (under PAS) and PAS

 327

head office were poor since the Kelantan Menteri Besar

seem e d to respect the M a l a y s i a n P r ime M i n i s t e r (and U M N O

President) more tha n the PAS Pre s i d e n t himself. His

ap p o i n t m e n t as Menteri Besar had bee n supported by the

Pr ime Minister rather t han by his own party leader. The

PAS p a r t y leader's or p r e s i d e n t ' s failure to free the PAS

image from his family interests consequently led PAS to

be known as 'Parti Asri Sekeluarga’ (Asri's fami l y

• *

party). In conclusion the author suggested that PAS

should c h oose a n other leader to replace its current

president in order to s t r e n g t h e n PAS in the future.

Ariff Budiman T a hir in 1978, discusses the PAS

Kelantan government issue in his book 'Politik Darurat'

( Emergency Politics) where he exposes the Malaysian

Government or U M N O tactic s to eradicate PAS and pr a c t i s e

d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a inst K e l a n t a n State, w h i c h is o b v i o u s l y

unlslamic and against the democratic system (Mustafa,

t•
1993:119)^

A book 'PAS Gagal Membentuk Negara Islam' (PAS

F a ilure to F o r m an Islamic State) written by Mokhtar

Petah(58) blam e s the Federal government under Barisan

N a t ional for the turmoil in Kelantan, and claims that

d e m o c r a c y in K e l a n t a n state is dead. Concomitant with

 328

this, a top PAS leader resigned from PAS and l a t e r joined

BERJASA w h ich affected t he moral image of t he PAS's

president. The author feels these even t s were a tragedy

for Muslim politics in Malaysia. Past political

ex p e riences had shown that due to the lack of u n i t y among'

their leaders, the M u s l i m s in this country had failed to

form an Islamic state s i nce the Sultanate Malacca.

m
In several of its campaigns PAS, wit h ref e r e n c e

to Al~Kur'anic verses, ac c u s e s the Muslims who neglect

and reject th e implementation of Islamic law of being

infidels 'k"af i r ', sinners 'fasiq' or tyrants 1zal i m '( 59 ) .

o
H o w e ver,its effort in fighting for an Islamic state are

c h a l lenged more by its Muslims brothers (UMNO) than by

the non-Muslims. B a s e d on other A l - K u r ' a n i c verses, Hadi

in his book ' Hizbullah dan Hizbu al-Syaitan’ (The P a rty

of Allah and the P a rty of the Devil) published in 1984

states that to form an Islamic state, the leader

1K ha 1*1 f a h 1 m u s t be pious Muslim 'Mukmin' (Abdul Hadi,

1984:7-8). In his introduction, he quotes a verse from

the Al-Kur'an which reminds the M u s lims to vote o nly

for Muslim candidates as their leaders (Abdul

H a d i ,1984:1-2). In the M a l a y s i a n context, it m e a n s that

all members of the parliament and state assembly,

re p r e s e n t a t i v e s in the government bodies, e ven the heads

of the g o v e r n m e n t ’s d e p a r t m e n t s or at m i n i s t r y level must

be Muslim unless all v o ters and the staff are non-

Muslims. This v i e w has been one of the r e a sons for PAS

members to reject UMNO, which gives b i l a teral support to

o t her non-Islamic com p o n e n t p a r ties and th e non-Muslim

c a n d i d a t e s for the above posts.

Nakhaie Haii Ahmad, w hen aiscussina the issue

of the Islamic state and ’siasah s y a r i ^ v a h ’ in his book

’P e n g h a y a t a n Politik Islam Dalam Pemerentahan* (The

Inculcation of Islamic Po l i t i c s in G overnment) published

in 1987. co n d e m n s the Mu s l i m s w ho a g ree with the

g o v e r n m e n t v i e w s w h i c h he c o n s iders to be o b v i o u s l y w r o n g

and disputable (Nakhaei. 1987:8-9). An Islamic state

gives px'iority to a just government and makes d e c i sions

based on the p r i n c i p l e s of 1s y u r a ’(c o l l e c t i v e agreement),

equality 'persamaan'. friendship and strength w h ich

assure the security of the state (Nakhaie, 1987:30). His

definition of politics 5s i a s a h ! is the situation, the

method or the w a y the leaders of the people or g a n i s e the

state to ac h i e v e the o b j e c t i v e s and aims of the people,

and to fulfil the needs and the welfare of the people.

!5S i a s a h itu merupakan ke a d a a n atau c o rak atau cara

 330

pemimpin jama"T ah mengendalikan urusan jamaahnya untuk

mencapai tujuan dan m a t l a m a t j a m a 'ah itu a t a u m e n d a p a t k a n

maslahat bagi orang-orang yang m e njadi anggota jar^Tah

itu." To him, there is no other 'siasah' better than

Islamic law (Nakhaie, 1987:12-13).

A book 'Sejarah Perjuangan PAS’ (The History of

PAS Struggle) w r i t t e n by A l i a s M u h a m m a d p u b l i s h e d in 1987

gives a detailed account of PAS's historical struggle.

According to A l ias the f o r m a t i o n of PAS has divided

Muslims into two factions (Alias, 1987:64). PAS has

misused religion to deflect Muslims from truth and to

cause them to rema i n forever in doubt. Through

intimidation 1u g u t ' and s u p p r e s s i o n 'menindas' Muslim

sc h olars who lead PAS are a c c u s e d to be the cause of the

Muslims' retrogression. PAS defeat in the development of

Muslim politics in M a l a y s i a is due to the a t t i t u d e of the

PAS leaders and their involvement in corruption, power

abuse, acquisition of w e a l t h t h r o u g h t i m b e r business, and

acquisition of land for the m s e l v e s a nd t h eir family

(Alias, 1987:63-6 7 , 1 4 5 - 1 4 7 ) . He claims that the weakness

of its a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a c h i n e r y and financial problems

w e r e part of the reason for PAS's loss of p o w e r to g o v e r n

b o t h K e l a n t a n and T r e n g g a n u states in the 1974 election.

 331

Nevertheless, he p r a ises the credibility of the

pioneer PAS leaders w h o left UMNO and formed a ne w

Islamic party platform (Alias, 1987:60). It was claimed

that they were in v o l v e d in the a n t i - c o l o n i a l movement and

wer e a g a inst U M N O w h i c h was c o n s i d e r e d to be too lenient

on the issue of the immigrants and the status of the

Malay language. Alias claims that at the beginning PAS

was a racial and a democratic soc i a l i s t party fig h t i n g

for the Malays, but it later changed to an Islamic party

as an a l t e r n a t i v e to e n sure its s u r v i v a l .

PAS faces serious problems due to the lack of

tolerance among its leaders, who possess dif f e r e n t

qualifications and acade m i c backgrounds. Alias stresses

the importance of unity a m ong the members of b oth M u s l i m

parties to e n sure the continuity of Muslim' political

power. He claims that the popularity of PAS among Muslim

v o ters dropped when Malaysia was formed in 1963 and the

number of Islamic act i v i t i e s run by government increased

in the following years. The number of PAS m e m bers

decreased when it joined a c o a l i t i o n g o v e r n m e n t under the

Natio n a l Front P a rty 'Parti B a r i s a n N a s i o n a l 1 in 1973.

PAS fu r t h e r lost its p o p u l a r i t y in 1978 w h e n K e l a n t a n was

g o v e r n e d by the B a r i s a n N asional p a r t y b e c a u s e of factors

 332

such as PAS failure to clarify the actual concept of the

Isfamic State, Islamic E c o n o m y and w a y s PAS was to g o vern

a multi-racial country with justice. The party also

failed to c l ean up its image following the various

accusations made by its opponent parties, p a r t i c u l a r l y by

UMNO. Furthermore PAS's relationship with the non-

Muslims, w ho are against an Islamic government, was poor.

Alias claims that PAS may have misused r e l igion

and he comparatively highlights past experiences in the

West w h e n Christians g o v e r n e d the c o u n t r i e s a f ter g a i n i n g

power from the people, and when the religious King had

absolute power that was above the law. However, the

auth o r admits that 'nationalism' is prohibited in Islam

since it reco g n i s e s the superiority of one race over

another (AlTas, 1987:88).

Finally, A l Tas condemns Islamic government and

takes two governments as comparative examples of the

failure of Islamic government; the government during the

1KhalTfah' period and the Kelantan S t ate during PAS

government. In the book he blames the Companions

'Sahabah' and, wi t h o u t m e n t i o n i n g the name, he c r i t i c i s e s

the 1Pak Haji'(one w ho is a pious m an a nd has made the

p i l g r i m a g e to Mecca) who at one time s u p p o r t e d the

 333

c om m u n i s t party* He c r i tises the PAS g o v e r n m e n t for its

failure to govern the Kelantan State, particularly when

there was i n c rease in cases of crime, the rate of

unemployment and migration, the a b use of women, wastage

of intel l e c t u a l manpower and u n v i a b l e government p r o jects

(AlTas, 1 9 8 7 : 1 0 4 ” 195).

To solve the d i s u n i t y b e t w e e n b o t h p a r t i e s Ib r a h i m

Ahmad in 1989 in his book 'Konflik U.M.N.O - P.A.S Dal am

Isu Islamisasi1 (U.M.N.O - P.A.S. Conflict on the Issue

of Islamization) quotes the s t a t ement made by a former

PAS y o u t h leader; "UMNO harus m e n g u b a h p e r l e m b a g a a n yang

ada sekarang kepada satu p e r l e m b a g a a n b a r u b e r u n s u r Islam

dan menggunakan kuasanya sebagai tunggak Barisan

Nasional. Jika tidak, titik pertemuan diantara kedua-dua

pihak tidak m u n g k i n ada." (UMNO s h o u l d c h a n g e the present

constitution to an Islamic b a sed c o n s t i t u t i o n and use its

po wer as a whip of the Barisan N a s ional party. Unless

ca r r i e d out it is d i f f i c u l t to u n i f y i n g b o t h parties).

In line with the government programme to infuse

Islakiic values in the Malaysian a d m i n i stration, the

Isfamic Affairs Division of the Prime Minister's

D e p a r t m e n t was reorganised and several Islamic books wer e

published. The books, 'Beberapa Konsep Tentang Nilai-

 334

Nilai Islam' (Various Con c e p t s on I s l amic Values) and

1P a n d u a n Rancangan Penerapan Nilai-Nilai Islam' (A Guide

for the Infusion of I s l amic Values) published in 1985

urged all Malaysians to practise the universally good

values in their lives suc h as t r u s t w orthiness,

responsiblity, sincerity, dedication, moderation,

diligence, cleanliness, discipline, co-operation,

politeness and thankfulness.

A book regarding the Isiamization programme,

'Dasar-Dasar Utama Kerajaan Malaysia' (The P r ime P o licy

of the Malaysian Government) w as also published by

Institut Tadbiran Awam Negara (INTAN) (National I n s t itute

of Public Administration) in 1988 to explain the

government's I s l a m i z a t i o n policy.

To con f r o n t the issue of 'takfTr' a book 'Masalah

TakfTr Dalam Masyarakat Islam' (The Issue of Accusing

Ot h e r s as Infidels in Muslim Society) w r i t t e n by W an

ZahidT Wan T e h was published in 1987. He co n d e m n s those

who accu s e othe r s of b e ing infidels. To him 'takfTr' is

practised only by the 1K h a r i d j T group' a nd it is c l e a r l y

a g a inst ’Ahl A l - S u n n a ' s v i e w (Wan ZahidT 1987:2-3).

Alias H j . Muhammad Noor wrote a book 'Ada A pa Di

* o
Serambi Mekah' (What is G o i n g On At the Front P o r c h of
 335

Mecca ) which focuses mainly on the cu r r e n t development

of Kelantan S t ate u n der the PAS government. Alias

highlighted that several Islamic programmes h ad been

c a r r i e d out by the K e l a n t a n G o v e r n m e n t s i n c e PAS g o v e r n e d

the state in 1990. The Islamic way of life h ad been

introduced in administration. State Finance was managed

without interest being made. Most of the government's

money transactions are made through the Is ramie Bank and

various types of gambling h ad been banned. All festivals

in v o l v i n g sexual contact between the young were

prohibited in line with government's aim to c r eate an

Islamic e n v i r o m e n t and a s o c iety free f r o m h i g h criminal

and sexual crime rates.

The government is said to practise an Isramie

development concept based on an interrelated approach

to material and spiritual needs, using its

constitutionally limited power, mater i a l res o u r c e s and

facilities. Viable projects are carried out in a

cooperative spirit, with sincerity and a sense of

belonging. Bil a t e r a l S t ate and Federal Government

cooperation remained good particularly in th e fight

against illegal logging.

The most c h a l l e n g i n g task faced by the g o v e r n m e n t

 336

was to maintain the trad i t i o n a l id e n t i t y of Kelantan as

the Front porch of Mecca 'Serambi Mekah' and the first

Islcfmic 1d a 'wa^ centre, which provides Islamic and

secular schools, traditional Isl'amic religious schools

'sekolah p o n d o k ', and which is popular for its

traditional cul t u r e s and handicrafts, fishing and Muslim

traders.

The unity of the Muslims is a matter of utmo s t

imp o r t a n c e that until today remains unsolved. Unless

settled, it will pose a threat to the Muslims' future

development and progress. Recently several books

s u p p o r t i n g the a l - A r q a m group, IttibcP~a al-Sunnah, anti-

HadTth movement and Pan M a l a y s i a n Islamic P a r t y have been

banned because the y which were considered by the

go v e r n m e n t to be an element that c o uld cause Muslim

disunity (60).
 337

Notes

(1) A l - A r q a m is banned by Malaysian g o v e r n m e n t u n der

'Akta P e r t u b u h a n 1966J_ (Orga n i s a t i o n a nd S o c i e t y Act
1966). Na t i o n a l Fatwa Committee and all states'
(except Kelantan) F a twa Committees announce that
a l - A r q a m is illegal organisation. A few members of
this g r o u p hav e b e e n d e t a i n e d by p o l i c e u n d e r 'Akta
Mesin C e tak d an Penerbitan 1984 (Pindaan 1987)
( Printing and P u b l i c a t i o n A ct 1984 (Amendment 1987)
(Utusan M a l a y s i a 27 Ogos, 1994).
(2) C ode 19 refers to the orderly, smooth, c o m plex
and s o p h i s t i c a t e d arra n g e m e n t of v e r s e s found in
Al-Kur'an. It gives the phy s i c a l facts,
super n a t u r a l and miracle nature of Allah's
Revelation. See also K a s s i m , 1992:50. Mustafa, 1989:
7-8. *
(3) T he book 'Bahaya T u r u n Dari Menara'(The Danger
of D e s c e n d i n g fro m a Minaret) wa s p u b l i s h e d in 1989
but the y ear w h e n the book 'Kembali Kepada Fitrah'
(Return to Nature) was published, is unknown. *
(4) An Orientalist is a person who studies the
language, arts, culture, religion of oriental
countries. See also Hornby, 1990:873. John and
others, 1991:1081).
(5) Code 19 u ses the n u m b e r 19 as a m e a n s to count a
number of selected Al-Kur'anic verses, letters,
w o r d s and c h a pters of t h e * A l - K u r 'an that are eith e r
equal to 19 or the total of w h i c h c an be c o m p l e t e l y
d i v i d e d by 19, w i t h o u t refering to any aut h e n t i c
argument.
(6) In fact, R a s h a d K h a l i f a too refers to a collection
of Hadlth of Sahih Bukhari as his other nine
references to s t r e n g t h e n his argument. See Mustafa,
1989:21,52.
(7) Kassim also says that_ 'Muktazilah P h i l o s o p h e r s too
a r g u e d the t r uth of Hadith. See pag e 214.
(8) B o t h of t h e m wer e 'against a n t i - H a d l t h movement. In
Egypt this m o v e m e n t was led by Taufiq Sidqi and
Ustaz A h m a d A m T n .
(9) In 1985*, for e x a m p l e a book 'P a n d u a n Rasulallah;
Z a k a t ,S e d e k a h dan Khairat' (Rasulallah^_s Guidance;
Alms, C h a r i t y and Welfare) w r i t t e n by S h e i kh B a s m e T h
was publ i s h e d A book 'Metode Penyampaian dan
Penerimaan Hadith Dizaman Ras*ulallah s.a.w. dan
 338

S a h a b a t ' (Method of P r e s e n t a t i o n and A c c e p t a n c e of

§ a d r t h d u r i n g R a s u l u l l a h s.a.w a n d his Companions'
Times) w as written by Muhammad bin IsmaTl in
1987 , !S u m b e r dan P r i n s i p ijukum Islam' (The Sour c e
and P r i n c i p l e of Isl5mic Law) by O.K.Raljmat in 1988
a nd a boo k 'Kumpulan PladTs T e n t a n g K e u t a m a a n M e m b a c a
Al-Quran' (Collection of g a d i t h on the P r i o r i t y of
R e a d i n g the Al-^ur'an) by Saodah bte S u nan was
p u b l i s h e d in 1990.
(10) T h e r e are o t her books on ffadith w r i t t e n by Muslim
sc h o l a r s in M a l a y suc h as ’S a l a h Faham Terhadap
g a d T t h - S a t u P e n j e l a s a n 1 ( M i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g on Had it h
-An E x p l a nation') b y Ijlj Ismail and o t h e r s in 1986,
'Jawapan K e p a d a B u k u H a d i t h Satu Penilaian Semula'
(Answers to the book HadTth A Review) by H a r o h
and others in 1988, 'AlSunnah: Kedudukan d an
Peranannya dalam SyarTah I s l a m ’ (Al-Sunnah: Its
P o s i t i o n and Rol e in Islamic Law) b y Mahmud Saed o n
A. O t h m a h in 1990, See p a s s i m Ahmad, 1992:15.
(11) This boo k was w r i t t e n by Huda. See Mahyuddln, 1986:
100. *
(12) The Prime M i n i s t e r ' s Department has recently
controled anti-Hadith acti v i t i e s and ar r a n g e s the
'd a 1w a 1 p r o g r a m m e s on Hadith. See U t u s a n M a l a y s i a 12
Julai ^ 1992.
(13) To K a s s i m the exegesisation of the Al-Kur'an
depends on o p i n i o n s and ideas an d not on the
A r a b i c language. A m o n g those w h o disbelieve Hadith
are e x p e r t s in A r a b i c such as the 'M u k t a z i l a h 's
scientists and_ philosophers, M u h a m m a d A b d u h W a d d u d
and R a s h a d Khalifa(§assim, 1992;24).
(14) A c c o r d i n g to J u d i t h Nagata, (in M a n in S o c i e t y . 1972:
51) a l - A r q a m was fou nded in 1967.
(15) Four al-Arqam m e m b e r s w e r e d e t a i n e d b y the p o lice
in Brunei on the grounds that t hey t h r e a t e n e d the
stability of the religious practices in that
country. See U t u s a n ^ M a l a y s i a 6th April 1993.
(16) Some of the a l - A r q a m m e mbers m a r r i e d w i t h o u t d o w r y
in the f o r m ^ o f m o n e y but by r e a d i n g a verse from
the Al-Kur'an. S o l e m n i z i n g of the m a r r i a g e is held
in S o u t h e r n T h a i l a n d in front of 'Wali TahkTm'
w h i c h a c c o r d i n g to the Shaf i H[ School of Law is
void.
 339

(17) A l - A r q a m is fo u n d e d without proper registration

p r o c e d u r e a c c o r d i n g to S e c . 7 S o c i e t y Act, 1966. (Act
335 & Regulations, 1984) of Malaysia. [P.U.(A) 402 /
1984J._
(18) As h a a r i M u h a m m a d p u b l i s h e d five p u b l i c speeches, a
novel and poems. See Khadijah, 1989:236-237. For a
co m p l e t e lists of AshaarT' s w r i t i n g s see A p p e n d i x 1.
(19) T h e r e are five stages of faith; 'Imah taqlTd',
'Tman I l m u ' , ' I m a n A y a n 1, 1Imah Ha k ' and 'Tman
H a k e k a t ’. See AshaarT, 1983:47.
(20) T he si x t e e n bad d e s ires are as f o l l o w s :boastful
'Sumaah', v a n i t y 'r i a k 1, c o n c e i t e d u j u b ’, a r r ogance
’t a k a b b u r ’,p r o u d , 1s o m b o n g ’,j e a l o u s y 'hasad d e n g k i ’,
a n ger 'marah', revenge 'dendam, stingy 'bakhil',
f e a r f u l 1p e n a k u t w o r l d l y d e s i r e 'cinta d u n i a ' , p o w e r
craze 'gila p a n g k a t ', m a t e r i a l i s t i c 'gila harta',
voluble 'b a n y a k c a k a p ', g l u t t o n o u s 'b a n y a k makan'
and s l a n d e r o u s 1m e n g u m p a t ’ .
(21) See E l ias and others, n.d:170.
(22) The process of ^ a c h i e v i n g f a ith is call e d
'Takhalli', ’T a h a l l i ’ and 'TajalTT. (the exact
f e e l i n g of 'Tajalli' is i n d e s c r i b a b l e ).See AshaarT,
1983:94.
(23) The w i d e s p r e a d practice of polygamy among al-
Arqam m e m b e r s causes the m o v e m e n t to be d e s p i s e d b y
the M u s l i m s o c i e t y in Malaysia.
(24) 'Manaqib' is a life h i s t o r y and e u l o g y for a t e a cher
written by his students. It is w r i t t e n after the
death of the teacher. See BAHEIS, 1986:3. The
'Manaqib' w h i c h was later edited by T a h T Suhaimi
and 'Silat G h a i b ' hav e not been explained* to
the st u d e n t s of al-Arqam. _
(25) As an i n v i sible m a n 'r i j a l u l - g h a i b ' can h e l p others
and teach them the art of self-defence
spontaneously and u n c o n s c i o u s l y by injecting his
soul 'roh' into t h eir body. See also AshaarT, 1986:
152-153_.
(26) I d j tihad means i ndependent legal reasoning or
s t r e t c h i n g of a point in individual cases.
(27) 'Tahlil' m e a n s to reci t e v e r s e s of the Al-Kur'an;
pronouncing the formula 'La ila ha illallali’ . See
Muhammad, 1983:JL49. ^ ^
(28) T he a u t h o r K h a d i j a h A a m is one of A s h a a r i M u h a m m a d ' s
w i v e s w h o also w r o t e or c o m p i l e d o t h e r books* which
set out her h u s b a n d ' s views.
 340

(29) Topics d i scuss are, the Muslim's faults,

r e q u i r e d k n o w l e d g e , t r a d i n g the v e r s e s of Al-Kur'jm
at a c h eap price, (misusing v e r s e s of the A l - K u r ' a n
for worldly purposes), si m i l i e s of those* get
confused of Allah's o b l i g a t i o n a nd forbidden,
the o b l i g a t o r y or s u p e r e o g a t o r y practices, those
who do not know themselves, unused knowledge,
I s l a m i z i n g the state, the s t rive in p r o p a g a t i n g
Islam, to endure A l l a h ' s test w i t h patience, a
leader w i t h o u t followers, a m i s l e a d devotee, an
irresponsible husband, w o m e n ' s b e a u t y and moral.
O t h e r issues mentioned are the i m p o r t a n c e of
d e v o t i o n 'taqwa*' , d i s o b e d i e n t wife, the comi n g of
death, Isramie c o n g r e g a t i o n as a s h a d o w of Islamic
St ate 'J a dikan Jama'ah Islam Bayangan Negara
Isl’a m ' , e n t e r i n g Heaven with Allah's grace, the
illness of the weak soul, mislead fighters,
the m i s l e a d i n g v i e w of a struggle, way s of h i d i n g
weakness, ways to b u ild the community 'ummah',
Islamic politics, the 1K a s y a f 1, secret or disclose,
special q u a l i t i e s of U l a ma's leadership, e g o i s t i c
s e n t iment and the R e s u r r e c t i o n of Ima m M a h d i .
(30) There are three main components of h u m a n being;
the soul, 'jiwa', intellect ''a k a l 1, and physical
a p p e a r a n c e 'an g g o t a fizikal'.
(31) The accusation mad e in the book 'Penjelasan
Terhadap Buku Aurad M u h a m m a d i a h P e g a n g a n Darul
A r q a m ’. *
(32) S y e i k h M u h a m m a d Suhaimi is c l a i m e d as an i n v isible
man who 'lives in'a jungle c a l l e d 'Alas Kotonggof
near the town of P a c i t a n in Jawa. M e a n w h i l e in the
'Munaqib Kiyai A g o n g ' (in Jawi version) t h e r e is a
prediction made by 'Joyoboyo' (A Javanese Kin g
w h o is a professed Buddhist) who claims that
'R a t u Adi I 1 (the just king) will__appear on the same
da y as Imam M a h d i .See M o h d R u s h d i , 1990:213-214.
(33) In fact these d e v e l o p m e n t s are i n f l u e n c e d by other
factors s uch as reading materials, mass media,
a u dio visual materials, the surrounding atmosphere
in a family, n e i g h b o u r h o o d and school.
(34) In the classical Islamic book it is s t a t e d as 'free
adult w o m a n ' . See 'Minfraj Et Talibin: A Manual of
M u h a m m a d a n L a w ' : 281 *
4
 341

(35) A p a m p h a l e t 'Pakaian W a n i t a Islam' (Muslim Women

Dress) p u b l i s h e d by the Islamic Research Centre,
P r ime M i n i s t e r D e p a r t m e n t of Malaysia.
(36) For e x a m p l e the K e l a n t a n S t a t e G o v e r n m e n t a n n o u n c e d
the l i m i t a t i o n of w o r k i n g hours for Muslim women
and PAS a lso d i s c o u r a g e s M u s l i m s w o m e n ' s leaders to
h o l d h i g h post in the p a r ty's o r ganisation.
(37) O r d i n a n c e N o . V of 1880. See also Abdul Majeed, 1966:
17.
(38) U t u s a n Malaysia, 25 Ogos,1992.
(39) In 1988, the total n u m b e r of u n m a r r i e d w o m e n be t w e e n
30 to 34 y e ars o ld of age are was approximately
600,000 people. See M o h d Manshur, 1991:24.
(40) U t u s a n Malaysia, 20 Mei,1992.
(41) T a lak T a ’alik _means a conditional repudiation. See
ltfinhaj Et Talibin: A manual of M u h a m m a d a n Law, n.d:
343. *
(42) 'k h u l ' ’ m e a n s la w f u l l y to grant a w i f e to p r o n o u n c e
her own repudiation_ likened to_ a transfer of
property. See Minhaj Et Talibin: A manual of
M u h a m m a d a n Law, n.d.:328. *
(43) 1f &s k h 1 m e a n s to di s s o l v e a marriage. See F.
Steingess, 1984:790.
(44) 'ilaT1 ' means oat h of continency. See MinKaj Et
Talibin: A manual of M u h a m m a d a n Law, n.d.:348.
(45) "'iddah' m e a n s legally p r e s c r i b e d p e r i o d of waiting
d u r i n g w h i c h a w o m a n m a y not r e - m a r r y a f ter being
w i d o w e d or divorced. See M u h a m m a d Abdul Jabbar Beg,
1983:119. *
(46) U t u s a n M a l a y s i a 29 A p r i l , 1981.
(47) 'qariyah' means village. A place s u r r o u n d e d by
e d i f i c e s i n h a b i t e d by m e m bers of the community.
(48) This was c r i t i c a l l y p o r t r a y e d in Shahnon A h m a d ’s
novel 'UmmT dan A b a n g SyeTkhul. See als o fitusan
M a l a y s i a 3 Ogos, 1994.
(49) A saint, a h o l y place, a miracle working place,
shrine or p e r s o n e s p e c i a l l y w h e n the miracles are
due to the personal s a n city of a l i ving or d ead
man. For e x a m p l e _ a l j S h e i k h Muhammad Abdullah bin
Suhaimi. See A s h a a r i , 1986:40-58.
(50) See also A.H.A. NadwT", n.d.: 120.
(51) Thi s o r g a n i s a t i o n was founded in 1968.
(52) M a l a y s i a C o n s t i t u t i o n A r t i c l e 3.
(53) A l - I s l a m Ogos 1993:67.
 342

(54) UMNO is a po l i t i c a l party for Malays and

Bumiputras. See a p a m p h l e t 'P e n j e l a s a n Me n g e n a i Isu
M e n g k a f i r k a n Orang Islam, Jihad dan Mati Syahid'
published by B A H E I S , n . d . :1 .Bumiputras in S a b a h are
UMNO members. See D e w a n M a s y a r a k a t Julai, 1991:22.
(55) Either state or federal level. The fatwa on
a c c u s a t i n g other as infidels ' t a k f i r 1 and 'martyr',
see a p a m p h l e t 1P e n j e l a s a n Mengenai Isu M e n g k a f i r k a n
Orang Islam, Jihad d a n Mati Syahid' published by
BAHEIS, n.d.: 14 and 27.
(56) The I m p l e m e n t a t i o n of Islamic values, led to the
establ i s h m e n t of the International Islamic
University, Islamic Banking system and Islamic
Insurance s y s t e m ''Takaful'. The Islamic issues, the
I slamization aspects in service and administration
in M a l a y s i a are w i d e l y d i s c u s s e d in several books.
See Dasuki and others, 1983:1-17, 117-134. See also
Abdullah Tahir, 1984:135.
(57) Asri is a former PAS President and later left this
party and founded a n o t h e r political party 'HAMIM'
(Hizbul M u s l i m i n ) .
(58) The date of the book published is unknown.
(59) A 1 - M a i d a h :44,45,47.
(60) The Islamic books in Malay banned by Internal
Security Ministry are 'Aurad M u h a m m a d i a h Pegangan
Darul Arqam' w r i t t e n by Ashaari Muhammad, 'Gayong
Bersambut ' by Hashim A. G h a n i , 'Khadijah ' Isterj.
Rasulallah' (Khadijah R a sulallah's wife) by Abdul
Aziz Muhammad, 'Kafir Mengkafir Siapakah Y ang
Kafir' (The A c c u s a t i o n of Infidel; Who is Infidel)
by Khalid Salleh, 'Muzakarah UMNO Dan PAS'
(Discussion Between UMNO and PAS) by A.. Ghani
Ismail, 'Purdah Oh Purdah' (Veil Oh Veil) b y Tajul
Ariffin, 'Rahsia H i d u p D a l a m Islam' (The S e c r e t of
Life in Islam) by H a m i d i n bin Kassim, 1R o h S e t elah
M a u t ' (Soul A f t e r Death) by R a h m anmat and t he book
'Siapa M u j a d d i d K u r u n Ke-15' written by Ashaari
Muhammad. See a l - I s l a m Bil.(l) 1992:8-9.
CHAPTER FIVE
 C H A P T E R FIVE

Critical A n a l y s i s of the Isl'amic B o o k s in M a l a y

and the A u t h e n t i c i t y of the M u s l i m Wr i t e r s

Compared to Indonesia, the number of Islamic

books 'Kitab Moden' translated into or written in Malay,

and the number of Malaysian Muslim writers producing

these books is relatively small(l). It was only in the

late n i n e t e e n seventies that their n u m b e r s increased, and

this increase is g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d by the M u s l i m s today

{A. S a mad a nd others, 1992:62).

N a t u r e a nd Q u a l i t y

At present t h ere are no specific criteria for a

goo d Islamic book established generally by Muslim

writers, and I had to define a set of criteria for the

discussion. A goo d Islamic book I consider has the

following criteria; the book gives honest, correct and

appropriate information and knowledge which is relevant

to, and imbued by, Islamic teaching an d history in the

field chosen. It p r o v i d e s full i n f o r m a t i o n on all Islamic

matters under review, with authentic references such as

A l - K u r ’ahi c verses, Hadith, Islamic b o oks written by

recognized ancient and recent Muslim scholars, and is

w i t h i n the e s t a b l i s h e d schools of law.

An I s l amic book must follow the best style of

 344

writing according to the v i ews of a majority of Muslim

scholars; it must begin with 1B i s m i l f a h i r r a h m a n i r r a h T m ,

prayers to Allah for His guidance and assistance which

enable the writer to produce a u s eful book, p r a ises to

Prophet Muhammad, apo l o g i e s for the m i s t a k e s found in the

text, a request to the readers for their opinions or

suggestions to improve the book written and to correct

any false information and wrong facts and invalid

arguments found in the book. The book offers full

references of the v e rses of the Al-Kur'an quoted,

0

complete quotations, and the name and number of the Sura

concerned. It gives full information on the H a d i t h texts

used, quotes accurately and completely the Hadith text,

its rep o r t e r s or compilers, and its narrators.

A g ood Islamic book emphasises academic and

i n tellectual soundness. It gives c l ear exegesis, meaning

and t r a n s l a t i o n in the language of the b ook published. It

gives guidance for p e o p l e world-wide either in t h e o l o g y

or in t h e i r w a y of life, to e n a b l e t h e m to gai n justice,

peace, prosperity a nd unity. The book is u s eful for the

sake of Islam, Muslim 'ummah' and 'da'wa-'. It p r o motes a

p o s i t i v e w a y of t h i n k i n g a m ong Muslims, a progressive

v i e w of life and moral values; truth, t r u stworthiness,

 345

intellect, courage, sincerity, cooperation, forgiveness,

tolerance, dedication, c ommitment and care for others.

The book calls upon people to resist untrue beliefs,

false teachings, a nd negative attitudes, actions, laws

and culture.

A good Islamic book is e x p e c t e d to be able to give

in f o r m a t i o n on Isl*amic te a c h i n g and its laws, knowledge

on I s l a m and its practises, useful knowledge for mankind,

as guidance for m a n to achieve success in this world and

the w o r l d s Hereafter.

Generally, Islamic books in Malay ca n be divided

into four categories; p o p u l a r books w h i c h t r y to c o n v e y a

ce r t a i n knowledge without a c a demic reference, theological

books or 'K i t a b M o d e n 1, 'technical books' which deal w i t h

the sciences, and books w r i t t e n for a c a d e m i c teaching.

Based on my s t u dy on the Malay Islamic books

written fro m 1975 to 1992, it is clear that in the b o oks

the arrangement of their c o n tents are generally

systematic, the language u sed is e a s i l y understood, the

arg u m e n t s presented are b a sed on s o und reasoning, clear

explanation and con c r e t e evidence extracted from Al-

K
*
u r 1an and Hadith.
* —
Nevertheless, there are books with

titles w h i c h e i t h e r do not cor r e l a t e or are totally

 346

unrelated to the c o n tents of the b o oks written. For

example, in the book 'Tragidi Kiamat' (The Tragedy of

the Last Day) written by Tai b Azamuddin, only the first

V

two chapters deal with the Last Day, whereas the other

seven c h a pters focus on 'da'wa' which are irrelevant to

the title of the book. No p r o p e r r e a s o n is g i v e n by

the author for choosing the title, although he states

that the contents of his book are taken from a series

of his pre v i o u s lectures (Taib, 1 9 8 6 :iv).

Due to their lack of knowledge and experience in

the fields listed, writing on subjects such as Islamic

art and architecture, astronomy, geology, geography,

m athematics, physics, chemistry, biology, science,

medicine, psychology, fisheries and agriculture from an

Islamic point of view has n e v e r appealed to M a l a y s i a n

Muslim scholars ,,u l a m a T '. Furthermore, t h ese subjects

are normally taught w i t h o u t re f e r e n c e to an Islamic

perspective. Hence, w r i t i n g s in this area are eith e r

specifically for the experts in a certain field and h ave

l i mited reference to Islamic t e a c hings or t h e y are books

are translated from the English language. The book

'P e n c a p a i a n Geografi Islam Sorotan Sepintas Lalu’ (The

Achievement of Islamic Geography - A Brief Glimpse)

 347

written by Amrfah Buang published in 1984, for example,

is an attempt by a Muslim writer to discuss geography

from an Islamic perspective. In her b ook AmrTah Buang

discusses the background of the earliest Islamic

geography, the inspiration from Al-Kur'an, the Muslims’

achievements in sailing, exploration, p h y sical geography

research, human geography, mathematical and cartographic

geography, and the effect of Isramie geography on

Western geography. A book on engineering, 'Sistem

Kejuruteraan Alam Sekitar Menurut Islam’ (The

Environmental Engineering S y s t e m F r o m an Is l a m i c Point of

View) was translated into the Malay language by Khalil

Mohd ZaTn from a book w r i t t e n by S . W a q a r A h m a d Husaini in

» * fl
English. This t r a n s l a t e d book was p u b l i s h e d in 1983.

Generally, apart fro m their titles, introductory

quotations fro m Al-Kur'an and Hadith, and t h eir Islamic

*■ 0 -
perspective, the contents of these Islamic ’technical

books' are s i m ilar to the normal tec h n i c a l books.

However, these books have been considered I s lamic since

the y p o s s e s s some of the criteria of an Islamic book. In

the boo k 'Pencapaian Geografi I s lam Sorotan Sepintas

Lalu' (The A c h i e v e m e n t of Islamic Geography - A Brief

Glimpse) A m r T a h B u a n g starts her w r i t i n g w i t h p r a i s e s to

 348

AlTah and Prophet Muhammad, refers to an c i e n t Muslim

*

writers and t h e i r b o o k s such as: A f z a l u r Rahman, 'Quranic

0

Science', Nafis Ahmad, 'Muslim contribution to

f

Geography', Abu'l Fida", 'T a q w i m al-Buldan', Al-BaladhurT,

1F u t u h al-Buldan', Al-Birurii, (Chapter on Pearl) in the

'Book of Pr e c i o u s Stones', Ibn Batuta, 'Travels in Asia

* r

and Africa', Ibn JubaTr, 'RihTat Ibn JubaTr' and Ibn

r
Khaldun, 'M u q a d d i m a h ' (P r o l e g o m e n e ) .

The book 'Pencapaian Geografi I s lam Sorotan

Sepintas Lalu' (The A c h i e v e m e n t of Islamic Geography - A

Brief Glimpse) aims to d i scuss the issue f r o m an Islamic

perspective even though it uses reference books written

by n o n - M uslims. However, AmrTah Buang focus s e s her

discussion only on b o oks that relate to I s lam and the

Muslims such as 'Arab T r a v e l l e r s and Merchants' by T.W.

Arnold, 'Travels of Ibn B a tuta-1 by H.A.R. Gibb, and 'The

« »
C lassica l Heritage in Islam' by F. Rosenthal. The author

also refers to Al-Kur'ah and stresses that the

achievements of Muslims in Geography are related to the

verses of Al-Kur'an which encourage the Muslims to

explore this field of s t udy (AmrTah, 1984:18-29).

However, it is questionable whether starting the

book w i t h the w o r d 'Bismillah' and i n v o k i n g the names of

 349

Allah and Muhammad m a kes the book Islamic or whether it

is just a fo r m u l a to make a writer appear Islamic.

Whatever the a n swer is, generally, the 'technical books'

can be considered Islamic books as long as their

objectives, co n t e n t s and approach are relevant to Islam

or the M u s l i m society.

The books 'Derma Organ S u atu Pendapat Ikhlas1

*
(The D o n a t i o n of Human Organs, A Sincere View) and 'Bayi

Tabung Uji ( Penjuruteraan Baka ) Hak Allah Dipertikai'

r
(The Test T ube B a b i e s 'Sperm Technology' The O w n e r s h i p of

Allah is Disputed) written by Mohammed H j . YcicLcob in

• T

1987, are a t t e m p t s to w r i t e on the issues of the d o n a t i o n

of human o r gans and of test tube babies fro m an Islamic

point of view. A book on a s i m ilar issue, 'Biarkan B u t a

Sekitar Perbahasan I l miah M e n genai Derma Cornea-Mata'

(Allowing B l i n d n e s s S u r r o u n d i n g A S c h o l a r l y D e b a t e on the

Donation of the E ye Cornea) was written by Dr. Syed

Hussein Alatas in 1974 and widely distributed in

A V

Malaysia, but was published in Singapore. On f a mily

planning there is a book in Malay 'Islam d an Perancang

keluarga' (Islam and F a m i l y Planning) w r i t t e n b y Nik Azi s

Nik Pa, but this book too was first published in 1986 in

Singapore.
 350

In Islamic Law, 'Idjtitiad' or t he efforts of

jurists to find out the right cour s e of action in ne w

situations in the light of the sources of the 1S h a r i T a ' ,

is i m p o rtant in Islamic living (Aidit (ed.)# 1989:11).

All the Muslim scholars w ho possess appropriate

qualification and abilities are allowed to perform

1i d j t i h a d ' in o r der to obtain the appropriate rules for

dealing with contemporary issues, as long as they follow

the procedure of reasoning which is accepted by the

majority of a n c ient Muslim scholars. Regarding this,

'Mufti' are given the p o wer by each state authority to

announce to the Muslims rules and regulations regarding

contemporary issues. For the sake of u n i t y and u n i f o r m i t y

of fatwa in the different states of Malaysia, a f a twa

c o m m i t t e e was e s t a b l i s h e d at national level in the e a r l y

n i n e t e e n seventies.

To d a y there are many contemporary issues which

are addressed by fatwa and publicly gazetted, circulated

or discussed in the books published in this country(2)

in order to inform the Mu s l i m s which laws should be

followed in the states concerned. Such issues include

Aids, d rug abuse(3), the use of g e l a t i n in medicine(4),

m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g y of animal slaughter using e lectrical

 351

stunning for cattle(5), abortion, blood donation(6),

cornea t r a n s p l a n t (7) birth control, sex c h a n g e o p e r a t i o n s

'tukar j a n t i n a ’(8) and ar tificial insemination 'permanian

b e r a d a s ’(9).

However, to clarify the issues writers on these

subjects need bot h a knowledge of Islam and of the

s ubject matter. Since at present Muslims scholars

''ulamaT1 ' mostly lack knowledge on t h ese subject

matters, they mus t refer to the ex p e r t s when writing,

in o r der to guarantee the accuracy and the truth of the

conte n t s of t h e i r books.

The quality of Islamic education provided to

Muslims has been influenced by factors suc h as: the

Islamic s y l labus taught in schools a nd other le a r n i n g

institutions, the government's policy on Islam, the

s t r e n g t h of faith, and the a w a r eness a m ong M u s l i m s of the

i m p o r t a n c e of Islamic knowledge.

At p r e s e n t all technical and s c i e n c e subjects are

t aught se p a r a t e f rom Islamic knowledge. This has r e s ulted

in Muslim writers being unable to write b o oks on t h ese

s u b jects f rom an I s l amic perspective unless they acquire

an equally good Islamic education elsewhere. The books

w r i t t e n o f t e n lack proof 'dalTl' from A l - K* u r ' a n i c v e r s e s

 352

and H a d T t h texts, their exege s i s and interpretations (For

ex a m p l e see Nor Anisah, 1992; Hassan, 1985).

T he Muslims might feel that they are not g i ven

a ccess to a co m p l e t e Islamic education system to ensure

that they understand a wider co n c e p t of Islamic

teachings. According to N or Anisah, only when Islam is

accepted as part of the w o r l d l y aspect of life will one

be abl e to utilize f u lly the Al-Kur'anic and Sunna

teachings to overcome probl e m s regarding morality,

society, education, economy, culture and politics (Nor

AnTsah, 1992:12). Without specialising in both fields,

Islamic a nd technical subjects, the b o oks written will

lack c o m p l e t e i m f o r m a t i o n on eith e r field.

The government's encouragement and its infusion

of Isl’amic policy, helps to stimulate the writers'

interest in writing on v a rious topics from an Islamic

point of view. Some authors have w r i t t e n b o oks on Islamic

values in administration and management but there are

o t hers whose attempt go far beyond this aspect,

c o n s i d e r i n g the w i d e r q u e s t i o n of Islamic g o v e r n m e n t and

state. For e x a m p l e in 1988, M a h m o b d Zuhdi H j . Abdul M a j i d

* *

w r o t e the book 'K e a r a h M e r i a l i s a s i k a n U n d a n g - u n d a n g Islam

 353

Di Malaysia1 (Towards the Realization of Islamic Law in

Malaysia) and M o h d Ali Hj B a h a r u m in 1990 wrote, 'Masaiah

Perumahan, Penyelesaian Menurut Perspektif Islam'

(Housing Problems, Its S o l u t i o n from An Islamic

Perspective). The former optimistically underlined the

possibility of implementing Islamic law in Malaysia and

the latter enthusiastically forwarded his suggestions

about the Islamic way to overcome housing problems to

the M a l a y s i a n government.

According to Mohd AlT Hj Baharum the government

should provide enough housing loan facilities to fulfil

the demand from genuine buyers. Loans must not be given

to speculative buyers because this increase the market

price of houses. All loans and other forms of p a y ment

regarding housing construction mus t be based on the

Islamic principle that contracts are free from any form

of interest. The p a y ment of a h o u s i n g loan s h o u l d be m a d e

following the 'Musyarakah Mutanaqisah' system whereby

b o t h the g o v e r n m e n t and b u yer (borrower) will profit. In

this system the Government has to organise a cooperative

body to provide h o u s e s for its members at a minimum

cost. E v e r y m e m b e r has to c o n t r i b u t e to thi s o r g a n i s a t i o n

by b u y i n g shares, and by p a y i n g a m o n t h l y rent for the

h o u s e bought. S h a r e h o l d e r s will gain a monthly profit

 354

based on the number of their share units. Finally, the

h o use will be owned by each member a f ter he has fully

pai d its cost through the monthly rent and the profit

shares.

The book 'Perniagaan Menurut Pandangan Islam'

(Business From the Islamic Point of View) criticizes the

Malaysian government's po l i c i e s which according to him

are against Islamic law. For example, free e n t e r p r i s e and

the New Economic Policy (NEP), are said to bring about

unequal distribution of income a m ong the people. The

capi t a l i s t economic system has encouraged people to

pr a c t i s e corruption in economics, politics and morality,

and has i n c r e a s e d the n u m b e r of b u s s i n e s s m e n w h o pr a c t i s e

interest 'r i b a ' in their daily transactions (SobrT,

*
1988:9 0 , 9 5 , 1 1 1 and 120).

In the p o l i t y of Islam, the S t ate rep r e s e n t s God's

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s on earth. The State is e n t r u s t e d w i t h the

Divine mission of upholding social justice so that the

l e g i t i m a t e rights of any individual to a dece n t living in

the present world is ensured. The I s l amic S t ate is

obliged to achieve economic equity through fiscal means

and Isl'amic conce p t s of savings, i n v e s t m e n t s ,consumption,

production, d i s t r i b u t i o n and profit (Aidit & other,(ed.)

 355

1989:103,107). However, according to I s l amic value

judgement, obeying God is more worthy of consideration

than some loss of production (Aidit & other, (ed.) 1989:

35-37, 117,102,39).

In Islamic so c i e t y one of the first goals of the

r e l i g i o n of I s lam is to pr e s e r v e the five f o u n d a t i o n s of

good individual and social life: Religion, Life, Mind,

Offspring and Wealth. But Islam strongly disapproves of

prodigality, and self-indulgence, which are considered

un h e lpful to i n d i viduals and so c i e t y alike. The act of

sa t i s f y i n g wants is real l y an act of submission to the

wanting mind 'nafsu ammara1, which makes man selfish,

ruthless, unscrupulous and arrogant. Islam condemns

extravagance and spendthriftness, and is equally severe

on stinginess and meanness (A1 Isra-' :29, Furqan:67, Al-

N i s a T : 36-37).

Is l a m prohibits fraud in business dealings. All’ah

says that t h ose w ho deal in fraud are 'when t h e y hav e to

receive by m e a s u r e from men, exact full measure, but w h e n

they hav e to giv e by m e a s u r e or w e i g h t to men, give less

than d u e 1 (Tatfif : 1 - 6 ) (Aidit & other, (ed.) 1989:41).

Islam e n c o u r a g e s its followers to h a v e a balanced

attitude. M a t erial gains is a d e s i r a b l e goal in so far as

 356

it helps one to perform his duties to w a r d s God, society,

the family, and o n e's o wn self, and is s u b s e r v i e n t to the

'falah' (be successful) in the 'A k h i r a t 1 (Hereafter)

(Aidit & other (ed), 1989:51, 102). In other words

Islamic economics emphasises ethical values such as

justice, benevolence, moderation, sacrifice, and

c a ring for others. Isl^am requires 'riba' (interest) to be

forbidden, and such prohibition has to be enforced by

l e g i s l a t i o n and law (Aidit St other (ed), 1989:61-62, 74).

Ibn TaymTah, in his book al-Hisba' , says that as

it is a great oppression to p r e vent people from doing

what they w ant to do with their property, it is also a

great o p p r e s s i o n to a l low t h e m to e x c e e d t h eir limits and

extend their rights to spill over onto other pe o p l e ' s

rights. According to Islam, justice is applied in all

s tages of economic activity. In production, Islam

requires efficiency and to a v oid wastage (A'araf:31). In

distribution, Islam req u i r e s p r o p e r e v a l u a t i o n of factors

of production and proper pricing of output. It may also

need c e r t a i n forms of r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of o u tput to p r o v i d e

a just share of output to those who could not obtain it

through market forces (Aidit & o t h e r (ed), 1989:76-78).

Islam encourage 'Qirad' or a sort of partnership

 357

through which the o w ner of monetary assets and the

e ntrepreneur, the businessman, share in the income and

deficit, the p r ofit and loss of the project. Isl'am

introduced the inheritance system that f o rces a slow

decentralization of wealth, and this system cannot be

o v e r r u l e d by a ny personal will or m a n - m a d e law. In Islam,

e x c e s s i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of w e a l t h in the h a n d s of the few

is decidedly frowned upon (H a s y r :7 ) (Aidit & other (ed),

1989:79,81,101) .

To conclude, I s lam u r ges the p e o p l e to w o r k h a r d to

gain higher productivity, which brin g s prosperity to the

individual and e c o n o m i c g r o w t h to the s o c i e t y as a whole,

in a 'halal 1 (permissable) way as to earn the approval

0

of Allah. Ownership of the i n s t r uments of production and

private enterprises are legi t i m a t e in Isl'am, but all

aspects of p r o d u c t i o n and trade w h i c h are a n t i - s o c i a l are

forbidden. Usury, (See Baqara:275) bribery, fraud,

adulteration, hoarding, profiteering, cap i t a l i s t

exploitation of labour, and similar unscrupulous

practices are against Islamic ideology. According to the

Holy Kur'an, workers can demand t h eir wages as a matter

of right a nd e m p l o y e r s are e n j o i n e d to p a y them before

the w o r k e r s ’ p e r s p i r a t i o n dries up. I s lam c e r t a i n l y does

 358

not perm i t competition in w h i c h everybody is for himself

if it implies naked self-interest, total indifference to

the well-being of others and is anti social. The

principle of profit maximization is irrelevant in the

I slamic context, where monetary income is n ot the p r i m a r y

or the ultimate objective of human endeavour on earth.

Profit must nevertheless be m a x i m i z e d in o r d e r to survive

in a situation of p e rfect competition, since the p r o fits

so maximized are by definition normal profit. However,

maximizing profits violates the Islamic principles in a

situation of monopolistic competition, oligopoly,

m o n o p o l y r e s u l t i n g in abnormal profits.

If gained, abnormal profit in an I s l amic system

is t r a n s f o r m e d and passed on to c o n s u m e r s in the form

of lower pric e s and higher output. Isl'am is against

speculation as it is often associated with hoarding and

profiteering activities which are anti-social (Aidit &

o t her (ed), 1989: 86,90,98, 100,107-109).

The C o n t e n t s of Books

Though the n u m b e r of Isfamic books p u b l i s h e d has

greatly increased, one has to a c k n o w l e d g e that in many

cases the a u t hors are not specialists in Islam,

 359

particularly when they write technical b o oks from an

Islamic point of view. The gov e r n m e n t organises an annual

book writing competition which is h e l d by the Islamic

Affairs Division of the P r ime Minister's Department of

Malaysia. This is d e s i g n e d to e n c o u r a g e M u s l i m w r i t e r s to

produce excellent quality Islamic reading materials,

although the competition onl y judges short stories and

no vels (NurazmT, 1991:22-23, 102-103, 105, 117-127, 163).

Th e r e is no competition for n o n - f i c t i o n a l books. However,

the I s l amic Affairs Division of the P r ime Minister's

Department of Malaysia is involved in publishing books

and m o n t h l y rel i g i o u s m a g a z i n e s to e x p l a i n I s l amic law on

contemporary issues, 'fikh' and the exegesis of the Al-

K
Au r ' a n to the public.
Topi c s of Islamic knowledge caught the attention

of the Muslim writers, and publications dealing with

Isl'am h ave become more popular not only among the young

Muslims but also a m ong the mor e adult members of the

community. This become ap p a r e n t when, in the late 1 9 7 0 's

to the early 1 9 9 0 's, the scope of Is l a m i c writing

extended to cover new areas suc h as economics,

b u s i n e s s (10), management, finance, development, politics,

banking, counselling, housing(ll), education, science,

 360

philosophy, medicine, technology, engineering,

c i v i l i z a t i o n ( 12) and 1i t e r a t u r e .(13)

The dif f e r e n t scope of t h ese b o o k s is d e t e r m i n e d

by t h eir differing objectives. For example in the book

on law, 'S u mber dan P r i n s i p H u k u m

ry*
Isl'am' (The Source and

Principles of Islamic Law), written by O.K. Rahmat in

&
1983, its objectives are "Men e r a n g k a n tentang hukum

Allah, undang-undang Islam untuk maslahat manusia.

tr

Menerangkan tentang hukum, yang dihukum, pencipta hukum,

* r **
tuju a n hukuman syarak, Us*ul Fikh, Al-Kur'an, Sunnah, al-
f —— v g

Ijtihad, a l - I j m a ' , al-Kiyas, al-Istihsan, al-Maslahat al-

* » •

Mursalat, al-Urf, al-Ististiab, s y a r T 'at umat sebelum

• •«

Muhammad, mazhab para sahabat, prinsip undang-undang

Islam d an mazhab-mazhab. Penyebaran ilmu mengenai sumber

dan kaedah hukum Islam ini akan menyebabkan lebih

mudahnya orang m e m ahami hukum-hukum Isl'am d a n boleh pula

mengasah pemikiran kaum Muslim u n tuk selalu berfikir

didalam bidang hukum me n g i k u t garis-garis a g a m a Isl'am

sendiri tidak m e n g ikuti perasaan s e m a t a - m a t a . " (O.K.

Rahmat,1983:vii-viii) . (To ex p l a i n the law of Allah,

»

Islamic laws for the interest of the human being. To

ex p l a i n the law, those p u n i s h e d by the law, the c r eator

 361

of the law, the objective of the Islamic law, Islamic

jurisprudence, Al-Kur'ah,
^
1S u n n a ', 'Idjtihad',
1
'Idjma',
'

'K i y a s ', 'al-Istihs'an' , 'al-Maslahat a l - M u r s a l a t ', al-

« < 6 r

'Urf1 'a l l s t i s h a b ', the laws revealed before Muhammad,

9 t 0 *

the s c h ools of the Companions, the principles of Islamic

law a nd the schools of law. The spread of knowledge on

the s o u rces and the principles of I s l amic law m a y e n able

the people to understand Islamic law more easily, and

may s t i m u l a t e the t h i n k i n g of the M u s l i m s ) .

O.K. Rahmat w a nts to stress the imp o r t a n c e of

understanding 'Usul-Fikh' and 'Al-Qawa'Td al-FikhTah'

among Muslims, since lacking u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the above

subjects will lead to the emergence of 'taklid buta'

*
(blind followers), fanatics and extremists a m ong the

'K a u m T u a 1 (Old Group) and 'K a u m M u d a ' (Young Group), the

* *

traditionalists and Wahabi groups. In Saudi ArabFa for

example, due to their lack of knowledge on the schools

of law the 'Kaum Muda' accuse the 'Kaum Tua' of being

• *■

astray, when in fact the latter were strong followers

of the H
(?a n bali school (Horrie and Chippindale, 1993:245).

His o t h e r ai m is to e n sure that the d e v e l o p m e n t of

Islamic Law in Malaysia is not a revival of orthodoxy,

r i gid a t t i t u d e s and c l osed minds, but maintains the

freedom of thought, tolerance among the 'madhhab', a

 362

more flexible and dy n a m i c outlook which can face n ew

situations, c r eate new institutions and r e a lise the

Islamic values afresh. Then the Muslims will po s s e s s the

f r e e d o m of v i ews o t her tha n the p r i m a r y sources A l - K u r ' a h

#>

and Sunna. To him all the authentic scholars 'Mujtahid'

(i.e. t he ones w h o m a k e i n d e p endent idjtihad) are on the

true path since they obtained AlLah's guidance. This

s t a t emen t encourages unity among Muslims from different

s chools of law and is in line w i t h the g o v e r n m e n t ’s v i e w

of interpreting Islam in a way re l e v a n t to modern

d e v e l o p m e n t (14). It is clear that the author rec o g n i z e s

the authenticity of the ancient sc h o l a r s but disagrees

with those who are against the schools of law and past

Muslim scholars' t e a c hings especially S h a f i 'i school

which is the official madhhab in every state in M a l a y s i a

except Perl is .

The aim of the book 'Hakikat

0 * r
Kepimpinan dalam

Rumahtangga' (True L e a d e r s h i p in Family) published in

1987 is to analyse the society. At the same time it is

useful as guidance to couples getting married (Abuf

Hassan, 1987:iii-iv).
jr
Muslim writers directly or indirectly critisize

the M u s l i m F a m i l y Law 'Undang-undang K e l u a r g a I s l a m ' , and

 363

the administration of Muslim affairs in the States, when

t hey d i scuss Muslim marriage and f a m i l y affairs. However,

the issues and subjects discussed in their books are

generally similar. For example, the author of the book

1B e b e r a p a Aspek Mengenai E n akmen Keluarga Islam di

M a l a y s i a ’ (Some A s p e c t s R e g a r d i n g M u s l i m F a m i l y E n a c tment

in M a l aysia) says, " Kebanyakan negeri di M a l a y s i a membuat

peruntukan yang agak ketat dalam hal ini (poligami).

Banyak negeri menetapkan bahawa persetujuan isteri a d alah

perlu d i p e rolehi sebelum daripada sisuami itu dapat

berkahwin lagi dengan isteri kedua, ketiga dan keempat

(poligami). Cuma Kelantan memberi kuasa itu kepada

budibicara Kadi. Dengan peruntukan yang k e tat begini

maka lelaki yang ingin berp o l i g a m i akan m e n g ambil

tindakan melakukan p e r k a h w i n a n di Thailand" (Md A k h i r and

other, 1989:57). (Most states in M a l a y s i a p r o v i d e a rigid

ruling on polygamy. The consent of the first w i f e must be

obtained before his second, third and fourth marriages

are allowed. O nly Kelantan gives the authority to the

Kadi~. The rigid ruling of the law on m a r r i a g e causes the

husband who w a nts to p r a c t i s e polygamy to get married in

Thailand).

Mohd. Akhir b in Yaak5b in his book 'Undang-

 364

undang Keluarga Isl'am' (Muslim Family Law) published in

1989, says that the aim of his writing is to explain

polygamy, a wo m a n ' s right to betrothal when h er gua r d i a n

refuses to give her away, and other problems pertaining

to marriage and divorce in Malaysia. For examples these

include: the wives' rights, the effects of the

implementation of Muslim Family Law, elopement,

disharmonious father-daughter relationship as a

co n s e q u e n c e of divorce and separation, the distribution

of the 'harta sepencarian' (j o i n t - o w n e r s h i p property)

between the divorced husband and wife, 'walT 'adal

(irres p o n s i b l e guardian), disuniformity of t he States'

Muslim Co u r t ' s actions, marriage without a guardian, the

p o wer of the guardian, the m i s s i n g g u a r d i a n (walT ghaib),

and m i s s i n g d a u g h t e r (bride).

In the book 'Ibu Tanggungjawab Pengorbanan dan

Cabaran' (Mother's Responsibility, Sacrifice and

Challenge) published in 1985 the author says, "Tujuan

buku ini d i t ulis adalah u n tuk menimbulkan kefahaman dan

kesedaran dikalangan ibu-ibu dengan menjadikan Islam

sebagai asas d a l a m b i d a n g pendidikan" (SuhaTr a nd others,

y

1985:iv). (The a i m of the boo k is to create u n d e r s t a n d i n g

and a w a r e n e s s a m ong mo t h e r s to mak e Isl'am the foundation

 365

of e d u c a t i o n ) .

When Mustafa Suhaimi wrote the b ook 'T e r b o n g k a r

rr *
Rashad KhalTfa~Rasul A g a m a Kod 19' (Rashad K h a l i f a Rasul

Agama C ode 19 Exposed) in 1989 his objective wa s "Buku

ini ditulis adalah bertujuan untuk memberi fahaman dan

kesedaran kepada kaum Muslimin s u paya mendalami s y a r i 'at

ugamanya sendiri untuk memelihara kesucian Tman dan

a q i d a h n y a dari a n a s i r p e m e s o n g a n y a n g timbul". (This book

is written in o r der to explain and create an awareness

a m ong Muslims, to f u r ther their knowledge on r e l igious

laws in order to protect the purity of their f a ith and

belief f r o m the d e v i a t i n g eleme n t s that a r i s e ) .

In a boo k 'Ilmu RohariT dan Hikmat' (Spiritual

Knowledge and Wisdom) published in 1980 H a s a n § a l e h says,

"Tujuan amalan dan membaca buk u ini ialah bagi

k e s e m p u r n a a n beramal d an m e n j a m i n k e b e r s i h a n j i w a " . (The

aim of the deed of writing and reading t he book is to

ac h i e v e perfect devotion a nd to guarantee purity of the

soul). Haji Yahya Zakrl” bin Alang Mat Pratt's objective

when writing 'Hadi"ah y a n g dikirimkan Daripada Yang Hidup

Kepada Yang M a t i ' (Present Sent From the L i v i n g to

the Dead), p u b l i s h e d in 1988, is "Panduan d an p e n e r a n g a n

y a n g baik k e p a d a p e m b a c a m e m b u a t a m alan kebajikan oleh

 366

orang yang h i dup kepada o r ang yang telah mati". (Good

guidance a nd explanation to the r e a ders about h ow to do

g ood deeds for the dead) This book might increase the

knowledge and understanding of its readers. It has an

academic a p p r o a c h and helps t h e m to o b t a i n more reliable

reference sources, as proofs to all the issues

discussed. The book focuses on the v e r s e s of the Al-

Kur'an and certain devotion s e r vices which s h ould be

f

practised, and gives the priority ra n k i n g of these in

o r der to r e m e m b e r and gai n A l l a h ' s grace.

In a book on Hadith. the a u t h o r says his

objective when writing 'Metode Penyampaian dan Penerimaan

Hadith Dizaman Rasul al l“ah s.a.w. dan Sahabat' (The M e t h o d

» o «

of Presentation and A c c e p t a n c e of Hadith During the Time

m '"*■
of Pr o p h e t Muhammad S . A.W and the C o m p anions) published

in 1987, is "Memberi penjelasan kepada ummat Islam

t e n t a n g p e n g e r t i a n Hadis, Sunnat dan p e m b a h a g i a n n y a dan

membuktikan keaslian Hadis / S u nnah adalah terjamin dan

* V

1h a r u s 1 d i t e r i m a dan dijadikan dalil (ber d a s a r k a n k e pada

metode penyampaian d an penerimaan dizaman Rasulallah dan

sahabat.)" (To clarify the meaning of H a d i th, Sunna and

* o
its d i v i s i o n s to the Muslims and to prove that the

o r i g i n a l i t y of H a d i t h and S u n n a h is g u a r a n t e e d and should

ff ■
 367

be acccepted and use d as evidence (based on the method

of its delivery and acceptance during the period of

P r ophet M u h a m m a d and the c o m p a n i o n s ) .

T he book 'Tajwid d an Ilmu al-Quran' ('Tajwid' and

Knowledge of Al-Kur'an) written by Hfta s s a n M a h»m u d Al-

*
Hafiz in 1986, is to g u ide those who intend to further

their knowledge in 'Tajwid'. "Buku ini cukup baik

untuk dijadikan sebagai panduan bagi mereka yang ingin

memperdalam didalam bidang Tajwid." (This is a fairly

good book as guidance for those w ho w a n t to deepen their

k n o w l e d g e of 'Tajwid' (the Ku r ' a n i c r e c i t a t i o n rules).

Most Muslim wr i t e r s clearly stress the main

objectives of their books. These objectives are: e i ther

to explain Islamic knowledge to their readers, to h elp

them solve their daily problems, to i m prove their

understanding of Islamic te a c h i n g s or to strengthen

their faith and belief in the p e r f e c t i o n and justice of

Islamic laws, to teach them of their duty in life, to

info r m them on contemporary issues particularly the

deteriorating surroundings with regard to morality,

crime, law and administration, or as a guide to access

refe r e n c e s for t h e i r lessons (Abdul Rau"f, 1990 :vi), to

provide a more effective and systematic Islamic

 368

education, or to provide Islamic b o oks for the

children's library (Roselan, 1 9 8 9 :iii).

However, the ultimate objectives are writing for

the sake of Allah, to gain Allah's willingness and

blessings. This is c l e a r l y mentioned in the book 'Salah

Asuhan Panduan Asa s Kesihatan A n a k ' (Wrong Upbringing

Basic Guidance to a Child's Health) written by Abdul

K a der Hussein, "Usaha y a n g tidak s e p e r t i n y a ini diterima

9 O

oleh A l l a h s.w.t. sebagai satunya 1fardu k i f a y a h oleh

seorang hambanya yang hina".(I hop e my worthless effort

will be accepted by Allah s.w.t. as one of the

collective obligations 'fard kifayah' of His h u mble

servant). YahyeT Zakri (1988:95) also expresses his

9

thanks to his readers for correcting his faults and

m i s t a k e s and prays that A l l a h will rewa r d t h e m all.

In general, most Islamic books in M a l a y are

su i table for all Muslims except children. However, books

which deal with more complex s u b jects suc h as on

ec o n o m i c theory (for example see Ab. Rashid, 1985),

philosophy, Sufism (for example see Abdul Majid, 1985),

jurisprudence (for ex a m p l e see Abdul Aziz, 1976),

'tajwid', science, banking, counselling a nd engineering,

w h i c h c a n be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h their s u b ject matters, use

 369

special terms. Their approach and style of writing is

mor e appropriate for t h ose familiar with the topics.

Normally, the books p u b l i s h e d are in t e n d e d to impart new

knowledge to people. This is especially true of books

relating to business, modern m e t hods of calculating the

rate of zak"at, new forms of zakat s y s t e m s u c h as zakat on

wage or salary (Hassan, 1985), and o t her knowledge such

as performing obligatory prayer (M. SaTd, (1976), zakat

paying s y s t e m or p e r f o r m i n g a P i l g r i m a g e to M e c c a t h r o u g h

the Board of Se r v i c e and Hadjdj Fund (15) or to

in t r o d u c e new concepts of counseling from an Islamic

perspective.

Consequently all these books are relevant to the

n e eds of society, since there are m a n y M u s l i m s w ho lack

proper rel i g i o u s background. For a long time the

questions of r e l igion wer e matters left to the

1 ' u l a m a ' ', while the population at large was less

interested. However with increased education (secular)

and a change of attitudes and growing religious

awareness, the n e e d for p o p u l a r and m o r e scholarly issues

to be used for more books has arisen. These b o oks guide

the readers to b e c o m e good Muslims, to educate their

children about g o o d moral attitudes, a nd to live an

 370

Islamic way of life. Moreover, most imp o r t a n t for the

Muslim writers at pr e s e n t is to enrich the number of

these Islamic l i t erary w o rks w h i c h can a s sist the 1d a 1wa1-

activities in M a l a y s i a (A S a m a d and others, 1992:62).

S ome M u s l i m w r i t e r s s u c c e s s f u l l y u se t h eir w r i t i n g

to id e n t i f y soc i e t y ' s pr o b l e m s and propose effective

sol u t i o n s to the issues discussed (For example see M o h d

K a m a 1, 1991). M o h%d Kamal c l a rifies certain issues such as

the beli e f in Allah, Al-Kur'an, the life Hereafter, the

©
Day of Judgement, the i m p o rtance and the danger of goo d

and bad c h a r a c t e r s respectively, the i m p o r t a n c e of faith

and the d a n g e r of the devil.

The M u s l i m s in this c o u n t r y t o d a y are exposed to

world-wide v i ews through i m p orted books which are

sometimes unsuited to the local environment, social

needs and the government's policy but are usef u l for the

development of the intellectual. Moreover, some of

these b o oks are influenced by the different schools of

law which can lead to ambiguity and disunity among the

uneducated Muslims, unless the readers are properly

g u i d e d and aware of these differences.

By r e a ding the Islamic b o oks in Malay the

M u s l i m s g a i n additional general knowledge b e s ides the

 371

information provided on the m a jor issues of the topics

discussed. For e x a m p l e the book 'Ilmu Rohani d an H i k m a t ’

(Spiritual K n o w l e d g e and Wisdom) w r i t t e n by Hassan Saleh

in 1980, covers many issues. Although it m i g h t endanger

the Muslims' faith (as I will discuss later), it gives

valuable information regarding faith such as: the n u m b e r

of the H o l y B o oks revea l e d to the P r o phets Sith, Ibrahim,

Musa, Baud, Isa" and Muhammad, the truth of I s lam and its

s acr e d book as the last divi n e religion a nd revelation,

which is similar but a c o m p lement to the premier message

of the previous religions and Holy Books that call the

people to believe in Allah as their only God. The book

also mentions the superiority and the se c r e t s of the Al-

K u r ’aiiic words and vers e s particularly those related to

Allah's Names and Attributes, Al-Kur'ahic ch a p t e r s and

the Arabic script, the ben e f i t s of reciting Al-Kur'an,

'khatam S u l a i m a n 1 and the s p e c i a l i t y of 'wirid'. The book

explains the procedure of recitation during their

d e v o t i o n se r v i c e s 1R i a d a h 1 and sec l u s i o n 'k h a l w a t '.

T he book 'Ibu Tanggungjawab Pengorbanan dan

Cabaran' (Mother's Responsibilities, Sacrifices and

Challenges), while discussing health, stresses the

d a n g e r of homo s e x u a l act i v i t i e s w h i c h can lead to serious

 372

social problems (Suhair and others, 1985:120). The book

'Metode Penyampaian dan Penerimaan Hadith di Z a m a n

Rasulallah s.a.w.' (The M e t h o d of D e l i v e r y and A c c e p t a n c e

of Hadith During the Tim e of P r o phet Muhammad S.A.W. and

the Companions) written by M u h a m m a d can be considered a

good example of an Islamic book in M a l a y for it gives a

complete list of Al-Kur'anic vers e s quoted, Hadith and

'Athar' in 'Jawi' in its special appendixes, a list of

authentic ref e r e n c e books, bibliography, transliteration,

v o c a b u l a r y and abbreviations.

The book 'Terbongkar Rasyad Khalifah Rasul Agama

Kod 19' (Rasyad K h a l i f a h The Prophet of the Code 19

Religion Exposed) is b a sed on strong a r g ument and

evidence. For example, Rashad K h a l i f a h 1s declaration

that he is a new 'messenger' prov e s the fallacy of the

a n t i - H a d i t h movement. The author also q u o t e s the reliable

t "*1
argum e n t of Ibn H a z m to prove the importance of H a d i t h as
A «
a s o urce of Islamic law, that only through Hadith the

Muslims knew the number of 'rak'a' in a prayer, the w ay

to p e r f o r m prayers, the a p p r o p r i a t e p h r a s e s or the v e rses

to be recited in a prayer, the prohibitions during

fasting, the rate of pa y m e n t in 1zak"at' , the p r o c e d u r e

of p e r f o r m i n g Hadjdj and all its p r o h i b i t i o n s (Mustafa-,

— — *
 373

1989).

On the other hand there are books which

surprisingly teach practices that are unlslamic or even

against Islam. An example of this is t he boo k 'Ilmu

RohanT d an Hikmat1 (Spiritual Knowledge and Wisdom)

* »
written by Hassan Salleh in 1980. It teaches its readers

the u se of the cha r m i n g potion 'pengasih' to attract

women or to disturb them, belief in witchcraft 'sihir',

m

fortune telling 'tilik nasib', to predict the c a use of

illness, or to trace m i s s i n g or lost p r o p e r t i e s or goods.

This book encourages the people to believe in

superstition regarding the best time for carrying out

certain activities, these times are normally r e l ated

to astrology 'ilmu bintang', the circulation of the m o o n

and the stars.

Muslims are warned that those who do not fully

practise the 'Ilmu Hikmat' (Kowledge of Wisdom) will

suffer mental illness or inner polytheism 1svirk batin'.

The Muslims are encouraged to wear the talisman

''a z T m a t ', to befriend the Genie S l ave 'K h a d a m Jin' and

to use an incense burner and the 'rajah' (diagrams) to

help them overcome difficulties in life. All these

p r a c t i c e s t o t a l l y d e v i a t e from Islamic teachings.

The boo k s t r esses the importance of spiritual

 374

practices if one is to g ain success in worldly life and

the life after death. This is done it says, through

re c i t i n g the Al-^ur'anic verses, 'sawaqit Al-Fatihah'

solitude ’k h a l w a t ’ or chanting A l l a h ’s N a mes and

Attributes 'wirid', through practising the p a t h of S u f i s m

*

'Tarikat' sincerely, patiently and confidently 'yakin'.

i i »

To him one is able to visit Mecca in se c o n d s 'sekelip

mata' through the above practices, which are obviously

a g ainst Islam.

T h e r e are o t h e r false t e a c h i n g s d e s c r i b e d in this

book such as writing 'Bismillah' on a s t one and putting

it in the fishing net to ensu r e an abundant catch, or

writing the verse ’B i s m i l l a h ’ on a c a r d and p u t t i n g it

u n der the crystal ring and later p u t t i n g it into a glass

of m i l k to cure a p e r s o n f rom poisoning.

This book encourages its readers to believe in

’alamat' (sign) suc h as tu r n i n g of the bamboo which

indicates success, and to believe in the luck and the

power of the genie. By practising 'ilmu Hikmat or ilmu

rohanP a f a m i l y ’s life can be destroyed. The book

re i n t r o d u c e s trad i t i o n a l M u s l i m medical treatments, which

usually u se equipment, i n g r edients and an approach that

are i r r e levant to Islam such as: using spring water,

 375

bowls written with Al-Kur'anic verses a nd wearing a

talisman (Hasan, 1980:91,120-121). Unless these unlslamic

practises are omitted, the book c o uld mislead the faith

of its M u s l i m readers.

Most of the Muslim writers are sensitive,

perceptive and alert w h e n facing c o n s t r a i n t s and pr o b l e m s

when writing. Generally, the y give unfanatical and

unbiased views and true info r m a t i o n based on a u t h entic

sources. T h eir discussions are not confined to the

jShafi'T school of law but include others such as A bu

H a n l f a h and H a n b a l F (Yahya, 1988:42), besides r e f ering to

several authentic and famous Muslim sc h o l a r s such as Ibn

Khaldun an d othe r s (SobriT, 1988:20). When they write on

“““ «
I slamic law, Islamic teachings or the history of the

Prophets, the y refer to 'K i tab al-Fikh' written in A r a b i c

*
or to Isl"amic history books written by the Muslims, as

their primary sources. They refer to books written

by Western authors or the Greek Philosophers,

particularly when the materials a nd s o u rces needed are

limited, or the subject has not been written about by

M u s l i m s c h olars (For e x a m p l e see S u h a i r and others, 1985:

r

89, 111).

However, there are also Islamic b o oks in M a l a y

 376

written without reference to either authenthic or

inauthentic books (For example see Mohd Kamil, 1991).

There are writers w ho do not state the page number or

the reference books used, but refer only to Arabic

magazines (For example see Suhair and others,

1985:69,71). They are al s o less attentive when qu o t i n g

Al-Kur'anic verses and Hadith, giving incomplete verses

# * —
and texts, and f a iling to state the chapter, the number

of verses or the status of ga d it h and the narrators'

chronology .

For example in the book 'Ibu T a n g g u n g jawab

Pengorbanan d an Cabaran' (Mother's R e s ponsibility,

Sacrifices and Challenges), t h o u g h the a u t h o r states the

verses of the Al-Kur'an, the number of the verses, the

*

n a m e of the c h a p t e r 'sura' and its m e a n i n g or in the case

of the H a d i t h t h o u g h she m e n t i o n s its meaning, clearly

indicates the signs of p r o n o u n c i a t i o n 'baris', states the

narrators and the compilers of the H a d i t h ' r a w i ', but

this form of q u o t a t i o n is inconsistent. Sometimes the

n a r r a t o r s of the HadXth and its ref e r e n c e b o oks g i ven

are incomplete.

In some books the meaning or exegesis is written

without its verse, its n u m b e r and the n a m e of the chapter

'sura' or the HadXth texts 'matan' (For example see

» ——
 377

Suhair and others, 1 9 8 5 : 4 , 7 - 9 , 3 3 , 5 3 - 5 5 and 60). Moreover,

at present t h ere is not a single agreed view a m ong

modern Muslim scholars' forbidding the practise of

writing the m e a n i n g of HadiTth in R o m a n i s e d script wi t h o u t

its Arabic text, (Muhammad, 1987:131) or to make it

*
compulsary for writers to state fully th e narrators and

the c o m p i l e r s of the H a d i t h mentioned.

In o r d e r to m a i n t a i n the q u a l i t y an d e f f e c t i v e n e s s

of their books, Muslim writers a v oid making obvious

gram m a t i c a l mistakes, taking care of their style of

writing, emphasising originality and verification of

writing. Eve n though t hey might indirectly reprint the

content of a n other book, plagiarism either through

t r a n s l a t i o n or r e p r o d u c t i o n among M u s l i m w r i t e r s is rare.

The exception to this is w h ere a writer is accused of

copying a chapter f rom a book, when he w r i t e s an ar t i c l e

in a newspaper without mentioning his refe r e n c e s or

as k i n g permission from the original author(16). There

was a case, when an auth o r p u b l i s h e d a book with a

di f f e r e n t title whose co n t e n t s w e r e more or less similar

to his first book(17). G e n e r a l l y most book w r i t e r s are

particular about maintaining the intellectual

originality of their books, recognising and quoting

 378

books u s e d as refe r e n c e s in their writings.

Plagiarism 'ciplak' eith e r in the form of direct

translation or reproduction are indecent and illegal in

this c o u n t r y (18). In all Islamic b o oks in M a l a y there are

warnings made by the p u b l i s h e r s that copying, reproducing

w h o l e l y or p a r t l y e i t h e r in form of photostat, facsimile,

print or x e rox are illegal and c an lead to

p r o s e cution( 19) . However, this does n ot mean that

p l a g i a r i s m is not c a r r i e d out by the writer.

In my study, onl y a few Islamic b o oks in Malay

were published more tha n thrice. However a book 'Permata

Yang Hilang' (The Lost Jewel) written by Ibn Y u suf was

published three times in one year (1992) a nd was also

i l l e g a l l y p r i n t e d in the form of p h o t o c o p y and sold at a

cheaper price. A small b o o klet ’Ke ara h Memahami al-

Ma'thurat1 (Towards Understanding a l - M a 't h u r a t 1) which

c o n tains verses of Al-Kur'lh commonly recited by Mu s l i m s

as t h eir daily 'wirid' written by a M u s l i m scholar

Abdul G h a n T S h a m s u d d l n was p u b l i s h e d s e ven times within

six y e ars from 1983 to 1989. Other books which were

published twice from 1975 and 1992 at the p r ice of four

to f i f t e e n do l l a r s are m o s t l y on d e v o t i o n s e r v i c e s (20).

Recently, a n u m b e r of Muslim writers used their

 379

books to criticise other Muslims' mistakes or to condemn

them personally or their views or ideas which they

considered weak and w h i c h they rejected. The m o r e extreme

writers u se sarcastic words, labelling others as sinner

1fasiq', infidel 'kufr' and hypocrite 'munaTfiq' and

accusing their practises as 'bid'a*. This h a p pens when

those in v o l v e d h o l d d i f f e r e n t political views or bot h are

fighting for their own v e s t e d interest or h a v e a conflict

of o p i n i o n over d i s p u t e d issues even t h o u g h som e t i m e s the

issues are clearly against the fatwa~(21). This

disagreement will co n t i n u e in the future u n less a

consensus decision is re a c h e d by religious authority

based on Isl'amic jurisprudence system; the freedom of

opinion among authentic scholars, m a j o r i t y v i e w s b a s e d on

's y u r a 1 system and the acceptence of authentic op i n i o n

am ong Muslims. At the same time no one is allowed to

practise a g a inst 1syura"1 and the co n c e p t of 'maslahat

*

'ammah', 'd h a r u r a h ’ and 'm a s a l i h alMursalah' should be

*

p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t o o d and a p p l i e d in the M u s l i m s o c i e t y in

Malaysia.

Unfortunately, some stat e m e n t s dealing with

I s l amic law made by the Muslim writers a re doubtful

w h e n the n a mes of Islamic school of law r e f e r e d too are

 380

not clearly mentioned in the books concerned. According

to Abdul Halim, most Malaysian Muslims believe that

following another school of law besides the Shafi'i

school ’talfiq' is forbidden in Isl"am a nd against the

states' enactments (Abdul HalTm, 1989:203). Even though

the titles of a u t h e n t i c books from v a r i o u s schools of law

are mentioned in the bibliographies, very few Mu s l i m s

know the 1m a d h h a b 1 of the books written. Frequently,

controversial statements need to be clarified through

academic writing. It needs intellectual thinking, strong

argument, evidence and aut h e n t i c references to s a t isfy

issues in q u e s t i o n f rom the different backgrounds of the

readers.

However, m o s t of the books published in this

country do not c l e a r l y sho w that t h e y are based on the

Shaf jp I* school of law. Some of the opinions on

contemporary issues are against the views of the

official school of law in M a l a y s i a and the fatwa issued

by the 'Mufti"' t h r o u g h o u t the country. This is unlike

'Kitab J a w i ' w h e r e the school of law is c l e a r l y stat e d at

the back of the front page of the book concerned.

The powers of the Islamic Affairs Division of the

PrimeMinister Department at a central level, the power

 381

of the S t ate Islamic Rel i g i o u s Departments and the M u s l i m

C ourts at state level are limited and no effective legal

action can regulate the contr o v e r s i a l b o oks published.

This means to u n i t e the Muslims under one banner and to

strengthen their l o y alty to the rules fatwa issued by

Fatwa~ Committees are goals that cannot be totally

achieved.

Based on the res p e c t i v e bibliographical

references most Islamic books in Malay I studied were

influenced by books from abroad. About 75% of the

reference books wer e written by scholars w ho have

graduated fro m Arab countries, 25% fro m the West.

Books w r i t t e n by the local university graduates and

Islamic r e l i gious schools refer to books written by

foreign schol a r s especially the Muslims in Muslim

c ou n t r i e s such as SaudT Arabia, Lebnon, India, Pakistan

and I n d o n e s i a (22).

In the discussion of an Islamic economy for

example, the M u s l i m w r i t e r s in Malaysia refer to the

'Kit*ab TafsTr' (Book on Exegesis) and 'K i t a b Hadith'

ft ~ "
(Book on Hadith) c o m p i l e d or w r i t t e n by Al-Tabranl, Al-
p --* •
Baihaql, Imam Al-Sayutl, Ima m Malik, BukharT, Abu Said
• -
Al-Khanduri, and Ibn Khaldun. O t her M u s l i m scholars like
 382

Imam Abu Zuhrah, Imam A l - RazT are also popular among

Muslim writers in this country because of their v i ews

which oppose those w ho claim that interest 'riba"’ is

lawful. They reject the claim that the emergency

condition 'd h a r u r a h 1 can be u sed as a reason to allow

the M u s l i m s to a c cept interest ’riba"1 (Sobri, 198860-31).

The m o d e r n M u s l i m authors w h e n writing, refer to

various b o oks irrespective of faith, authenticity and

sects of the authors and the language of the books used.

However the r e f e rences books u sed are normally based on

the type of books to be produced, either in a typically

traditional r e l i gious style (Kitab Kuning) or modern

’a c a d e m i c ’ books. Today, since the d i s c u s s i o n on Islam is

not limited to Muslim scholars, modern Muslim writers,

when writing on contemporary issues, also refer to the

views of n o n M u s l i m w r i t e r s particularly if t h eir idea is

in line with an Islamic point of view or supporting the

idea of a particular Muslim scholar. For example

r e f e r e n c e w o u l d be made to the fact that the whole

Christian Church prior to the Modern Age also r e j ected

totally the practice of charg i n g interest 'riba-1 or any

for m of contract in bu s i n e s s that referred to interest

(SobrT, 1988:25-26). Keyn e s stat e d that the h i g h e s t rate

 383

of interest will freeze the capital growth when

consumers' demand or bargaining power decreases. The

Muslim writers have to refer to non Muslim scholars

(Suhair and others, 1985:35-89) when writing in areas

w h e r e b o o k s w r i t t e n by M u s l i m s w o r l d w i d e are limited.

Th e large quantity of the imported Islamic books

from Indonesia or written by Indonesians sold in the

M a l a y s i a n book m a r k e t have e n c o u r a g e d M u s l i m w r i t e r s to

write and publish books on similar issues and on the

popular subjects. The migration of Indonesian Muslim

s c h olars and the increase of Malaysian students

graduating from I n d o n e s i a n u n i v e r s i t i e s will to a c e r t a i n

extent contribute to the n e w d e v e l o p m e n t of Islamic books

in M a l a y a nd h e l p to change their characteristics in the

future. However, this may well mean that the s p read of

false teachings, ambiguities on Islamic law and the

confusing influence of differing schools of law will not

cease among Muslims in this country. This is because

some of the Isramie books w r i t t e n by I n d o n e s i a n M u s l i m s

are, according to the some Malay Muslims, i r r e levent to

the S h a f i 1i School of Law. Its opinion and Islamic

t e a c h i n g s p a r t i c u l a r l y on faith, law a nd SufTsm do not

c o n f o r m to the 'Ahl A l - S u n n a ' . T h e s e b o oks are popular

 384

a m ong them either because of their ignorance of Islamic

teaching, lack of k n o w l e d g e to be able to d i s t i n g u i s h the

ShafT'T School of Law from others, or t hey are v e r y keen

to learn I s lSm in general or their interest in

comparative study of va r i o u s schools. Among some

Muslims, the t r a d i tional Islamic Medicine, 'bertapa',

hermitage, 'sihir', t raditional culture, dancing and the

belief in 'keramat', g e nie and traditional self defence

art are still popular especially in rural area in

Indonesia. In u r b a n society, in the same country, inter­

r el i g i o u s marriage is practised even among Muslims when

the law c o n c e r n i n g the general principles of marriage,

'Rancangan Undang-undang Pokok-Pokok Perkahwinan' (The

Primier Marriage Law Programme) became the general law

for all I n d o n e s i a n s r e g a rdless of their b e l iefs and

nationality (Muhammad Kamal, 1980:147).

Style of W r i t i n g

Generally, the topics chos e n by M u s l i m w r i t e r s w h e n

writing on contemporary issues correlate with the needs

of M u s l i m society. This is in line w i t h the m a i n task of

the literary work as the mirror of time a nd society.

Writers are the members of society. Their close

 385

r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h others, the experiences, and valuable

knowledge gained as a result of the relationship is u s e d

when writing to help overcome a ny problems faced by

society.

They were about polemical issues fro m personal

matters dealing with devotion and family life to

pol i t i c a l and na t i o n a l issues. T he approach used is to

hi g h l i g h t one's o wn opinion, in support or opposition of

ot h e r ' s views. Writers such as Kassim, Hashim and

A s h a 1a r T put f o r ward t h eir opi n i o n s on contr o v e r s i a l

issues of anti-Hadith, ittiba'a al-Sunna and the

resurrection of Sheikh Muhammad SuhaimT as Imam MahdT

“^ ^ * f
respectively.

There are w r i t e r s w ho w r i t e for a particular aim.

KhadTjah for example, writ e s on the Resurrection of Imam

Mahdi to support the a l - A r q a m movement. Khadiiah writing

on b e half of her husband, Arqam's leader Ashaari"" says,

"Untuk itu Imam MahdT, Insya-Allah t i dak lama lagi

akan datang. Datangnya membawa T m a n d an Islam, kebahagian

dan keselamatan ummah se d u n i a dan mencabar musuh Isl'Sm

dan membela umat Islam s a m aada raja atau rakyat, kaya

atau miskin, lelaki a t a u p e r e m p u a n kecuali k a l a u ada y a n g

 386

menentangnya" (Khadijah, 1988:260)(23). This translates

as: Ima m M a h d T w i t h A l l a h will, will soon appear. His

co ming will b r i n g faith and Islam, happiness and s e c urity

for the Muslims 1u m m a h ' thro u g h o u t the world and

challenge the enemies of Isl'am and defend the Muslim

' u m m a h 1 be the y Kings or commoners, rich or poor, m e n or

w o m e n e x cept t h ose w ho o p p o s e him.

Hashim writes to cri t i c i s e Kassim's idea on anti

— t
al-HadTth. Hashim says, "Saya t e l a h m e m b a c a d e n g a n teliti

buku '"HADIS" Sat u Penilaian Semula' yang disusun oleh

Kassim Ahmad yang diterbitkan ole h M E D I A I N T E L E K SDN.

» *
BHD. Buku ini mengandungi 131 halaman dalam 5 bahagian

itu pada hemat saya b u kan disusun atas dasar 'keimanan’

kepada Allah dan Rasulnya, kerana ia tidak melambangkan

s e d i k i t p u n u n sur TMAN, dan agTdah yang b aik malah ia

berdasar kepada KEINGKARAN". This means I have read

c a r e f u l l y the book '"HADIS" a r e v i e w 1 (written) by K a s s i m

• *

A h m a d p u b l i s h e d by Media Intelek Sdn. Bhd. This book

*•
co n tains 131 p a ges in 5 chapters which in my opinion is

written based not on ' f a i t h 1 to Allah a nd H is Messenger,

because it does not portray any el e m e n t of faith and

belief but is b a s e d on d i s o b e d i e n c e (Hashim, n.d.;5)(24).

The Islamic Affairs Division of the Prime

 387

Minister's Department publishes books to reject al-

Arqam various disputable issues(25). Based on these

clarifications a nd arg u m e n t s a l - A r q a m w as later b a n n e d by

the government when the Fatwa Committees declared this

organisation to be unlawful. They s aid their act i v i t i e s

undermined Muslim f a ith and threatened the security of

the s o c i e t y and c o u n t r y as a whole.

In the preface of the book, 'Penjelasan Terhadap

B uk u A u r a d Muhammadiah Pegangan Darul Arqam'

(Clarification on the Boo k Aurad Muhammadiah Darul

Arqam's Guide), the D e p u t y M i n i s t e r of R e l i g i o u s Af f a i r s

of the P r ime Minister's Department at that time, Datuk

Mohd Y u sof N o r (26) says, "Buku ini sebenarnya adalah

vs

sebuah buku yang semata-mata bertujuan untuk menjelaskan

kepada o r a n g ramai tentang kekeliruan yang terdapat

didalam buku 'Aurad Muhammadiah Pegangan al-Arqam

Sekaligus Menjawab T u d u h a n ' ole h Ustaz A s h a a r T M u h a m m a d

K e t u a Darul al-Arqam'". This t r a n s l a t e s as: T he o b j e c t i v e

of this book is s o lely to clarify to the public the

ambiguities found in the book 'Aurad M u h a m m a d i a h H e l d by

al-Arqcim Simultaneously Answering the Accusation' by

Ustaz AshggrT Muhammad the Head of t he Darul-Arqam

(Bahagian Hal Ehwal Islam, Jabatan P e r d a n a Menteri, 1986

 388

:5).

In a series of books written by the supp o r t e r s

of 'a l - A r q a m ' and 'IttitJa'a al-Sunna' on c e r tain

p o l emical issues t h e i r views are c l e a r l y in c o n t r a d i c t i o n

with the views of the Islamic Affairs Division of the

Prime Minister's Department (BAHEIS) and the Negeri

Sembilan's Isl'amic R e l i g i o u s Department (JAINS). (BAHEIS)

and (JAINS) b l ame 'al-Arqam' and 'Ittiba'a al-Sunna' for

creating t e n s i o n and c o n f u s i o n in the M u s l i m s o c i e t y over

the controversial issues r a ised ( AshaarT, 19891137,

Kassim, 1992:159 and Hashim, 1985:34-35).

*
For example the books written by H a s h i m on behalf

of the ’Ittiba'a" Al-Sunna' and the b o oks written by

AshaarF and al-Arqam's supporting writers are openly

a g a inst Kassim and the 'a n t i - H a d i t h ' group(Hashim, 1988:

r • — --
17, and Hashim, n.d.:4). K F s sim's book on the o t her
“ *
hand though not directly against both is against the

'Ahl Al-Sunna' group who claims Ha d F t h as a sour c e of

Islamic Law (Kassim, 1992:22).

Both Hashim (1985:172) and Kassim condemn the

■— •
p r a c t i c e of 'bid'a' and 'khurafaft', i r r e s p e c t i v e of any

groups involved. In his book Kassim (1992:152) rebuked

#
those who follow others blindly 'taklid'. Kassim
 389

c r i t i c i s e s A s h a a r T a nd the a l - A r q a m g r o u p for g i v i n g too

much respect to the saints 'walT-wair' (Kassim, 1986:

*
118). To A s h a 1a r T and his followers, since this issue is

not part of the principles of Islamic faith ’R u k u n

T m S h ’,it does not affect t h eir faith (KhadTjah, 1989:78-

79) .

The Muslim writers kno w the importance of using

clear la n g u a g e in t h eir writing to ensure the readers

understand the c o n tents or the interpretation they

present. Hence, most writers write in Romanised script

rather than 'Jawi* because they k n o w that the m a j o r i t y

of y o u n g M u s l i m s are not familiar w i t h the 'J a w i ' script

and easily bored particularly when reading a t heoretical

subject m a t t e r w r i t t e n in a c o m p l i c a t e d language.

Nevertheless in d o i n g so, some w r i t e r s d o n ’t find

it easy to simplify their writings or to explain the

special terms e s p e c i a l l y whe n d e aling issues on economy,

Sufism, philosophy and '113111 fikh'. Today the number of

r »

Malay Islamic b o oks published in 'Jawi' (27) sold in the

market have decreased c o n s i d e r a b l y due to the d i m i n i s h i n g

n u m b e r of readers w h o are literate in 'Jawi'. The y o u n g e r

g e n e r a t i o n of M u s l i m s read and write in the Romanised

script of the M a l a y language be c a u s e it has b e e n u s e d in

 390

all t e xts book even for Islamic religious subjects.

Moreover the 'Jawi' script is not taught since their

primary school unless they study in Islamic Rel i g i o u s

School. A clear example of this is when the publ i c

openly appealed to the Islamic Division of the Prime

Minister's Department to publish two popular Islamic

books in Malay in Romanised script which were written

originally in 'Jawi'. The books are 'Tafsir P i m p i n a n Al-

Rahmah' (The E x e g e s i s of A 1 - R a h m a n Guidance) and 'Mustika

Hadith' (Precious Hadith). Furthermore, t he publ i s h e r s

are not too keen to publish books which are s i milar to

the 'Kitab Kuning' style of writing which lack d e mand

because of similar reasons(28). In other words, the

illiteracy of Jawi script among Muslims cause the

decreasing demand and market of 'J a w i ' b o oks which, in

terms of business, are not profitable.

Modern 'buku J a w i 1 is an Islamic b ook w h i c h seems

partly to follow the model theology of 'Kitab Kuning'.

Unlike the theological literature of the past, w r i ters

of the 'buku Jawi' are mor e interested in the world at

large whereas ' 'Ulama-1 ' of the past are more i n t e rested

in t e a c h i n g his pupil.

Some Muslim scholars are ag a i n s t the u se of

 391

Romanised script when writing Islamic re l i g i o u s terms

because besides wanting to reta i n its exclusiveness,

some of the terms in A r a b i c language are unsuitable to

be transliterated into Romanised script which sometimes

allows different interpretation. For example the Arabic

word 'ni'mat' (spelled in M a l a y as nikmat) when s p elled

as 'ni 1m a t ' , 'ne'emat' or 'niqmat' the f o rmer two words

mean benefit, bounty, favour, mercy, kindness, helping

hand, privilege and the latter means revenge or

punishment (F .S t e i n g a s s , 1984: 1132,1144, Abdullah, 1986:

673,680). To a v oid such misunderstandings some books

retain the spelling of the Arabic words or religious

terms like 's o l a t ' 1r u k u '' in 'Jawi' script even thou g h

*
the books are w r i t t e n in R o m a n i s e d script and generally

follow the modern Malay s p e lling system. To maintain

uniformity, the governnment issued a 'fatwa' prohibiting

anyo n e from w r i t i n g A l - K u r ' a h i c verse or H a d i t h in the

Romanised s c r i p t (29) This was b e c a u s e w r i t i n g b o t h verses

and w o rds in Romanised script leads .to wrong

pronouncation and gives dif f e r e n t meaning which is

obviously against Islamic teaching. 'Whoever displace

words of the A l - K u r ' a n i c v e r s e s fro m t h eir right places

i n t e n t i o n a l l y or p e r v e r t s t h e m k n o w i n g l y or w i t h a twist
 392

of their tongue commits a serious sin1 (Al-NislP"a: 45,

Ma i d a h : 4 4 and Baqarah:75) and their r e c itings are

rejected. But there are many writers w ho ignore this

r uling p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n no legal a c t ions or p r o s e c u t i o n s

have so far been taken against writers who di s o b e y the

rule. Hassan S a leh in his book 'Ilmu R o h a n T d an Hikmat'

*». a

(Spiritual Knowledge and Wisdom) published in 1980 quotes

many Al-Kur'anic v e rses which are written in Romanised

script, an ex a m p l e is,'Yu'til hikmata man y a s y a ' '.

However, one w h o cannot recite the Al-Kur'*ahic verses in

'Jawi' correctly might make mistakes when pronouncing

'man ya' and 's y a ' . For this example a r e c iter must

connect the s o und of both scripts 'nun' and 'ya' and

pronounce 'sya' longer as 's y a a a ' w h e n one reads the

whole word 'man y a s y a ' .

Some of the books give not onl y the meanings of

the Pro p h e t ' s p r a yers 'du'a' in Malay but the Arabic

p r a yers themselves are written in Romanised script and

s p e lled using the ordinary Malay transliteracy

system(30). For e x a m p l e in the verse; 'Allahumma a h santa

k h a lqie fa a h sin khuluq"ue' (31) a reciter might find it

r-
d i f f i c u l t y to p r o n o u n c e it correctly, p a r t i c u l a r l y for

the w o rds 'khalqie' and 'k h u l u g u e ' which s h ould be

 393

spelt as 1k h a l g i ' and 'k h u l u q i 1.

At the same time, Muslim writers claim that

although they write Islamic terms in the Romanised

script t h eir transcriptions are uniform, "menurut cara

penyalinan huruf
**
Arab kepada huruf rumi yang seragam".

The author of the b ook 1Sumber d an Prinsip Hr* u k u m Islam'

(The Source and Principles of Islamic Law), states his

translateration follows the system prepared by Dewan

Bahasa d an Pustaka translation. "Untuk trans l i t e r a s i

demikian itu saya berpandukan kepada 'P e d o m a n

Transliterasi Huruf Arab Kehuruf Rumi Dewan Bahasa dan

Pustaka 1984” (O.K. Rahmat, 1983:i). Though this

transliteration system m i ght help to m a i n t a i n u n i f o r m i t y

in transliteration it f a iled to produce a perfectly

correct r e c i t i n g s y s t e m for the A l - K u r ’*an.

In the book 'Sumb e r d an P r i n s i p H u k u m Islam' (The

S o urce and the p r i n c i p l e of Islamic Law), the Islamic

terms are written as follows: 'Al-Sunnat which is

incorrect', rather than the correct 'Al-Sunnah', unle s s

this word is spelt with 'Sunnatu' or 'Sunnata' or

'Sunnati' . However, for common Islamic terms such as

'salat', 'wuduk', “' A s a r ' , 'Subuh', 'Ramadan', 'wajib',

Tt f * ^

1s u n a t ' and 'z a k a t ' m a n y of the Muslim writers do not

 394

f o llow the above transliteration system because these

terms are considered common u s age and have lost their

na t u r e as special terms (For example see O.K. Rahmat,

4

1988). In fact, all these w o r d s are Islamic terms u s u a l l y

found in A l - K u r ' a n i c verses and HadTth written in A r a b i c

r » --
script and mos t Muslims understand the meaning of the

terms pronounced even though the y are spelt in a

d i f f e r e n t way.

In writing t h ese books a conventional Islamic

writing approach is maintained particularly in their

introduction. The i n t r o d u c t i o n of the book u s u a l l y begins

with 'BismillahirrahmanirrahTm' (In the nam e of All"ah,

-T

Most Gracious, Mos t Merciful) followed by praises to

Allah, The Cherisher and Sustainer of t he world and

pr a y e r s to Prophet Muhammad with Allah's mercy and

blessings be upon him (For example see S a o d a h , 1990:v i i ,

Muhammad,1987:i , Abu Hassan,1987:i i i , S u h a i r , 1 9 8 5 : iii-

♦ * *
iv, )

The introduction of Islamic b o oks in Malay is

similar to the 'Kitfab J a w i ’ which begin with; "In the

name of Allah, the Merciful, the C o mpassionate, I a

destitute, weak and w o r t h l e s s p e r s o n b e f o r e the Lord rich

and exalted, say..." (Mohd Nor, 1983:2) or phrases with

 395

si m i l a r meaning. At the e nd of the introduction of the

books, some of the Muslim writers ask t he readers to

correct a ny m i s t a k e s found in their w r i t i n g s a nd they beg

fo r g i v e n e s s from Allah. The M u s l i m w r i t e r s of the Islamic

books also follow the style of the 'Kiifab Jawi ’ in

as s e r t i n g that the y w r o t e for the sake of Allah (God)

and not for w o r l d l y p u r poses (Mohd N o r , 83:8).

By starting their writing mentioning Airah and

the Prophet's nam e Muslim writers intend to impress the

readers an d assu r e t h e m that their w r i t i n g s are sincere

and form part of their devotional service. W hen they

commit themselves to p r o d u c e a book in the name of A l l a h

and the Prophet hopefully it will be free fro m a ny

serious m i s t a k e s and failure.

Some of the M u s l i m w r i ters also follow part of a

t r a d i tio nal fo r m u l a when they admit advance their

weaknesses particularly in the arrangement of the

contents, language s t r u cture and translateration

(Muhammad, 1 9 8 7 : i) and beg A l l a h ' s forgiveness and ask

»
the readers' sincere cooperation to correct their

shortcomings.

M ost of the M u s l i m w r i t e r s are able to write in

good M a l a y e ven t h o u g h some have re c e i v e d t h e i r e d u c a t i o n

 396

la r g e l y f rom A r a b i c or I s l amic rel i g i o u s schools 'Sekolah

Pondok' an d later graduated fro m I s l amic Universities

where the medium of instruction is Arabic. Nevertheless,

t h eir educational background has influenced their style

of w r i t i n g and not just the language. Only certain books

maintain the 'Kiifab Jawi' style of writing throughout

their book. O ne example of this is 'Hadiah D a r i p a d a Y a n g

Hidup Kepada Y a n g Mati ' (Present Sent from the Livi n g to

the Dead) w r i t t e n by Y a h y a Zakrr(1988). This book b e gins

its introduction with 'Bismillahir-rahmanir-ra^Tm' (In

the n ame of God, Mos t Gracious, Mos t M e r ciful) follo w e d

by praises for Allah, and prayers to the P r o phet

Muhammad, in Arabic. The writer m a i n t a i n s the 'Kitab'

*

and trad i t i o n a l Malay text styles when he use s ce r t a i n

Arabic ph r a s e s such as 'AlRajF Ghafarun bihi almuqtT

""r— o

al'abdlfaqTr ila M a u l a h u l g h i n a 1 (32) . He also u ses w o r d s

like 'anuna ba'du', 'waba'du' w h i c h b o t h m e a n 'after this'

which are usually used in Arabic w r i t i n g s and s p e eches

and 'katabahu' which means 'he w r i t e s that'.

In his introduction the auth o r prays for A l l a h ' s

mercy and blessing for his (late) p a r e n t s and t e a chers

and p l e a d s for A l l a h ' s rewards and blessings for his

s i n c e r e w o r k d u r i n g his w o r l d l y life and his life after

 397

death. The a u t h o r gives d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n w h e n q u o t i n g

the A l - K u r ’anic verses and H a d i t h text in Arabic, on the

ift ►

number and the nam e of Sur a , the status of the Surah,

the pronounciation when r e a ding (by st a t i n g the

punctuation m a rks in the Arabic text), its meaning and

the reference books he used. In addition he gives the

biography of the authors of the reference books but not

the narrators of the Hadith. The author als o writes, in

detail, the prayers 'du'a-* in Arabic with their

t r a n s l a t i o n in Malay.

In a d d i t i o n w h e n d i s c u s s i n g a p a r t i c u l a r topic he

q u o t e s or r e fers to several o p i n i o n s f r o m d i f f e r e n t sects

or s c h ools of law. Some M u s l i m w r i t e r s do research work

and references from authentic books a nd authoritative

schol a r s a nd A l - K♦ u r ' a h i c e x e g e s i s a t i o n and *Hadith.

■
Yahya*
*

ZakrT for example, gives a brief description of the

b a c k g r o u n d of the C o m p a n i o n s and a short biography of

the scholars. The a u thor puts all these facts t o g e t h e r in

the same paragraph after mentioning the quotations and

r e f e r e n c e books. He also thanks A l l a h for his success in

w r i t i n g the book (YahylT Zakrl”, 1988:20-25,95).

%

Islam encourages Muslims to repeat !B i s m i l f a h i r -

rahmanir-rahim' at the b e g i n n i n g of e v e r y act (A. Yusuf,

f *
 398

1946:14) at an y t i m e and place (Ahzab:56) However some

of t h ese b o oks do not b e g i n w i t h the v e r s e 'B i s m i l l a h i r -

rahmanir-rahTm' and mention only the Hadith's translation

> * *
without it's narrators 'sanad', the compiler 'r a w i ' and

the status of Hadith. Some books d id not mention the

status of the Hadith quoted (See for example Abu Hassan

m 4

1987; Md. Akhir and O t her 1989; A b .Rashid, 1985). In the

same books the continuity of the narrators are also not

mentioned (Md. Akhir and Other, 1989; A b .Rashid, 1985).

The verses of al-Kur'an are not written except for it's

*
translation, chapter 'surai ' and the number of vers e s

(Ibny” Hasyim, 1991). In contrast I found in m y study a

wr i t e r e ven mentioned the category of the c h a pters

'surah' either 'surah MadanTah' or 'MakkTah' (Yahya-

Zakri^ (1988).

Generally, Muslim writers manage to d e t a c h their

language and t h eir sente n c e str u c t u r e f r o m the i n f l uence

of Arabic. Th e w r i t e r s are aware of the impo r t a n c e of a

systematic w r i t i n g a p p r o a c h and rules of literary works

that s h o u l d be f o l l o w e d in their writings. T h e y mak e sure

they are clear about the books' objective, its target

group, the topics, the content and its approach. The y

are careful about the style of language, chosing the

 399

appropriate words and phrases, the size of the book, the

quality of the book published and marketing (See

Muhammad, 1 9 8 7 , Ibnu Yusuff, 1992 and Hassan, 1980).

► 3

Most Muslim writers m e n t i o n that Muslims in

general are the target g r o u p of their books irrespective

of t h e i r d i f f e r e n t educ a t i o n a l background, age, marital

status and sex (For e x a mple see Muhammad, 1987:i).

However, for books which discuss matters on sexual

behaviour, marriage and di v o r c e g u i d a n c e which is

m or e relevant to married couples or those getting

married, the target groups are specifically mentioned in

their books. For e x a m p l e the book 'Koleksi Koleksi IlniTah

Islam, Tradisional dan Moden khas u n t u k Bakal Pengantin

“ y

dan Suami Isteri' (Islamic Academic collection,

Traditional and M o d e r n S p e c i f i c a l l y for F u t u r e B r ides and

Bridegrooms and Husbands and Wives) the a u thor Ibnu

Y u suf states this specifically (Ibnu Yusuf, 1992).

However, t h ere are books discussing certain topics,

w h i c h the a u t h o r s say can be u n d e r s t o o d o n l y b y those who

possess the wisdom of knowledge 'ilmu Hikmah' (Hassan,

» a
1980).
 400

Notes

(1) U t u s a n M a l a y s i a 28 Jun, 1992.

(2) 'Fatwa-fatwa Mufti Kerajaan Johor' f r o m 1936 to 1961
was first published in 1977. 'Kumpulan F a t w a '
M a j l i s U g ama I s l a m Singapore was p u b l i s h e d in 1987.
The latter e x p lains fatwas on fourty-five
contemporary issues such as the a n imal s l a u g h t e r e d
after it has been s e d ated 'd i p e n g s a n k a n 1, u s i n g
p e r f u m e and medicines that contains alcohol,
honorarium money 'wang p a m p a s a n ', insurance,
' Q a d i a n i 1, Artificial Insemination, tes t tube, baby,
abortion, r e f erring to Mecca to d e t e r m i n e the
day to cel e b r a t e the Hari Raya Festivals, k i d n e y
donation, A n t i - H a d i t h or to reject S u n n a h and f a m i l y
planning. T h ere are many other c o l l e c t i o n s of
p u b l i s h e d and un published Ma l a y s i a n F a t w a s suc h as
M i m b a r Fatwa Mufti Kerajaan Negeri K e l a n t a n (1987) ,
M i m b a r Fatwa 1 of the J a b atan Hal Ehwal A g a m a Brunei
(1975), F a t w a - f a t w a Mufti K e r a j a a n T r e n g g a n u (1971).
See a l s o Othm a n (1981).
(3) U t u s a n Malaysia, 31 Mac, 1994.
(4) See M u z a k a r a h J a w atan Kuasa Fatwa Kali ke-8' on
S e p t e m b e r 24-25,1984.
(5) See M u z a k a r a h J a w atan K u asa Fatwa Kali k e - 2 2 ' on
November, 24,1984.
(6) See 'Muzakarah J a w a t a n k u a s a Fatwa P e r t a m a ke-4 on
April 13-14 1982.
(7) See ' P ersidangan Fatwa P e r t a m a 1 Jun 2 3 - 2 4 1970.
(8) See 'Muzakarah Jawa t a n k u a s a Fatwa P e r t a m a ke-4 dan
6' on April 13-14 1982 and O c t o b e r 1983.
(9) See M o h d N a w i , 1993:004.
(10) For example, 'Perniagaan Menurut P a n d a n g a n Islam'
(Bussiness from Islamic P o int of V i ew) by Sobri
S a l a m o n in 1 9 8 8 , 'Pengurusan D a l a m Islam' (Management
in Islam) by Ahmad Ib r a h i m Abu Sin in 1991,
'Pengenalan T e m a d u n Islam D a l a m Institusi K e w a n g a n 1
(Introduction of Islamic Civilization in
Institution) by Hailani Muji Tahir in 1986, 'Islam
Dan Dasar-Dasar P e m b a n g u n a n ' (Islam and the
D e v e l o p m e n t ' s Principles) b y Raja Mohammed Affandi
in 1981, Teori Politik Al-Farabi d a n M a s y a r a k a t
Melayu' (The P o l i tical T h e o r y of A l F a r a b i a nd M a l a y
Society) by Idris Zakaria in 1991, 'K o n s e p M a n u s i a
Menurut Pandangan Islam S atu Pemikiran Kearah
P e m b e n t u k a n ' T h e Concept of Human B e i n g in Islam'
by N o r A n i s a h A b dul Malik in 1992.
 401

(11) For e x ample t he book 'M a s a l a h P e r u m a h a n P e n y e l e s a i a n

M e n u r u t Per s p e k t i f I s l a m ’ wr i t t e n by Mohd Ali Hj
Baharum.
(12) A n i s a h Abdul Malek in 1992, 'Pengenalan Tamadun
Islam D a lam Pendidikan' by Hasan Langgulung in
1986 Sains Barat Moden dan Percanggahan Dengan
Islam' by S u l a i m a n H j . N o o r d i n in 1979, 'Falsafah
d an P e n g e t a h u a n I s l a m 1 b y Abdul Jalil H a s s a n in
1989, 'Pengenalan Tamadun I s lam Dalam Ilmu
Perubatan' by Ismail Sa'id' (ed.) in 1992,
'Pengenalan T a m a d u n Islam D a l a m S a i n dan T e k n o l o g i '
by Shaharir ’ Mohamad Zain (ed.) in 1992,
'Pengenalan T a m a d u n Islam Di Andalus' by Azizan
B a h a r u d i n in 1986.
(13) For examples the books 'S a s t e r a dan Agama'
written by Prof. D a tuk Ismail Hussein, 'Asas
K e s u s a s t e r a a n Islam' by Ismail Hamid, 'Teori dan
Pemikiran Sastera Islam di Malaysia' by Nurazmi
K u n t u m and see also 'Pendidikan E s t e t i k a Daripada
P e n d e k a t a n Tauhid' w r i t t e n by Mohd. A f f a n d i Hassan.
(14) For example see Sidang Pen g a r a n g Penerbit A S A sdn
B h d , 1985:4.
(15)Soal Jawab Ibadatdan U m r a h 1 p u b l i s h e d by Le m b a g a
U r u s a n dan T a b u n g Haji 1984.
(16) A n article 'K e u s a h a w a n a n Menurut Pandangan Islam
w r i t t e n by Dr. Ahmad Idris Mohd Noor (Utusan
M a l a y s i a 20 M a c 1991) is similar to c h a p t e r 1 of the
b o o k 'Asas Keusahawanan' written by ‘ D r s . Hamat
Ghazali.
(17)K e u t a m a a n Penghafal d an Peminat A l - K u r ' a n and
the book K e a g o n g a n Kitab A l - K u r ' a n d a n Peminatnya'
are quite similar. B o t h books were w r i t t e n by
A b d u l l a h Al-Qari bin Haji Salih in 1979.
(18) A k t a M e sin Cetak dan Penerbitan, U n d a n g - u n d a n g
M a l a y s i a 1984 (Akta A 684).
(19) F or example in the book 'Falsafah D an P e n g e t a h u a n
Islam' w r i t t e n by Abdul Jalil Hassan, (1989),
the a c k n o w l e d g m e n t is m e n t i o n e d as f o l l o w s ; 'H a k c i p t a
terpelihara. Tidak dibenarkan mengeluar ulang
mana-mana bahagian artikel, i l u strasi dan isi
k a n d u n g a n b uku ini d a lam apa juga b e n t u k dan d e n g a n
apa cara pun s a m a ada secara elektronik, fotokopi,
mekanik, r a k a m a n atau cara lain sebelum mendapat
izin bertulis da r i p a d a Ketua Pengarah, D e wan
Bahasa dan Pustaka Kuala' Lumpur. P e r u n d i n g a n
t e r t a k l u k k e p a d a per k i r a a n royalti a t a u h o n o r a r i u m . 1
(20) F o r example see Ismail , 1985 a n d 1987, L e m b a g a
U r u s a n dan T a b u n g Haji, 1984 and 1987, Udah, 1986,
and 1987, and Hal Azwan, 1991.
 402

(21) The g o v e r n m e n t a n n o u n c e s that the a l - A r q a m m o v e m e n t

has gone a s t r a y and the m e m b e r s of Anti H a d i t h
g r o u p are infidel.
(22) Such as A b u A m e e r a h BiJ.al Philips, JLbn Hazm, A h m a d
Deedat, Dr. Sobhi Al-Solih, __Maulana" AlTdul Q u dus
Hashim, Dr A n u a r Iqbal Quraishi.
(23) A m o n g the s u p p o r t e r s of a l - A r q a m are Abdul K h a l i q
and Mohd. S a y u t i . See Abdul K h a liq, 1993 and Mohd
Sayuti * 1989, r
(24) Other w r i t e r s wh o are against K a s s i m i.deas are
Said_ Ibrahim, MahyuddTn_, M o h d Napiah, Saodah, Haji
Ismail, H a r o n Din, H uda Mulisin, M a h m u d Saed o n find
others. See Said^ 1987, * Mahyuddin, 1986, Mohd
Napiah, 1986, Saodah, 1990, 'ismail, 1986, Haron,
1988, H u d a , 1985 and Mahmud, 1985.
(25) Muslim writers w ho *also disagree with al-Arqam
ideas are Hashim and Mohd. Rushdi.
(26) Dr. Mohd. Y u s u f f N oor a t ' p resent is the M i n i s t e r at
M i n i s t r y of P u blic E n t e r p r e n u e r ,
(27) For example see the book 'Hadiah Y a n g D i k i r i m k a n
Daripada Yang Hidup Kepada Yang M a t i 1 written by
Y a h y a Zakri b in A l a n g Mat Pia h in 1988.
(28) This s t a t ement m a d e by Dato' Haji Abdul Aziz bin
Ahmad and Mr.Mohd. Z a k T bin A h m a d the m a n a g e r s of
two b i g g e s t b o o k ^ p u b l i s h e r s in K u a l a Lumpur; P u s t a k a
Antara and Pustaka Darul-FikrT respectively in
m y i n t e r v i e w w i t h t h e m on July 1st, 1993.
(29) See ^ t h e rule 'fatwa?' issued by the T w e n t y - f o u r t h
Fatwa? C o m m i t t e e M e e t i n g on 5-J> June 1989 h eld at
S e m i n a r Hall S u l t a n Abdul H a l i m Building, A l u r Star,
$edah. * J _
(30) P e d o m a n T r a n s 1 iterasi Huruf A r a b K e h u r u f Rumi D e w a n
B a h a s a dan P u s t a k a 1984". *
(31) In this book it is written as 1kh_alqTe1 and
1k h u l u q u e ' i n s tead of 'k h a l g i ' and 'k h u l u g T 1.
(32) M e a n s (One w ho begs A l l a h ' s pardon, the deliverer
to His poor men, He the p o s s e s s o r of w e a l t h ) .
CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION
 C H A P T E R SIX

Conclusion

Similar to Muslim wr i t e r s in the past, recent

Muslim writers reflect and e x pose the ob v i o u s and h i d d e n

social problems in Muslim society. They t ry to give

gu i d a n c e to solve problems on issues relating to Islamic

faith, devotion services, law, economy, social,

education, society culture and literature. In line with

the aims of the Islamic resurgence, their writings are

m e ant to help to s t r e n g t h e n Islamic b e l i e f a m o n g Muslims,

to clarify co n t r o v e r s i a l issues that a r ise and to b e tter

Muslims' understanding of Islamic teachings as a whole.

Thus, on the whole, the books reflect the state of

society. Basically by t h eir ver y nature, these books are

a true reflection of the state of Islam in Malaysia

today and as such are an important source to be

considered both by the ' 'ulamiP ' and the government if

they want the M u s l i m s to d e v e l o p w i t h i n the m a i n s t r e a m of

the S h a f T ' T school of law.

Some M u s l i m s c l a i m that recent calamities in the

Malaysian society such as the increase of crime, child

abuse, drug addiction and dru g abuse, adultery,

illegitimate children, prostitution, abortion, AIDS,

 404

t r u a n c y a m ong school children, children running away from

home and the fact that tee n a g e r s are more interested in

leisure life 'budaya lepak' and e n t e r t a i n m e n t rather than

reading and schooling, are signs of the Muslims' and

Malaysia failure to abide by Allah's rules. In e c o n o m i c

and business activities elements of bribery,

exploitation, usury, breach of trust and power abuse,

exist. T he government c o n tinues to issue licenses to

private agencies which misuse them by running hotels

that provide sex services, casinos and pubs for gambling

and d r i n k i n g w h i c h o p e n l y v i o l a t e All"ah's law.

Realising the i g n orance of some of the Muslims in

re l i gious matters and looking at the attitudes of

individual Muslims t o w ards religion, the question arises

of whether it is right to criticise these people for

their attitude or whether one s h ould rather critise the

''ulama'' w ho have failed to get a c ross the right

message.

It is the desire of Muslim writers to improve

society, to make people better Muslims. This is done by

attempting to c l a r i f y the concept of Is l a m i c d e v e l o p m e n t

beyond the boun d s of fanaticism t o wards sects, school of

law, p o l i t i c a l party, regional boundary an d the time

 405

l i m i t a t i o n in their writings. Muslim writers want to

inc u l c a t e positive ways of thinking, views, attitudes,

norms, v a l u e s and actions a m o n g M u s l i m s in t h eir scope of

writing. To ac h i e v e the true spirit of Islamic

development a clear concept of I s l amic writing is

discussed in line with its essential role as a 1d a 1w a 1

m a i n stream.

The concept of 'da'wa' focuses on calling the

people to practise Islamic teaching besides urging the m

to believe, in o r der to ac h i e v e both worldly life

development and succes s in the life after death.

Concomitant with this, the Muslim writers are often

reminded by the g o v e r n m e n t of the i m p o r t a n c e of b r a n c h e s

of knowledge other t han re l i g i o n (1) and they have to

ac q u i r e and i m prove their k n o w l e d g e (2) either through

the formal or informal education system. This is to

enable Muslim writers to write objectively, effectively,

imp a r t i n g tru e and useful knowledge to the society, and

the country as a whole. As part of devotion services

to Allah, Islamic books shou l d be w r i t t e n with sincerity

and to fight for truth (A l - B a q a r a h : 8-10). T he Muslim

writers and sc h o l a r s s h o u l d be brave, explore n e w fields

of k n o w l e d g e and gain more experience to deal with

 406

various a s p ects of life. T hey should then be better able

to understand the actual p r o blems of mankind and find

effective sol u t i o n s to future issues (3). Only a writer

with wide knowledge a nd strong f a ith will be able to

write with a mind free from fanaticism, personal and

g r o u p interest or m a t e r i a l i s t i c aims.

Of course, there are books which deal with

controversial issues some of which are destructive in

nature and stir up pr o b l e m s where t h ere are non. Some

e ve n c r e a t e issues w h e r e there are no issues. O t h e r books

help in a morepositive way to come to a p r oper

understanding of the relevant issues an d thus encourage

the f o r m a t i o n of a better united Muslim community, rapid

growth, a s t able political environment, an advanced

education system and scientific technology and devout

faith.

Recent issues in society suc h as zakat on wage,

economic activities, the banking system, Family Law,

the judicial power of SyarT'a Court a nd its judge,

particularly dealing with apostasy a m ong the non-Malay

Muslims converts(4) 'da'wa"' using mu s i c a l entertainment

media and events, the issue of sex education, the

d i s t r i b u t i o n and s e l l i n g of condoms to the public and

 407

female c i r c u m c i s i o n (5) m a y well be the t o p i c s of books

in the future.

In M a l a y s i a t o d a y d i f ferent g r oups of M u s l i m s have

di f f e r e n t perceptions of Islam. T h ere is political

disunity among Muslims and misunderstanding t o wards a

single Islamic concept on education, social, culture,

economy and n a t i o n building. Weakness of faith leads the

Muslims, p a r t i c u l a r l y the youth, to act ag a i n s t Islam. It

m e ans they can be easily influenced by other i deologies

which at present even cause a few Muslim stu d e n t s who

st u d y abroad to convert to C h r i s t i a n i t y (6). The

government faces great difficulty in obtaining unbiased

opinions on contemporary issues from the M u s l i m scholars,

based on proper application of Islamic 'idjtihad',

because some M u s l i m s misuse I s lam or against I s lamic law

for p o l itical interest or personal and material pu r p o s e s

rather than for championing the truth of IsLamic

teachings.

At p r e s e n t the g o v e r n m e n t ' s aim to s t r e n g t h e n the

Muslims in politics, the economy and education and to

overcome the social pr o b l e m s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e is h a m p e r e d

due to the i m b a lance of spiritual a nd m a t erial

development among Muslims (7). T h o u g h one c an argue that

 408

these are the p r o b l e m s of a ny p r o g r e s s i v e society which

is materialistic in ou t l o o k (a global issue) an attempt

mus t be m a d e to rectify the situation. Th e M u s l i m s must

back to basic or return to their religion, to believe in

Allah and completely practise Allah's guidance as laid

dow n in Al-Kur'an and Sunna. They must understand and

realise the o b j e c t i v e of their w o r l d l y and t e m p o r a r y life

and the c o n cept of g ood and b ad deeds. To believe in

Allah's rewards and p u n i s h m e n t s in t h e i r w o r l d l y life and

in t h eir life after death will hinder a Muslim f r o m any

u n w a n t e d activities. To survive in this w o r l d M u s l i m s are

g i v e n the f r e e d o m to us e t h e i r time p r o f i t a b l y and to use

th eir i n t e l lectual to gain knowledge a nd t e c h nical know­

how in o r der to ac h i e v e success in e v e r y a s pect of life.

T he Muslims m ust admit t h eir weaknesses and be

able to face failure with patience, to surrender the

s u c cess of their ef f o r t s to Allah a f ter working hard.

Ev e r y M u s l i m mus t fulfil his duties and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

t o w ards himself, his family, parents, society, country

and mankind. He must educate his family with religious

knowledge and provide them with professional skills.

The young generation mus t be trained from childhood to

fulfil t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s to Allah, t h e i r d u t i e s to their

 409

parents, n e i g h b o u r s a nd friends in order to b u ild a

loving society where its members can live in harmony,

p r o s p e r i t y and unity.

This is the background against which these books

were written and these are the r e a sons why I wanted to

s t u d y t h e s e texts. I w a n t e d to see h o w t h e s e pro b l e m s are

reflected in t h e s e books and what the au t h o r s suggestions

were on how to deal with these problems. Unfortunately

however, these books also reflect disunity. Some books

were written merely to make money and others f a iled to

a d dress t h e m s e l v e s to the situation.

Muslim s c h olars have the responsibility toward

the society to p r o d u c e books to g u ide the M u s l i m s on the

rightful path and to write on the contemporary issues

from an Islamic point of view. (8) Thus, m ost of the

writers wrote t h ese books out of t h eir desire to e n sure

the s u ccess of building a modern Islamic society and to

gain Allah's blessings in worldly life and life after

death.

Regarding this anybody should be permitted by

Muslim writers to reprint, republish or circulate their

Islamic books to the public particularly for the purpose

of 'd a 1w a ' and not for b u s i n e s s purposes. To e n s u r e the

 410

readers g ain great b e n efit f rom b u y i n g a nd re a d i n g the

books published and so the y m i ght practise a nd follow its

teachings a fatwa s h ould be issu e d immediately,

particularly when it is concerned with contr o v e r s i a l

contemporary issues. By d o ing this the readers will be

able to choose the c o rrect books as their r e ading

ma t e r i a l and it will e n sure that the content and

information given in the books is r e l evant and in line

w i t h the fatwa\

All IslTmic books written should be submitted to

the Fatwa1 Committees and be given approval to be

published. Eve n though some books may be considered

i r r e levant to present needs they m i ght be useful for

Muslims in future. This is particularly so with books

which discuss contemporary issues fro m different schools

of law, all the information might be rejected by some

M u s l i m s w h o t o t a l l y f o llow S h a f T ' T but it m a y be a c c e p t e d

later when the Fatwa" C o m m i t t e e s and the Sultans agree to

*
f o llow other schools based on the needs of the Mu s l i m s

concerned.
 411

Notes

(1) Berita H a r i a n 3 F e b r u a r i , 1994.

(2) Utusan M a l a y s i a 22 Jun, 1994.
(3) Utusan M a l a y s i a 22 Julai, 1992.
(4) Utusan M a l a y s i a 15 September, 1992
(5) Utusan M a l a y s i a 12 September, 1992
(6) Berita Harian, 12 Julai, 1993.
(7) Sunday Times, 1 1 September, 1992.
(8) Utusan M a l a y s i a , 22 Julai, 1992.
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ACTS/CONSTITUTION/ ENACTMENTS

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of M u s l i m Law E n a c tment 1964 Perlis.

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of M u s l i m Law En a c t m e n t 1965 Perak.

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E n a k m e n K e l u a r g a Islam, Kedah 1984. ( N o . 1.1984).

E n a k m e n K e l u a r g a Islam, K e l a n t a n 1983. ( N o . 1.1983).

E n a k m e n K e l u a r g a Islam, Melaka 1983. ( N o . 1.1983).

E n a k m e n K e l u a r g a Islam, Negeri S e m b i l a n 1983.

( N o . 17.1983).

E n a k m e n K e l u a r g a Islam, Perak 1984. ( N o .13.1984).

Enakmen Keluarga Islam, P u lau P i nang 1985. (No.2.1985).

Enakmen Keluarga Islam, S e l a n g o r 1984. (No.4.1984).

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 448

Laws Of M a l a y s i a Internal S e c u r i t y A c t , 1960 (Act 82)

K u a l a Lumpur: I n ternational Law B o o k Services; 1992

Law Of M a l a y s i a Soc i e t i e s A c t , 1966 (Act 335) &

R e g u l a t i o n s 1984 [P.U.(A) 402/1984],

Malaysia, Federal Constitution. K u a l a Lumpur: J a b atan

Cetak Kerajaan; 1979.

J O U R N A L S / M A G A Z I N E S / N E W S P A P E R S / R E P O R T S / W O R K I N G PAPERS

A l - I s l a m Bil (1) T a h u n 19/92 Januari 1992.

A n A n t h o l o g y of C o n t e m p o r a r y M a l a y s i a n L i t e r a t u r e . K u ala
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B e r i t a Harian. K u a l a Lumpur: The New s S t rait T i m e s Sdn.

Bhd.

D e w a n B a h a s a 1957-1990. K u a l a Lumpur: D e w a n B a h a s a dan

Pustaka.

D e w a n S a s t e r a A u g u s t 1977, S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 1 .Disember 1991

and Februari 1994. K u a l a Lumpur: D e w a n B a h a s a dan
Pustaka.

H a r i a n Metro. K u a l a Lumpur: The News S t raits Times Press

(M'sia) Bhd.

Intisari M S R I . Vol.I, N o .3,Singapore; 1963.

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Institute; 1963.

Jurnal B u d a y a M e l a y u 3, no. 1 K u ala Lumpur: Uni v e r s i t i

Kebangsaan Malaysia, Ja b a t a n P e r s u r a t a n Melayu;
n.d.

Jurnal P e r s a t u a n L i n g u i s t i c Jilid 1 Bil.l. K u a l a Lumpur

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 449

Ma n and S o c i e t y Siri B a r u Jilid 7 S e p t e m b e r 1972 Jurnal

J a b a t a n A n t r o p o l o g i dan Sosiologi U n i v e r s i t y Malaya.
K u a l a Lumpur: J a b a t a n A n t r o p o l o g i dan Sosiologi
U n i v e r s i t y Malaya; 1972.

M i n g g u a n Malaysia. K u a l a Lumpur: U t u s a n M e l a y u Sdn Bhd.

M u z a k a r a h J a w a t a n k u a s a F a t w H M a j l i s K e b a n g s a a n Bagi Hal
Ehwal U g a m a Islam Malaysia, H i m p u n a n K e p u t u s a n
M u z a k a r a h J a w a t a n k u a s a F a t w a T a hun 1 9 7 0-1990 Kertas
JKF B i l . 3/32/93 (SULIT) B a h a g i a n Hal Ehwal Islam
J a b a t a n P e r d a n a Menteri; n.d.

News Stra i t Times. K u a l a Lumpur: The News S t r a i t Times

Sdn. Bhd.

Su n d a y Times. K u a l a Lumpur: The News Strait T i m e s Sdn.

Bhd.

P e d o m a n M a s y a r a k a t 4 (51) 1938.

Su ara U l a m S ' . P e t a l i n g Jaya: P e r s a t u a n U l a m a 1 Malaysia.

Tenggara, N o . 4, 1969. K u a l a Lumpur: U n i v e r s i t y of

Malaya.

Ut u s a n Malaysia. K u a l a Lumpur: U t u s a n M e l a y u S dn Bhd.

APPENDIX
 450

Appendix 1

Islamic Books, Public Talks. Novels, Poems and Phrases

Written By AshaarT" Muhammad
' ■

Books

1. A p a Itu M a s y a r a k a t I s lam (1981)

2. A u r a d M u h a m m a d i a h P e g a n g a n Darul A r q a m (1986)

3. B a h a y a S y i a h (1987)

4. B e r g e m b i r a l a h D e n g a n A1 Q u ran dan S u n n a h (1981)

5. B e r s a t u M e n u r u t Islam (1984)

6. F a l s a f a h D a l a m M e n y e l e s a i k a n M a s a l a h H i d u p M e n u r u t
Islam.

7. H u r a i a n A p a Itu M a s y a r a k a t Islam (1981)

8. H u r a i a n Ke Arah Membangun Masyarakat d an Negara Islam

(1981)

9. Ibad a h M e n u r u t Islam (1980)

10. Iman dan P e r s o a l a n n y a (1983)

11. I n ilah Jalan K i t a (1984)

12. I n ilah P a n d a n g a n k u (1988)

13. Ke A r a h M e m b a n g u n M a s y a r a k a t dan N e g a r a I s l a m (1981)

14. K e m b a r a M e m b u k t i k a n K e b e n a r a n A1 Q u r a n (1987)

15. Kemerdekaan Menurut Islam (1984)

16. K r i s i s d an Jalan P e n y e l e s a i a n n y a (1987)

17. M a t l a m a t P e r j u a n g a n M e n u r u t Islam (1984)

 451

18. Me n g e n a l Diri M e l alui R a s a Hati (1985)

19. S i a p a M u j a d d i d K u r u n ke-15? (1987)

20. Y a n g Te r s i r a t Di s u r a t (1983)

Publ i c Talks

1. B a g a i m a n a R a s u l a l l a h Me n g u b a t Pe n y a k i t M a s y a r a k a t

2. H i d u p M e n u r u t P a n d a n g a n Islam

3. K e i n d a h a n da n K e b e s a r a n S e m b a h y a n g

4. K e i n d a h a n Islam

5. P e m b a h a g i a n M a n u s i a Di A k h irat

Novels

1. S e lamat Tinggal D u n i a k u

Poems and P h r ases

1 . Cahaya (1977)

2. Di A m b a n g P i n t u Kiamat (1976)
«
3. Di A n t a r a R i n t i h a n dan H a r a p a n (1983)

4. H a t i k u B e r m a d a h Lagi (1988)

5. K e s e d a r a n (1985)

6. M a d a h H a t i k u (1986)