‘Gleaner Enginesing and Technology 11 (2022) 100882 Contents lists available nt ScienceDirect Cleaner Engineering and Technology ELSEVIER journal homepage: www sciencedirect.com/journal/cleaner-engineering-and-technology Mechanical and durability property dimensions of sustainable bamboo leaf ash in high-performance concrete David O. Nduka”'’, Babatunde J. Olawuyi”, Adekunle M. Ajao", Victor C. Okoye", Obinna M. Okigbo* Speyer of lan Toy, Coe of See od Techy, Conant vit, Om Om Se, Me = Dapamn of ng Schl of neonatal Teal Feral Uray of ely, Maa, ges ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT ower High-peomce corte Tis wesc chances bnoo Ia ah (HLA), wich as obi y snag dy Banoo eve at trproninnty 600 Cor 2 hin alabotoycomelicd mf furnace. Toston he pore potas OP BLA Xinytusenee OE a senlageactonnisoscop/enesgy pease xy CEM/EDN Sse ‘Eni wee tle Te BLA a then ied ih Puran oent FC oped hgh penance Eton oa as ase fonerete (HPC) a 0,810, and 15% BLA contents By eight Fresh HPC sapes were evaluated for tel = crortabiiy with shinp ow ret. Aer 7.2 28 an Days of hydro, HPC sme” mechan CConptesse, sping sie and ent) and nb (wae asepeon, sop, ad lace of ‘tueatecstonneas) were measied. As dace y XR, ie tle BLA ts ptzla peti stern he SE lcrograph ei ear an aga xpos. The operation BLA it he tire maait enhanced te metic and drei lites ef the erluated sep, inl a sat ton rt of 10 PC: Taste, can be sated tht 10% BLA canst cement aan HP beta 0 Std eaicamenal endo 1. Introduetion, value of 50 MPa was chosen becnuse it corresponds toa level of quality fat which mich care must be taken while developing and testing can crete. To meet the needs of HPC, # unique design may be necessry, While supplementary cementitious materials (SCM), also known as ‘The concept of high-strength conerete (HSC)/high performance ‘conerete (HPC) is fundamental 1 conerete technology. The significance drives frm the precisely chosen ingredionts and mixture ratios that sre ‘optimally designed to have primacily improved qualities, such as high strength and low permeability (xu et al, 2021; Dusisimane et a, 20213 Zeysd eal, 2022). The Anvetican Conerete Instnite, ACI (1999) fined HPC as concrete that satisfies unique performance and unifor inity requirements that cannot ordinarily be obtained using standard constituents, a standard blending technique, and euring practices. The desirable features of HPCs incide high resistance to abrasion and ‘damage tolerance, long lifespan in harsh environments, resistance (0 ‘environmental atacks and impacts (Dushinnana etal, 2021) and easy placement (Zoyad et al, 20212, 20216). HPC is exclusively used in igh-tse buildings, Tong-span bridges (Naika el, 2018; Dushimimana tl, 2021), tunnels, and martin stewetutes (Odeyem) et s., 2022), According 10 Mehta sid Monteiro (2017), the stength elasifcation ‘suggests that HPC has « compressive strength of atleast 50 MPa. The * Conesponding author ‘Email addres dai aa eovenaonuniversty ng (D.0. Nua). spa /doorg/10.2016 le. 2022.10058 ppozzolans, contribute significantly to the charncteristies ‘The addition of industrial (ron slag, copper sag, electrolyte man: ganese residue, glass waste, lithium slag, and ferrsilica wastes (Zeyad fl, 20215 Zeyad et al, 2021D) and agricultural (rice husk Ab, Fbamboo lef ash, palm il fuel ash, cotton stalk, egg shell powder and olive waste ash ete.) (Odeyem et al, 2022) based SCMsin concrete and mortar is one approach to promote sustainable development in the building sector. K Al-Chaar eal. (2013) opine that SCM can substitute @ large portion of cement in a conerete mixture with characteristics similar to Portland cement, Desbovska et el. 2017) posit that the mount of portlanite erated during cement hydration would decrease telated to the amount of SCMs used in a mixture. SCMs are prodts that ave not cementitious in dienselves but comprise reactive elements seh sssilica and alumina in partsioned strture capable of being mixed with esleium hydroxide once water is present to ereate mistares with Received 7 May 2022; Received a evsed form 9 October 2022; Accepted 1 Novennber 2022 ‘Available online 5 Novemier 2022 2066-7908/ 2022 Te Athow(). Published by Elsevier Ld. This ian open accessartile under the OCBY.NC-ND eens (he /ereatvecommons oxg/licenses/y nend/407.‘cementitious properties (Silva ets. 2021). SCMs may be in the form of natural (pumiee, perlite, voleanic ash and diatomaceous earth) (Kass ty et al, 2021), agricultural (sugar eane bagasse ash rice husk ash, sorghum husk ash, eaconne shell ash, and bamboo leaf ash) (Mo ets 2016) and industrial origins (siiea fame, fly ash, granulated blast famace slag (Chinnu eta, 2021 Kasaniya eta, 2021), respective of the SCM sources, thelr Iter age strength characteristics have the po- tential to improve the mechanical, durability aud microstrctural per formances of mortar and conerete Recent attention has been paid to bamboo Teaf ash (BLA) as an agricultural waste with pozzolanie reaedvity. Bamboo isa renewable resource that may thrive in varios environments, particularly ln trp: leal and subtcopieal nations (soe. 2016). Annual bamboo se by the food, brewing, construction, agricultural, fibre, paper, and board in dustris is estimated at 20 ullion tonnes (Kolawole et sl., 2021). These Industries generate hige amounts of bamboo waste for which alterna tive applications have not been fully exploited. Frequently, the waste is burned in an open location, resulting in environmental deterioration. Kolawole etal. (2021) ealeulated that more than. 196 of the topical forests cavered by bamboo. The plantation deposits many dry leaves as ‘agricultal waste beneath them, Activating their pozzolane reactivity Via calcination ina controlled setting is one ofthe sustainable methods for utilising bamboo leaf waste as an SCM. According to Dwivedi et (2006), BLA aleined ac a regulated temperature of 600 °C for 2 ill ‘exhibit a significant pozzolanie restivity. Similar claims were made by Villar Coca etal. (2011) and Frias et al. (2012), confieming that calcined ash obtained from bamboo leaf wast is an effective SCM mia terial for producing mortar and conerete. Rodier et sl. (2019) invest ‘gated the porzolanie ativicy and compressive strength of BLA mortar mixes. The mixtures produced a pozzolanic reaction between anor phous silica and lime, forming a ealeium silicate hytdrace (CS-H), AC 28 days of curing, the compressive strength behaviour of their evaluated samples improved more tha the control mix. In rddition, Kolawole ‘er als (2021) findings on the investigated PC replacement with BLA, revealed that up to 10% BLA content in the cement-based matrix developed over 75% compressive strength as antiipated from & ppozzolanic cement at7 and 28 days of hydration period. The binary blend of BLA and cement in HPC is underrepresented in, the identified reseateh, Mest research on BLA in eonerete is centred on normal. stength concrete with 20-35 MPa compressive strength, which is marred by degradation concerns (Oyehisi etal, 2020; Nauka et al. 2022). Nevertheless, 8 more recent work by Odeyemi et sl. (2022) ‘demonstrated that 5% PC substittion With BLA in the HPC mixture improved the evaluated samples’ mechanics! and microstctaral properties. n Nigeria, the conerete production quality as been ident fied as one ofthe primary causes ofthe failure and collapse of concrete structures (Kolawole, 2015), with many construetion professionals Doing unaware of SCM wtlsaton in mortar and conerete works (Nd ‘etal, 2018). Investigating conerete quality by combining PC and BLA in HPC production would raise awareness among constriction peo: fessionals regarding new alternative materials in building projects. ‘Therefore, this study investigates the mechanical and durability prop: ‘erties of BLA-blended HPC to establish their appropriateness for sire trl element works. 2. Materials and method 2.1, Binders aed aaseures ‘The cement used was Dangote “3X" Portland limestone eement (PO), Widh the marking “CEM IT BL, 42.5 N° This Portland cement brand conforms to BS EN 197-1 (2011) and NIS 444-1 (2018) requirements. ‘This experiment colleted bamboo leaves in Ijo-Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria, ‘The leaves were sundried to reduce their moisture content, then calcined in an open drum to an widetermined temperature and allowed to cool to room temperature. The ash was subsequently compressed and lone gern and Tsing £3 (202) 100582 calcined at controlled temperature inthe foundry workshop of Cove rant University in Ora, Ogun state, using a mule furnace. Following calcination at 600 °C for approximately 2b, the ash was air cooled and ther sieved ecording Silva et sl's (2021) BLA thermal reativent methodology. According to Moraes et al. (2019), BLA ealeined between 500 *C and 600 °C demonstrated significantly more pozzolanie reac tivity than ash thermally treated at 900 °C. From their experiment, ash passing a90 um standard sieve facilitated filler and nucleation ste effect in the cementitions matrix. To improve the workability of the HPC specimens, a Masterglenium Sky 804 ~ a polycarboxylie ether (PCE) polymer-based superplatciser supplied by BASF, Lagos, West Aftica Limited was sourced and dispensed at « quantity of 29 by welght of Dinier (bya) nde the manufactures’ dels. thermosec polymer and striely covalently crosslinked polymer of aerylie acid and sctylamide-based superabsorbent polymers, SAP ("FLOSET 2700" < 800 jn), obtained from bulk solution polymerisation and neutralised by alkaline hydroxide was added to the HPC mixtures as a curing agent. Using the sophisticated quantitative techniques of X-ray norescence, XRF (Bruker AXS $4, Explorer, Karlsruhe, Germany), and seanning electron mieroscope/energy dispersive Xray, SEM/EDX, Phenom ProX, PhenomWorld Eindhoven, The Netherlands) the chemical composition sand morphology of the BLA were analysed 22. Aggregates This study employed locally sourced river sand as the Fine aggregate ‘The Fine nggregate was properly washed to eliminate harmful substances and then sonried. The material's quality was further enhanced by removing finer particles that passed through a 300 ym standard seve. tn testing the sand’s physical properties, the values for fineness modulus, (PM = 2.78), coefficient of uniformity, (Cy = 2.00), coefficient of eur vature,(C; = 0.20), specifi gravity, (SG =2.65), and water absorption, (0.73%), were determined. The coarse aggregate (granite) larger than 12 mum was seved out and then thoroughly washed with clean water to remove fine particles. The coarse agaregate had a specific gravity of 2.70, a water absorption rate of 0.52%, and a ershing impact value of 23.19%. The aggregates met the requirements of BS EN 12620:2002: “Al: (2008). These results agreed with and supported the practicability of removing finer sand particles with a 300 ym sereen and washing coarse aggregate to lower the dust content (Aitcin, 2004). Fig. 1 displays the particle size distribution (PSD) of the fine and coarse aggregates used this study, Table 1 further summarises the aggregates” physica a tributes. The figure’s PSD plot illustrates thatthe fine aggregate sample conformed to Shetty’ (2004) elassfcation of medium sand, The coarse naterial is uniformly graded. The aggregate results conform 10 the conditions deseibed In Zeya etal. (20212, Zeya etal (20230) ane Anulmoly etal. (2021) studies for HPC produetion. 23, Water ‘The water utilised for this work adhered to the BS EN 1008 (2002), critoria for conereve mixing water. 24. HPC specimen proportion Following the British HPC design technique, the HPC’s contol sample consists of 515 kg/m? of CEM II, 1013.4 kg/m? of coarse agaregate, and 675.0 kg/m” of fine aggregate, and a total of 155.4 key 1 of water. Based on Olawuyi et al.'s (2021) analysis of the SAP ab- sorbency, 12.5 g/g of water was added. The SAP and superplasticiser concenteatons inthe combination were maintained at 0.3% and 1.5% bby, respectively. Other HDG combinations substituted CEM I for BLA in proportions of 5,10, and 15%, respectively. Binders (CEM Mand BLA) and aggregates wore weighed separately and mechanically mixed to produce a homogenous mixture. SAP was added and combined with sand snd binder mixture inary tae. To improve the worksbilty oftheto» ” o o 2» lone gern and Tsing £3 (202) 100582 ‘Cammulaive Pasig Seve dre me) eFinesgwezte eons apse Fig 1. Particle dsuiution of aggregates. ‘Table 1 Pysieal and mechanical properties of agrees. Proper Sw ‘rai Finenesndalae 278 = e 200 10 « 020 S95 HPC combinations, water containing superplastciser (Mastergleninm Sky 504) was added to the dry HPC mixture after it was thoroughly mixed. The weighted mixing water was divided into rwo pars and a half ‘was added frst before the remaining half mixed withthe Mastergleniun, ‘Sey 604 was adced and the mix was allowed to agitate in the mixer for another 9 min, The HPC proportions for the mixtures are given in “Table 2. The eategories of te HPC were labelled BLAG with BLA content stated For instance, the HPC containing BLA at a Ye concentration vas refered (0 3 BLACS, 2.5. HPC casting aed curing For eacly HPC mixture, 192 numbers of 100 mim enbes were eas for ‘compressive strength, water absorption, and resistance (0 aggressive ‘chemical enviroment tests. 48 numbers of 100 O x 200 mm cylinders ‘nd 46 numbers of 100 x 100 x 500 sum prisms were east for sping tensile and flexural streagh tests, respectively, In addition, was 16 rmbers 100 © x 200 mim evlinders east fr the sorptvity test and this ‘was sliced into-# 100 © x 50 mn dse when dried. The HPC eubes, cv: Inder, pe dises were cast in four BLA contents (.. 0%, 5%, 10% and 159%) respecttvely, and each specinien was alowed to vibrate on a ‘table 2 HPC mix proportions Mawes aia) come GENT 35 35 oe sates oe oe SAP G2 Be) 1 tis Siperpnnszer (1.51 te) 7725 75 toon Wate oot oo ae binde (7) 3 os vibrating table for 3 min effective compaction. The specimen was Aemoulded after 24 and cuted immersed inthe varios ering media (ater, Hl, NagS0, and CaCl solutions) up tothe respective curing age (7, 21, 28, and 60 days). 26, Testing procedure 26.1. Workabiity Slump flow ofthe fresh MPC was performed using the Now cable rest, iustrated in BS EN 12350-5 (2000) as a gauge for the HPC mixtures worksbility 26.2. Compressive rent AC ages 7, 21, 28, and 60 days, the compressive stength of the 48. taumber HPC specimen was evaluated under BS EN 123903 (2019) specications. This was by applying a erasing force on the 100 mm tube specimen throxgh the YES-2000 digital Materials Testing Machine with a maximum: Toading eapncity of 2000 KN ensuring the cast face is placed horizontally tothe loading platen. The compressive strength f) is caleulated using Eq. (1): £ a where fis the compressive strength ofthe HPC mixture, MPa; Fi the ‘maximum load at failure, KN; Ac is the specimens cross-sectional area, 26.3. Spliingtesie strength ‘The test specimen consisted of 100 6x 200 mm eylindes following SEN 12390-6 (2019) specification. Consequently, 48 number cylinders were examined at ages 7, 21, 28, and 60 days using the linear elastic theory stated in Ba, (2) 2» =0L * @ were the sping resi strength of the HPC mixture, MPa; isthe fail Lond, KN; D isthe diameter of the specimen, um, and Ls the length of the specimen, mm. YES-2000 digital Materials Testing Ma- chine asin the compressive strength est was lied forthe test with the cylindrical specimen placed lying longitudinally om the platen. The fracture line on the surface of the speeinien was initially established by applying diamettic compression. The specinien was then positioned in the centre ofthe pressice plate, with ts spit ine aligned with te contre line a the bottom of the presse plate 26.4. Flesural strength est ‘Using manvally operated three-point contact $0 KN Impact AO 920,Aecural machine, the lexural strength (also known as the modulus of rupture, MR) of 48 HPC prismatie samples measuring 100 x 100 > 500 sum were evaluate. Inthe lexural strength tes, the test configuration followed BS EN 12390 5 (2019) with the same variables as detailed in the spiting renile est. As indicated in Equation (3), flexural strength is represented by the modulus of rupture (MR), as shown in Eq. (3) ca Ms & @ MR is dhe modulus of che rapture ofthe HPC mixture, MPa; P is the failure load, kN; Lis the length ofthe speciaen, mu; bis the specinten's breath, aud is the depth of che specimen, nm. 26.5. Water absorption test ‘Thisstudy determined the HPC specimen water absorption following BS EN 1097 6 (2013) on 100 concrete cubes cured by immersion in @ water tank for 7, 21,28, and 60 days, The weight of the soaked HPC specimens was intially determined and labelled as Met they were subsequontiy oven-dried at 110 § °C i a triplex for 24h until thes ass was constant. The dry samples were allowed to cool before being ‘computed and recorded with the desiguation May. The water absorption value was ealeulated by subtracting the dry sample's miss from the wet sample's mas, dividing the result by the mass of the dry sample, and multiplying the result by 100. The value of water absorption (WA) can be stated mathematically as follows: Mut — My May WA (0) is the water absomption Value; Nhe 18 the wet sample's weight; May isthe dry sample's weigh w 100 o 2.6.6. Sonpivity rest ‘To determine the sorptivity coefiient ofthe HPC samples, capillary ‘water absorption (sorpivity) measurements were performed in accor dance with ASTM C 1585-04 (2007) on 100 © x 50 mm dises cured ina water tank for 7,21, 28, and 60 days. After demoulding, specimens were ‘ut fromthe 100 Ox 200 mim eylinder using an electric handheld euting machine. Three dise samples were weighed an chen placed in an oven ‘aC 10.5 °C for 26 for each HPC mixture until a steady Weight was achieved. The dises were reweighed to establish a uniaxial water flow, and the elreumference was sealed with plastic pe, but the opposing faces were left exposed. The specimen were chen sfored ina retangular ‘container filled to 30 mm height with water for approximately 7.5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 120, and 180 min later, the date were recorded to estimate the water absorbed. The samples were then removed and weighed once more to estimate the water absorbed. Eq. (5) was used to compute the results 18.0% © 1s the seeumulative ingress of water in mum, Sis the sorptiity ¢o efficient, and (nnn) is the sample's immersion perio in the water. The ‘sample's water absorption was converted to volume, The volume of water plotted against the square root of me generates a straight line By ‘comping the slope ofthis straight in, the coefficient of sorptvity was ‘obtained. The bestFtng line was then determined using a regression analysis of the data points for every HPC mixture. This mistre’s ab sorption rate corresponded tothe slope ofthe bes-Aring line 2.6.7. Resistance 0 aggresive chemical environment test This study used 5% hydrochloric acid (HCD as an acidic curing ‘environment to asses resistance to acid attack. So also, were, 5% cal: ‘cium ehlove (CaCI) and sodium sulphate (Na,S04) solutions were utlsed to determine the chloride and sulphate resistances of the HPC samples. The 100 mm eubie samples forfour mix designs in tplieates were deposited in 5% HCI, 5% CaCl, and NagSO, blends for 60 days lone gern and Tsing £3 (202) 100582 (Open plastic containers were used while the acid, sulphate and chloride vironments’ pH was checked during the experimenting cycle. Ater 30 days, the pH of dhe solutions was reaffirmed, and the concentration changed. The samples were removed at 7,21, 28 and 60 days afer being exposed 10 acid, chloride, and sulphate solutions and chen rinsed with water. The samples were sundried quickly, and the adhering particles ere wiped away using a cotton napkin. The influence of acid, chloride and sulphate atack was evaluated using the same compressive testing Iachine deseribed in section 2.6.5 to measure compressive strength. HPC’s cube compressive strength determination followed BS EN 12890-8 (2019) specifications 27, Statistical analysis ‘The SPSS software Version 25 was used 10 analyse the experiments, findings. The statistical significance between the sidy"s dependent and independent variables was determined using the general linear model ‘ultivariate analysis forthe Tests of Hetween Subjects Elfects, The study las curing age and BLA content asthe independent variables, but slump flow, density, compressive strengeh in water, splitting tensile strength in water, flextral strength in water, water absorption, compressive strengtt in HCL, compressive strength in NaySO4 and compressive strength ina chlorine solution were all dependent variables, 3. Results 31, Characterisation of materials and fresh property ‘$1.1. Chemical anu microstructre analyses of BLA SL-1, X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF). The chemical compositions Df BLA used for the blended centent in this study are presented in “Table. Te findings show thae BLA calcined ta maximum temperature 1 600 “C contains high silien content of 75.1%, elem oxide of 4.229%, nina of 9.959% and ferrite of 1.24%, This result confirms thatthe snalysed BLA isa pozzolanic material in consonance with ASTM 618 (2019) standard provisions. Ths BLA ean be rated under Cass F poz 2olans singe the sim of the percentage elemental oxide content of Si0z}Al05+Fez03 equals 80.03%, and higher than the minimum of 7o% requirements of ASTM C 618 (2019). As stipulated by the standard, the XRF result also highlights less than 4% of sulfur trioxide (S03) ‘composition (1.69%). The lesson ignition (LO of 5.82% found on the BLA sample is within the threshold permited by ASTM C618 (2019) for ozzolanic materials. Thus, this study's useful oxides (SiO {ALO +Fes0s) and LOL are consistent with the eusrent Iterature and standards (Olutoge and Oledunmoye, 2017; Kolawole eta, 2021; Silva et al, 2021; Odeyemi et sl, 20225 ASTM C 618, 2019) on BLA composition 1.1.2 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysts of BLA. The BLA ‘morphology and semiquantitative chemical elements were analysed wing SEM/EDX techniques, Figs. 2 and 9 illustrate the BLA SEM ricrograph under 100 yu magnification and EDX peak resuls. Also, “Table 4 highlights the atomic snd weight concentrations of the same ‘material. Similar Siva et al.'s (2021) BLA SEM image of Brazilian origin, this sample's SEM images depice flaky iregular, angular, and needle ike particles denoted as A, B and C interconnected. Also, the ‘SEM image revealed very dark and light grey regular colours with very ‘ark colours in berween them. The very dark colours ean be inferred 9s the air spaces depicting porous materials which ong to enhance easy passages of water for dilution of the cementitious materials and hence improved hydration, The EDX spectra show silica in high content, fo lowed by peaks of potassium and calcium. There are aluminium and iron Tow contents in the investigated BLA sample, Thus, silica entichaent he BLA sample is similar to the result ofthe chemical oxideslone gern and Tsing £3 (202) 100582 ‘Table ‘Ghenical composition of BLA lone Ones SOs ALD ——FDS OME SOy MISO ——D)—TOs_—=*LOT—~—CSIOHATMST FD 2. SEM mierogaph oF BA, 12, Fresh properties: sump flow test Fresh HPC mixtures were evalusted for worksbilty using slump. flow test before being cast into moulds Pie, displays the sham flow tests performed on HPC mixes containing BLA. From Fig 4, the slump flow value is inluenced greatly by the cement substitution with BLA. The slump flow was less affected by the volume of water and other constinients used, unlike the BLA, which wns used co replace cement inthe mixture, The result depts that BLA-I5 With 15% PC replacement has the highest samp floe value of 510 mm, followed by the BLAC-10 with a shimp flow of 477 mm, BLAC'S and control tintures recorded 460 nan aad 430 mu shunp flow values, respectively ‘These results indicate thatthe fresh BLA-based HPC matrix inereases workability with higher BLA contents, Ths scenario may be linked tothe BLA's pore structure noticed inthe SEM result. The BLAC-15 increases the slump flow value by 18.6196 compared othe contro alluding othe BLA's capacity Co take up the Masterglenium Sky, 504 superplasticiser applied in the mixtures triggering the dispersal and water acceptance propensities (Pang et al, 2022) impacting BLA-based HPC. “The improvement in slump Now value between BLAC-15 and the control was attributable tothe BLA’s capacity to encapsulate the agaregate particles, producing @ higher viseosity and enabling the aggregate to low more % fue be readily and with les rietion on each other. In addition, BLA's ability to rota fille enables itt replace the water filled spaces surrounding agaregate particle, resulting in increased free water, les friction, and Improved worksbilty. The findings here are at variance with te slump cone test behaviours of BLA-based concrete investigated by Onikeki et al (2019) and Abebaw et a. (2021). Onikeku et al. (2019) and ‘Abebaw etal. (2021) studies focused on normal strength concrete using ‘slump cone test for workability determination, However, the Auidity ‘ables EDX sonic and weigh concentatons of BLA v Chine Be 336 ° ts sive eat a PA : sir te tae i nu Aiominim 1.89 1a R Me Menenum 003, on & dw g Fig. 4. Sump fw vals of ferent HPC mix signs Fig. 3. EDX microanlyss of BLA‘vale inthe curent study ae consistent vith the HPC mixtures in the literature, with a flow range of 400 to 600 mm (Neville, 20125 Neuka ‘tal, 2020) 3.8. Mechanical properties of hardened HPC 3.8.1. Density of HPC Using Equation (6), the average densities of exch HPC sample were ‘aleulated, and the values determined from the average of triplicate samples are presented in Fig. 5. Mass density © Volume From the cylinder samples in Fig. 5, all BLA percentage replacements, ‘were slightly lower than the contol in the order of replacement, sich that BLAC'5 was less by 0.998, and BLAC-10 was 0.98% lower than the ‘contol. From these findings, the reduetion ofthe densities of BLA-based HPC specimens may come from a lower specific gravity of BLA thin ‘cement. Aprianti etal (2015) found BLA's specific gravity and surface ‘aren t0 be 1.9-2.4 and 274 - 943 cm®/g, respectively. These BLA’s ‘physical properties are lower tha cement 913.16 specific gravity and $3100 - 2250 cni?/gn specie surface aren 38.2. Compressive strength of HPC with BLA ig. 6 depts the compressive stength values of HPC cubes com: bined with BLA ar ages 7,21, 28, and 60 days, The compressive strength improves as the cubes age ‘Based on the figure the compressive strength values in the 7,21, 28, ‘and 60 days of curing had an increasing trend in all euring regimes. Tis ‘same trend was reported by Odeyem et al (2022) in HPC containing BLA. There was a strength improvement of 2.68% and 1.699%, respec Lively for BLAC-10 at 21 and 60 days hydration period. The rests ‘evenled that che contro mixtreachioved n compressive strength valle of 34.64 MPa, while BLACS, BLACIO, and BLAC-I5 achieved ‘compressive strength values of 34.60, 32.35, and 29.94 MPa, expec: Lively at7 days of curing. At21 days of ering, the compressive strength ‘results indicate that BLAC-10 has the highest compressive strength va ‘of 47.56 MPa, followed by control with a compressive strength of 46.32 MPa, BLAC-5 with 49.89 MPa, and BLAC-19 with 36.47 MPa least value. ‘At 28 days of curing, control had the highest compressive strength value ‘f 52.05 MPp, ten BLAC-10 with 51.08 MPa, fellowes by BLAC'S with 49.76 MPa, and lastly BLAC-15 with 43.87 MPa. The Findings show that the increase in the percentage of BLA replacement decrenses the ‘compressive strength of the specimen, especially at an early age. Ths, BLAC 10 at 28 days attained 51.08 MPa, slightly above the designed characteristics strength of 50 MPa, while 60 days of curing produced & 1.699% increase in compressive strength compared with the contal Also, the present result sat variance with Odeyemi etal. (2022), who ‘obsained 57.59 MPa optimum compressive strength valve in BLA blended HPC at 5% cement replacement. A major sift between the present study and Odeyer et sl (2022) may be atributed to diferent designed strength charaeterstles and target mean stengths cle _ tb oon ay #g lB 7 Wil i Y Ga #7 0 Z GB #7 Z Zi WN i ; Fig 5. Desites of BLA bse HC in 100 0 x 200 mm estes mone lone gern and Tsing £3 (202) 100582 sent a eee ee ’ Fig. 6. Compressive strength of BLA based HPC. 49.3. Splicing tensile strength of HBC wie BLA Fig. 7 depets the splitting tensile strength of HPC eylinders Blended With BLA at curing ages 7, 21, 28, and 60 days. The splitting tensile strength of HPC speeinens increases as the number of curing days in creases but decreases as BLA replacement increases. {As the BLA proportion increased, there was a progressive inerease in the splitting tensile strengdh at 7 days, The BLAC-10 mixture had the highest splitting tensile strength of 3.86 MP, followed by the control With a value of 3.72 MPa. BLAG.15 and BLAC 5 had a splitng tensile strength of 3.56 and 3.41 MPa. The spliaing tensile strength value of BLAC-10 (5.917 MP2) dropped after 21 days of curing, making it the second-highest valve to control with a splitting tensile strength of 6.06 MPa, The BLACS mixture's splitting tensile strength value was 5.67 MPa, and the BLAC.1S with value of 4.52 MPa. AC 28 days of curing, the control mixture still retains dhe highese spliting tensile strength value of 7.35 MPa, while BLAC-S recorded a 6.76 MPa showing an Improvement after 7 and 21 days of curing. BLAC-10 mixture demon- strated a spliting tensile strength value of 6.13 MPa, while BLAC-15 shows the Teast splitting tensile strength value of 5.52 MPa. AC 60 days, contro sill possesses the highest sping tensile strength value of 8.54 MPa, followed by BLAC-10 with 7.99 MPa. Thus, the splitting tensile stength values are consistent with the compressive strength values reinforcing the amorphous characteristics of BLA in the cemen- ‘lous matrix Chinas et sl, 2021). 33.4. Flexural srength of HPC with BLA Fig. 8 depicts the flexural strength study of HPC prisms blended with, varying percentages of BLA substitution, Similar to the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength values, dhe data demonstrate that Aexural strength increases with increasing age. As shown in the Figure, at7 days of curing, BLAC-10 recorded the sain flexural strength value of 1.19 MPa, flloved by BLAC-S with a flexural strength of 1.12 MPa, BLAC 9 and BLAC 10 shovred signif. icant inuprovement after 7 days of curing. The lexuralstrugth value of 1.00 MPa was obtained forte contol atthe same age, while BLAC-1S had the Teast flexural strength value of 0.87 MPa, Sinilar to 7 days ‘uring results, BLAG-10 remained the most iiproved mixture recording 41,28 MPa at 21 days, next is the BLACS with 1.20 MPa, The fesural strength values of control aad BLAC 1S were 1.12 and 1.10 MPa, respectively, after 28 days of curing. For the 60 days of euing, BLAC-10 haa a flexural strengrh of 1.76 MPa, followed by control with 1.73 MP, BLACS had a strength value of 1.67 MPa, and the least flexural strength value for 60 days of curing is BLAC-15, witha strength of 1.82 MPa. The Increased flexural strength observed in the BLA blended mixture, espe cially with the BLA.10 mixture, may be ateibuted to the high SiO, values vealed in the XRF and EDX micrograph and atomic and weight concentration results of the tested BLA, The Sip content it BLA i ‘vences pozzolanic reactivity in cementitious products (Silva et a 2021), The finding here complied with both compressive and spliting tensile rest rests,lone gern and Tsing £3 (202) 100582 Spliting esi stent) 57D ws 2LD I 28DuS 60D ig 7. spliting tensile stength of BLA based HPC: S.A, Durability properties O7Days 321 Days <28 Days 260 Days ig. 8, Flext steng of BLAbased HPC, varie from 5.10 (07.1096 for ? days, 5.01 0 7.029% for 21 days, 4.19 €0 16.9696 for 28 days, nd 4.07 10 6.79% for 60 days. The control mixture 3.4.1. Water absorption of HPC Without BLA complied with ASTM! C 642 (2006) provisions with an "ig. 9 shouts the mean experimental results for the water absorption acceptable range of 2-S% vinter absorption for HPC mixtures. On the ‘of BLA. modified HPCs at 7,21, 28, and 60 days, The water absorption other hand, BLA blended HPCs had water absonption values slightly ‘Water absorption (%) Cont BLACS BLAC-I0 BLACAS 7 Days © 21Days =28Days M60 Days i 9, Water sbsorption oF BLA based PCa vious curing ayshigher than that prescribed by the relevant standard, silva et l. (2021) reported increased water absorption when more than! 10% of PC was replaced with BLA in the mortar mixture, Iuereased water absorption may be ntributabe to the mesoporous nature ofthe tested BLA sample, confirmed by the SEM image. However, the BLAC-10 mixture had the lowest water absorption capacity among the BLA blended HPCs con- Firming the best improved mixture inthe tested mechanical properties results. For instance, dere are 16.00 and 25.05%, 16.42 and 28.72%, 20.63 and 32.94%, and 18.71 and 32.21% water absorption reductions for BLAC-10 compared (othe BLAC 5 and BLAC-15 HPCs at7, 21, 28 and (00 days of euring, respectively, The wate absorption values obtained in BLAC 10 mixtures are moderately above $3 at 60 days compared with 28 days, signalling the best-Improved mixture among the blends. The ‘decrease in water absorption may indicate the efficacy of BLA particles In densifying the cement paste matrix and the interface beeween the ‘cement paste and aggregates, Moteover, the creation of eam silicate ‘and calcium silicate aluminate hydrates (C-SH and C-A-H) via the pozzolanie activity further fills the pores nd enhances the microstruc tue of the BLAblended HPC, 5.4.2. Sonpivity of Cs ‘The changes in water absorption by capillary pressure as @ function ‘of time have been illustrated in Fig. 10 throug 15. The absorption rate (orptivity coefficien) plots for BLA-modifed HPCs were analysed in conjunetion vith the change in mass per unit area relative to the water ‘unit mass andthe period's square root (min). The effects of blended BLA ‘on the water sorptivity of HPC at 7, 21, 28, and 60 days are depicted in Figs. 10-13. Ding the seven days of curing, the capillary water activi ‘of BLAC-10 1.87 mm dropped the most compared to dhe control (2.75, 1mm) and other combinations. Also, # 28-day BLAC-10 had the lowest ‘water capillary ingress of approximately 0.74-4.50 mm over the 180 ‘min inspeetion time compared with other mixes. The BLAC-10 mixture had mean water sorptvity of 2.12 ma tothe control mix (2.62 mm). A ‘elated trend was observed at 60 days the mean water ingress was 2.30, ‘mm forthe BLAC-10 modified HPC. ‘The correlation coefficient of BLA based HPC at7, 21, 28 and 60 ays, is shown in Table 5. Om all curing days of 7,21, 28, and 60 days, the ‘control mixture denionstrated a good correlation between the rate of absorption and the squate rot of ine, with RE — 0.966 (7 days), 0.979 21 days), 0.964 (28 days) and 0.911 (60 days), respectively, These results demonstrate the hydration trends of the examined samples as ‘curing days progressed. The crrelation coefficients for BLAC-5 were R? 0.997 (7 days), 0.944 (21 days), 0.985 (28 days) and 0.948 (60 days), ‘respectively, Fr BLAC-10, the correlation coefficients recorded were R= = 0,984 (7 days) 0.990 (21 days), 0.983 (28 days) and 0,980 (60 days), respectively. Lastly, BLAC-15 had correlation coefficients of R? = 0.087 days), 0.988 21 days), 0.995 (28 days) and 0.995 (60 days), R038 Ra lone gern and Tsing £3 (202) 100582 respectively. ASTM C 1585.04 (2007) guideline stated, “The initia ab sorption rate cannot be established ithe data between 1 min and 6 heo tot fellow a linear connection (correlation coefficient less than 0.98) rnd exhibit a systematic eurvarute.” Thus, the BLAC'5 correlation co: efficient was signifiennt ar 21, 28 and 56 days but not at 7 days, BLAC-10 revealed a significant diffrence at 28 and 06 days, but BLAC-1S gave Aiferences in the calculated correlation coefficient between 7, 21, 28, tad 60 days BAS. Resttance tothe aggresive chenical enviroment ‘igs. 14-17 depict the eompeesive strength at 7,21, 28, and 60 days of hardened HPCs with varied PC substicutions by BLA subjected co various curing media (water, acid, sulphate, and ehlorine solution). According (othe data, the compressive strength of dhe HPC in ageres sive environments decreased by 8.40, 27-68, 40.86, and 46.340 (acid); 22.63, 38.04, 47.72, and 51.15% (sulphate) and 14.81, 41.45, 52.80, tnd 43.40% (chlorine) after 7, 21, 28, and 60 days of curing, respec tively, in comparison to curing in water. The sulphate envitenment strongly influenced the investigated samples’ compressive strength for ll the mix types. Comparing the plain water curing of HPCs with other chemical envigonments, the contol had the least reduced compressive strength percentage (30.82%), followed by BLAC-15 (31.49%), while the other mixtue’s compressive strength reduetion was within 40.149. n the stlphate solution, BLAC-S had the least strength reduction (37.2796), then control (40.04%), while the other mixture's strength reduction was 46.90%, Similatly, BLAC-10 has the lowest strength reduction (34.92%), agile other HPC mixtures’ strength reduction was 45.42%. In general, the control mixture demonstrated superior re duetions in compressive strength in the tested chemical conditions. ‘Therefore it can be inferred that mesoporous BLA particles produced pores inthe HPCs, allowing ae, sulphate, and chloride ions co enter the str. The findings complied with the water absorption and sorptivity results inthe HPC msarix water ingress. 4.5, Statistical analysis ‘Table A in the appendix shows the general linear model ~ mult variate analysis for the Tests of Between Subjects Effects obtained by SPSS-v 23 highlighting the effects of BLA content, and curing age on the compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strengths, slump lows, d sity, water absorption, compressive strength in acid, sodium sulphate and ehlorie solutions uring environments of BLA-based HPC mixtures “The significance is assessed based on P < 0.5 (as shown inthe last co: ‘un of the Table. The results show that each independent variable (BLA content and curing age) had a significant effect om all the tested prop: erties of the HPC mixtures except the shimp low valves which were purely for an assessment of workability done only at the fresh state ofthe ‘Saar rot of me i) war (Coa) Line BLACS) ar LACH) Lia LACS) Fig 10. Water sorpiity chaaetrstis of BLA blended HPC fr 7 daysoo aera lone gern and Tsing £3 (202) 100582 Comm = 04884-04239 27861-00964 yBLAC- 1004714403054 enone Be 09s Re =n9899 SBLAC-IS~ 0464-40144 ‘square roo fie in) econ eas 2 Lacio emacs inear(Cona) =~ Kinear(Cona) iar (BLACS) 0 Kia (BLACION Lia (BLACS) Fig. 11, Water sopivty characterises of BLA‘lende HPC for 21 ays Koumi-o3sseearss — wLACS=oxIm nari "LACH Oss a ; we osaie Re=9382 YBLAC5-0.298-00n5 Roope ° 2 4 ‘ * 0 2 4 ‘Square root fie (i nearer) ing (BLACS) ing (BLAC IO) Lina (BLACIS) Fig. 12, Water sopivtycharacteristis of BLA‘lended HPC for 28 ays Cont =042tix+ 12059 yBLACS=04S92«+ L012 ° w= 03109 we -0040 Fs} yetacio=oston.raoes R995 bs 1 ° Square oot of me (ein) 2 cont spac —s—pacin oikels near(Con hear LACS) Tsar (HLAC-10) Usa (BLAC-5) Fig, 13, Water sorptivtycharetristis of BLA‘lende HPC for 60 éays ‘concrete, The slump flow value was not influenced by curing age since it content. Generally, both the curing age and BLA content were observed ‘was determined before the concrete was east s the same slump flow to havea very strong influence (with a P value of 0.00) om all the tested value holds forall curing ages considered. This explains the P value of mechanical and durability properties ofthe Investigated BLA modified 1.0 gotten as an outcome of the analysis for the single-factor analysis HPC. ‘with curing age and also, the two-factor analysis (Caring Age combined ‘with BLA content) affirming the curing age has no significant effect on slump flow. The variable of influence on the slump flow is the BLA,‘Tables ‘Suumary of water srpivity correlation coefficient of BLA-blene HPCs ‘Mi. Sorpy colon 7aoe aldape andar Soda coef a ae 4. Conclusions By building upon the scientific contributions of past sties on the use of SCMs as a substitute in cementitious products, the present paper identified the feasibility of che blend of BLA aud PC for HPC develop: rent, Ths, this experimental stidy investigated the mechanical and ‘durability properties of BLA-based HPC to establish their relevance for structural element works. Using standard testing procedures, the study found that the analysed BLA falls under the Class F pozzolans of ASTM {618 (2015) classification (S102+AlOs+Fep03 = 80.03%), with SEM image showing Aaky regular, angular and needle-like partiles affirming the BLA sample as an amorphous material. BLA content has a ‘Significant influence on the workability of the HPC mixtures deducing from the slump flow ineteases from BLA contents increases. PC subst toon with BLA in HPC secosnted for redicod density in the rested | a a) iG biol BZ Ba a YG gam g Y Hol EZ Fo . Control i g 30 | 42 a7 Be Hes i ‘Cont BLACS lone gern and Tsing £3 (202) 100582 samples while the optinnm BLA content for use in HPC is 1096 for acceptable mechanical and durability properties. BLA-modified HPC should not be used in severe acidic, sulphate and chloride envir Curing age and BLA content hed a significant effet on the test chanical and durability properties of the investigated BLA-modified HDG. It isthe idea of this paper to be used by researchers and con- struetion professionals as one of the inputs for stering new alternative ‘aterials in building projects. It will also serve as a source of informa: tion for the general public. The present study thereby reeomniends the adoption of 10% BLA content for the production of HPC exposed t0 nora environmental conditions Funding ‘There was no extemal funding for the study Compliance with ethical standards This paper does not conta subjects ny studies involving human oF anna Credit authorship contribution statement David 0. Nduka: Conceptualisation, writing-review & editing, Babacunde J, Olawuy%: Formal analysis and writing review & editing. WA, WMA: BLAC.IO BLACAS = 7Days =21 Days 28 Days. 60 Days Fig, 14. Compressive strength of BLA blended HPC cured in a plain watt HHT BLAC-IO LACS Y7Dys WIEDYYs “28DHE A60Day Fig. 15. Compressive stengih of BLA blended HPC exe in an eid envionmentate solution (MPa) Compressive strenght of BLA-based HPC in sod d d ‘chlorine solution (MPa) Compressive strenght of BLA.based HPC in MMMM ‘Cont BLACS lone gern and Tsing £3 (202) 100582 BLAC-I0 27 Days £21 Days ©28 Days 60 Days 16, Compressive strength of BLAlended HPC cre ina sulphate eavironment, MMMM =7Diys 921 Days €28Days N60 Days Fig. 17. Compressive strength of BLA blended HPC cured ina chlovine environment Adekunle M. Ajao: Methodology, Project administration. Victor C. Okoye: Writing-original draft, Formal analysis. Obinna M. Okigbo Writing original draft, Formal analysts, Declaration of competing interest ‘The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial Interests or personal relationships that eould have appeared co influence the work reported in this pape. Appendix “Table A Data availabiity Data wil be made available on request. Acknowledgement ‘The authors would ike to thank Covenant Univesity for using the Inboratory and equipment and sponsoring this paper's article processing cluarge (APC) Supplier of Masterglenium Sky 504, BASF, Lagos, West Africa, facilitated by Mr Adesola Mofikoya, fs acknowledged, “Tests of Betwcen Sibjots fers of BLA base HPC on workability, mechanical and ability properties fomee Dependent Vvnle peli Samofsguore ek Meme Sgunre Se Carns Aer “ap ewe 00 3 oo “a8 1.08 ‘ompeesive seni in water aes 3 mas tome a0 ‘Spting teal engin fn woer 106.500) 3 35501 tones 90 ‘Compete seth it HCL nar. a hen ioas a0 (amined e929)“Table A comme) lone gern and Tsing £3 (202) 100582 Bae Depend Fale Thee isan aT ears aan are 3 Comprenivesengi le Nay curs 3 Tsk 7a —00 Compress seg Clore ston 154703 re) tess 0 Compre seg ie water doaaee 3 les atset. 00 Spltng ale engi wae 10524 3 306) acs? eon egal eng in ter 54 a 105 isa om ‘Water Abepton sa 3 iam assis oon ‘Comprsive seat N80, saore 3 930 ase 00 Compressive sength ne chloinesolion ——_$94660, 3 Teens Goan Coming Age *BLAcontent Shp ow oon nr) ‘00 000 | Dest ‘roea568 5 Beas sist 00 Compressive sengt in water sao ry) 2604 00 Spiting tense eng in water a8 sn ae 00 ‘Wace Absorption sie 3 ase 1690 oo Compressive sengt in HCL e310 3 Sor pene 00 Compre sengt a NaS, newre 5 30 iene 0 Compreive seg na Chlonesauton 201348 8 mam erst 0 References Abbas Gs Bek, 8, Gehan 8, 2021, fxprinentlavstzaon on fet of Eng 2021 hep ator i.t1ss/a0a oud [AGTATC/TAC, 1999, ACL Def High Pefrmace Caner (Te Tea ees ‘Commitee Rept chain. 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Antunes, P-A., 2021 Bamboo laf wh for we a= mineral dition with Peeve 3 np Ne ae lone gern and Tsing £3 (202) 100582 Thon, BS, Yang J Me HL, Abfall JA, evi, RA, Asyachania 2021 imams she om agiell wane oe uponenty cmensbur aro create replacement n some oplymer concrete a compete ese Sul tag 40, 102332 hip orang TOV} job-2021 02832. VCs Motte, sunt, Sy Savana Ie Ply 201 ‘esac bea of baniboo let az chanceaation so deen of he [Bee paramere Cement once Camper 13 (1), 68-73 supe Sate 10106) Datormaice cone a een. Conse, Bul, Mate, 81, 125250 i/o (4/1006 eon 2001125250. ey AML, Joba, MAM, Abdel A Abul A, Mah, MLLA, Alaa, A “dh Tenepor properties of pail fl as based igh prota gen Sooeiet sujet seam uring epnes, Cave Sd Const Maer, e107? ips oeuay/40. 104 )esen 20077 eye, AM, Johar MAS, Astle, Taye, B.A, 20a The cect f tam cating "eine on the hie cevtance a pre ce high-strength ren conte ‘Siac bul Maer, 20, 122408 /Sece 40.1080, aya, AML, Jabal, WAM, Alba VR, Aba AA, aan, YA, Tapeh BA ‘bute A. 2020, Infiene of tem cing regimes on he oper of alefine Forkmatgratngt pesto og ORO