Italian violin strings in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries: typologies, manufacturing techniques and principles of stringing Questa picciol’ane, che contiibuisce tan- tol nostro piacere, ¢ forse una delle men note, attesoché coloro che la professano ne serbano le pratiche a guisadi segreto, FRANCESCO GRISELINI: Dizionario delle ar- tie mestieri Nenetia 1765). On matters concerning strings and the criteria of stringing bowed instru- ments from the beginning of the cightcenth to the end of the nineteenth century, the systematic study of recently acquired material has produced some remarkable surprises, that are particularly revealing if compared to the string- ing techniques currently used by the carly music specialists. For at least a decade researchers have begun to realize that mistaken interpretations of the original sources in certain important violin methods dating ftom the first half of the present century — as, for example, that of Carl Flesch’ — have had a bad influence on those who first began to pose the problem of how best to recover past musical repertories in accordance with the strictest principles of authenticity Tchas been widely held, for example, that eighteenth-century bowed instru- ments, and especially che violin, had a thin, nasal sound — in marked contrast, therefore, with that of our own century: this was generally attributed co the preference of easly musicians to string their instruments much more lightly cam. ruisct: The art of violin playing, 2 vols, Fischer, New York 1924-30 (original edition, Die Kunst des Vioingpiel, 2 vols. Ries, Berlin 1924-2). ® See paraizio nakBieR!: “Giordano Riccati on the diameters of sings and pipes’, The Galpin Sociery journal, xoccvmn 1985, pp. 20-34, and EPHRATHE SEGERMAN: “Strings through the ages”, The Stra, part, January 1988, pp. 52-5, part 2 (Highly strung’), March 1988, pp. 195-201, part 3 (‘Deep ter- sions"), April 988, pp. 295-9,456 Mina FERUFFO than is done today in ordinary practice.’ The idea became so deeply rooted (mainly because no realy serious research was done on the subject) that even important string manufacturers would recommend very thin strings to anyone intending to play baroque music. Tn recent jears, however, a more painstaking scudy of the historical docu- ments has suggested a substantially different siruation. In fact, just as the recon- seruction of early musical epertories and their respective instruments requires accurate comparative studies of the various elements of the past, it stands to reason that the string — the actual generator of sound — should be one of the main points of departure (if not the main one) of that endeavour. Hence, as some studies have shown, the string is no longer just one of the bricks making up the edifice but rather the “comer stone of the temple”.* 1. The four ages of gut strings “Though strings made out of gue had been used for thousands of years (gut strings for ancient Egyptian plucked string, instruments have been found from the Third Dynasty), over the centuries a series of improvements were introduced in the techniques needed to produce a good string.’ On the basis of research we may conjecture that developments in gut string manufac- turing consisted not so much in a slow and progressive refinement of construc- tion techniques but rather in periods of abrupt change brought about by the covery of new technologies. Such innovations spread surprisingly fast and often even had the effect of decermining the appearance or disappearance of certain categories of musical instrument. This can be verified if we examine the repercussions of overspun » At various points of pavin D. BorDen: The history of violin pleying from its origins to 1761 and it ‘elatonship to he vol and vilin music, Oxford Univesity Press, Oxford 1965, itis stated that sting tensions on seventeenth- and eightcenth-century violins were lower than on theit modern counterpart. Such statements, hoviever, are not supported by any evidence, with che exception of cerain con: Uional aspect of early instrument: for etample, the yenezally shower and thinner bass-bar, and the angle formed by thestrings on the bridge, grester than that of today. On this subject. see also EDUARD MELKUS: 1H violine: inoduzione alle storia del violino ¢ della tecnica vioinistca, Giumti, Firenze 1975 (original edition Eine Einfihrung in die Gechicite der Vioine und des Vilimpiet, Hallweg, Bern 1972), p. 27: “La dimensione del diamero [delle corde del volino] & nota solo dapo Vinitio del xx secolo” (the dia meters [of violin strings) are known only after the beginning of the nineteenth century); and ROBIN svowstt: Violin echnigue and perormance prance inthe lat eghtont and eary nineteenth centuri, Cambridge University Pres, New York 1985, p28: “Some scholas belive probably quite comely, that cightcenth-century violin srings were generally thinner than their modern counterpars “See in particular Dj1.DA ABBOT ~ EPHRAIM. SEGERMAN: “Strings in the x6th and r7th cencuies”, The Galpin Society journal, 3074 1974, pp 48-7 » About the diting of the Egyptian strings, sce WERNER BACHMANN: The origins of bowing and. development of bowed insiuments xp to the thineenth century, Oxtord University Pres, inoue (original lition Die Anfinge ds Strecchinsramenserapiel, Brctkopf und Hirel, Liprig 1964), p. 73ITALIAN VION staINCs 157 bass strings, consisting of a gut core wrapped with fine metal wite (generally of clver butaso of copper and bras). hase new strings, 2 genuindy fvolution ary discovery, appeared towards the second half of the seventeenth century, spread rapidly and were directly responsible for the swift abandonment of the awkward bass violins in use until dhe end of the seventeenth century (or shortly after) in favour of the emerging violoncello However, it also seems highly likely that, even during periods of relative technological stagnation, string makers probably endeavoured to produce strings to the best of their ability and as perfectly as possible. The rooted idea that the strings of past centuries were a lite “primitive” and a long way off the presumed perfection of modern strings needs to be firmly rejected. ‘As a rough guide, we can outline four characteristic “eras” in the evolution of string making, The first era. The first era can be approximately identified as the phase in which certain primary materials, especially gut and silk, were discovered to possess a certain degree of resistance under tension and a capacity to produce sound. Due to its wide availability, silk was the material mainly used in the Western and Mediterranean civilizations. Subsequently, manufacturing tech- niques were improved and rationalized, a step that is reflected in the numerous “do-it-yourself” treatises of the Middle Ages. Here, for example, is a recipe drawn from the "Secretum philosophorum’, a fifteenth-century manuscript: Ad facicndum cordas lite | Cum autem volumus faccre cordas lie (...] recipe intestina ovium et lava ea munde et pone ea in aqua vel in lexivia per dimidium vel plus usque caro se separet leviter a materia corde que est similis quasi nervo. Post depone carnem de materia cum penna vel cum digito mundo, Post pone rmateriam in escvia forti vel ubio vino per 2 dies. Post extrahe et sicea cum panno linco etiunge 3 vl 4 simul secundum quantitate quam volueris habere et ateur- na ca usque sulficiat, Et extend ea super parietem et permit sicare [... ‘The procedures described are surprisingly similar to those used today but, as string manufacturing was not yet a professional trade, the final product must have been rather variable in quality. The second era. ‘The second period ranged from the second half of the fit teenth (o the first half of the sixteenth century. Ic probably coincides with the appearance of the professional string maker, who perfected manufacturing techniques and raised the quality of strings to the highest possible levels. « stern sons “From vile to violoncello: aquetion of strings? formal of the Amicon Musical Instrument Society. 1 1977, pp. 64-99. ” cunistonnien pace: Voices and instruments of the Middle Ages: instrumental practice and songs in Prana, i00-300, Den, Lomo 1987, Bp 145,458 MIMO PERUFFO During the sixteenth century the main centres of string making were also important for the dyeing and spinning of sik and cotton: Florence, Venice, Nuremberg and Lyon. It is plausible, therefore, that the string makers learned from the more complex techniques used in the spinning of silk: processes char would have allowed a significant initial reduction of the stiffness of the thicker strings used in the bass register. In fact, we may deduce that bass strings were even more elastic and efficient than before if instrument makers were able to permi themselves important structural developments; in the case ofthe lure, a sixth course was added some time towards the end of the fifteenth century. thus extending the instrument’ range by as much as a fourth (sometimes a fifth) below the fifth course; the same happened to the bowed viol. The third era, ‘The next era began in the second half of the sixteenth cen- tury with a further leap. In this period 2 seventh course, generally tuned a fourth (sometimes a fifth) below the sixth course, was added to the luce (other additions were soon to follow), while on bowed instruments, string lengths seem to have been reduced.” Recent studies have tended to show that these changes resulted from the application of a revolutionary idea: the increase in the specific weight of the gut in bass strings by means of special treatments involving heavy mineral salts” Amongst other things, ths is suggested by the seventeenth-century ico- nogeaphy, wich shows bast acings of a ask red, Brown oc blacks colour very iflcere om the iypieal lois clos of rats gut higher singin all likelihood, this was a direct consequence of the loading process. This new technique allowed makers to produce thinner yet more sonorous bass scrings. “This phase, corresponding to the age of Monteverdi and Stradella, marks a peak in the complexity of gue string making, establishing a level of quality that was to remain unsurpass: The fourth era. The last era — which still continues today — is marked by the advent of overspun bass strings consisting of a gut core (i.e. an ordinary plain gue string) over which is wound a fine metallic wire; the windings can be either close or open. The oldes: extant document attesting this technique dates from 1659: “Goretsky hath an invention of lute strings covered with silver wyer, or strings which make a most admirable musick. Mr Boyle. [...} String of guts done about with silver wyer makes a very sweet musick, being of Goretsky’s inven- * annor = seceRMan: “Strings in the r6ch and 17th cencuries ° sanato nenurve: "The mystery of gut bas strings in the sixteenth and seventeenth centric: the role of loided. weighted gut", Recemare, 1993, pp. 115-1, ABBOT ~ SEGERMAN: “Strings in the x6th and sth centuries", on the other hand, claims that the al-gut bases of the time were made by interwining ‘v0 oF chice gut sings by means ofthe technigue commonly employed for making ropesITALIAN VIOUN sTRINGS 159 tion’." This is losely followed by John Playford!’ viol treatise of 1664 and other works." However, the spread of these more efficient basses was riot as as one might imagine: the viol player Sainte-Colombe introduced them wo France only around 1675," and in Iraly, a country renowned for its string production, the earliest evidence is from the year 1677." The earliest extant iconographic evidence of a violin with a white fourth string (probably over- spun with silver) can be daved to the mid 1680s." Tr goes without saying that this discovery had a dramatic impact on both music and instrument making; it could even be described as a watershed, dividing “before” and “after”, For while treble instruments like the violin had always been eminently manageable, the larger instruments were dispropor- tionately unwieldy if we consider the range that was comfortably reached by the fingers of the left hand, It is easy to understand, therefore, that as soon as efficient bass strings became available, the instrument makers systematically shortened the vibrating lengths of the da fondamenso instruments 0 a t0 make them more manageable, This also meant that the violin could use the fourth string more efficently and therefore more frequently than before. 2. Gut string manufacturing technologies in the eighteenth and nine- teenth centuries Before examining the typical characteristics of eighteenth- and nineteenth- century violin stringing, a topic that squarely falls within the fourth era, itis worth briefly assessing the period preceding the introduction of overspun bass strings so as to present the typologics of string available in the late seventeenth cemury and actually used on this instrument. ™ saver naxrtis: “Ephemerides", manusrips (location not known to the present author), under the year 169; the passages cited were privately communicated by Robert Spencer (3 October 1995) Spencer suggested that the cats infermation reached Hari from the well4nown chems Robe Boyle. "JONN piavionts: An introduction to the sil of masic[..-]. The fourth edition much enlarged, Wit- liam Godbid for John Playford, London 1664: see also ctavipe pemeavi.t: CExvres de physique {lo ‘Amsterdam 1727 (st edition 680) pp. 224-5: “Invention nouvelle pour augmenter le son des cordss” "= Jeaw Rousseau Zrité dela vil. Christophe Ballard, Paris 1687. ' patmizio manstent: “Cembulato, organaro, chiatraro e fabbricatore di corde armoniche nella “Polyantha technica’ di Pinaroli(r718-32):con notzieinedite sui liutai e cembalari operanti a Roma’, Recercar,1 1989, pp. 125-209; 198 (com abil ofthe guitar maker Alberto Plamer: “due corde di vielone, tuna di argento et un‘altra semplice” [two violone stings, one of silver and another plain). See the paiting by Antonio Domenico Gabbian Riratto di musi alla corte medicea( Florence 1684-7), Fitenze, Palazzo Pitt, inv. 1890, reproduced on the cover of Earp music, xvii's Novernber 1990. According to seorrMan: “Suings through the ges", part 2, pp. 197-8, the usc of overspun strings con che violin in Ialy is fst mentioned in GioRoano muccart: Dell corde, cover fibre elutice, Star peria di San Tommaso d'Aquino, Bologna 1767, p. 10; Segerman also assumes that stringings before rid century, including arin’, were all-gut, as inthe seventeenth century.160 MINMO PERUEFO Undoubtedly the most comprehensive document on stringing in the period before Bach is the treatise by Thomas Mace. lis most notable aspect — one that had already been mentioned many years earlier by John Dowland” — is its division of the strings (in this case for the lure, the most problema inseru- ment for stringing at that time) into three basic “sorts”: strings for the trebles {minikins, Romans), strings for the meanes (Venice catlins), and strings for the basses (Lyons or the “deep dark red” coloured Pistoys).” What this arrangement strongly suggests is not so much a simple commer- cial distinction or a grouping according to provenance (ever since the carly sixteenth century, strings had been named after their respective areas of prov- enance) as differing types of technology. It seems to imply that diversified manufacturing strazegies were followed in order to produce strings that were suited to each register and to ensure a perfect “acoustical” transition between registers. The characteristics of each type would appear to be: maximum resis tance to wear and breakage for treble strings, maximum elasticity for the stings of the middle registe, and an increase in specific weight and elasticity for the bass strings. Finally, though the carliest mention of overspun strings is from England and precedes his treatise, Mace’s description of bass strings still refers to the all-gur strings made in Italy and France ‘An example of seventeenth-century violin stringing is given by James Talbot: “Bost string are Roman as 24 of Veni ais sd ath bet be Binet smoothest Lyons, all 4 differ in size”.” This is corroborated by iconogra evidence showing an obvious difference between the frst two strings, w et are light yellow, and the third and fourth strings, which are distinctly brown.* “To our knowiedge, the only seventeenth-century author to give an idea of the gauges of violin strings is Mersenne. His indications, though general, are useful: “la chantarelle des dessus est aussi grosse que la quattiesme des luths” (the in first string is the same size as the fourth string of the lutes).” This meansa diameter of between 0.70 and 0.80 mm for the violin firs string.” ' Joun powtano: “Other necessary observations belonging to the luc”, in ROBERT LOWLAND: Variesie of lte-lesons {..., Thomas Adams, London 1610, peragiaph “OF sexing the sight sizes of that “bass viol treble string = 2d of violin’; on the strength ofthis scant data, Segerman estimated a diameter for a vilin E in Talbot's day by referring to the average diameter ofthe chanterelle of a madem bass violas the diameter of a heavy modem top sting for a bas vol is generally 0.6) mon, that of the Talbot's violin chanterlle was estimated 380.46 mm. "For an iconographic example, see the painting by the Sienese artist Rutilio Manetti Amore rion- ante (3633), Dublin, National Gallery of Ireland. "MARIN MERSENYE: Harmonie universe...) Livre quattiesme, Crameisy, Paris 1636, p. 189. % Tn secenatan: “Stings through the ages", part 2, p. 197. a diameter of about 0.76 mm is calculated.ITALIAN VIOUN sTRINGS 161 With the introduction of overspun strings (and with the consequent in- crease in demand for them, especialy rom bowed instruments, the ancient secret techniques of making al-gue bass strings declined rapidly and were soon forgotten by the new generation of string makers: just by wrapping a chin meul wire around a gut string one got a much larger sound, As a resule, de manufacture of these new strings probably passed immediately into the hands of the luthiers, and sometimes into those of the musicians themselves: the winding of a normal gut string with spinet of citeern wire would have hardly constituted a problem for the more enterprising among them." ‘The early eighteenth century must have witnessed a drastic narrowing of production: by mid-century the treatises and documents are no longer refer- ring to the wide range of gut commodities described in the previous century. In its place there arose a uniform system of string manufacturing that remai cd in use in the following centuries — and to a great extent still applies today. Soring manufacturing technique. Though at fist glance the procedures for making gut strings look remarkably like those in use today, these were sub- stantial differences. And what these differences unquestionably suggest is that the earlier serings (right up to the end of the nineteenth century) were more clastic, and hence better, than those available today. String making in the past required the use of a whole lamb-gat of a length of at least 50 feet.” After careful cleaning and rinsing in running water for several days, the gut was subjected to a series of treatments to eliminate the non-muscular membranes and fatty substances. This was done by immersing the gut in alkaline solutions of increasing concentration for a few days, after which the undesirable substances were easily removed with the back of a knife or a fragment of cane. The alkaline solution consisted of plant ashes (potash) mixed with water. The diluted concentrations were sufficient w remove the more easily soluble fatty substances, while the highest concentration was lef to the end of the treatment, when more aggressive action was needed co remove all * saxstens: “Cembalaro, organaro, chitarraroe fabbricarore di corde armoniche”,p. 174, workshop inventory ofthe instrument maker Crexcensio Ugae 179: “un oxdegno da coprit corde di fi d'argento” (device for covering stings with silver wite). FRANCESCO GALRAZZI: Elementi eorco-prati di musi con an saggio sopra Uae di suonare i violin |...|, Phucchi Cracas, Roma 1791, p.74: "Non sari ced i, scaroal mio letor, el ui gli desesiva una picciola scmplicisima macchinetes, uso glie ne addi fer flrs, ¢ reopirsi d'argento da sé icordoni”(Lewill nos, | believe, be unwelcome ro my ceader if scribe and explane the use ofa small and very simple machine for threading and covering the fourth siiip naive 2F peancesco cnseue: Diionarin dle ane meet, vo. v, Fen, Venezia 1969, entry “Cord juolo di corde di budella”, pp. 124-33 and plate xin (a faithful randation of the entry “Bayaudie”, in Encyclopedic, ou Dictionnaire raisonne des since, des ars et dey raters...) rol. ty Biasson etal. Pats 1751, pp. 388-9), and FRANCOIS DE LALANDe: Voyage en Jeabe |..] fat dans les année 1765 €1766, 2nd edition, vo. 1t, Desain, Pats 1786, pp. sta. DELALANDE: Vaguageen tai, P54.162 MIMO PERUFFO the residual unwanted substances. During this stage a small amount of rock- alum could be added; it would have had a shrinking and tanning effect, thus slightly hardening the gut. In short, the alkaline baths ensured that the organ- ic material underwent a combined process of fermentation and soaping to facilitate the detachment of the undesirable parts, while Icaving the muscular membrane — the part that interested the string maker — free of extrancous matter and perfectly degreased. ‘After this treatment the guts were carefully selected and grouped together in parallel strips (according to the diameter of the string to be made) and knotted at both ends. The strips were then attached to a special wheel used for twisting the string while the other end was fixed to a peg at the side of a dry- ing frame (figure 1). After sufficient ewisting, the free end of the damp string wwas disconnected from the wheel and tied to a peg.on the opposite side of the drying frame and placed under tension. ‘When che frame was full, it was taken to a special room where the strings were subjected to a process of whitening or sulphurization. This involved burning sulphur in a basin and subjecting the strings, for several days, to the whitening action of the sulphur dioxide fumes. When this was completed, the strings were further ewisted and given a final drying in the open air for just a few hours. The very last stage consisted of polishing the surface of the strings using a grass with abrasive qualities (equisetum or horsetail) soaked in alkaline solution or tempra. “The perfectly polished strings were then rubbed with olive oil, cut from the ends of the frame, wound in circular bundles and put into boxes. Ech box could contain from fifteen up to thirty or more strings soaked in olive oil." “There are therefore substantial differences between the procedures followed then and now. The first important difference is that today lamb's gut has been virtually abandoned and replaced by material from more mature animals. Secondly, most string makers in the eighteenth century, and much of the nineteenth, used whole gut, whereas in modern practice a special machine is used to cut the material into ribbons; this helps to reduce string coniciry, a problem that had always affected the production of chanterelles. Ie generally thought that cutting into ribbons was first practised by the late cightcenth- century German makers, though in fact it already existed in Italy around the mid seventeenth century: there are statute rules that inflicted heavy fines on string makers — Roman makers in this case — who were caught splitting gut » The seventcemth-century iconography shows that che lengeh of excess string on an instrument svas bundled up a if it were phable cord: this strongly suggests thatthe strings were very soft. From the cighteent century, strings were packaged in ring shapes, which would scem to confirm the changes in ssting making resulting from the inoduction of overspan sings,ITALIAN VIOLIN STRINGS Biisdar cbdrmten former z *Dietwaaag in Serta tes eechh a s breif, 2 ntpeltt t went fa me SI mraits Pen Be Merete, wf aicberts poll Sartersheb tind eres Shar Totti rigs eae dee Figure 1. cliristopH WEIGEL: The string maker, Regensburg 1698.164 anento rERvEFO into halves (“spaccare le mazze, o budelle per mezzo”).” Evidently, despite the advantage of obtaining more regular gauges, the most powerful corporation of string makers (chae of Rome) did not consider it a good practice. Another difference is that today the fatty substances aie removed by using pure sodium carbonate instead of potash, which is impure potassium car: bonate obtained by burning vinase and wine dregs. And for the whitening process, string makers today use oxidizing agents such as hydrogen peroxide or sodium peroxide The last substantial difference from past practice is that the dried rough sings ae no longet Ighly smoothed with abrasive gras (or pumice pow der), but rectified by a special machine capable of producing the wide variety of diameters in demand today. ‘While at first glance it might seem that modernization merely introduced a fow welcome improvements afier centuries of unchanged suring making technology, this is not entirely correct. Certain seemingly insignificant steps in the earlier process have been unduly overlooked. This is very evident if we compare modern strings with the few surviving samples of old strings (even feathely wort ariigs cache rom the beginning ok thir cennugy The foe mer are stiff, hard and only lightly ewisted; the latter are elastic, soft and highly twisted. In addicion, modern strings have a very short string life unless they are varnished. “The difference in string life is easily explained. Strings made of whole guts and lightly polished by means of abrasive grass or pumice have much fewer broken fibers on their surface than those made from strips of gut and brought to the desired diameter by mechanical rectification that forcibly removes sig- nificant quantities of material from the string’s surface. ‘The second important aspect to have a serious effect on the string’s acous- tical performance is the sacrifice of elasticity in favour of resistance to tension. This almost suggests that today’s strings are built to stand up to a tug-of-war and not co provide as good a sound as possible. Instead, to play well, a string must have the capacity to transform the mechanical impulse transmitted by the bow or the fingers into a vibrational movement that is, as far as possible, devoid of the internal frictions that would reduce the efficiency of that trans- formation. ‘A number of factors lic behind this “abandonment” of the manufacturers’ quest for maximum elasticity. One is that string makers no longer use the gut of young animals, which tends to be less rigid and nervy. Another is the re- placement of potash — also known as “oil of tartar” and widely used uneil the >» xuavs oss: “Highly strung in Markneukiechen’, The Sirad, October 1993, pp. 964-7. Roma, Archivio di Szato, Camerdle 1, Artie mest, Statut, col. 312, busta 12, anto 3632, Serato dellniver sit dei cordai di Bome.ITALIAN Wotan sTRINGS 165 beginning of this century as a skin softener for the hands — by sodium cat- bonate, which seems not to have those properties.” The importance of potash con string quality is confirmed in Pierre Jauber’s Dictionnaire raiwnné (though we should note that the eighteenth-century Italian string makers produced it by calcinating wine dregs only, while the French used so-called “sieved” ash with its much lower potash content): On pense qu’y a encore une légere opération & faire aux cordes avant de les ‘exposer en vente; dlle consiste vraisem- blablement a les frover d'huile pour les adoucir et les rendre encore plus as les boyaudiers en font un Js assurent qu'ils ne se servent point dhuile, et que Cest dans cette dernigre manaeuvre que consiste tout Je secret de leur art. Le boyaudiers ont raison d'sssurer quills ne se servent point d’huile pour assouplir et donner du son & leurs corde, mais ils y emploient des sels qui sont extraits de la lie de via.” Tei thought that chere is still alight operation to be done on the strings before exposing them to the wind: it seems 10 consist in rubbing them with oil to soften them and make them even more pliable. But the gut-makers make a mystery of it. They assure you that they make no use of oil and that ic is in this last operation that the whole secret of their at lies The gut-makers are right to assure us that they do not use oil ro soften and give sound to their strings, but for that they use salts extracted from wine dregs. ‘As a rule, modem strings are less twisted than the strings of the past. This is shown not only by the historical documents, but also by the examination of the surviving samples of old strings.” It goes without saying thac the degree of twist is fundamental in determining the elasticity of a gut string.” Old strings were always made with a high ovist, with pethaps the exception of lute chanterelles, the strings that received the severest treatment.” * yirronio viavecean: Disionario di merceologiae di chica applicata alla conasenta delle me- serie prime e prodet dele indssirie|...|, sth edition, vol. 1, Hoepli, Milano 1955, pp. 768-9, under the ‘entry “Carbonato di potasio” explains that it was once called oil of tartar. oowLAND: Varietie of lue- Jasons, recommends “oy of tartar” co lutensts 2s a means of softening the skin oftheir hands. 2 "enRe sAUneRT: Dictionnaire raisonné wuierel des ares et msers. contenant Uhisaire. la dsrip- sion, la peice des fabriques et manufactures de France et des pays évanges|..J, 70. t, Amable Leroy, Lyon Wot ist edition Paris177%), entry “Boyaueler”, pp. 317-20: 319. 2 Both oe taLaxpe: Vayage en Teale, p. 316, and cmisnuint: Disionario delle ati e mester, vol. Vp 130, indicate the number of tums co be given to the wheel (whose dimensions are given) in the twisting stage. In seceRMan: "Strings chrough the ages", part», pp. 52-3, i i estimated that the thicker the strings, the higher isthe ewist. 2 anor ~ seceRMAN: “Strings in the 16th and 17th centuries”. © In apsor ~seGeRNtan: “Strings in the 16th and 17th centuries’ che concept that gut strings couk have both a high of low owist ifr invoduced. In particulas, che authors clam that until the end of che Middle Ages strings were scantly twisted and that it was only later — in the sixteenth century — thet ‘sting makers realised chat becer results were obtained by giving the string more twist. Our position on this point is tat strings (probably except hue cop strings) always had a high cwist and dha, given che166 MIMMO PERUFFO We also note that the softening effect of “oil of tartar” on gut permits a much higher degree of twist than the highest level obtainable using modern techniques. More research needs to be done before we have a better understanding of why the old string makers took several days (up to eight) wo conclude the whitening process.” In fact, itis only recently that researchers have started to ‘grasp — as the ancient string makers had long been empirically aware — that there was something more to this laborious and awkward process than a mat- ter of whitening the string, an operation that might even seem superfluous (Galeazzi actually disapproved of excessively white strings). What was really involved was the formation of sulfide links between the long chains of colla- gen, the main constituent of gut, in order to increase elasticity at the expense of plasticity. In short it amounted to a genuine process of “vulcanization”, rather like the transformation ofan iron wire into a musical steel string, ‘On this matter Griselini includes a very revealing remark: “Ma Poperazione da noi descritta non basta a dare alla corda Velasticita convenevole, ed a ren- derla sonora. Havvi, per quanto dicesi, un altro segreto ancora, [...] affinché si secchino lentamente ai vapori del zolfo, ed elastiche divengano” (But the operation we have just described is not sufficient to give the string the right elasticity and to give it its sound. There is, it is said, also another secret (...] for drying them slowly in sulphur vapour, and making them become elastic),” Labarraque reiterates the same concept: “Lazione del vapore del solfo & in- dispensabile per ottenere buone corde musical” (The action of the sulphur vapour is indispensible for obtaining good strings)" As does the great nine- teenth-century French string maker Philippe Savaresse: “Le soufrage influe aussi beaucoup sur la qualité des cordes, Il ex indispensable pour les obrenir bonnes” Sulphuring has a very strong influence on the quality of the strings. Icis indispensible for making them good).” Believing — erroneously, as we have just seen — that sulphurization was merely a process for whitening the gut, twentieth-century string makers decided to carry out the same operation using more convenient chemical obvious narure of its accomplishment, there was nothing secret about it. Referring to the lute top string, John Dowland describes characteristics that can only be attributed to a string of low twist (which will ak ‘ways be sifer than a high-wis string) and the greatest possible tensile resistance: "For trying the strengeh ofthese [tebe] stings some doe st the top of their fore or middie finger on one of the ends ofthe knot which if they finde stife, they hould them then as good” (powtaNp: Other necosary obrrations). © niseiini: Dizionaro delle arti e mester, vO. V, p13. 2 causazet: Elementi orice prac di muses, 7. rasexsvt: Dizionario delle ari e mestier, vol. Vp. 131. % ANTOINE-GERMAIN LABARRAQUE: “Minugiaio”, paragraph “Corde musical, Nuovo dizionario siniversaletecnalogco o di arte meser e dela economia industrial ¢commmerciante, rome Vth, Giuseppe Antoneli, Venezis 1833, pp. 373-6: 375 Savarese's authoritative opinion is reported in JEAN-CARL MAUGIN ~ WALTER MAIGNE: Nonoeate manuel complet du luthier, 2nd edivion, Rote, Paris 1869, p. 384.ALAN viouIN srmINcs 167 solutions. Ofien, however, especially if used either inexpertly or to excess, these chemical agents can weaken the material and lower the string’ resistance to breakage under tension. Finally, even the function of olive oil seems to be more important than previously choughe. Hitherto ic has been seen as fulfilling a simple aesthetic function after the polishing process. ‘This would be reasonable enough if it was just a mattet of giving the strings a light oiling before packaging. But in the Italian tradition the strings were literally soaked in oil in impermeable packages for a considerable length of time — probably months. if we con- sider that strings that were too “fresh” were generally never used on instru- ments, The careful observer will note that gut strings given a long soaking in olive oil acquire a special consistency as if they had undergone a tannin, treatment (very like the fat- or oil-tanning carried out since time immemori oon skins and leather to make them last longer). In fact, treating a gut string in this way increases its life. This also seems to be the function of the rock-alum added to the alkaline solution before the twisting phase." The logical conclusion would appear to be that the strings made in the 1 were superior from the points of view of acoustical performance and durability. Those made today, on the other hand, can boast precise dimen- sions and therefore rarely sound untrue, which was the constant problem of strings made before the introduction of mechanical rectification. 3. The centres of production During the cighteenth century the main centre of string production was Rome, which in 1735 boasted as many as twenty workshops (controlled by very strict statutes).” Roman chantcrelles remained famous throughout the eighteenth century until the eventual disbanding of the powerful Roman corporation. Thereafter primacy in quality production was taken over by the accomplished string makers of Naples, closely followed by those of Padua. % aucusTo canssen: Manual del conciatore, Hoepli, Milano 1949, p. 272: “Il procedimento di in. uso per la concia bianca (..]. Gli agian fecero wo cortente dllzzione preseratrce dll'allume nella preparazione delle mummie | poreastingente |...) Il pregio maggiore della concia all'allumse sta nella ferisce al cuoio” (in ancient times both alum and aluminum sulfate were widely used for white canning fu]. The Egyptians made regular use of the preservative action of alum in the preparation of mur ties [,..]. Alum has an astringent case [...]. The greater quality of alurn-tanning lies in the great i confers on leather). For example, Roma, Archivio di Stato, Camerae i, Artie mestieri, Stati coll, 312, busta 12, anno 1642, Starua del universca dei cordai di Roma168 MIMMO PERUFFO. In 1786, the two most important Paduan workshops were those of Antonio Bagatella and the firm of “Gio. Battista, ed Antonio frateli Priuli detto Roma- nin’, founded in 1613 by Antonio Romanin, a string maker possibly of Roman origin, and closed down in 191." De Lalande wrote that: “La fabrication des cordes de violon est une chose qui est presque réservée a I'talie; Naplés a Rome en fournissent route Eu- rope, & il y a touiours beaucoup de mystére dans ces branches exclusives de commerce” (The making of violin strings is a phenomenon that is almose completely restricted to Italy, with Naples and Rome supplying the whole of Europe and there is always a great mystery surrounding these exclusive bran- ches of trade).” Galeazzi gives the following indication: “Veniamo finalmente alle corde: devonsi provvedere le corde alle migliori fabbriche d'Italia; quali sono quelle di Padova, di Napoli, di Roma, di Budrio sul Bolognese, ¢ del- TAquila nell'Abbruzzo. Vi sono ancora altre fabbriche in Citta di Castello, Pe- rugia, Rieti, Teramo, ed altri luoghi; ma le prime portano il vanto, special- mente quelle di Padova, e di Napoli” (Let us finally consider the strings: they should be acquired from the best manufacturers of Ialy, such as those of Padua, Naples, Rome, Budrio near Bologna and L'Aquila in the Abruzzi there are other manufacturers at Citta di Castello, Perugia, Rieti, Teramo and other places, though the first to be mentioned, particularly those of Padua and Naples, are the most prestigious). Interesting information on sing making in the Bologna area is supplied by Natale Cionini (sce Appendix). Spohr reports: “Es giebt Italiinische und Deutsche Saiten. Letztere sind aber viel schlechter wie jene und zum Solospiel gar nicht 2u gebrauchen. Auch die Italidnischen Saiten sind von ungleicher Giite und in der Regel die Neapolita- nischen den Romischen und diese denen von Padua und Mailand vorzuzic- hen” (There are Italian and German strings. The lauer are much worse and cannot be used for solo playing, Even the Italian are of unequal quality and as a rule the Neapolitan are to be preferred to the Roman, which in turn are to be preferred to those of Padua and Milan)" ‘The incomparable quality of the Neapolitan violin chanterelles — but also those for other instruments®— remained a mystery to the French string makers, who succeeded in making all types of strings except the violin chan- * Researh carried out atthe Chamber of Commerce of Padua has shown that she Romania factory was managed by the Calegari family from 1849 until the firm was taken over by “Eredi Nicola Ball of Giuseppe Drea in Verona at which point the redaction of srings ceased and the lng and dori vadiion of Peduan suing makers ume oun ex © Cauca Hem pied mass 7 «owe sooine Velcade ly Toba Fashege, Win 832 pp 1-4 © "Que les deux derniéres petites cordes soient romaines, les cirque dernitres de Naples” (that the ‘two small first stings should be Roman, the last five from Naples): Forqueray’s lerter (late 1767-caly 1568) vo Prince Wall on bas ol ringing cid ines cenaxo, Nos ntl asain deFrALAN VIOLIN stains 169 terelles, which were imported to France in large quantities and at prohibitive prices. Towards the end of the eightcenth century, the French offered a prize to the maker or makers capable of producing a chanterelle equalling in quality the Neapolitan strings. The gold medal went to Philippe Savaresse, the Pari- sian suing maker of Neapolitan origin, who brilliandly solved the problem: a5 had already been noted several decades earlier in De Lalande’s Voyage, the “Secret” was that in Naples and in other parts of Italy, but not in France, the guts of rather young animals were used.” ‘The superiority of Italian strings was still acknowledged at the end of the nineteenth century, as George Hart testifies: ‘Musical strings are manufactured in Italy, Germany, France, and England. The Tualians rank first, as in the past times, in this manufacture, their proficiency being evident in the three chief requisites for string, viz. high finish, great durably, and purity of sound. There are manufacrories at Rome, Naples, Padua, and Verona, the separate characteristics of which are definitely marked in their produce. Those sirings which are manufactured at Rome are exceedingly hard and brilliant, and exhibit a slight roughness of finish. The Neapolitan samples are smoother and softer than the Roman, and also whiter in appearance, Those of Padua are highly polished and durable, but frequently false, The Veronese strings are softer than the Paduan, and deeper in colour. The variations described are distinct, and the more remarkable that all the four kinds are produced by one and the same nation; as, however, the raw material is identical throughout Italy, the process of ‘manufacture must be looked upon as the real cause of the difference noticed. The German strings now rank next to the Italian, Saxony being the seat of manu- facture. (...]. The Preach rake the thied place [...]. The English manufaccure all qualities, but chiefly the cheaper kinds [...]."" Hare's assessment is confirmed by Luigi Forino who, in 1905, singles out for mention: furono celebr le fubbriche di Berti, di Colla a Roma, di Ruffini a Napoli. In ogi sono assai apprezati i prodotti di Righetti a Treviso, di Raffaele di Bar- tolomeo a Napoli, di Nicola Morante a ‘Tavernale di Barra (Napoli), di Nicola the famous firms were chose of Berti and Calla in Rome, of Rufini in Na- ples. Highly prized today are the pro- ducts of Righetti in Treviso, Raffacle di Bartolomeo in Naples, Nicola Mo- rante at Taverale di Barra (Naples) of | viole de gambe et a mane d’en jouer, aprés une correspondance inédice de JB. Forqueray au prince TEL Callie ts Pamas, het leases oer eco ee Wey Ao altesse royale monscigneur le prince de Prusse”. The leter shows the French musician's preference for Neapolitan and Roman stings. * asrrone-censane tanarnague: Liat di boyeudicr, Imprimerie de Madame Hucard, Pars 822, Pp. 3-2, “ Georce Hast: The violin: is famous makers and ther imitarors, Dulau and Co., London 1875, section 3: "Htalian and other stsings, pp. 46-7.370 Di Russo e di Raffaele Pistola Profeta omar di Ruffini) a Salle (Pescara), Luigi D’Orazi anche a Salle © di Conti a Mugellano (Rieti) [...]. AllTralia ed alla Germania segue terza la Francia che produce eccellenti corde soprattutto per arpa: le corde di Lione godono fama di ottime.” Nicola Di Russo and Raffaele Pistola Profeta (Rutffin’s hei) at Salle (Pesca- ra), of Luigi D’Orazi again at Salle and Conti at Mugellano (Rieti) [...]. After Italy and Germany comes France, which produces excellent strings above all for the harp; the strings of Lyon have an excellent reputation. 4. Criteria for judging gut strings What were the criteria for distinguishing a good string from a bad one Before answering this question we must stress that the professional musicians seem to have developed an acute skill in detecting high quality material by ouch and by sight, and in distinguishing a false string from one that vibrates well, These skills were transmitied orally from master to pupil, according to a tradition that probably began to decline at around the beginning of the twentieth century, when musicians tended to trust blindly in the products of the large string manufacturers. Thereafter the main choices, in terms of ma- nufacturing strategies and standard gauges, tended. be imposed by the large firms that emerged at the turn of the century in France and Germany (but not in Inaly).* As for the Italian string makers, after the First World War most of them either closed shop or emigrated (chiefly to Ametica), thus bringing to a rapid end glorious tradition that had lasted for centuries. The existence of a deeply rooted oral tradition probably goes a long way towards explaining why so little written documentation has survived on the ctiteria governing string choice. The following is a list of the relevant sources jown to us: ~ “La buona corda devesser diafana; color d'oro; cio’ che dia sul giallerto, € non candida come alcuni vogliono; liscia; ¢ levigata, ma cid indipendentemente dal- Tesser pomiciatas senza nodi, o giunte; al sommo elastica, ¢ forte; ¢ non fioscia, ¢ cedevole” (A good string must be transparent and golden; that is it must tend to- wards light yellow and not white as some people want; smooth and polished, even regardless of whether it has been pumiced: without nodes or joints; supremely dastic and strong; and not limp and yielding).” “La corde la meilleure et qui doit faire le plus long usage, est celle qui change le moins aspect quand on la monte sur instrument: celles qui se ternissenc et per- © uict ronmNo: I! tieloncello il violoncellina edi violoncellini, Hoepli, Torino 1905, pp. $45. 4 anmtun sronbuey: “Sting ges", The Sima Apel 900, p- 37 Atte present time de mater of sting thickness seems to rest encirely with the makers, che player has practically to take what is given whim", Gateazct: Elementi torico-pratii di musica, pp. 70-2ITALIAN VIOLIN sTaINGS at dent leur transparence ne doivent pas resister” (The best string and thac which should last longest is the one which changes its appearance least when it is mount- ced; those thac tarnish and lose their wansparency will probably not lat) — “Die tiussern Kennzeichen einer guten Saice sind: weisse Fare, Durchsichtigkeie und glarte Oberfliche. Doch darf leratere nicht, wie bey den deutschen Saiten, durch das Abschleifen mir Bims-Stein hervorgebrache seyn, da geschliffene Sziten stetsschreiend und falsch im Ton sind” (The distinctive external characteristics of a good string are: white colour, transparency and smooth surface. However, this last quality must not be obtained, as happens with German strings, through polishing swith pumice stone, for the polished strings are always stridene and false in tone).” = “Les chantarelles, dit M. Ph. Savaresse, doivent étre transparentes, parfairement nies et assez réguliéres de grosseut. Elles ne doivent pas étre crop blanches, car cela prouverait qurelles ont été faites avec des agneaux trop jeunes, et lorsqu’on serre tun paquet de chantarelles sous la main, elles doivent paraitre élastiques et revenit promprement comme le ferat un ressor d'acir, [..] Les grosses cordes, deuxitme et troisitme, doivent, au contraire, Gere transparentes et trés blanches. Il faut, en outre, quelles soient trés moles quand on en comprime un paquet, mais elles ne doivent pas changer de couleur et elles doivent revenir promptement & leur état cylindrique; si elles présentaient trop de raideur, cela indiqueraic qu’elles one été ites avec des boyaux trop résistants, et, dans ce cas, elles auraient une mauvaise qualité de son” (The chanterelles, says Monsieur Ph. Savaresse, must be transpar- cnt, perfectly united and very regular in thickness. They must not be too white, for that would show they have been made with lambs that were too young: and when you squeeze a packet of chanterelles they must feel elastic and return prompt- ly asa steel spring would do. [...] The bigger strings, the second and third, on the other hand, must be transparent and very white. Moreover, they should be very soft when the packet is pressed, bur they must not ange colour and must recurn promptly to their cylindrical state. If they are too stiff, that means they have been made of over-resistant gut, in which case they will have a poor tone). ~ “In selecting the E string, choose those that are most transparent; the seconds and thirds, as they are made with several threads, are seldom very clear. The firsts never have more than a few threads in them, and hence, absence of transparency in their case denotes inferior material.” Finally, the lst document cited here is probably the last source testifying to the criteria adopted in the nineteenth century for choosing strings: Le corde tedesche hanno il pregio The German strings have the merit della resistenza e, come tuttii prodotti of great strength and, like all the prod- di quella nazione, hanno anche quello ucts of that nation, have a good price. del buon prezzo. Sono corde levigatis- They are very smooth, and hard to the 4 cananancque: Liat ds bowie pa. © spor: Violinschule, p. 14. "eau ~ MaIGNE: Noweau manuel complet di luthier, pp. 185-4, © sunar: The violin, pp. 49°30.ITALIAN VIOLIN STRINGS 173 the third (as well as the fourth) should be overspun, though the metal wire was 10 be wrapped in such a manner that there was no contact between the winds, in other words, it was demifilé.” ‘The Italian stringing method would appear to have remained unchanged throughout the nineteenth century and the early years of the ewenticth, and ic was probably only in the 1920s that che third string of natural gut gradually began to be replaced by strings overspun with aluminum, which were gener- ally used together with higher strings made out of the steel for piano strings.” 6. The string gauges “To discover the diameters of early strings and to establish their working tensions, the contemporary documents and treatises must of course be con- sidered (as researchers have done in the past), but I would propose doing it from a slightly unorthodex viewpoint: our main point of departure must the information (both direct and indirect) that can be derived from the string, makers themselves. This would seem the right approach because, whatever the ereatises and violin manuals said, in the end it was the string makers who established (or rather imposed) the commercial diameters. The diameters are in turn unseparably linked to the number of guts used to make a string, Obviously a specific number of guts corresponds not to a specific jpigs bus io a nica value with a dejyee GF oselaon on sicher side gui Jonawn joxcim Quint2: Versuch einer Emucoung, die Flite maversere su spin (..J, Johann Fre rich Voss, Belin 1752, chapter xvnt, section 2, paragraph 28; and GEORG SIMON LOHLEN: Anweisung zum Violmspelen...|, Waisenhaus- und Frommannische Buchhandlung, Leipsig 1774, p. 9. Abbott and Segerman conjecture that the stringing indicated by LeoroLb Mozant: Vesueh cine grindlicher Violinschule [...],Vetiag des Verfssser, Augsburg 1756, p. 6, was completely of gut, asin the previous century. The basis ofthis belief is Mozart's assertion that the strings should became large towards the bas. According to the authon, that would rule out the we of an overspun Grstring because — ac- cording to the ssster of equal tension herween the strings recommended by Mozart — it would fave c be thinner than the D. In our opinion, Mozart, who constantly referred to the Italian tradition, used an evenpun fourth suring like all he German violniss. A possible clue is the famous portait of the musician (and his farily) dating t0 780 by the painter Johann Nepomuk della Croce (Salzburg. Inceraationale Stiftung Mozanteum): if we examine the instrument held vertically on the keyboard instrument payed by his son, we clearly distinguish the colour of the fourth stiing (white) from that ofthe others. > sfsastm ve seossan: [Fragments une méthode de viol), manuscript, c. 1712, Paris, Biblio- thaque Nationale, Rés. Vin®c.1, fle 2 (cited in naRatert: “Giordano Ricca, p. 34). JEAN-AENJAMIN De LanonDs: Eval sur la musique ancienne et modeme, Eugine Onkroy, Pars #780, livre second, “Des insteuments”, pp. 358-9: "Violon|...] Ordinairement fa troisiéme et la quatriéme sone files, quelque fois la weisitme ne Vest pas” (Violin |...] Normally che chitd and fourth are overwrapped; somtimes the third isn. As we observed i is by no means certain thet the third string indicated by Laborde is of the demiflé ype (ce xBHOT ~ SeGERMAN: “Strings in the 16th and 17th centuries"), though admirtedly this is the most likely possbility. “sponser: “Stings through the ages", p. 54, citing stesem: The ar of ion playing74 MIMMO PERUEEO being natural products, are never exactly the same size. This is a fundamental consideration that needs immediate clarification. Unlike today, when me- chanical processes of rectification allow makers to produce a wide variety of progressively scaled string sizes (0.60, 0.62, 0.64 mm, etc.), until the first few decades of the twenticth century string diametcrs were determined exclusively by the number of guts used. As certain documents confirm, when strings were sold they were identified by a number indicating the number of guts used in their making.” String makers had always endeavoured, to the best of their abili dardize the aval aa type of gut used: by using material from lambs of the same age, race and cep area and by selecting the guts carefully before ining them. Nencheles. cher was inevitably a margin of uncertaingy or variability in the diameter of the finished product. Nor could this be remedied by manual polishing (which lacks the precision of mechanical rectification), for there was a strong risk of making an untrue string, owing to the real diffi cultis of achieving perfect rowndity in che gue. In fact, co avoid this risk, vio- lin first strings were usually not polished at all." The diameter of a string made of three guts, for example, could thus be represented by the Gaussian curve. And the same, of course, applies to strings of other gauges obtained by combining different numbers of fresh guis. The skill of a good string maker consisted in being able to manufacture a box of strings (which would be marked, for example, as “3”) with a low oscillation around the mean diameter and to reproduce this mean diameter in different batches of strings made at different times. Such abilities were understandably highly appreciated by musicians. The mark of a good maker was therefore the achievement of a narrow Gaussian curve for the string diameters. ‘An idea of the diameter variance of strings made with the same number of guts can perhaps be deduced from the three degrees of tension George Hare recommends for a violin first string: they range from 0.65 (0 0.73 mm. In- evitably, with the increase in the number of guts twisted together (to obrain thicker strings), there is a corresponding decrease in diameret vatiance, ex- plained by a “mediation” effect arising when a larger number of guts are used. Wh incrcding numbers, easy note smaller fleeces in guige between adjacent numbers (for example, between a string of ten guts and one of eleven). * JAQUES SAVARY DES SRUSLONS: Dictionnaire univenel de commerce, ditoire naturel et des arts et snétier, vol. 1, Cl. se Ant. Philibere, Copeahagen 1259, entty “Corde”, p. 248: ‘ensorte que celles du IN? 1, ne sont faites que dun seul fle; cells du N° 2, de deux files, calles du N.° 3, de ros files; & ainsi des autres cordes” (in such a way that thow of no. 1 are made of just one strand, those of no.2 of fo strands, those of no. 3 of three strands; and so on for the other strings). * ewaRD HERON-ALLEN: Violn-maaking as it was and is[...], Ward, Lock & Co., London 1884, p. 212: “When dry they are polished, an operation which first or E. strings are frequently allowed © go without”ITALIAN VIOLIN sine 77 Other sources in the late nineteenth and carly ewentieth centuries quote the string making information reported by Maugin and Maigne. This in- cludes, for example, Angeloni’s manual, which presents a series of erroneous data which we will consider below.“ What, thea, is the diameter of a frst string made from chree whole lamb guts? Our most significant source from eightcenth-century Italy is undoubt- édly the work of Giordano Riccati from Treviso, Riccati was not only an ac- complished physicist in the field of acoustic and harmonic theory, but also an accomplished violinist. His book Delle corde, which he began writing in 1740, accurately measures the weight and length of the first three gut strings of his violin: “Colle bilancette dall'oro pesai tre porzioni egualmente lunghe piedi 1 veneziani delle tre corde del violino, che si chiamano il tenore, il canto ¢ il cantine. Tralasciai d'indagare il peso della corda pid grave; perché questa non @ come Ialtre di sola minugia, ma suole ciccondarsi con un sottil filo di rame” (Using gold-weighing scales, I weighed three portions, each 1% Venetian feet long, of the three violin strings, those called the senore, canto and canting. L omitted to weigh the lowest tri unlike the othets this is not of gut only, but is usually surrounded with a thin copper wire).” Assuming the mean specific weight of gue to be 13 gt/em’, the diameters of the E, A and D are: 0.70, 0.90 and 1.10 mm. The same diameter of the E string is also found on an extant violin chanterelle of silk (silk having approximately the same den- sity as gut). This string, which had never been used, dates from the very end of the cighteenth century and is today preserved in the Académie de Sciences in Paris along with some harp strings." A third possible source of evidence is a “completely intact” violin first string, made by Nicolas Lambert in 1765 (though this date cannot be verified) and thought to have “never left its case for at least a centuzy”.” The string, which could well date from the end of the cighteenth century, has a higl twist and a diameter of 0.71+0.72 mm. Further evidence consists of some violin E strings belonging to the present author. They are preserved in their original boxes and date from the early years of the twentieth century. They have a high twist and diameters ranging from 0.66 to 0.68 mm. Other historical date on Italian strings can be derived from certain English violin methods from the late nineteenth century. Huggins, for example, writes the following: becat ja i a cmt err meet .],Hoepli, Milano 1923, pp. 279-9 © cca: Delle corde p. 33. quan cHOEN: "A cache of x8theenrury stings", The Galpin Sociery jowrnal, xox 1983 pp. arate a © The fragment of the E string was given to the author by the eelst and viol player Christophe Coin, who expressed this opinion.178 MIAO PERUFFO The measures of a set of Ruffinis strings were found to be: ast 0.0265 inch. [0.67 mm] and = 0.0355 ” — [o.90mm| zd = 0.0460" [117 mm] qh = 1.41 gm” Ruffini, the greatest of the late nineteenth-century Neapolitan makers (and nota violinist working in England, as Segerman has suggested),” exported his excellent products to cities all over Europe. Strings made in Naples, and par- tewarly by Ruffini, wece in great demand in Vieoran Londons “The bea strings in the market to-day ate imported from Signor Andrea Ruffini, of Naples, which are sold by all the leading violin-dealers in London”.” As can be noted, Ruffini’s strings — about whose diameters Huggins writes: “these were found to be in about the same relative proportion to each other as the sizes indicated on the gauges sold by several makers” — coincide almost exactly with those calculated by Ricca over a century easier. This should come as no surprise if we consider that neither the primary resource (gut of lambs aged six to seven months) nor manufacturing procedures had undergone signifi- cant change since De Lalande’ day, either in Ialy or in France. In all likeli- hood this was equally truc for the other Italian cities renowned for their string production, such as Padua and Rome; for all che Italian manufacturers would appear to have descended from the same line of string makers, those of Sale, Musellaro and Bolognano, who later spread over the rest of the country.” The strings sold in London by George Hart, Edward Heron-Allen and Bishopp, all probably imported from Italy, had the following diameters (Hart ® wittinw nvccms: “On the function of the sound. post and the proportional thickness of the strings on the violin”, Royal Society proceedings, 20x 188, pp. 241-8: 247. spoeRMAN: “Strings through the ages’, part 2,p. 199. © sapnow-atten: Violin making p- 209, sruccins: “On the function of the sound:pos, p 247. % anpRe: ‘antic abitato di Sale, p. mi “L'unico capital dindastria in questa terra si quello deh lavoro delle corde armoniche, fe quali sono porate al utimo grado di perfezione, in guisa che per ogni dove portansi quest natural per vagiar su dese, ed in Napoli, ed in Roma, pel Fiorentino e perfino in Francia” (The only industrial capital of his ava és that of making musica strings, which ae breught to the utmost perfection; infact the natives of this area go all over the place to make them, to Naples and to Rome, to the Florentine area and even to Francs) [n savansssk: “Cordes”, we read: “La fabri tation des codes d’nstruments n'est pas més ancienne en France, elle fur introduite par un ouvrier napolitain, Nicolas Savarese, qui monta une fabrique a Lyon vers Tan 1766" (The making of instru ment strings is not very old in France; it was introduced by a Neopolizan artisan, Nicolas Savaresse, who set up 2 workshop in Lyon in around the year 1766). In turn LutGt rRaNcesco vaLDRIGia: Nomo cheltagogrfia ansica ¢ maderna, asia Elenco dh fabbrcator di srumenti armonic con note expicaive ¢ document extratti dallArebivio di Suto in Modena Societi Tipografca, Modena 1884, pp. 112-3, writes: “a fabbricaione delle corde armosiche di minugia ...] fu da paesorti di Salle, Muselaro e Bolognano introdocta in Roma e Napoli” (the making of gur muscal strings [...] was introduced 9 Rome and Naples from the villages of Salle, Musellaro and Bolognan)..ITALIAN VIOLIN srRENGS 179 uses the terms “small, medium and thick”), which can be derived from the tensions in pounds given in their tables: Hart Heron-Allen —_Bishopp E 065/0.72/0.73mm 0.69 mm 0.61 / 0.68 / 0.69 mm A 084/089/0.90mm 0.93 mm 0.80 / 0.85 / 0.85 mm Diag /123/1.25 mm 122mm 1.08 / 1.16 / 1.19 mm* Assuming that the gut used to make the violin E, A and D strings is of exactly the same type and has the same amount of ewist, then the number of guts used and the final diameter are, at least in theory, mathematically related.” Given that the first string of the violin tended to be made of at least three whole guts of lamb (as we saw above) and had a mean gauge of, say, 0.70 mm, then the theoretical diameters of the second and third strings — of respectively five-six and eight-nine guts — are 0.90-0.99 and 1.14~1.21 mm. ‘The correspondence with the evidence of Riccati, Savarese, Ruffini and other French sources is remarkable and seems to confirm our hypothesis that manufacturing procedures were standardized in both Italy and France (though for France, as we saw earlier, this would probably apply as from the beginning of the nineteenth century).” seERMAN: “Strings through the ages, part 2, p. 201. For Heron-Allen and Bishopp, Segeeman assumed 3 pitch standard of A = 452 He. For Hare we have assumed a pitch sandard of A= 435 Flt and a vibrating length of 3 rn. ® The astimption is based on SAYARESSE: “Cordes”: “La chanterele ayant tris fils, si les autres cordes sont faites avec les mémes intestine, la seconde aura 504 6 file tle erositme 8 ct 9, et par conse quent la sconde devra avoir deux fois afore de la charcerelle eta toisiéme ros fis force qui devient supetlue puisque la tension ne exige pas" (With a chanterele of three strands if che other strings ar made with the same gut, che second will have ive of six strands, the third cighe of nine; hence the second will have ice the strength of the chanterlle and the third thre times —a strength that sapetuoas in so far asi i not requied by the tenson). Assuming that a string ofthe sranls has an average diameter of 0.70 mum, we observe chat the theoretical diameter diminishes to only .57 mm with two threads of the same gut and increases t0 0.81 with four (in practice @ very light second sting). In conditioas of theoretical calculason, the ratio breoween the diameters will be equal to the square root ofthe ratio berween the numbers of threads wed. One can assume, however, thatthe ciffeent numberof guts used to make the second and third ssrings depends onthe differen thicknesses ofthe raw materal, so in fact the varaions in diameter were unlikely w have been considerable; as a result, the range of diameters calculted here should probably be considered at excenive According o staasmiencanoné sinine: La chilomemie, ow Le parfait hier, Side & Mile, Pati 1806, pp. 112-3 (reported in BARBIERI: "Giordano Ricca’, p. 29), the diameters would fall into the following interval 0.73 mm; A 08-109 mms D 1381.45 mim (ubrating length 35 crs pitch standard A » 4347435 He). Another clue indiecly provded in ciovawst Foucnierrt: Méthode ‘our apprndrefaiemens jouer dela mandolin 4 et cords...) nop Pai (ca 1770) (quoted from ruins stern “Neapolitan mandolins, wire strengths and violin stringing in lar 18th. France”, ‘OM! quarterly, no. 43, Apri 1986, communication 713, pp. 99-100): here we read thatthe second. bras course isa gauges harpsichord string The gauge scale generally used at the time in France was that of Ciyseul. On the bass ofthis fat, Segertnan derived a diameter of0.34 mmm. As the snandolin his the180 INO PERUEFO Given that the string length was already sufficiently standardized, the variations in violin working tensions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries seem to be mainly the result of variations in pitch standards,” to a lesser extent they can be attributed to the personal preferences of those who, with the aid of a string-gauge, opted for the larger diameters contained in the boxes (each box of first, second and/or third strings would contain several dozen strings soaked in olive oil, each with the same number of strands)" To support the hypothesis that during the early decades of the nineteenth century the tension of violin strings radically increased merely as the result of an increase in string diameters, Segerman uses the data from Spohr’ string- gauge.” The measurements indicated on the gauge —18, 23, 31 and 25— represent the diameters of the E, A, D and the overspun G (external diameter or gut core gauge’). As the system of conversion is not known, Segerman thought fir to refer to a gauge system still used today by certain string makers: a system that already existed in the nineceenth century and that assigns 20 “grades” to each millimeter. Accordingly, a string marked as 20 pm would have same vibrating lenggh a the violin, the ist string, of gu, must have had a diameter of .57 mm (accord- ing to a system considered by Segerman to be in equal tension). De LalaNbe: Voyage en lal, p. 516 states chat the frst string of the mandolin cook wo gutritboos and thus, in proportion, using cual types of gut, we obtain a gauge of 0.70 mm for one of three strands. A farther French source is that oF the physicist CHARLES EDOUARD-JOsePH DELEZENNE: Experience et ebseruttons sur le cordes des instrie rents a arche, 1. Darel, Lille 1853 (cited in saxsuens: Acustica, accordanera¢ remperamento nella noe vereto.p. 48). As Barberi reports. Delezenne formulates a hyporkesis of equal tension but then cxamines “ten different assortments of stings of commercial violin strings provided for him by the luthier Lapaix, finding instead average ratios [between the strings] noticeably ower than 15 [which was ‘equal tension)”: the range of commercial gauges measured by Delezenne wasas follows: E~ 0.61-0.70% A= 082-096 mm and D = 1.027139 mm > BRANGOIS-JOSERH FETS: Antoine Sradivuri luthier céldbreconnu sous le nom de Stradivarius...) Vaillsume, Pais 3856, p. gt: on the bass of dats supplied by the cclebrated French luthier Jean-Baptiste ‘Vuillaume, iis reported that twenty years earlier a violin chanterelle rook 22 ofthe then French pounds (a. mkg)of ension, the other strings alte les; the roul vas 8 pounds (cited in paxpient: “Giordano Ricca, p. 29). For the Kalan situation, ace caRLo GeRvasont: Le swale della musica [...J, Niceols Orcesi, Piacenza 1800, vo. 1, p. 126, ootnete a: "Non in tute le itd il ono volgarmente detwo crits si tora uguak, ma bens nelfune si riconosce questo pit ako o pi baso che nell'ltre. Il corisa di Roma diffano molt pit bas di quello di Milano, Pavia, Parma, Piacenza edi taue Pale cite della Lombardia: ed il corsa di Parigi poi non solo cresce oltre il corsta romano, ma molto ancora ole i Jombardo, Un corsta di mezzo, e pi generalmente abbracciao, egli pertanto quello della Lombardia: ced a questo infatti, poco pit poco meno, 'uecostano i cori di vari previncie™ (Not in all cities s the pitch commonly called the carza the sime. for in some itis acknowledged ro he higher ot lower than in others. The corista of Rome sin fact much lower than that of Milan, Pavia, Parma, Placenca and all the other Lombard cities.And the consta of Pars is sharper not orly than the Roman one, but also much higher that of Lombardy, and eis to this [Lomberd pitch] thet, one way or the other, the coi of various provinces approtimate). % aan: The violin, p. 51, for example, writes that: “Vast improvements have been effected in the stringing of violins wthin the lac thiry years. Strings of immense ize were used alike on valine, vio loncellos, tenors and double bases. Robert Lindley, the king of English violoncellists, used string, for his ist very nearly equa in size to the second of the present time” sroxin: Violnachul plate 1, Gguce rv. sEcERMAN: “Strings chrough the ages" pat 2, p. 198ITALIAN VIOUIN STRINGS a8 a diameter of 1 mm (20 x 5 = 100 hundredths of a millimeter), In this way the following calibers were calculated: E = 0.90 mm; A =1.15 mm; D = 155 mm and G = 2.22 mm (as equivalent solid gut). In our opinion, this interesting hypothesis is inconsistent with Spohr’ writings, for he not only recommends Iralian strings over those made in Ger- many (which he found too stiff), but also suggests choosing a “light” stringing. And that is not all. If we consider the sizes on his string-gauge illustrated in the text and the position of the markings for measuring the strings, we clearly see that on the basis of the proportion between the total length of the slot and the approximate estimate of its width at the opening —ca, 2 mm — the distance of the E marking shows a width of ca. 0.70 mm rather than the 0.90 mam suggested by Segerman. Therefore the correct ratio is more likely to be a factor of 4, and not Segerman’s factor of 5, which in any case is based on the subdivision of a modern unit of measurement and not the (unknown) uni of Spoht's day.” The calibers derived from Spohr’ gauge should therefore be E = 0.72 mm A= 0.92 mm; D = 1.24 mm; G = 1.00 mm (corresponding to the gut core, in our opinion): results that are evidently in line with the preceding daca. 7. Working tension and “feel” ‘The most important and universal principle of stringing on any instru- ment — whether plucked or bowed, from the Renaissance down to the sec- ond half of the nineteenth century at least — was that each string should give the same “Just feel” when pressed at the same point.” ‘The principle was to be constantly re-affirmed over the centuries in the most authoritative treatises. Examples are the following: ~ “Of setting the right sices of strings upon the lute. {...] But t0 our purpose: these double bases likewise must neither be stretched too hard, nor too weake, but that they may according to your feeling in striking with your thombe and finger equally counterpoyse the rrebles”.”* " sucxmnean “Stings through the ages”, part 2, pp. 198 and 201, As yet we have 20 means of com paring the numbering indicated on Spohr’ string-gauge with that wed todey, for the unit of length is sill unknown, IF the gauge were of Italian provenance, rescarch would then be needed among, the numerous units of length used in the countess states making up early nineteenth century Italy. The current decimal stern, itis worth remembering, came into fore in Italy only in 861, "By equal feel we mean the same amoun’ of lateral displacement obtained with different strings (hich ean even have different diameters, vibrating lengths, degrees of wwisting, tuning, ete.) using an equal quanticy of weight (corresponding, asa rule, to the pressure ofa finger or bow) acting atthe same Pet pownaxt: Oter near obervation382 MIMMO PERUFFO = “When you stroke all the stringes with your thumbe you must feel an even stiff 1s which proceeds from the size ofthe stringes’.” — “The cipal observation in the stringing ofa Jute. Another general observa- Coninea ke he eh ned isthe cides fac wbar td necocres you axe to string, you must so suit your strings, as (in the ning you intend to set it at) the strings may all stand, at a proportionable, and even stiffness, otherwise there will arise two great inconveniences; the one to the perfomer, the other to the auditor. And here note, that when we say, a lute is not equally strung, itis, when some strings are stiff, and some slack”. Today, however, such recommendations are all but ignored, to be replaced by the principle of working tension, It is even claimed that equal feel corres- ponds in every respect to equal tension — an assumption that unfortunately is just not true.” And on such incorrect assumptions is based the idea that there were two systems of stringing violins that co-existed in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries: a scaled system of progressively distributed tension (in which the tension in kilos is progressively reduced from first to fourth string) and what is correctly termed a system of equal tension (ie. in which the values in kilos are equal). This is a fundamental point that needs clarifying, for misunderstandings on this issue have had a very bad influence on the reconstruction of stringing on all the renaissance and baroque plucked and bowed instruments (and not just the violin). While working tension is a numerical factor that can be absolutely defined, feel is a sensation and hence subject to a number of variables. This can be demonstrated by examples. First, if two identical strings are subjected to the same working tension, but have different vibrating lengths, it is the longer one that will be more yielding to the pressure of the fingers (sce graph 1). Second, ifbetween two gut strings of the same gauge, working tension and vibrating length, one has a high twist and the other a low twist, the former will be much more yielding to the touch owing to its greater longitudinal clastic displacement. This is why replacing a string made by one firm of string makers with another of equal diameter made by another firm is always a dalicare insu as far fel under dhe how concerned. the diferenoe in © Wellsky (Mas.), Wellesley College Library, “The Burwell lute cutor’, manuscript, 2. 1670, facsimile reprint with inteaduction by Robert Spencer, Boethivs Press, Leeds 1973, chapeer 4 “OF the scrngs ofthe hte [7 Mace: Mush s monument, chapter Vi, p65 © sscxmuacs: “Stings through the ages”, part 1, p. 55, writes: "A more real advange of equal tension stinging is that the fel of each strings the same in the sense that the same force atthe same relative position an the string pushes aside (or depresses) cach string the same amount’. In STERHEN sown: “Further thoughts on the history of strings’, The Cargur Acoustical Sociey newslter, no. 26, November 1976, p. 22, referring to Thoms Mace’s suggestions about the equal fel under the fingers on the lute, write: “it seems clear that tensions [understood by Bonta as equal kilos] between top and bottom strings on these instruments cannot have been too disparate for the very sume reasons"ITALIAN VIOLIN STRINGS 183 Graph 1 The relationship between vibrating length and tension in kilos The graph shows the working tension with different vibrating string lengths ‘weighed down at the same point (10 cm from the bridge) by a fixed weight of 500 gr and with an unvaried degree of deflection induced on a 0.77 gauge string. tension (kg) RRSERKSS vibrating sing length (em)184. MIMNO PERUFFO twist, material ¢ype and manufacturing process can be enough to cancel out the equivalence of gauge. Finally, if two strings are identical in twist, vibrating length and working tension, but different in diameter, itis always the thinner string thac will be more yielding to the couch. Only in one case does working tension coincide perfectly with feck where the strings are of identical mate- rial, diameter and twist and are stretched to the same frequency and vibrating length. “This might explain the widespread practice among present-day musicians —pethaps the only one to have survived of past practice — of using a first string that is slightly thicker than the theoretical values: it is a useful strata- gem co compensate for the difference in feel with the adjacent string. But if we consider an instrument like the chitartone or theorbo (whose characteris- tic itis to have strings of two distinct vibrating lengths), itis easy to imagine the problems that arise when the principles of the early string makers are overlooked and all the strings are given equal tension, as generally happens today. The point could perhaps be pressed home, pethaps a little unfairly, by a slight exaggeration: if an dastic band and an “unextendable” steel string were both stretched co 10 kg, nobody would be in any doube that the elastic band would be more yielding than the metal string. Yer the number of kilos is constant. Tn short, when the word tension is used in the contemporary documents in mateers relating to actual stringing (ie. not in cases of purely theoretical speculation on the tos bebreea bsqucney: vibucng lenign, Abncis ) it essentially refers to feel, and not to the actual tension in kilos as it is gener- ally understood today. A pertinent example is the following passage from Ga- leazzi: “la tensione dev esser per tutte quattro le corde la stessa, perché se Puna fosse pid dellaltra tesa, cid produrrebbe souo le dita, ¢ sotto Parco una notabile diseguaglianza, che molto pregiudicherebbe all'eguaglianza della voce” (the tension must be the same for all four strings, because if one were more tense than aithee dhe would ese ander the Reger, and nvler dhe hon a'cane siderable inequality very prejudicial to the equality of cone)." Here tension cleatly means feel; as is equally plain in Bartoli treatise: “Quanto una corda & pit vicina al principio della sua tensione, tanto ivi 2 pit tesa. [...] Consideria- Jno hora quatuniqué’ conia' dun Man: als i hie’ prin) dl tensinne ugualissimi nella potenza, ¢ sono i bischieri dall'un capo, e ‘I ponticello dal- Taltro; adunque per lo sopradetto, ella @ tanto piti tesa, quanto piti lor s'avvi- cina: € per conseguente, & men tesa nel mezzo” (The closer a sting is to the beginning of its cension, the renser itis. {,..] Just consider any lute string, Ie has two beginnings of tension that are absolutely equal in power: the pegs at one end, the bridge at the other. Asa result, it will be tenser the nearer it is to © caunazzn: Elementi wore pratcidi musion p72.ITALIAN viounN sans 185 those points and less tense in the middle).” Misundesstanding of this poine has generated incorrect, even dangerous, readings of the language used in the sources. ‘The vigilant observer will in fact have noticed that the diameters derived from dhe data provided by the Italian and French string makers (on the num- ber of guts per string) do not amount to a system of equal tension (of equal kilos, that is). In all cases, they show a system of progressively increasing ten- sion. For the sake of comparison, in the historical examples that follow we must bear in mind thac ifa violin with a top string of 0.70 mm were strung in equal tension, the three string diameters would be: E = 0.70 mm, A = 1.05 mm, D = 1.57 mm. Filippo Fodera, in his manuscript violin method dated 1834, indicated string measurements in terms of the notches inscribed on a string-gauge: Misura delle conde alla trafila delle grossezze [String measurements at the slot] violino di Guamerio grado della trafila delle grossezze [grade of the stor} dritco [front] rovescio {back} cantino [E] 17/80 20/100, seconda [A] 25/80 28/100 terza (D] 29/80 35/100 cordone [G] 2 39/100” The terms “dritto” (front) and “rovescio” (back) would appear to refer to the notches marked on the front and back of the string, gauge (having them all on one side would have probably made the gauge very difficult to read); they probably refer to the maximum and minimum gauges available, or recom- mended, for the violin. Though we have no way of converting these figures into metres (the author lived in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the unit of length used there has not yet been traced), iffwe assume the “frone’ value of the top string to be 0.70 mm (in accordance with historical data), the remaining values would run as follows: front back E 0.70 0.66 A 1030.92 Doug tas G - 0.96 pantetio maxrous: Del swan, de’ tremari armani ¢ dll'ndito, a spese di Nicolo Angelo Tinassi, Roma 1679, p. 257. Copy consulted: privat library of Roberto Rega, Bologna, Chted in wansuen: Acustica, econdanura esemperanenty, p. 4186 MINONO PERUFFO Here our assumed factor of conversion is 33. A system of progressively in- creasing tension is evident, as is the fact that the fourth string must have been overspun. We also note a similarity between the string-gauge and Spohr’ diameters; particularly in the degree of scaling and in the (external or core size?) dimensions of the “cordone”. As the “back” measurement is expressed in hundredths, the unknown unit of measurement should then be 33-35 cm. In the Maugin and Maigne book there would alresdy appear to be a profound contradiction between the data already given by the string maker Philippe Savaresse (on the number of guts to be used) and the tension in kilos indicated for each string at Paris Opéra pitch: 7.5 kg for E, 8 kg for A, 7.5 kg for D, and finally 7.25 ke for G.” Assuming a pitch of 435 Hz and a vibrating length of the violin of 33 cm, the following diameters are obtained: E = 0.63 mm, A= 0.96 mm, D = 1.40 mm (G overspun). First of all, we note that the working tension of the top string is strangely lower than that of the A. This might be just a printing error: perhaps 8.5 kg was meant, instead of 7.5 kg; if 80, the diameter of the top string would be 0.68 mm, which is perfectly in line with the Italian and French traditions, But the most striking evidence of the unreliability of such working tensions is the breaking load of the gut strings: the first string (0.63 mm) would break at between 12 and 13 kg; the second (0.96 mm) at 45 kg, and the ehird (1.40 mm) at between 4o and 45 kg. Our findings show that the breaking load of current gut strings is between 31 and 38 kg/mm! (mean value 34 kg/mm’) — values that also apply to gut string samples dating to the carly ewentieth century. Ie is worth stressing that if this were not the case, no violin first string of the time could be tuned up to E with the typical vibrating length of 32-33 cm; it would immediately break once the breaking index for gut was exceeded.” Now, according to the tensions indi- cated in the text, Savaressc’s gut would have a breaking load of 38-41 kg/mm? for the E (33-36 kg/mm’, with a diameter of 0.68 mm) — which is accept- able — but of only 21 kg/mm? for the second and as little as 17-19 kg/mm for the third. As the breaking load of gut has been shown experimentally to be an element that is subject to scant variability — especially when the materials have the same provenance and are manufactured in the same way (a is always the case) — one might well ask what string diameters would break at the ten- sions indicated by Maugin and at the mean breaking load of 34 ke/mm’. The answer is 0.75 mm for the A and 0.98-1.04 mm for the D: calibers utterly different from those derived from the working tensions indicated by Maugin. °° Mavens ~ MaIGNE: Nowveau manuel complet du luthier, pp. 168, 182-3 (the section on strings was, added tothe 1869 edicon of the manual * On che pitch sandard, se von 1! tai, . 2: “el 159i govero ances tbl che ccorista normale dovesse corrispondere al ‘la’ di 435 vibrazioni doppie” (in 1839 the French government ‘established thatthe normal pitch sandird should corespond to an A of 435 double vibrations). °F anor ~ SEGERMAN: "Strings the sth and 17th cemuris”187 ITALIAN VIOLIN STRINGS ‘sgommos pesuaisty arp jo mp 01 waned reus 2 smous (ep StF = y) UTOIA anboreq axp jo Buus wuoxn> arp ‘saBned souuyE Yonuy YE {plak uaag “3Buer porounsar rey e UTA Py — aigis Jo ep si uoRdsox9 a43 — poreorpur uosuad jo swarsés ayp [|e SOUNTY s@umns uyor samp asry stp Jo suoysua jo Suyess oy, zydess)188 MIMMO PERUFFO But that’s not all. We also read that the second and third strings weigh res- pectively twice and three times as much as the first. Assuming that the diameter of the first string is correct and (obviously) that the density of the material is constant, we obtain diameters of 0.89 and 1.09 mm for the second and thitd strings respectively. Quite plainly these measurements correspond to a system of progressively increasing tension, and are perfectly in line with both the number of guts indicated in the same text and the information given by De Lalande. Hence the system of equal tension advocated by Maugin and Maigne is contradictory and completely unreliable. Fétis wrote that in 1734 Tartini had calculated that the sum of the tensions of the four strings of his violin was 63 pounds.” Apart from the problem of understanding the unit of measurement used, there is no reason why this information should necessary imply that the tension of each string was the same. The total tension could just as easily have been distributed. progres- ly. By analogy the indications provided by Savart in 1840, and again by Fétis in 1859, could also be considered as examples not of equal tension, but of scaling,” The same could be said for other late nineceenth-century authors who apparently supported a system of equal tension. Huggins, for example, after giving the theoretical gauges on the basis of che proportions between diameters and frequencies (implying a system of equal tension), goes on to ‘A violin strung with strings of the theoretical size was very unsatisfac- tory in tone”; immediately afterwards he mentions the diameters sold in Ruff ni sealed boxes, pointing out that these strings had a scaled tension and — an important point — that only by this system could one obtain perfect fifths.” Like Huggins, other English documents of the same period tecom- mend stringings that fellow a system of progressively increasing tension, with diameters again similar to those of Ruffini and, more generally, to the Iealian tradition.” Graph 2 shows the behaviour of the stringings known to use progressively increasing tension. What is worth noting here is not so much the actual values indicated — which after all were also related to pitch standards and personal taste — as the similarity in the slope of the curves; ie. the degree of scaling. sions: Amine Sadar. 92, quel from aansten: "Giordano Rice p29. ° For Savart see SEGERMAN: “Strings through the ages”, part 2, p. 198. For Fétis see nannies: “Gior- duno Riceati’p. 2. I the tesion of ll the sings were equal, remains t be explained why it was every oindigas thatthe Bn ieea0 pond rd the eat. up to Be pound % rruccmns: “On the function of the sound-pos:", p. 248: “By means of a mechanical contrivance I found the weights necessary to deflect the strings tothe sae arnt when the vin was in tune. The trols aged wich the teaions which the cet of che string [e. cormaponding to Rain's gauges showed they would require ro give fifths”. ” want: The violin, p. 54: for Bishopp (1884) and Heron-Allen (1885) see sECERMAN: “Strings through the ages" par’, forata viocin stains 189 ‘At this poine we can observe that most of the examples reported by Seger- man of stringings considered to show equal tension (Le. equal kilos) in fact do not do so, with the exception of those indicated by Leopold Mozart and Serafino Di Cole.” The “sccret” of the so-called sysccm of progressively increasing tension is that it genuinely embodies the traditional concept of equel feel under che fin- gets sought after by Galeazzi and the seventeenth-century treatises. We can verily this experimentally by selecting an assortment of diameters (like Ruffi- nis for example), then attaching the same weight to each string — always at the same point (for example, three centimetres from the bridge) —and finally measuring with a ruler the strings deflection from its position of equi- librium. Ifthe strings have progressive tension (as suggested by the number of guts used), they will deflect by the same quantity, i. will give the same feel. Conversely, if their tension is equal, the amount of deflection will noc be equal but progressive, owing to the reduced longitudinal distension of the larger diameters. In other words, in a system of equal working tension the lower serings will have greater tactile tension, which is in complete contrast to the rules expounded by Galeazzi and many other treatises of the period. Hence the presumed equivalence of working tension and feel would appear to be the result of a modern error of judgement. Ic is worth pointing out, however, that compared to the precision of experiments that assess the degree of the string deflection, the evaluation of subjective finger sensitivity and its respective limits of perception is undoubtedly less accurate. Graphs 3-5 shows the strain of strings, of several diameters and similar or different amount of twist, under different tension. We note that the curve of the thinner gauges is steeper than that of the thicker strings. The relationship bevween the slopes of the curves again gives an idea of the tacile sensations. Let us now turn to the cases of Serafino Di Colco and Leopold Mozart. Di Colco writes: “Siano da proporzionarsi ad un violino le corde [...] distese, ¢ distirate da pesi uguali [...]. Se toccandole, & suonandole con l'arco forme- ranno un violino benissimo accordato, saranno bene proporzionate, altrimenti convert mutarle tante volte, sin tanto che Paccordatura riesca di quinta due, per due, che appunto ‘ale ¢ Taccordatura del violino” (The strings are to be proportioned to the violin (...] extended, and stretched by equal weights [...]. If by touching them or playing them with a bow they form an excellently ™ pono. mozanr: Vertu einer gritndlichen Violnshue,p. 6: SERAEINO 0} COU: Leter prima (Weneeia, 7 gennara x6go), in Le ugghie di Mineros nella Accademia de Filreti: peril mese di gennaro 1690, Veneaia 1690, pp. 32-3. ecERMaw: “Strings through the ages’, part 1, pp. 5475. Like Segerman, nannies: Acustica, accordatura etenpenementa, pp 47-8, sees a perfec analogy bewveen the tension ex” essed in kilos, according to modern practice, and the concept of “tension” as expressed for example Galeazai (whichis in fac a tactile sense) and even considers that this is lso similar to what is ind ‘ated by Di Colew and Mozart.190 MIMMO PERUFFO Graph The relationship between tension and strain on strings of different diameter tension tuned violin, they can be considered well proportioned, otherwise you will need to change them as many times as necessary to obtain fifths between pairs of strings, which is precisely the tuning of the violin).” Barbieri believes that in all likelihood these considerations are purely speculative. Mozart, on the other hand, picking up the same concepts, suggests attaching equal eis to cach pair of sings ifthe diameters are well chosen, the open stings wil give ih otherwise the diameters will need changing until that result is obtained. ® prcouco: Letina prima, pp. 3 ve ozanr, Vesich ner grindicen Vishal p 6.ITALIAN VIOLIN STRINGS 191 Graphs 4 and 5 The relationship between tension and longitudinal strain on strings of the same diameter but different degree of twist and manufacturing technique vension ig) tension (ke192 MIMO PERUFEO Evidently, in Mozart’s case as well, we are dealing with a stringing at equal tension (ie. equal kilos). Bur it is difficult to understand how these indica- tions, from a true follower of the Italian school, can be reconciled in practical terms with the principle of equal feel, as championed by the treatises, by the sources on Italian practice such as De Lalande (who refers to Angelucci and the number of guts used) and by Riccati— and as confirmed by the experi- mental data. 8, The fourth string ‘As mentioned earlier, in the eighteenth and nineceenth centuries the violin G siting — Galeazzis “cordone” — was always overspun. In the eighteenth century, and much of the next century, it had a gut-core (or a silk-core, as we learn from Heron-Allen), round which was dosely wrapped metal wire, gen- rally of silver, but also of copper or silver-plated copper. On this subject Galeazai writes: “Largento, che comunemente si adopera a questo uso 2 fame inargentato, ¢ deve esser

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