‘Cement and Conerete Composites 138 (2028) 104957 Contents lists available nt ScienceDirect Cement and Concrete Composites ELSEVIER. journal homepage: wv elsevier-comilocateleemeoncomp ® Effect of nano-SiO2 on fiber-matrix bond in ultra-high-performance an concrete as partial substitution of silica flour Taekgeun Oh", Booki Chun’, Yun Sik Jang, Jung Heum Yeon, Nemkumar Banthia, Doo-Yeol Yoo” 2 begroenco reece Eee Homene Unvosy, 222 Wersomtr,Senalog Seu, 0476S, Repub of Koes = agnerng Supa Tram, Conan Mayon Ofc Hang Bulg uns Dy DL ESC Ca, ak ong Sel 2152, Rape of Kae < cal nrg Progen, gran Schoo gern Tear Ste Unb, 6D) Uniwrty Dri, Sn Maes, 7 SA “ Doprment of ht Eugene, The Unters of rth Cotarite, 6250 spd Since Lan Venom, BG WET 124, Canada * opornet of arhtecare and archer Eevee Ye Ube, 50 Tee, Secon Seu 3722 Rel of Raee Keowee ‘This study investigated the eet of nano SiOz, whieh patsy subsite sien flor, on the ate dependent Uuehighpeaemance once: bod elivior of sight ste fbers in ua high-performance eoactete (UHPC). AS mich #6 0-509 by Neos: eight ofthe ca us was replaced withthe nap Sid The packing density of the granular particles increase leith the nano SiO; coaent up 10 15%. However, upon ineeasig the nano-SiOy canter Futter, the packing ‘ens gdually dectensed. A higher packing deity was obtained ata eplacement no of 1% than thot of ‘onventional UHFC. The atc bond performance of sel Retin UPC was inroved Dy adling up 10 40% of ‘tat-Si0 Moteover, the best pullout eit ws ober in UHPC containing 10%-159% nano SO, bea ofits iling effect and secondary pozzolanie reaction, The equivaleneboad sueagth obtained on addi proper mounts af nano SiO; Wwas ths ary ele that of the pain UMPC. The impact pullout esstae forthe UPC ‘man neoprating up 10 30% of ao SiO. was hight than that forthe pain UPC however, he es ina pall resistance was observed at 10%20% nano SiO, contents A sematkable rate seasitivity ofthe bond ‘tengthe of sight steel fbes in the UHPC natces was observed. The rate sensitivity of the average bond strength inthe plain UPC decreased on adding nano SiO, However, the rte sensi of the equalen bond strength was isigifcanly afeted by the nano-Si0> content Over, 10%-15% nao-Si0z eaten Was considered tobe the opti in terms ofthe improved static and éysamiec bond performances 1. Introduction used, According to the pullout test results performed by Chan and Chi 11}, the highest bond strengti and pullout energy of stel Aibers in In the mid 1990s, French scientists, Richard and Cheyreay (1, Introduced reactive powder conerete, which displayed ltr high strengths of approximately 200 MPa heat reating without pressure) for 800 MPa (heat-treating. at SO MPa presetting pressure). Such tlt high strengths could be achieved by optimizing the granular mixture based on packing models and by minimizing the ‘water to-binder (W/B) ratio in the densest mixture. On this basis, ultea-high-performance concrete (UHPC) was developed by several te searchers [2-4] and is currently available worldwide [5-8]. Typical UUHPC consists of Portland cement sili fume lle, silica sand, and 13 sms long straight tee fibers (0]. High sli fume contents of approxi rately 20%-30% by seeight of Portland cement [10,11] are typically * Conesponding author mal addres doo yonse se kt (DY. Yoo), ups /dolor/10.1016/cemeoncomp.2023.104957 ‘UHC were obtained forthe optimum silica fume content of 20%-30%. Silica flour (or erushed quartz) as a filler, having @ mean particle size similar to that of Portand cement (approxinately 10 ym), aecounts for approximately 30%6-40% by weight of the cement. Slice sand occupies approximately 110% by weight of the cement in the UPC mixture (9, 101, To further improve the mechanical properties and durability of LUHPC, some researchers [12-18] have attempted to modify its mix design using nano- or micro-sized novel ingredients, sich as nano-siicn (Si03), nano-calcium carbonate (CaCO), liquid erystal display (LCD) lass, and nano-metakaolin. Yu et al. [12] replaced cement with ‘eno Sid, (19-59 by weight) and evaluated its effect on the hydration Received 5 January 2022; Received i revised fos 12 January 2023; Accepted 23 Janay 2023 ‘Available online 3t Janay 2023 (0958.9465/© 2023 Ekeve Lid All ight eset‘and microstructural development of UHPC with @ low binder amount (approximately 440 kg/m*). Using an optimal amount (3.749% by the binder mass) of nano SiO, effectively enhanced the mechanical prop ‘erties of UHPC. This also comipenssted forthe retardation effet of the superplastcizer on cement hydration due to stearic hindrance and nucleation effect. Although the increased viscosity of UHPC, resulting from adding nano Si0,, generated more eatrapped air voids ts nucle ation effect promoted cement hydration and produced more calcium, silieate hydrate (C-S-H) gel. Tis resulted in higher strengths up ro the ‘optimal nano-Si0, amount, Wu eal [16] replaced O¥-6,4%6 of emtent in UHPC using vatious amounts of anno-CaCO, and investigated isin ‘Qyeuce on the mechanical properties, They [16] reported that incor Porating 3.2% nno-CaCOy signifieanely enhanced the fiber-matrix hon and flexural properties of UHPC because of densification and strength enhancement of the interfacial transition zone. However, eyond this amount of nano-CaCos, the mechanical properties decreased because of the agglomeration of nano-CaCOs, which Increased the poresty. Yoo and You (17) repliced 5086 of sien No With LCD glass powder and evaluated the interfacial bond properties between the ste! fiber and UMPC muarix. The partially substituted LCD ‘ass powder effectively incteased the bond strength by 169% and the pillout energy by 159-409, This was because ofthe filling effect and secondary hydrates of LCD glass powder, which created a denser inter. facial zone between the fiber and matrix. Nochasti etal (1) considered 196-108 by cement weight of nano-metakaolin as an additive in UPC. Low workability was observed awing to its clay property and ultrafine size, Similar early age compressive strengths but higher 28-day ‘compressive strengths were obtained at the opximum inehision (196) of nano-metakaolin owing (0 the filling effet and pozzolene reaction Likewise, several researchershave reported that the nanomaterials in ‘UHC ate beneficial for enhancing the mechanical properties if optimal ‘amounts are used. However, most previous studies had focused on the statie mechanical properties, and only very inited studies [19,201 on "he dynamie properties of UHPC containing nanomaterials ate available despite it being a well-known material used in protective structures subjected to blast and impact (21,22). Astaliogl and Krauthammer {22} reported tha, for impulsive loads, UHPC with steel fibers sustained tore than four dimes the impulse that eauses normal strength concrete ‘columns to fail Thus, replacing normal conerete with UHPC ineluding sel fibers ean significantly enhance the ability to survive blast loads, “The superior blast and impact resistances of UHPC are attributed t the ‘excellent crack bridging capseity of the steel bers andthe mechanical ‘strength. Therefore, as basic information, che dynamic interfacial bond behavior of stel fibers in UHPC with nanomaterials must be evalusted for its practical application in protective structs. This study dus investigated the influence of nano-SiOy as a patil substitution for silica Nour on the static and dynamie pullout behaviors ‘of el fibers fom UHPC. Different aman of na SiOa, ranging fom (0% to SOM by weight of silica flour, sere considered, andthe packing density and reactivity t ealeium hydroxide, Ca(OH), were simula neously evaluated to verify @ pozzolanic reaction. Three diferent loading rates, ranging front 0.018 mvs (static) 417 mus mpaer), were applied on the aligned single stel Aberin UHPC ro evaluate its rate-depenent bond properties. Consequently, an optimal amount of hnano-Sids, in ems of the rate-dependent fiber pullout resistance, was recommended, 2. Packing density theory Concrete is composed of various ingredients having different shapes ‘and sizes. To obtain ultrahigh strength characteristics in eonerete, the ‘granular ingredients must be densely packed, and their amounts and sizes can be determined based on the packing density theory, The packing density ofthe granular mix is defined as the solid volume in @ ‘unit total volume when it is filled with solid particles [29]. A Compressible Packing Model (CPND, # modified version of the linear men an Conc Compact 198 (202) 104957 pacing density model fora grain mix [24], allows the calculation ofthe Dacking density of a polydisperse granular mix by considering particle nteractions. For this reason, Moutassem (25) observed that the CPM nceurately predits the packing density of granmilar mixes used in co: crete. Moreover, Bala etal. [20] deseribed the CPM as one ofthe most accurate and simplest models to apply. The CPM has thus been frequently adopted for the mix design of UHPC (27,28), and it was also adopted in this study to calculate & vttual packing density, which is fefined as the maximum packing density achievable in given mistare py ‘Based on the CPM, there is a dominant class # among n classes of grains with partial or total interactions. Assuming that dere are tree ‘granular ingredients ina cernary mix with differen sizes (d, > da > ds), the elas 2 gens are subjected toa loosening effec an a wall effice rom smaller (class 3, ;) and larger grains (les 1d), respectively s shown ln Fig. 1 To take into account the loosening and wall effects, the co: efficients ay and by, which pertain tothe former and ater respectively, rst be ealeulated using the following equations form elasses of genins Py a ~ (ayy! @ where d sd d are the average diameters ofthe granular classes ‘andj respectively (di > “The virtual packing density, of he granular mix is given by. (3) 94. an o When class domi 1s fllows ns wrt packing density can be ealeulaced yg —_ oy B+ BAMA Aon SS [haut whore and fare te residual packing densities of granular clases and j respectively, an y Is the volume fraction of clas ‘The actual packing density © an also be determined by considering the competion index, K, and viral value 7. The K valve depends on the process of building the pecking such as pouring, vibration, ete. [30], Loosening effect Wall effect z Fig. 1. Schematic deserigcon of lotening and wall fiers ia a ternary mix (22).‘and changes based on dry or wet conditions. The compaction index and packing density are expressed as =Sn- KD jet, © ‘where ys the volume fraction of class isthe tual solid volume of| ‘lass, and isthe maxinin volunte that particles iniay occupy when, ‘other particles exist 8. Test program 3.1. Preparation of nano-SiO; asa dry ingredient sol-gel procedure was used to synthesize nano Sip particles. This, process is primarily used in synthesizing nanoparticles because tis easy to control particle characteristics, sich as morphology and puricle size distribution. Fist the SiO; preparation reagent was prepared by weight, ratios of tetraethyorthosiicate (TEOS) and cetylteitethylammoninin bromide (CTAB), according to aiyérous etl aleohol, xs 0.094 and 0.01, respectively. The mixed ngueots solution was then dispersed using Ei men an Conc Compact 198 (202) 104957 ‘an ultrasonic machine. In this procedure, silica particles were dispersed inthe solution, and their surfaces were enveloped by the CTAB dissolved in the solution, forming nano sized silica, To accelerate the catalytic reaction, 25%6 ammonia solution was aed, which was reneted at 45°C for 12 h'and euted at room temiperanite for 24h to deposit nano-SiOa. The deposited nano'SiO, was then cleaned 3-5 times with deionized water using a centeifge and dried ina dry oven at 70 °Cfor 8h. After drying process was completed, he nano-SiO> was lighty grounded sing a glass morte 4.2, Ingredients and ix proportions ‘To fabricate an ordinary UHPC mix, typeI Portland cement (PC) and silica fume (SF) were used as binding materials. Siliea flour and sand were used as the filer and fine aggregate, respectively. Scanning elec tron muieroseopy (SEM) Images and particle size distributions are lus trated in Pg, 2, The median grain sins of PC and SF were 11.43 ja and 205m, respectively. The silica flourand sand exhibited median particle diameters of 6.75 and 236.2 ym, respectively. Fabricated nano-SiO, with chemical composition sintlar to that of silica flour, dominated by Sid, but with different grain sizes that Is 115 nm was also used as an alternative, and is replacement ratios were deterained to range from 1% t0 50% at intervals of 109%. Based on onr preliminary arsifcial packing. density calculation, replacement ratio of 15% was also considered because it yielded the highest packing density. To achieve an ultra-high compressive strength greater than 150 MPa [31], a very low i 3 : j Pari size cetoton (im) Fig. 2. SEM insges o (4) OPC ills, silea fune, (nanos, sen sand, and (pce sine ds sbatonW/B ratio of around 0.2 was considered. A polycarboxylate super plasticizer (SP) with a soli content of 80% was added to produce @ self consolidating property. The mix proportions are listed in Table 1 Although the use of high amounts of nano-Si0, causes an increase inthe material costs, inereased production costs become decreased duet the development of manufacturing technologies. In particular, sol-gel pro ‘ess, one of the manufacturing technologies of nanomaterials, produces ‘nanomaterials with high quality and low cost [32] in addition, the cost, ‘of nano-SiO3 depends on the unit price of precursor materials used in manufacturing. Among various types of the precursors, sich as tetra methyl orhosiient, TEOS, silicon tetrachloride, et, use inthe sol-gel process, TEOS is one of the most economlcal types of precursors. ‘Therefore, in this paper, nano SiO, was ditectly manufsetited in the laboratory based on the sol-gel process using TEOS as a precursor (0 rinimize the inrense in mntrial costs die tothe use of large amount ‘of nana iO. ‘The chemical compositions of the dry ingredients are listed in “Inble 2. PG Is primarily composed of eateium oxide (C40) and silicon dioxide i0,), while SF, sliea flour, and nano silien consis of Si, The X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of FC, SF, silica flour, and nano-SiO, are shown in Fig. 3. The PC and sie flour were highly crystallize, wheteas the SF and nano-SiOy were composed of mostly amorphous pluses. Moreover, the XRD pattems of SF and nano:SiO2 were very similar According to Law et al, [35], the amorphous pliase is highly reactive ‘compared to the inert crystalline phase. The SF and nano-SiO, were expected 10 display an active pozzolanic reaction with Ca(OH), a inital hydration product of PC. The season for replacing the inert sien flour to the nani, whieh Is reactive, is thus to obtain addivional Denefts, in addition to the inereased packing density, on the enhance rent of interfacial bond between the stel fiber and UPC matrix All the dry ingredients were intially added to & Hobart «ype mixer ‘and pre-mixed for 10 min. Water and SP were then added to the mixer ‘nd mixed for an additional 10 min. Onee the fresh UHPC mix beeame flowable, the molds for the pullout rests were filled with it ‘The designation of test variables was determined as the capital letter ‘NS’ and the following numeral. The leter‘NS" denotes the nano SiO, ‘and the following numeral indicates the replacing ratio in percentage For example, the NS10 specimen indlestes UHPC with 109% replaced nano-Sid to silica flour. 3.3. Wee panicle packing denstty measurement To measure the wet preking density, a wide range of water: ‘cementitious ratios were investigated. First, half of the eementtio materials were added to water and SP in a bow. The ingredients were ten mixed at @ low speed for 3 min, The remaining eementtions me terials wore divided into for pats and placed into the mixing bowl one by one, Subsequently, all the materials were mixed ata low speed for 3 ‘nin, AS the materials were completely nixed, che prepared 30 mal cy: Inder mold was exoesively filed and compacted. The excess materia "hat overflowed ou ofthe mold was removed andl weighed, men an Conc Compact 198 (202) 104957 ‘Table? {Chemica compositions and physical properties of dy ingredients ‘Composton [] Sie fowl fme_Nenoslee Alo ous m7 : Fes ot op Meo ot te e Spc tan en fe) Bra moom oss [Note] OFC = Type ordinary Porand cement hue 2901 200) 2001 20) ig. 2. XRD pattems of OFC, SF, sen low, and 8000s 34. Specimen fbrication and curing regime Dog-bone-shaped molds were prepared for the fiber pullout est. A very thin PVC sheet was inserted into the center of the mold Its cross sectional area was 25 x 25 mm?, and a singe stel fiber vas affixed {orthe PVC sheet to achieve the target embedment length of 8mm. After fixing the steel fiber inthe mold in # longitudinal direction, the pullout specimen was cast in to times in sages. Fst, one side of the mold was filed with fresh UHPC and ured at rooms tmperature for 48 h. The ther sie ofthe mold wns then filled and stoned inthe same room for 48 1 The dag-bone samples were subsequently demolded and immersed in 1 water tank at @ high temperature (90 °C) for 72 h. The dog:bone samples wete dhen dred inthe laboratory room with a room tempers ‘ure ane relative humidity of 60 = 59 for 24 h prior to testing equally ‘Table 1 Mix proportion of UHPC. Midi hg comet ‘Sia fame Sli Sle ow = = 34 7 {Note} NS = nanoslon and SP — saperplastcize SP neds 30% sid sd 70% waterbased on an assumption that 24-h drying process gives similar moisture ‘contents in pores fr the specimens. 3.5. Reactivity analysis of filler and nano SiOz In order to analyze the eaetvity of filler and nano-Si02, thermog: ravimetry (1G) and derivative thermogravimetry (DTG) analysis was conducted. The test samples were prepared thet the same amount of Ingredients with CH was mixed with the calcium hydroxide (CH) sol ‘on, which was prefabricated by mixing CH und water 1:10 by weight ratio. The samples were cured for 28 days in a desiceator applying ni trogen gas to prevent CH from oxidizing during the curing period. Then, the samples were crushed and analyzed. TG/DTG analysis was per formed from 20 °C 0 1000 °C at & eating rate of 10 “G/min under applying nitrogen gas 3.6, Static and dynamic fiber pullou tests ‘The static fber pullout test setup is depicted in Fig. 4. The detailed ‘geomettial properties of dog bone sample are shown in Fig. 48. The dlog-bone UHPC sample was inserted into & steel grip with a roller to low light rotation ofthe sample (Pig. #). A uniaxial pullout force vas ‘monotonically applied, anda lond cell with a3 kN eapacity affixed tothe fest machine was used (0 measure the pullout force. By assuming negligible elastic deformations ofthe sample and grip, the fiber slip was directly measured from the stroke movement. The speed of crosshead rmovenieat was maintained at 0,018 mm/s. Fig. 4e shows the impact piillout test setup. Similar tothe static test, the dog-bone sample was inserted into a steel grip, and an impact force was applied throngh the air compressor and amplifier. The maximum air pressure of dynamic pullout test machine developed is 10 KN. Therefore, to evaluate the loading rae effect on the interfacial bond behavior of steel Albers from ‘UHPC with various amounts of nane-SiO,, two different air pressures of 4 and 8 KN were considered, lower than the machine eapaciy. Without the dog bone sample, the 8 KN air pressure can provide a loading rate of 4800 min/s (4. By assuming minor esti deformations ofthe sample ‘an cest machine, the slip ofthe fiber Was measured using a displace ment transducer connected tothe piston, as shown ing. 4e. A dynamic datalogger (DEWE 43) was used to record the dynamic test data ata ‘sampling rate of 20 kHz. No band pass filter was used which meant that the load amplitudes even st high frequencies were maintained. Purthermore since the loading was in uniaxial tensile mode ané body ‘accelerations were small, inertial forces based on d'Alembert analysis were ignored. [40mm — >| | ue matic e “~ Pvc shect | 7 ‘Stelfber Sampo les secton) (@) Fig. 4. File pllout rest sep: () geomet! des of dog bone sample (0) sai et Scup, and) nye ves sep. o) seep eS J men an Conc Compact 198 (202) 104957 4. Test results and discussion, 4.1, Reactivity of nano SiO, and silica flour to CaCOH, Fig. 9 compares the TG and DTG results of nano SiO, and sii flour to calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH), after 28 days. The Ca(OH), peak dis appeared inthe case of nano SiOs, while the hydrates (e.g C-S-H and eringite) peaks were clearly detected. On the contrary, the hydrate peak was nor abserved on mixing with sien flour while the Ca(OH): peak remained, indleating no chemical reaction. This verified that the sien lout is aa inet filler inthe UPC matekx, as reported by Xi etal. [95], owing o its coarser gran size. The nano SiO. was highly reactive to GA(OH), and formed abundant hydration products. This s because of ‘ts amorphous phases of chemical omposition (Fig. 3) and high specific surface area, which cnn increase the reactivity. Fraga ot al. [36] consistently reported thatthe reactivity of nano-SiOe Is even higher than thar of SF, which is regarded as the most reactive supplementary ‘cementtios material owing tits smaller particle size 42. Effect of nano-Si0p content on the virtual packing density and compressive strength of UHPC ig. 6 shows the calculated virmal packing density, y, of the gran lle mixes with respect to the replacensent ratio of siiea flour to nano: SiOs up {0 50%. The packing density of ordinary UHPC mix without rnano-Sid was approximately 0.82, whiel is nearly equal tothe highest packing density of eco-eiclent UHPC [37] and higher than that of conventional cement mortar (38). Thisindicares that the higher packing density of UPC can be one of the main factors contributing toward is superb mechanteal stengch, for example, compressive strength greater than 150 MPa, as per the ACI committee 239 [31]. The packing density bof UHPC increased with thereplacentent rato ofsliea tour 1 nano SiOz up © 15%. On increasing the replacement rato further, che packing density begon to gradually decrease. The highest packing density (0.84) was thus observed at a replacing ratio of 15%, Replacing a portion of silica flour with nano SiO, effectively increased the granular packing fensity and decreased the porosity of the UHPC mix up to 50% replacement. The viral packing density ofthe 50% nano-Si02 content twas similar to that of the ordinary mixture. The incrensed packing density was caused by the filing effect of nano sized SiOs particles be tnecen the larger granular patiles, such as SF, silica flour, OPC, and sien sand, ig. sb shows the compressive strength of UHC with and without raano-SiO,, Is trend ras also similar tothe tendency of virtual packing density results. The compressive strength incressed until the silica flour sec camel 7 er rman: ©men an Conc Compact 198 (202) 104957 4 OSH, ong: AFI 2 €.balOhiy C260, wt renee 18 ha = sike few % 18 gn ao ra Liz Bo 24 Be Zea in os » oa © : = = Silea four fa) a B uh p (b) 0” fn ama 200 100 200 0 Teo oo "'0” toy a0 soo 400 600 om Two EO Temperature, TC) Tmporsie, TC) Fig. i sey of noo: lien At) Tee nd) DTG as 20 a Cae @ = sae 17307 160.8, 3 Mox.= 0.84 F ay fee Boss = 5 a £ 083 a 3 i Za a 3 Som i Ee Neon be oss ° Vee 010 18 2304050 placing ratio of slica four to ano-SiO, (%) Replacing rato of slea our to ‘nano-SiO, (%) Fig. 6. Eet of ro SiO content on vial packing density of gular miatre OF UMPC and) sunmaty’ of compressive es rest substitution rate reached 15%, and then began 10 decrense when it ‘exceeded 15%. The maximitm compressive strength was 171.07 MPa, which wasobtained when 15% of iia lour was replaced by nano-SiO, ‘and improved by 4.3% over NSO. It may be because a large amount of -$-H was produced due t the incorporation of highly reactive nano: ‘iQ; as well as the increasing packing density, You eal, [39] reported thatthe mechanical performance of UPC improved until S0% of sien flour was replaced with reactive LCD glass powder which has similar ‘chemical composition 10 class F fly ash and similar grain size to that of the cement. They [59] noted that the improvement of mechanical per 43. Static pullout behavior 43:1. fect of nanoSiog content Fig. shows the comparative static pullout load versus slip curves of straight stel fibers in UHPC with different amounts of H0-Si0a, The important pllont parameters, such as the erage and equivalent bond N50 (plain) —Ns10 formance wascrsedy herent afLcD gas powder beeatse the’ 60 nisi packing density wre stu dcrens. Ths, tough here ees —nsz0 hiss reactive sca fame in UPC, the pzzlnie reaction ot dl. 59 —ns30 Tilly inurported materi ney wot be tert, When 20% af —Ns40 nnano-SiOg was incorporated, the compressive strength was slightly NSSO reduced; however, the compressive strengch was still higher chan NSO at ee 169.16 MPa. In contest, if more than 30% was incorporated, the compressive ste rests were diferent fom the packing density 30 rely Tis pheomevon may be dete the ngglomeatin ofanae SiO, firth nese In vsemiy of te fesh mixture ws ren ofthe lage 2g moun of na st0sincnporation, Mobi eta. #o) noted hat when nnano-SiO» with a large specific surface area is incorporated, nano-Si0, forms a less dense mirostrenure because it Decones easier co ‘agglomerate, Yu eta. [12] also reported thatthe use ofa large amount ‘of nano Si; iereases the viscosity ofthe fresh mixture so thatthe air ‘entering during the mixing process eannot eseape, increasing the air void in UHPC. For this reason, when 30% or more of sien flour was substituted with nano SiO, the decrease rate of compressive strength Increased signifieanty and was lower than that of NSO. ef 2) 3 45 6 76 Slip, $ (mm) Fig. 7. Pullout ld and slip curves ues uns sate Hoestrengths, nnxinsm fiber tensile sress, and pullout energy, are also summarized ia Fig. 8 and Table AL after being ealeulated using Eqs 710. le 2 2p am co) ‘where ta is the average bond strength in MPa, Prag i the maxim pillow Toad iN, dis the fiber diameter (man), gna the main tensile stress inthe fiber (MPa), Ayis the cross-sectional area of the fiber (onm?), Lp is the inti embedded length of the flber (mm), Wp is the fiber pullout energy (nu), is the slip (mm, Ps) isthe pullout load in N corresponding to slip, , and ze isthe equivalent bond strength (MPa). As shove in Fig. 7, the pullout load increases steeply with a minor increase in the slip in the ascending portion initially, the stel fiber was ‘chemically bonded to the surrounding cement matrix. Ifthe interfacial sear stress applied by an external load exceeds the maximum static frietion force it begins ro becomte partially debonded from the cement matrix. In this partial debonding process, the pilot load increnses ‘continously, and once the see fiber i Fully debonded, pulled out from the matrix. With decreasing embedded length (or bonding area), the pullone Toad decreases with an inerease in the slip (descending portion) up to approximately 8 mm. The shapes ofthe pullout load-slip ‘curves were similar forall the rested samples, regardless of the nano ‘i0z content ‘The interfacial bond properties between the steel fiber and matrix are men an Conc Compact 198 (202) 104957 influenced by the conditions of the interfacial zone, e.g, porosity, hardness, ee» strength of matrix, and matrix shrinkage, easing fiber “matrix misfit [41]. The compactness of the fine ingredients and hy- Araresat the interfacial zone saffected by the flowabllty of fresh UPC. Replacing portion of silica lor with nano-stzed SiO» partieles neg. tively influenced the flowability of fresh UHPC; therefore, it was designed co have a lower average flow value (approximately 180 mm) for the control UHPC without the nao-Sid2, This was achieved by Aeereasing the amount of superplastcizer by 50%. Subsequently, by increasing the amount of superplasticizer, the average flow of nano- sio,-contained UHPC was controlled tobe approximately 180 ma (10 mum). ‘The pullout resistance of stright steet fbers in UHPC was improved by rephicing a portion ofthe filler with nano.Sig and inereasing the replacement ratio up to 15%. This is because ofthe filling effec and pozzolani activity of nanoSiOp. Owing Co the much smaller grain sizes of nano iO; compared to the file, it could effectively fll tie voids between the larger granular particles up t0 certain amount (15%), based on the virtual packing density, a shown in ig. 6. Beyond this fmiown, the packing density contnsonsly decreased and tobe similar at a replacement ratio of 50% compared to that of the control mixture Silica our is known a an inet filler despite its eemical composition being very sila to those of Sand nano- SiO, owing to lseoarser gran sizes [55]. Sila flour is rushed quart, and thus, is dissolution in aqueous solutions even at high pH is very slow and low because of is crystalline structure (Pig. 3). Xi etal. [95] noved that silier lou is significantly less reactive chan SF and recommended it as a filler rather than a cementing material. This was nso verified in Fig. 5 through the DIG results with Ca(OH)>, For the tive pozzolanie reaction of nao: SiOs, a higher static pllont resistance was observed when the replace ment ratio wasup to 40%6. ‘Thestraight steel fiber embedded in the plain UHPC matrixshowed a linear decrease in the pullout lord after reaching the peak value Go ening pard, A concave pall lond-slip enve after the peak was not (@) 545 878 212 808 ‘Aug. bond stength, ra (MPa) Fh oP PP PP Specimen +000 S405, Oc (MPA) «00 Fst Sh PF OP FP Specimen © sae Palout work, Wp (ma) os SSRe 88s WF SO oP GP EP Specimen qu. bond stength, rq (MPa) F 98 SP SP oP OP SP Specimen Fig. 6 Sunny of save pullout patsmeters: (average bond sng, (D) maxinnan Ker tensile sues, (2) pills work, and () equivalent bond sens‘observed because ofa highly densified interfacial zone herween the fiber ‘and matsix and a slight end deformation formed by the manuftetuting ‘process [42]. By incorporating nano SiOa, which partially replaced the silien lour, the maximum pullout lond incressed and a gradual ond ‘decrease in the softening portion was obtained. This was because ofthe filling etfect of nano SiO, and its active pozzolanic reaction that increase the compactness a the fiber-miatei interfacial one and the stength of ‘matrix. The NS1O sample exited slip hardening behavior, whil was hardly observed inthe straight steel ber ease owing to its high surface sifess that abrades nherent matrix parties in te fiber nel. Stel, ‘excellent fritional resistance, which is active atthe ber-mateix inter face during the pullout proces, is atibuted 0 the appropriate amount ‘of nn Si0, ded. This could als be veritied by coniparng the pullout load-sip curves ofthe NSO and NS40 specimens in Fig. 7. Aldhough they had sinilar maximum pllowe loads, the NS40 showed grndual ‘decrease in the load in the softening section, allowing it to absorb more ‘energy tha its counterpart (SO), As sumiuatized in Fg. 8, the highest average bond strength, fan of 8.78 MPa was obtained for the NS15 specimen, which is consistent with the compressive strength results and approximately 72% higher then that (29) Of 4.92 MPa) of the control specimen (NSO). The benefits of nnano-Sid» in enhancing the fiber pullout resistance of UHPC have also been reported by Wille and Naaman [2]. They [42] found that hy drophilic nano SiO. significantly increases the pullont load and bond stress sip response as compared to conventional UHPC. Wu etal [15] ‘also reported an increase in the bond strength of steel fiber and the ‘compressive strength of UHPC by incorporating nano-SiO>, which is an ‘lterntive to cement, and the optimum content was suggested toe 196 Dy mass of cementiions mcerials. The higher amount of nano SiOg "rather deteriorated the bond strength of see ibersin UHPC by up 102% [15]. The average bond strength increased with inereasing nan0-SiO2 ‘content up to 15%, and then decreased up to content of 50%, which became even smaller dhan the bond strength of the contol sample. In particular significant rection in bond streagth was observed with nn increase in the replacenient ratio after 20%. This means thatthe opt nmi content of nano Sida, replacing the filler in UHPG, is between 10% ‘and 30% by mass of filler, in tems of the average bond strength. As sown in Fig. 8b, all rested semples Ted t0 amex vates below the ult mate tensile strength of 2,580 MPa, indicating coniplec pullowt fire ‘without premature ruprares that are preferable. The highest maximum, fiber tensile stress was 936 MPa, which is only about 36% ofthe tensile strength To achieve a sufficient energy absorption capacity of the composites after cracking # higher pullout energy is required. As shou in Fig. 8, the pullout energy, Wp, ofthe stel fiber in UMPC was higher y incor: pporating the nano-SiO, up to a content of 40% compared to the plain UHPC. The highest pullout energy of $38.2 mJ was obtained for the INS1O specimen, which was niore than two ties higher than that of the ‘$0 specinien, After reaching the highest energy valve, it dectensed ‘wid ineteasing nano SiO, content up to 50%, A very steep decrease in the pullout energy owas detected when the replacement ratio increased from 40% to 50%. The decreased pullont energy with the Inetease in hnano-Sidg content isrelated tothe steeper deerease in the pullout load in the softening section and the lower maximum pullout load, as shown ia ig. 7. This is potentially related co a better ftietional resistance of ‘angular shaped sli flour (171 as compared to the hydrates. The fi tion resistance of straight steel bers inthe cement matrix is affected by both he incerfacal filing degree and properties of the filling mate ‘als, so thatthe nano-SiO, replacement ratio of 10% might be the ep {imum amount fo provide the highest frietional resistance at the interface during the pullout process of the fiber. The agglomeration of nnano-SiOg particles at sucha high replacing. dosage also negatively affected the strength of matrix (Fig. ob) and the pullout resistance of tel fiber from the UHPC matrix. The average bond strength ie related to the maximum point in the pullout Joad and slip curve, while the ‘equivalent bond strength, fis influenced by the entire pullout men an Conc Compact 198 (202) 104957 load-slip curve by assuming thatthe bond strength remains constant ‘hroughout dhe entize embedment length [4]. Kim et ab [44] also re ported that che equivalent boné strength is an appropriate indicator for predicting the tensile performance of ultre-high performance fiber reinforced eonerete. The equivalent bond strength is thus direely pro: portional to the pullout energy. For the reasons, the equivalent bond strengths, summarized in Pig. 8, showed identical tend tothe pullout energy, and the highest equivalent bond strength of 11.05 MPa was found in the NS1O specimen. Ths is notably higher than the average bond strength of &.46 Pa, indicating is superb energy absorption cx city inthe softening region dive ro the benefits of ano SiO, addition. 43.2. Supface sae of pled out seo fibers Fig. 9 summarizes the SEM images of the surface af tel fbers pulled ft from UMPC mintrices with and without nano-SiO, under static loading conditions. The surface states were evaluated to support the pallout test results. The abrasion of adherent watrix particles and the wedge effect demonstrated by the compressed particles led to scratches on the fiber surface in the longitudinal direction during the pullout process [45] For this mechanism, most of the brass coating was peeled ff during the pullout process, aad higher ion (Fe) content was detected based on energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis (Fig. 9. ‘The packing effect and pozzolanie reaction of nano-SiOz at the fiber -uatrix interface caused more surface danage on the polle-ont steel fibers from UHPC, consistent with the pullout test results, up to @ replacement ratio of 80%, In Fig. 9, notably higher Fe contents were detected forthe steel fibers pulled out from: the UHPC matrices con taining 10%-80% nano Si03, compared to those feom plain UHPC or [UHC with higher nano-Sid, contents of 409-503, and opposite trends were observed for the copper (Cu) content. This verifies that the matrices with appropriate amounts (10%-80%%) of nano $10, more effectively suppress the pullout of steel fibers, leading to better pullout resistance (Pig. 8). In contrast, the nano-SiO, content of 40% or higher was excessive and thus, the surface damage of the piled-out steel fibers became moderated, For the quantitative evaluation of the surface seratches, the rough: ness parameter of the pulled out steel fibers was also evaluated by comic force mieroscopy (AFMD images in Fig. 10. The most common surface roughness parameter, Re, which is the arithmetic roughness average ofthe surface, was calculated using the following equation [46] a Whereis the number of data used, and yi dhe height oF the F point in ‘The curve shaped surface of the steel fiber was first ited by 8 ‘quadratic equation with a very high cooicient of determination, greater than 0.99 [47], and the height profiles of the fed surface of the pulled-out steel fibers, shown in Fig. 11, were used to caleulate the surface roughness in all seamed parts (50 um). As shown in Fig. 12, the surface roughness of the pulled-out steel fiber fom UPC inereased when nano Sid, was added, as an alternative to portions of silica Nour, ‘up 0 8 replacement ratio of 15%. This is consistent with the trend of| higher average bond strengths. The densely packed adherent matrix particles a the iber-matrx interface suppressed the pullout ofthe steel ‘bets, result in beter pullout resistance ad more sigaficantsutface abrasions. The nano-SiO, added specimens thus provided a higher roughness parameter, Ry than the plain specimen up toa replacement ratio of 40%. However, when the nano SiO, content was higher than 406, a smooth and scatheless er surface was detected in Fig, 1. This Is elated o the deteriorated pullout resistancein Fig. 8, which indicates thar excessive amounts of nano SiO (250% of silea flour by weight) negatively influenews che bond performance of sel fibers in UHPC. By adding nano SiO;, slightly more matrix debris remained on the surface of the completely pilled-out steel fiber, which was verified by the aToke men an Conc Compact 198 (202) 104957 ‘0 a Zao wg Be 5 B28 g60 wei es i Boul io } ort 8 8 8 2x i 8 osd ° a ao Fh SO oP PF eh ‘Specimen (by Fig. 9. (2) SEM images and (b) EDS mapping results of pulled our steelers fom UHC maties under static lads. so so Not, ‘S20 E ly E E von xn vw Fo voi xm vom em a0) sr Yon) Fit na et Fig. 10. APA images for surface roughness of pulled out ste bers from UMPC matrices understate loads. ‘calcium (Ca) concentrations ini. 9. Ths indicates Interfacial filling by fibers after complete pultout an bond performance wasalso reported by hydrates from the secondary pozzolanic reaction of uano-SiO, and eal- Yoo and You (17). The surface roughness, Ry, of smooth, straight stee] ‘ium hydroxide. The Ca content inereased with increasing nano-SiO, fiber before its pullout test was found to be 27.1 nm [48], and it content up fo 15%, and dhen gradually decreased. The roughest fiber increased co 56.6 nm after the complete pullout, as shovin in Fig. 12 surface was detected asthe stel fiber was pulled out ftom the UHPC Approximately 99-67% higher roughness values were also found in the matrix contining 159% nano-SiO2 (S15), and its highest value of Re steel fibers pulled out from the UHPC mstriees containing 109%-40%6 ‘was 94.4 nm, The correlation between the surface roughness of steel nano-SiOa, compared to that from the plain UHPC matrixmen an Conc Compact 198 (202) 104957 Height 2 (om) Height 2 (rm) © ry Height 2 (om) mn % X(um) 2 Xm) 0m 0 1 oD X(um) wo @ se © Height, 2 (om) Height. Z (0m) Ses 8 nso nse 0 Height, Z¢0m) 300 o 0 m » ao (um) ° 0 0 (um) 3 4 Xm) 0 © Fig 11, Height profs of tel bes pulled out from UMPC matrices as compared ro NSO lain: () NS1O, (6) NSIS, c)NS20, () NSO, () NSAO, and (D NSS0. sséses Roughness parameter, R, (am) FS OF PP OP ‘Specimen Fig. 12, Summary of roughness parameters at state loads, 4.4, Impact pllout behavior: effets of nano-S10z content and loading ‘The dynam pullout load and slip curves of steel Abers from the UHPC matrices with and without nano-SiO, are shovin in Hig. 1 Because of the very poor intesfacial bond between the steel fiber and UUHPC matrix with 80% nano-SiOp replacewent, the dynamic pullout resistance of the NSSO specinien could not be measured. Two diferent ‘ir prossutes of 4 and & EN were adopted to achieve different dymanic loading rates. The loading rate was hen calculated based on the slope of the displacement time curve in the ascending and descending points of ‘the 80% maximum pullout loa, similar to previous studies [49,50]. The average losing velocities tar pressures of 4 and 8 KN were found to be approximately 210 mm/s and 411 mm/s, espectively, which are mich faster than the static velocity of 0.018 mm/s. By incressng the loading Velocity the maximum pullout load generally increased forall he tested soups. This rate dependent pullout behavior of straight steel fibers in UCHPC has been consistently reported by Tai etal. (51, Yoo etal. [52], tnd Patk etal. [55], The aypamie load-sip enrves Actuated after the initial peak poin,catsed by vibrations of the test machine and specimen that dissipate a portion of the imparted input energy by impact. The ealeulated pullout parameters are shown in Figs. 14 and 15, respectively. The UHPC matrices with appropriate amounts of nano. Sid» adition, up to a replacement ratio of 30%, led to higher pullout resistance of stright steel fibers under impact loads than the plain UHPC matrix. This indicates that the use of nano SiO, nstesd of silica our, s effective in enlaneing the impaet pullout resistance of sel bers from LUHPC. The highest average bond strengths of 9.78 and 11.17 MPa was foun inthe NS1O specimen atthe average loading rates of 210 and 411 sumy/s (Figs. 142 and 15a). The average bond strength generally Mlereased with inereasing nano-SiO2 content up 10 408%. A substantial decrease in the hond strength was observed when the replacement ratio of nano-SiO, incrersed from 20% t0 40%. For instance, atthe average loading velocity of 411 mm/s, the lowest average bond strength of 7.18 “MPa wes found i the NS40 specimen, approximately 64% ofthe highest strength of the NSIS specimen and even lower than that of the plain (NSO) specimen. Owing to the inetease loading rates (by incressing the tir pressure, 4 KN =» 8 KN), the average bond strength further inereased forall tested samples. This indicates a clear rte sensitivity of the bond strength of straight steel fibers in UHPC matrices with and without nano: Si0z, The maximum fiber tensile stresses exhibited trends consistent with the average bond strengths in Figs. 14b ani 15b. The highest rmaxinuim fiber tensile stress of 1,192 MPa was detected in the NSIS specimen at a loading rate of 411 mm/s, which i approximately 48% of its ultimate tensile strength. Thus, all the steel fibers were completely pulled ot from the UHPC matrices without aay’ ruptures at impact As shown in igs. 14 and 15, the pullout energy and equivalent bond strength were also influenced Dy the loading rate The highest pullout energy and equivalent bond strength of 300.8 mJ and 9.96 MPa weremen an Conc Compact 198 (202) 104957 to Sens oasis SNE resem | 70 SAE sesame Snsiriisenm | oe Se See Fa da 30 & 2 ° iS ° ° eee es Si, 3m) Si, 80m) Py 0 Sass news m0 | (0 asii1827 mms) | 70 sea 2184) se TAs | 6D hse ae mo 0 fa Ja qa Za 30 aa 2 fi wo 0 0 Slip, $ (mm) ‘Slip, $ (mm) fe S308 7 -NS40_S @) sen, rer nm [© —=NS30_| (204.5 mms) 0 0 —NS40_) (290.1 mms) Neat rtm Shee esas Ose eeu coors Sip, 8 (rm) Sip, (re) Fig 13. 1 impact ka) ‘obvained in the NS20 sample a the loading rate of 21 highese pullout energy and equivalent bond strength of 3986 ral and 15.22 MPa were obtained in the NSLS sample a the loading rate of 411 sumi/s. Compared to the statie pullout energy of 151.6 mJ for the NSO specimen, a maximum 1639 higher energy absorption capacity could be achieved owing to the nano-Sid, and loading rate effeets. Thus, the ‘energy absorption eapacity during the fiber pullout process was sens Live tothe Foading rate. By increasing the air pressute, a higher pullout ‘energy and equivalent bond strength were observed owing to the Increased loading rates. The pullout resistance of straight steel fibers from the UMPC matries is this considered co be rate sensitive and ‘enhanced at higher loading rates. GGokoe and Neantan [54] reported that a single straight ber in a ‘cement matrix is insensitive to strain rate because of its clean and non-destructive naure during the pulling out process. However, several other researchers (51-53] have reported the rate-sensitive pullout be hhaviors of straight ste! fibers fom the UPC matrix. The rate sensitivity is atuibuted to slight end deformation, formed during the manufacturing tage, and highly optimized particle packing of the UHPC matex, strongly adhering to ne fiber surface [51]. To verify the strong ‘adhesion of the UHPC matrix 10 the surface of the steel fiber under summary fpallout led and sip curves secrding to loading rae: (a) N80, () NS10, (C) NSIS, (4) NS2O, =) NS3O, and (F) NSA [Note Impact loads, the SEM images of the pulled out steel fibers were analyzed using EDS, 9s shown in Fig. 16. Ir was obvious that che surface ofthe pulled out ste] bers was seatched longitudinally, eased by the abrasion of adherent matrix particles atthe interface. Therefore, Fe was ‘mostly detected with minor Cu, which is the main ehemesl component ofthe bras coating. The nano SiO, containing UHPC samples provided rch higher contents of Fe than the plain UHPC sample, indicating that the susface of steel fibers from the UPC niatrices With nano SiOp was more severely damaged during the pullout process atthe impact loads than the plain counterpart. This could verify their beter dynamic bond performance, which i atbuted t0 the stronger fritional resistance, tind is consistent with the results ofthe satic pull test. I is worth noting thatthe contents of Fe and Gu were not sigifieanly influenced by the loading rate (Fis. 10) ‘The AFM images and height profiles ofthe fitted surface of see f bers, pulled out from the HPC matrices, are shown in Fig. 17 and 18 which are used for the quantitative estiution ofthe degree of surface damage. Obviously, the surface of the pulled-out stel fiber became rougher when nano SiO, was added, consistent with the dynamic pull tut test results, This iadicates thatthe ndlerent matrix particles i the ‘densely packed interfacial zone effectively resist he slip of see fibersFig. 14. Summary ofipace pullout parameters (Ving = 220 n0n/) (2) average bond seg. ‘ig. 15. Sunmay of inpace pullout parameters (Vg = 411 m/s) (2) average bond strength, (b) main bond stage. ‘Avg, bond strength ty, (MPa) ‘Avg. bond strength, ra (MPa) mena Conc Compact 18 (2023) 104957 wo oF PP oP Specimen qu. bond strength, ty (MP2) = @ on = 5 00 202 i me Ss fe 631 ie Jw 3 x Bo 3 eh oF oF Specimen “ © 1 But ones. ie 10 ane PP oP PM Specimen oad suength, (0) maxioum ber tense ses, pallou wouk, and (4) equivalent we eh oh PP a FOO OOS Specimen () 3508 rrr) Specimen qu. bond strength, ro (MPa) FS oh PF Specimen Aber tense sts, () pllour wouk, and (4) equivalentDoo Oy (b) Vang = 441 mm/s men an Conc Compact 198 (202) 104957 I: easel A x ot oh PP Fo? oP oP oh oh PP (6) Fe, Cu, and Ca concentrations Fig. 16. SEM images of pulled ou tel fibers fom UHPCa from the UHPC, causing more seratches on the fiber surface in the lon ‘itudinel direction, Regardless ofthe loading rate, larger Muetations i the height profiles of the stee fiber surface were detected for the UHPC matries containing 10%-2086 aano-Si0>, consistent with the dynamic bond strengta results in Figs. 14 and 15. Fora nano Sid, content of 20% 2) Vag ~ 210 mu/s ad (b) Vang ~ 411 s/s ad (6) Fe, i, aad Ca concen or greater, the degree of height profile Muetuation was mitigated even though it was sil more severe than that of the plain specimen (NSO). ‘Thus, the lowest surface roughness parameter, Ry, of 6.4-44.7 nm was found inthe plain UHPC sample without the nano-SiOs, The value of Re value increased with the addition of naio-SiOs, aid the highestmen an Conc Compact 198 (202) 104957 20m) =u Fw zw ye pe pe $10 $ 100 2-10 200 20 200 Xun) Xun) @ NSO @ 30 | F oo 200 rev | ae0 ase} & eu 7 7% E 100 5 = ; Aralt® xy yd & so : bo £100 Bn - Be 30 x0 ° Cr a a ) X¢m) roughness parameters of 90.5 and 70.8 1m were found at nano-SiOz ‘contents of 15% and 208, respectively, at loading rates of 210 and 411 ‘mm/s. These vales were almost two tives higher than those of the plain ‘sample, Similar to che impact pullout test results, the surface roughness values of N40 were close to those of NSO, regardless f the loading rate. Some ofthe matrix debris was stil attached tothe surface ofthe stl fiber even after ts complete pullout under che impact loads, consistent ‘with the findings of Tai etal. [51]. To verify this, Ca content was also ‘evaluated Similar to the dynamic pullout parameters, higher ealelun ‘contents were dotected in the UHPC samples eontaining nano SiOp, indicating that the fber-motrix interfacial zone was effectively filled by hydrates owing to the povzolanic reation of nano-SiO2, The densely packed and strongly adhered hydrates on the steel fiber surface remained even after complete pullout fom the matrices. Therefore, the ‘surfaces ofthe steel fibers pulled out from the UHPC matrices under impact loads were scentched and covered with matrix debris eh oh FP Fig. 17. AFM images and height profiles oF (a) NS1O, (b) NSIS, (©) NS20, (4) NSO, (e) NS4O, and (D summary of roughness parameter (Vg = 210 m8, X (ym) simultaneously. Damage to the matrix surrounding the Aber, which dceurs during the pullout process under the impact force, is rate sens tive because it isknovn that mortar or concrete is rate sensitive [95,56] Compared to the static loading condition, higher contents of Ca were detected inthe stel fibers pulled out from UHPC under the impact loads In Fig. 166 ther proves the damage to the surrounding matrix and rate sensitivity, For dese reasons, higher bond strengths and pullout en egies were obtained at higher loading rate forall tested spectuens, 4.5. Rate sensitivity on bond stress of steel fiber from UHPCs with at withowr nano-Si03 fig. 19 summarizes the dynamic inerease factor (DIF) ealeulated by dividing the maximum dynamicload by the maximum static load versus the loading rate relations of all tested samples, It was obvious that the bond strengths of straight steel fibers in UHPC increased with themen an Conc Compact 198 (202) 104957 NSO S10 NS15 t z t Yani em NS20 NS30 NS40 E ie = Yum) 200 @ ze z zc Z i z 200 200 suo X um) X um) a X(um) @ Ne ° =) Ei O - ass} 2x0 nso] ES 7 ee IN Ni « mA Eh sal 3 10 Sn Zz 300 0 ‘ a i ey Fig. 18. AFM images and eight profiles of (a) NS1O, (b) NSIS, (6) NS20, (4) NS8O, (€) NS40, ad (summary of roughness parameter Vy loading rate up to about eo times, given a Toading rate of approxt ‘mately 417 mm/s. It is worth noting that the loading rate sensitivity of the average bond strength was higher for the plain UPC matrix (N80) than forthe UHPC matrices with nano Sid, as shown in Fig. 20a. The increace in matrix strength becomes more obvious as the difference Derwcen the strengths of the weak and strong pats is higher. Ths is because the crack pathways are altered and shortened by increasing the loading rate because the erack propagation i significantly slower than the applied stress [57,58]. The Interfacial zone of the fiber and matrix was filed with nanosized Sid2 particles and secondary liyération prodicts by pozzolanie reaction, ierensing the strength of the weaker parts. Thus, lower rate sensitivity of the average bond strength of steel fibers from UHPC was obtained when nano-SiO. was added. Iti well known thac lower strength eonetere exhibits higher sensitivity tothe ‘rain rate than higherstrength eouerete [59-61]. in Fig. 8, the UMPC ‘matrices containing 10%-20% nan SiO, showed mach higher (>64%6) statie average Dond strength than the plain UHPC matrix, leading (0 @ lower rate sensitivity. The loading rate sensitivity of the everage bond serengtly decreased with increasing nano-SiOg content up £0 80% in general, bat it increased when the nanoSiQ, content was 40% (ig. 208). This could support the above explanation (the lower strength material leads to a higher rate sensitivity) because the static bond strength significantly decreased from the nanoSiQ, content of 309%— 406. In contrast, the rate sensitivity of the equivalent bond strength, witch srelaced to the pullout energy, was insignifeanty affected byt tuao-Sidp content, as shown in Fig, 20b. The entire palo process in fAuences the equivalent bond strength; thus, ic is more dominated by interfacial friction than the fiber debonding process with erack propa. gation. This indicates that the replacement ratio of siliea flour to rasno-SiOz has & minor inpet on the rate sensitivity of the interface frietion between the steel Aber nnd UHPC marx, ‘The degrees of surface roughness ofthe stel fibers pulled out fromToke men an Conc Compact 198 (202) 104957 a2 >? Shon nh Prereereny 4 REE ela fees © = 18 18 i e/i i ys 1“ o [bu : ar ge ¥ | ge Sila o4 |S te 08 £ 08 Loading ate, Vins) 22 hag bond senate 22 ag band a oh anda reread Ba} Seon eons srenth (Oly af LER condaronam o ge gu : : a Bt Bus : a a ae z Z Bole gole § os os oo ora wo tom bor 01a 00 0 Loading rate, V(mmis) Loading rate, V (mm/s) Shas tend serih Shas ed er Boa | See Bons renan ee eg Bond srength 0 B18 a ge . e Ba . o s 5 a a 08 al 22. corer 090 ow “bor 010000 Loading rate, Vin. Loading rte, Vm) Fig. 19, Sunny of DIF and lading tte relations) NSO, (b) NSIO, e) NS, (@) NSZO, () NSBD, an () NSA. aft @) 9 [2 7 aL cies ae ee . Bt 2 new E19] - ns Bo A amense S08 | BA enn Bis Bis meu IS) 7 2 . 2 : a 5 to | ° ra 2 ra Len, Yr Len, Yon Fig. 20, Etec of nano SiO. on DIF of 4) average bond stength and (b) equivalent ond sent the UHPC matrices are compared in Fig. 21 according tothe lowding during the pullout process by adherent mattix particles, varies slightly velocity (0.018-411 mm/s). Although the surface roughness of the according tothe londing rare. The surface abrasion is mastly eased by pulled-our steel fibers from the UHC matrices was influenced by the interfacial fition by matrix particles, veifving that the frictional effect, nnano-SiO, content, it seemed to be insignificantly affected by the on the steel fiber in the cement matrix is almost insensitive to the loading rate, This means thatthe surface abrasion of steel fibers, formed loading velocity, as suggested by Gokoz and Naaman [54]. Thus the3 8 8 & Roughness parameter, R, (nm) 20 | —e-Vavg. = 0.018 mm/s —* = Vavg. = 210 mm/s Se Vavg. = 411 mm/s 0 0 10 2 30 40 50 Replacing ratio of silica flour to nano-SiO, (%) Fig 21. Effect of londing tate on sace roughness parameter of steel fibers from UDC matrices rate-sensitive pullout belaviors of straight steel fibers from the UHPC matrices are caused by the slight end deformation and damage to the mateix surrounding the fiber owing to the highly optimized particle packing, thich leads to stroug adherence. Similar conclusions were ‘drawn by Banthia end Trotier [62] who demonstrated that fbr de formations play a critical oe in deternining the steess-rate sensitivity oF sel ibers embedded cementitious matriees. 5. Conclusions This study investigated the influence of partial substitution of inert, siliea flour ller with nano S10; on the fiber and matrix bond in UHPC. “The state ana impac pullout loads were applied to consider the loading rate effect, The pullout resistance of steel fibers from UHPC was corre lated to the packing density of the granular particles and verified by Investigating the states of the pulled-out steel flber surface quantita Lively dhrough SEM and AFM images. Based onthe experimental ests ‘andthe discussion above, the following conclusions ean be drawn, Appendix men an Conc Compact 198 (202) 104957 1) The packing density of grannlar particles in UHPC was increased by replacing silica flour with nano SiO up to 159% based on the fling ‘effect. I then began to decrease continuously with further increase in fnano-SiOs content. A maximum packing density of 0.84 was observed ata replacing ratio of 159%, whieh is higher than chose of conventional UHPC and centent mortar 2) The bes state pullout resistance, in terms of bond strength and en. ergy absorption capacity, was obtained for the UHPC matrix con ‘ining 10%-159% nane SiOz content. This was beemuse ofthe fling, effect and secondary pozzolanic reaction, An equivalent bond sirength nearly tice that of plain UHPC, i, 11.05 MPa, was thus obtained by adding the proper amounts of nano SIO. The nano SiO, helped ro inerese the interfacial rietion,eausing a gradual decrease {nthe pllont load in te softening zone 8) A higher impact pullout resistance was obtained in the UHPC matrix {ncomporating up to replacement ratio of 30% nano-Si0, compared, vol 7 highest dynamic bond strengths and pullout energies were observed at 10%-209 nano $102 contents up {oa loading rate of 411 sums 4) The bond strengths of straight steel fibers embedded in UHPC tries with and without nano-Sids were notieably rate sensitive ‘The plain UHPC exhibited the highest rate sensitivity on the average bond strength, and it was moderated by adding nano-SiO2 and Increasing its content On the other hand, the rate sensitivity ofthe equivalent bond strength was insignificantly affected by the nano: Sid. content. Declaration of competing interest ‘The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Interest or personal relationships that could have appeared c influence the work reported in this paper. Data availability ‘The data that has been used is confidential Acknowledgements ‘This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRE) grant foided by the Korea goverument (MSIT) (No. 2021R1.A2CA001503) and slso supported by a grant (20014561) of the Regional Customized Disaster Safety R&D Program, funded by the Ministry of Interior and Safety (MOIS, Korea) ‘The average pllout parameters, such asthe average bond strength, saximum fiber tensile stress, pllou energy and equivalent bond strength of steel fibers in UHIPC matrices are stmumaized in Tle A1 along with the standard deviation, ‘Table At Suounary of average pullout test esl ‘ing nie Vg ea}. nd aon PA) ‘Max snl nn a EPS) Plow meen We fal] Eu bond enh Fa MPA] Tso 920) Ges00 G7) 1518 467) S81 (77) 20 Se4iae) Ganson) ts310 4859) Som 61) a Siza2) seust 379) 2381 (863) ‘09 88) N10 0018 5461095) 90293.00138) 53818 (3308) 1105.10) a0 soacam) os 21552) 2810916095) 982 (202) a hh esr) arse 7398) 55458 (at) n76055) ass bos 781058) e315.) 1331 (2820) 10331085) aie sez) 9183214530) 27351 2490) 800 (16) an tart ez 114202 5750) 9856 (10258) 1322440) xem ote siz(052) 6 (775) 2s (5479) ssi (178) aie 99(230) 93839425209) 300.29 (62.22) 8962.06) an rousiz3) niet (132.18) 31858 (33.07) Hava (amined 00)“Table At (cone) mena Conc Compact 18 (2023) 104957 TV (TRV Don Ra DPA a Fie aT HG PT Pan ea Wy Ta) a ond HRT TPT Tso 0018 0830) 23840(08.8) 210 222108) 227 85) a sas 8545 asas2) 2732018457) 922.82) Nsa0 0018 Set(as7) 0107 6051) 2008 215) 7301072) 210 6510156) e728 (e548) 1760619738) 58126) an 218149) 706191059.) 236.00 (359) 72432) sso 0018 255100 oo370460) 5438) 251107) Pare O cares sand evaton. 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