96 caneren 9 9,5 Buckling and optimization Pron the above discussion, the possibility exists that thore are cases in which the Lagrange miltiplier matrix of the optimization problem can algo be used as the displacement vector of the buckling problem, Here, a special case of the truss problem will be identified. When all the elenents of F are negative, [r| = -P and Ba. (9,11) becomes tr = xy = 2 ‘the equations of buckling ané optimization are both satisfied in this case when fan optimal stiffness be nade that the Structure in the buckling problem be en optimal design caRPTER 10 GENERATING NEW DESIGNS FROM EXMMPLES 10,1 Introduction Im earlier chapters it has been shown, at least for Guestion of the complete automation of structural design is reduced to a graph problen. complete autonation is unfortunately more elusive than that. In fact, there really does not exist even a model for completely autouated design, In the absence of that model it But again, unforunately, this learning algorithm is at best @ nebulous Concept today. ranted this rather tentative stete-of-the-ort, it is fron an example simply by systematically adding bars to example, Since Friediand's algorithm is limited to the case98 cURPTER 10 Figure 10,1 Building with Triangles of staticeliy determinate structures, bare aust be added in S manner which generates new designe which are statically Geterninate, Such a procedure is now described in detail, exterior bars added bar: aaded joint interior bar Pigure 10.2 Adding A Nonber Given an exanple (a statically determinate plane truss) bare are classified se either interior or exterior depending lupon whether they are part of the interior or boundary, res~ FOr each Of adding @ noge toa structure at the midpoint of en GENERATING NEW DESIGNS FROM EXAMPLES 99 exterior bar and at the sane tine a adding 2 new meuber vhich of 2 given example and optimizing geonetrically. The improved example to be used geonetricsily, After trying all possible exterior bars, the Gne retained for the next step is the one which corresponds to the structure of least weight, Figure 10.3 Maree Structures Whose Weight ie Compared ‘This procedure is most casily oxpltined throush study, “In Pigure 10,2 the example has three exterior bers, ail of which correspond to » modifies structure which mst be exanined in order to arrive at the next example, The com pater in each case, examines the Weight after geonetric opti- Elzation end selects the design with the smallest weight £0100 CHAPTER 10 be the next example, Figure 10.3 shows the three structures Whose weight must be conpered in order to arrive at the next Gxompic. Ih cubsequent cases these trial structures will not Be shown. -h sequence of exemples of decreasing weight Le shown in Figure 10.4, Figure 10.4 Sequence of Examples with Decreasing Weight While thie procedure is basically heuristic, it has t#o charactoristice vhich deserve mention, First, it includes Sone general aspects of building with triangles: While it ie problem is by no means solved in this chapter. Gral available means for dealing with it are discussed. 10.2 Algebraic Methods representing and manipolating graphs. Tt ie presentation of a graph by a column matrix whose elenente are either 0 or 1 which is obtained by mapping the node-node GENERATING NEW DESIGNS FROM EXAMPLES aor matrix A into a linear array a, Since the mstrix A, whose flenents are 0 if nodes 4 and j are not connected by a branch Miy7 Cae nodes 4 and 3 axe connected by a branch Le a symmetric matrix, it can be represented by a triangular areay ty TAM an RaPog 0 Pon Aygo an Protn which can then be sapped into an array oa Pao In order to make the machinery of vector spe. 1e to the problens which arise when dealing with tices, itis convenient to define multiplication ane eaéi- Jon module 2, i.e,102 canpren 20 lon and addition, graph can be manipslated in A nore interesting question is concerned with the prob- lem of determining the or more generally GENERATING NEW DESIGNS FROM EXAMPLES os Ligiegea tiy7 Lo otnemise = (hd = Eends to shift dom one element, the nonzero elements of a in the product Ta. Next note that the progression of grapha @eecribed in Pig. 10,5 a9 building with triengles can #180 be a = aad & A AD AK AS, ANG Building with Triangles described as a shift, but a slightly nore complex one since 2 : 3 2 N. bs adm arbitrariay i= icted from old by simply 1d where the nunher of formally Using a shifting operator on the matrix of the raph. 2, this shift can be described using nilpotent matrices, 3. the examples may not conpletely define the nilpotent matrix,104 cunprer 10 (GENERATING NEW DESTONS FROM EXMMPLES 105 Under the conditions of Comuent 1, the representation of the one of the problons with the representation of graphe through matrices 1 that the arrays become quite large. shown in Fig. 10,7 can be described in the same wey, Tf the previous case is written as205 CHAPTER 10 AA A+ et ‘the milpotent matrix can be constructed to be arbitrarily ‘selected Since this matrix 7 ie 2 permitation of the classics! nilpo- tent matrix cited above, it has the desires properties and cen be subsequent ly used with other examples to generate new de- signs. ‘This is indicated in Pig. 108, Figure 10.8 Using tho matrix T CENERATING NEW DESTGNS FROM SxXAMPLES 107 10.3 Linguistie Nethods There has boon a considerable amount of work recently @ixeoted tovard the application of linguistic methods to pic— eure processing and pattern recognition, In this section, Doth the application of these techniques and their potential in structural design will be discussed. Quite in general, subsets of pattern recognition and picture processing are concerned with pictures waich can be Fepresented by graphe and in that sense the development Of web (graph) granmare i natural, Unfortunately, the queseion of the type of application arises here, In particular, in picture processing there is a concern for the semantics of & picture which is not imediately shared by structurel design, Central to Linguistic methods 42 the idea of » grammar (in the case of geaphe 9 web Vocabulary, I is a set of "initial" vebs, and Ris @ set of rewriting rules, Without redeveloping the terninology of graph theory: 1. the vocabulary V is 2 finite eat of elements which is to be used, in conjunction with the "initial webs" to gen= erete the language. It is common practice to divide the Set V into the "non-terainal” vocabulary vy and the “tominal” vocebulazy Up. X, define initial configurations sted, (In an adape— examples from y 3. Each rewriting rule of R consists of triple (a,8,£) where a'and fare webs and E is an enbedding which defines how web P is to replace web a in the web ca where © is ‘the host web. The rewriting rules will use the notation jeate that a subgraph "is to be replaced by" sn= other subgraph, Figure 10.5 shows a progression of examples through Which a designer might proceed in a truss design problem, These designe can be generated by the following grammar.08 cunpren 10 cramer 1. v= (a,n,c,a,b,c} where the capital and the lover cage letters denote Vy and U_ respectively. Dy seer al a prep Bel s) crse eal Figure 10.6 shows a progression 12 through which # designer might proceed in frame design, These designs Gen be generated by the following gramnaz: Grammar 2. v = (2,8,¢,0,,,¢,4) where the capital and the GENERATING NEW DESIGNS FROM EXAMPLES 109 Rewriting Rules 2 © “opposite” node for an exterior har, ‘The associate web) hen orenmar 3. v= (A,a] where the capital and the lover case Letters denote Vy and Vp respectively. x = any statically determinate example (graph) hose nodes are named A. Rewriting Rules DA n Re eee aS (opposite (opposite node node) for above branch) + any branch on sa also occurs in wBuo cuprer 10 contextural Conditions: 3) apply only to exterior branches. b) the new branch which joine the opposite node is to be an interior branch; the other two new branches are to be exterior branches with the opposite node indicated, 2aree Be lay ‘this final web grammar also illustrates the use of con- textural conditions which are comonly part of revriting rules. ‘The Linguistics references cited earlier consider much nore complex web gramars such as grasmars which generate all Plane graph. The difficulty here does not Lie with generat~ ‘The algebraic method described in an earlier section vould ap- pear to be better sited to handle this problem. 10,4 summary wo methods for dealing with examples have been aie— cussed in this chapter, A matrix representation of © graph Brings with it the obvious advantages of the machinery of Linear algebra while linguistic methods carry with then the Cechnology and intuitive appeal of formal language theory. Many other methods could have been discussed, For example, Herman and Rosenberg. (1975) Sng With problens of size and the associated question of mod~ ular construction. Hazrison (1974), on the other hand, sug- ests that finite autonets should be convenient representations for designs. And on the forefront of developing technology, Stiny and Gips (1974) suggest e formal system in which ques tions of aesthetics may be discusced and Atkins (1974) #ug- gests > generslization of graph theory capable of including questions of behavior. Basically, the question of the role of “examples” in a learning systen ie central to artificial intelligence and is still in sn embryonic state, While the techniques described here are usable in sone simple situations, real design sit- uations are much more complex and the prognosis is not at all clear, put it ie very likely that heuristics will precede theory for some tine in this area. canprer 11 11.1 Introduction Michell ie 2 aajor figure structure] design concerned by and large with computational techniques, fect application of its application. ‘The material presented relies heavily Japon the book of Cox (1965) which appears to include one of the most detailed discussiontof Michel's work now available. The final sections of this chapter deal with sone techniques developed by Prager and his co-workers, Both Michell and Prager have played significant roles in the development of optinal structure] design, But thelr work is included in thiea2 CHRPTER 11 fine chapter because it deals directly with questions of EERZEGEY Stchanice which are basic to studies of optiniza— Elonc'in apite of the fact thet it represente a devistion fron the thene of iterative design 12.2 some Theorens of Michell in Wichetl's work it ix assumed that set of known forces which satiety the equations of equilibrium aze given dnd it Se desired to "£i1l in" an optinal supporting structure. This supporting stracture is composed of truss menbers, sone Bitnich are in tension end some of which are in compression SURE Steecece in connion ene eomreneton £8 sate rent Tgnany design let ond fe reser to tho sete of EEE PIPERS UE" Sefer"Go' the wotnan esoeiaves with eenelon ond Conpreseion menbers respectively, then = Tage, ié cero a te 7 any vg LR gky sen, wnere A, and b, are the area and length of menber i respect~ Wrely. Ururenefmore, let the matrix R represent the joint coordinates, =| 72 2.2) and P, the weual Joint load matrix, Figure 11.1 1 typical Truss Monber ‘THE WORK OF MICHELL AND PRAGER ua ‘Theoren 11.1, For ali structures designed to transmit me given set of loads and to develop the allowable in eaeh bar, fe vty = Ue = PR ‘The function t ie, furthermore, independent of the spe- ‘the ‘theoren of virtual work when the Joint éisplacesent matrix # is replaced by the joint coordinate matrix R. sterting with joint equilibriun, RP ing on the left by # veeults in’ the ‘expression Bir = by = Bp = BR but in this case and maltiply- gual virtual work Be = Fey Dry = ha ee yy = BY £ £ i i Since the expression BR is independent of the detaite of the specific structure used, then so {2 the function #; since PR Se independent of 4 trensiation of the ori~ gin, so again io #, note here that ¢ would in general & ee were unknown reactions, the tem FR nd upon the specific structure under “ 1 1 f w ‘ow — ffs iw he Vas igure 112 structures of Bqual Weightau ccuaprER 11 A useful clenentazy corollery follows airectiy: corollary 11.1, If either ve or ve is zero for a11 de~ ‘signe considered under the preceding theorem, then the Volume in constant for all these designs. ‘This somewhat surprising theorem is illustrated by the exanple show in Fig. 11.2. Note firet that before deciding upon a Specific structure it is possible to compute the required vol- sible, Theoren 11.1 gives the volume Ue = PR/E = 48". The feader say verify for hingelf that both the designs shown do in fact have this volune, More complex exanples my be found in the book of cox (1365). theores 11,2. o£ the structures considered in theorem Ti.1, the aeeueture with the least volume aleo has the least valve of YE, + VE proof, Since the volune can be weitten as feel e) land since Theores 11,1 shows the last term in this ex Pression to be constant, the volume varies directly With the tom V.£, + V,£, 36 stated in the theorem, Next, assume that 5 represents # fet of Joint displace- nents and that the sbrolute value of the largest strain which ee mpe legl e mpe [4,74] (Gor att nenbere 2) Let 9, and e, represent the stress and strain respectively in nerbef i. pirthermore, let F= 8/e, Tt follows that for any Geeign which satisfies the conditions of Theorem 11.1 above Theorer 11.3. vyt + Vt, = Proof, starting again with the virtual work xelationship Bea a At follows that Pete £ Reveteing this eqreasion and writing Ab, a4 ¥, Bbw tee Sat, =D open - Bee ‘THE WORK OP MICHELL AND PRAGER us o=) sf, Vie Ives ver = Sosa Syne, lay where i! € 1, and i €1,, Dividing by e now gives Weve. + ut, to complete the proof, From the preceding proof it is clear that equality occurs only stroin ie the sane in any bar, ‘conditions are similar to the optinality conditions of truss design for = single losd- ing condition of chapter 4, Tt follows that Yea 11,2, For an optinal dosisn, vf, + Vf, = BY. ‘The final theoren of this section is ‘Theoren 11.4, Of the designs which satiefy the conditions ‘of Theorem 11,1 sn optimum design hae the largest aver age stifmess. Proof, yor an elastic design which satisfies the condi- ‘tions of theoren 11,1, 12 Beare eet, + vy = ee + et (ety = VE)? Since the last term in this expression is constant, by Theoren 11,1 it ie clear that V~ #8 or that when Vis minimized so is the expression BS which is called ‘the inverse of the “average stiffness" in the theorem. 11,3 Constructing Michell Trusses ‘There does not seem to be any atic procedure an arbitrary eet of ‘but the designer mist rely upon 1e conditions, The principal theoren is Theorem 11.2. Michell expleing in his paper that if a design can be found which is fully the menbar stresses are either te or ft)1s cuaPTER 11 virtue of Theorem 11.2, this design {s optinal. In other words, if both » design and an associated strain field can be found which aatiefy these conditions, the design mst be opti el when the bay layout hae been mado along lines of principel Berain in the associated strain field, since any other design thon tested against this strain field will indicate a larger Value of Vyf, + Vf, which implies a larger volune. Michel] uses @ continuum approach in appiying the essen~ titty Glecrete theorems of the preceding section. We con= Figure 11.3 A Monet Truse In order to verity micholl's design, it is required to 2. This procedure not only verifies that the design is optimal, bat also allows the volune to be computed directly by using Theovene 11.1 end 11-3. Placement v these conditions nay be written as {THE WORK OF MICHELL AND PRAGER uy = See error Sotroetr=® ana) ide, ov, wee roe tbr ‘A elution to these equations is us er v = dere (a1.a) Hote that the circumferential aieplacement at point A is Dent, It 1 now possible to compute the optinal volume from ‘Theorena 11.1 end 11,3. since vedas hinge, + uty +arh hinge = 16) (tron the proot of theorem 11,2) ‘theorens 11,1 and 11.3 give we ducts ech ov + deep - echoen as For the example under discussion let f, = £, = 1 and # = 45°, ho aininin Volume is then v= ehe/f2 second ig 2.35, The designs approach Michell's nicely since 2.82 > 2.95 > 2.22 = «/2 Approximation #1 Approximation #2 Figure 11.4 ‘two Approxinationsnie cuaprer 12 Michell uses his kan other more conplex designs roughly t0 produce designs in which the bars Lie along the principal directions of “compatible” strain fields which he Ss able to construct. ‘There have been many attempts to build upon or genera]— ize the work of Michell, Probably the most general point of view achieved is that of negenier and Prager (1969) who apply techniques from plasticity theory to the problem of constrict— ing "compatible" strain fields, They also consider problens of design for stationary creep end design for a given funde— mental frequency. 2h =; -_ Figure 11,5 ‘The sendwich Besm I pea 11,4 An Example of Prager's Work prager is probably the most influential figure in nod= fom structural optimization. Beginning in the 1950's, he and his conworkers solved 9 number of optimization problene which were usually continuous problons and related strongly to the Work of Michell. In this section, one of his later efforts [prager ana shield (1969)] Ls examined in which » sandwich bean is subjected to two different design requirements. The use of the optimality condition here i# typical of his work, Figures 11,5 and 11.6 indicate the notation weed in this problem, “It is desired to find optinal face sheets for a sand~ {THE WORK OF MICHELL AND PRAGER ns wich menber which must serve both as 2 stmit and ae a beam, For the sandwich beam the area and monent of inectis are T(x) = 2bt@n? = AGE) (21.6) Because of symmetry of the loading it is only necessary to consider 1/2 of the structure or the interval 0= x=, tet wand v be the longitudinal end lateral displacenents, respect= ively, The thrust and moment muat satisfy atx) = abe(a) strut bean Bau! =P panes = ae an 11.4.2. steut Design Tt is first of all desired to design a strut with mini mal volune of facing material wnose length change mist be lesa than dy. Formally it is desired to find A(x) which will minimize [2 aoe, ane) subject to as’ =P e106 xn0 ans) a nae res At this point Prager invokes the principle of minimum potential energy which states that of all u which satisfy the boundery conditions of tg. (11.9), the one which satisfies Agu — > Sininizes the integral neue? I neu ax 2,10) This can be shown hexe éirestly. since (aut =»)? 2 0 asta? - anmaip +p? 2 0 aay ana? = 2u'p = Pan Integrating Bg, (11,11) over the intexval (0,4) then gives 2 saviax = jae — Jf Ea Q I Jo ne (22.12) smelt — jf Ea 13 Ia Be120 cunprer 11 Mow desine @! to have the property Mier o HAE aus) o ex tthe last integral of Bq. (11,12) then Decones e wor on = na, onan re foltowe that Ji apurax = 5 anii?ex = ea, ans) snorofore the optinel u entiation 25, (1.2). ow Int t,yh, represent another devign which also bat toed p ed satlehibn dee then toa ax = [2 noa'ax © Pay (1.16) Tt follows thet # aea'tax = [4 ayeuitax © ff ayn? I ae I apa? 28 "7ax ~Ayutax <0 a7 now if ut? is constant, it can be factored out of Bq. (11.17) to give sae «ff ayo nas) ut? = constant (a1) will be called the optimality condition. im this simple case Mpex = 1? pea ‘iin WORK OP MICHELL AND PRAGER waa 11.4.2 Beam Design In this case it 4s again desired to find A(x) which will minimize the volune of the facing material, but here Gieplacesent is linited by the value 4. Formally, red t0 ra {5 acoax subject to EAn’y" = mx ieee (21.20) vino @xaE veg exes Repeating the acgunents of the preceding section, it can be ‘shown that oa Pye < 1, Bea - antetar «0 oa.2n and that the optinality condition is a yi? = constant (a1.22) i this case vege? a= mycin = my eenag yt?) = Erma) Bnew = ret camna,) 11.4.3. the Combined Problem im this section it ie desired to find an optimal de~ sign which will simlteneously satie¢y the above roquirenents for both the beom and the serut, The optinelity conditions in this case are edded to give 2 2 eat? + ev"? = 6, (22.23) where ¢1,¢2 and 63 are undetermined constants. Using Bq. (11.9) and Bq. (11.20), it follows that 2 we ae 2 eae ana)122 cunpren 11 or that the area, A, has the form Abe =, (21.25) rt where a, and 2, are undetermined ‘constants, integrating for 1 ane ——— wand vInow giver aya = apm = offs ayes = Fp aim aay Bi = K => iay = oy 3.2.5) bat. 7 Bae = Kox a.2.6) From Eqs. (A.2,5~6) it follows that A and ia have the same eigenvalues and eigenvectors, Therefore, since 3A Le eym= metric, the spectral radius of A ie less than or equel to 1 Whether or not A is symnetric. APPENDIX A.3 Probably the most comon technique for solving nonlin~ jacson and Keller (1966). In ite nost rudimentary form Mlewton's method involves Linear izing @ function by approximating it by the Linear tems of Torpolnt "ta compe vadch Sattar apptheimeion than too Starting fron cone point under certain conastions the solution point =. y y= #0) Many different aiecuseions of Newton's method are available in the Literature, The intention here ie only to Gescribe the most commonly cited result on convergence--that Newton's method converges quadratically in the neighborhood of a solution and under certain assumptions concerning the behavior of the function,132 APPENDIX A.3 For the case of a single variable x and 9 single aque Sion (x) indicated in Pigure (A.3.1), this recult is 9 simple matter to show. If the function’ f(x) is expanded ina Taylor series about the point x, It follows that £0) = Fla) + OK) G6 = x) + BEE O = a)? where § is ome point in the interval (to,x). In Newt: ‘ethod the improved approxinstion, x1, 19" computed Wai 1 7 My 7 £05)/8" 8) (3.2) Interpreting x now to be the value at which f(x) = 0 and substituting Bg. (2.3.2) into Bg. (ac3-1) dt fo 3.9) 4 fontows that Ixy = xl = Ix - xl? (3.4) Of that the convergence is quadratic in the neighborhood of ‘the solution pointe of nonlinear equations the results are R-dinensionel vector x, With the appropriate use of matrix noms rather than the absolute values used shove the preceding Fegult goneralizes directly to oysters APPENDIX A.4 (CONVEX SETS AND FUNCTIONS; HOMOGENEOUS FUNCTIONS A got is said to bo convex i¢ the points along 2 Line joining shy two points within the set also lie within the ast, in onder to formslize this statenent, it ie first of all nese gssary to formalize the concept of a, Line between evo points 4s an nodimensional space, Let 31,3? € B, a Line through these points can be represented by'a Linear combination of then, “that is, any 2° defined aa Beas sag s has many sol0- Eons. In this case it is possible to rearrange rows and columns in the matrix A 20 that aL eee elo pon oa [2] ee ae eee eee eee =aylo - a,x) (A.5.6) ea oo a"feasibie solution, If x also hae the property x, = 0 s¢ 18 Called @ basic feasible solution, In the most elementary tems sinplex method assures the existence of @ basic feasible solution and attenp rove ‘upon it, Compatible with the partitioning of oq. > the objective fanction can be written as using Bg. (8.5.6), & can now be written oe a function of x, ae = Balm - ay) + x, = eae + @ - aaa, FL 4.5.8) Following the simplex method, each of the coefficient of xp is examined, If any coefficient is negative, ® smaller © “ME an optima? solution the ‘Theorem of Linear programming stetes thet a - Baja, 20 5.9) pquation (A.5,9) is sonetines called an optinality condition, Returning to 8g. (8.5.3), in order for equality to be achieved, it is sufficient that ‘LINEAR PROGRAMING 139 either Gy =e, 4, Gry < ey x20 x= Bquation (A.5,10) can algo be regarded as on optimality condi- tion, Te can, furthermore, under fairly general conditions be used to go from an optinal x to an optinal y in the dual prob Jen since an optinal x implies xaf les y= ate, (a.5.22) []> ras Equation (4.5.11) corresponds, of course, to the optinality Condition for structures which states that the strains corre- a (.5,10) sponding to nonzero stresses in an optinal solution mist be snixinal,APPENDIX A.6 ‘The Lagrange multiplier method is probably the most. connonly iuged technique of mathematical programing and is @iscussed in every good book on optimization such ae Luen~ berger (1969). The presentation here 1s somewhat schematic. ‘the following results are referred to as "local* since they are besed upon Taylor series expansions at a point which pay or may not be a globel optimum. Figure 2.6.1 Equality constraints 4.6.1 Equality Conserainte consider the probles (a subset of Bq. (1,1)) in which At is desired to minimize f(s) subject to g| ° (6.1) tet 11 be the gradient matrix of 3, & = d9,/ox, and aesune that the rank of B ism, ) ‘Theorem, Proof, TAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS aan If there exite a gx with the property thet SE + Ge = 0 for any ge wnicn satisfies Hedy = 0, There there exists at with the property that ‘The igea here is that at an optimal point (at let af = VE * gx = 0 represent the variation of the funceTan and gq'= B= x = 0 represent he requirement that the ge be Feasible. since te of rank m by ascumption, it can be parti~ Etonea (pemape after « reordering of columns) ie Bo &-0 > yt) =o ita) lax, where H, is nonsingular, It follows that 2 + ay es, (a.6.2) and the dry can be selected arbitrarily, Under these conditions, the equation #™ = %¢ can be written es el Ce) which can be solved for \ since ma none singular as 2 ae ary = aye, But {t romaine to show that a2 ve, => ayattoe, « ve, Ai = ve, => ayailve, = oe, 3.6.3) Now in partitioned fom Be 0 > BE: at oe ge 0 ‘Then using By, (8.6.2) it follows that wees + By + te = 0a2 APPENDIX A.6 caaytve, - 24)) + ax, = 0 Since Gx, is arbitvary, the tem in parenthesis must be Zero completing the proof of the theorem. N° (— cignt constraints optimal point mnequality Constraints 4.6.2 Inequality Constraints ‘Phe use of Lagrange multipliers in the case of inogual- ity constraints ie mich more difficult to discuss than the Gate of equality constraints, This is largely due to the fact Ghee it ig necessary in this cage to used ingualities to des- Gribe an optimal point Consider again the problen statenent of Bq. (1-1) minimize £9) subject t0 g(x) #0 an Pigure A,6,2 indicates schematically the situation at an opti- nal point, This figure attempts to show that in order to Ges~ Crive an optinal point it is necessary ©o require that M+ ge * 0 (optimerity) 6.4) for any gx satistying Eo gx <0. (feasibizity) 3.6.5) ‘the use of Lagronge multipliers in this case has developed about the following theores: ‘Theoren, (Kuhn-Tucker) At an optimal point of Bq, (1.1), there exist Lagrange miltipliers h 2 0 which satiety 841 oq = Oand hg = 0 ‘the proof of this SAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS 14a orem follove directly from the classical Parkas" Lemma, the statenent that a x <0 for ell x such Proof. decreasing objective function that ax #0 is equivalent to the statement that there exists a1 2 0 such that a+ B\ =O. ‘The proof proceeds by induction on the number of rows of the matrix A, When A has 1 row, it is only necessary to show that a4 hy eras x <0 and ax? 0 This is shown in Pig. 4.6.3 since a,A, and x So tensinte region 2 for Figure 4.6.3 the case of m= 1 are vectors in this cage and 4 2,0 ea scalar, When m= 2 the system can be put into the form a a ar ayny |, | oer exsome, x20 Im Pig. 4.6.4 this system is given geometric toa decreasing value of the objective function, ‘The algebra of this proof is available in Inenberger, ea feasible region os for x a, Be Figure 2.6.4 < ‘The case of m= 2us APPENDIX 2.6 With regard to the Kuhn-Tucker theorem, the statement 1-g = 0 Yo added to handle the cave in Which cone constraints may not be "eight", “In that case, the variation d is not required to Tie inside the corresponding tangent planes to the constraint surfaces and the associated Lagrange multipliers are taken to APPENDIX 4.7 MICHELL'S PAPERY in 1904 Michell published an extraordinary paper on optimal structural design which remains without parallel to this day. While he uses constant allowable strest not consider the effect of mesber weight upon the Fenains one of the few workers ever to successfully problea of achieving an optimal configuration, given s loads, In the process of so doing, he furthermore derives several important theorens about structures. Becouse. of its importance to design--both historically and in terms of ite contribution to the understanding of structurel mechanics Michell's paper is included in the following sppendix. ‘Reprinted from the Philosophical Magazine, $6, Vol. 8, No. 47, Nov. 1908, pp. 589-595,of Economy of Materiatin Frame-structres. ‘M. Micunit, M.C.E,, Melbourne®. AXWELL has shown? that for all frames under a given system of applied forces B.bh-E-Wh=G 2... wo jon in any tie-bar of length lyf, the Tength Jy, and the first sam is taken for and the eoontinates of their ion, and independent of the form of the ng rm heal na dn ean a ve Tt he gueniy of alr mec tet ee forees, and alto assigo the forms of frames which atiaa the Henirecoooms maven b fe ZLB FE NA Bev. + Communicated by the Author, + Scientie Paper pp. 175-177 Phil. Mag. 8. 6. Vol. 8. No, 47. Nov. 1904. aT MICHELL'S PAPER Now, considering « number of different frames in equi- [brian under the samo sat of external forces, in that one of ‘the frames in which V is least = P+ QE bi +E or E.2Lf] is least, where [/] denotes the numerical value of the force ia an ina be sum lke for tthe ad ¢ e proof given by Maxwell o dopenda'on tobiieraten of te veo forees and internal stresses daring an imposed unifors dila- tation or contraction of the frame, Consideration of a more feneral type of imposed deformation will furnish information ss to the quuntity ©.1[7)- Let the space id ‘or contraction numerically. greater length of the element and e a given frames, A, undergo the small change of length el, to be taken as positive when it increases the existing stra in the bar due to the applied forces, negative in the contrary case, The increase in tho elastic enorgy of the bar is elf, and for the whole frame 3 .elfe8W, ty the principle of Virtual Work, whero 8W i the virtoal swank of the applied for independent of the form af Tre frame A. ‘Thus Wad elf. [el] PE. Lf] oeE.1 Lf] a 244%, Indicating by the suffixes that the inequality applies to the frame A. Tf, bower 4 fiame, M, can bo found, such that all its parts have ir strains increased equally and by as much 7APPENDIX A,7 ts any elementary line inthe deformed space i a pars the sigas of inequality may be replace taal, and be c= 8 bahar is a minimum, and consoquently from the frame Mf, is also a ‘appropriate small deformation, such that the stra ‘oars of the frame are increased by equal fractions oftheir han the fractional change of length of any atively to all othors, othorwise it wil r imam only relatively to those within the samo assigned boundary. idently be satisfied when all the of the same sign. ‘The test en a.uniform dilatation or con- is special class aro:— igo pair of equal and reas applied figure, and acting along lines e igure. i neral, the points of appl é applied forces, as well as the forces themselves, being In all these casos the EA]_8W_S.alrens vpx 21 _ AW _ Easton inimam volume of the frame is where Fis ono of the applied forces, + the distance of its Pott of aplcatn, By fom an arkirry Baad pint 0, 312 MICHELL'S PAPER 4 the angle between RO and the direction of F, and P is the allowablo stress in the material. ‘A more general class of frames satisfying the condition 4=6, consists of those whose bars, both before and after the ‘appropriate deforuation, form curves of orthogonal systems. Tn suc» systom to inst strains may be ual and of the n, or equal and opposite, in direotions at right angles, caine in tie bats being exoooded by those of Ti the fist caso the strain is the 2 fe oral tions, the strain in any direction at an angle 0 to one of them is +4 cos 20=%, = D+ length. This is eaily seen as follows:— Tot Tbe the elemantry engi te change of reoion of the carve S;, between its points of intersection with two & % x fa adjacent curves R,R, of tho other series, and let m be the clementary length of B, between the two curves S,, & of the Series, m being taken smal in comparison with ‘Lot the curves of the S-sories be extended by the small fraction 2 of their length. Uf the element remains rectangular the change in the angle must be equal to the change in the inclination of elements Ry and R, to each other, a N-Al+ =m) = ag, ‘Take now a new clement, with sides of comparable length, 4m, formed by the pairs of curves BR, S8y., Let ye be cBAPPESDIX A.7 the change of direction of BR, between S, and Ss, and lot 1 be the extension of the Rt curves. x Se & 2 Then, as before, SY=N Ys and making a circuit around the element, since the angles remain right angles, 6 re dgnne pt a , bat $.n— 2 120, because the angles were right angles ‘before the deformation. ‘Thus since \'7A, by assumption a 4 Huo, ad Hao. QED ‘There aro two giseral clases of orthogonal curves satis fying the reuized conditions, vi TSSystems of tangents aad favolutes derived from any ‘volute enrvess (Gince such systems are bounded by the evolate carves, te corresponding frames are in genera of minimam volume tly telatvely ta othors with theme foitg Foundaries.) TL. Orthogonal ystems of equiangular spirals, with systems of coneontile celes ahd Gtr rad and rodangalar fetwerks of straight lines, as special case Frames whose bars exincide with tho carves of any_of thooe systems tre therefore Hames of ‘minimum queatity alsa, for any systom of forces consstat with thet rman oy fps, ames may algo be bul up of gris of difrent systems of these clasts provided that continuity of dsplaement is Secured slong the lines of junction, “Bramplo of such frames of minimain quantity of material, for some slernentary systems of frees, are given in. the accompanying figures Compression tars in each case sro indicated by thio, and tension bars by fine, continoas ines. ‘Those portions ofthe NICHELL'S PAPER ast Jines of principal strain on which material bars are not required arabe Hy Sate Ha oad ms - . 1.) A single force F applied at A, and acting at right angles to the ino AB fs Elasnd by’ 2 equal and ‘opposite force and a couple, of moment Fx AB, applied at B. Fig. ‘The minimum frame is formed of two similar equiangular spirals having their or xscoting orthogonally at A together with llth other spirals orthogonal to thse and nelesed between them. FxAB at B, are centre at B, and of radius ry, the volume necessar; ei yt Fa.logS (5 +), where a=AB, and P, Q are the stresses allowed for tension A single force, F, is AB, and is balancedAPPENDIX A.7 ‘Tho minimum frame is composed of the two quadrantal bars DF and WG, having their common centre xt C, of all ¢ quadrants, and their four tangents AD, sn is complated and GD) ie ae a chy on on ile Relies ‘ceroon coast of es soni. plane below AB, all the radii from C being extended and the semicircles abodt compressed. MICHELL'S PAPER ass ‘The minimum volume of the frame is maGe and therefore exceeds the, frame oft figs Tinton of exont as imposos fa the io be? (249), oF e371, Bes 8, (Fig. 4.) Constructions similar to that of figs. 2 & 8 give the minimum frames for three forces, two of which are[RPPENDIX 7 equal and directed to s point on the line of action of Ried outdo the triangle formad by the points of ap is an example, FCB’ undergo uniform bulk compres- Id pare shear as in fig. 2. APPENDIX .8 GEOMETRIC OPTIMIZATION angle ECG. oe ‘Equal and opposite couples applied at points 4 po iples applied at pe WIS PRIEDLAND optimization. Sadly, Petedland's work has never appeared in the Journals. iis thesis e rather long and he hae automated and interest has shifted toward ‘There are many paranetere which must be considered in ‘the overall design of 8 structure: type of structure (plate, Melbourne, Apel 10,1008.186 APPENDIX A.8 shell frame, truss, etc.), geometry (location of joints, nen bere, supports, costs, Isbor disputes, ete. problén of selecting the geonetry for a statically determinate Erues subjected to a specified loading, ro establish the framework for the aiscussion, # matrix fonmalation will be used and vectors and dyadics wili be intro @uced, Examples will be given in tWo dimensions with the A.8.2. the Problem Consider a statically determinate truss with a pre- say n, Aesuxe that the which nodes are connected Finally, assune that It is important to realize that as yet nothing hae beon eaia about the actual Location of the nodes in apace, For the purposes Of thie discussion it is required that #11 loading Scour at the nodes and that the magnitude of all loads is pre- Getermined, the loads are aemuned constant; if a node changes position in space, its applied loading rensing unaltered ‘There is, obviously, an unlimited murber of node loce~ tione with the same connectivity which can safely support the specified loading. Different configurations may be expected to have diffevent menber lengthe and are font volunes of material, The volune V of ture is computed as the sum of the b produ Ay and lengths 15 imposed on the variety of node locations, the minim obtain able volune will be some positive value,” In any case, there exists a greatest lover bound on the set of all possible structure volunes and the problen is to find euitable node positions such that this volune of material is mininal, 1.8.3 Assumptions that the truss has n nod: and every nesber has the (GPOMETRIC OPTIMIZATION 17 The structure {9 agsuned to be ind ite bar forces and applied ‘tonsion ane compression ( statically determinate, etSbie, Joading are in equilibrium, In the uovol matrix approach the node locations are defined by their cartesian coordinates (x,,¥,) end the member lengths are computed a2 5 Bye lo ea, IM? pee where (zs¥¢), (%ge¥g) axe ond node coordinates for member j, ‘menber displacenents be 5 and ils Denote the bar force by Pj ;Piy). Pinally, define the ‘and the applied loading by” ( configuration matrix fi to have eletente By, 4s 2 two by one column matrix of direct: 7 on 3 cosines of member 3 0 that in two dimeneions, R is 2 2n x b matrix, Define the column matrices of menber lengths &, areas A, forces F, and displacements 6, node displacenents ¢, coor Ginates ¢, ang applied losding ae ‘then equilibrium between bar forces and applied loading my =P as.) and menber @isplacenents and node displacements are related by aan (8.2) Bar forces and menber isplaconenta mst satisfy Hooke's law Pew 8.3) where k is a square diagonal matrix with non-zero elenentAPPENDIX A.8 ‘the stress in member J if jeonet ically, g and 2 8.7)160 APPENDIX 2.6 It ie now possible to rederive Maxwell's Theeren (1590) using dyadic notation. ‘heoren 2.8.1 E k= E+ g 8.8) Proof. a° Xb a S°ETR'E aed inate and stable, the configuration matrix has an inverse (B)"1, ‘This leads to several simple conclusions. Lemna 4.8. Proof, Por any vector Zu = Eh - By (chain mule for partial “at “ae” “US “at eterentiation) choose x = ¢ wen Bas hs Wyk HATA (the wake ayacic) (a.8,100 since QE = 8 cae m7 (a. gas aoa sing Lemme 2.9.3, equilibrium and member-node éisplacenent nay be recast in altemate forme. GEOMETRIC OPTIMIZATION ye ERR - RODS Arbo go bed gs Teme A86 bs ogee Proof, = b+ R= E (Ea. A.8.100) a Re bars neg GET E (Ba. A827) bk’ Ugea qe.8. ‘The question now arises, how do the nenber forces change a= ‘the geonetry chenges, tema AGS EE: b= 0 (8.14) Proof. QED RD -Bpre SRECECRE Ree BRO RTR BE Reo wea, Toma A.0.6 BE + B= 0 (4.8.15) root. UE R= 2a" RES L (chain mute) but RETR So (ea. A810 ups keo aed It is interesting that both the menber forces and applied loading ere derivable from the scalar potential p. Yeon 4.8.7 2p = E (a.8.16)162 APPENDIX A.8 Prof, P= SE AGE E+ EES E but REC R=° (ea, 0.8.15) “Up = GbR =EOE=E aca by definition Press and therefore a BE = © (since the loading As constant) SE Rpt Rae nee Ree sumartesng: Be? (8.17) poke e+ lp (3.0.16) Observe that the 2n components of applied loading and b bar forces are ail derivable from the single scelar poten= tisl function p! Tt might, therefore, be interesting to start with a generalisea scalar potential function and investigate fhe associated etructaral configurations. Theorem 4.8.2 2F is symmetric Proof, yp a, A836) for p(t) sufficiently continuous Se 30m, * Tat, 2 gp de symmetric eed ‘Theorem A,8,2 may be states 26 ‘The change in force in member j due tos enell change in menber length of menber x equals the change in force in member x due to 2 email change in member length of meuber 4, Note the analogy to Maxwell's Law of Reciprocal Deflections which my be stated as, Gromemaxc opriMazarioN 163 ‘The deflection at node x due to = unit load at. node s is equal to the deflection at node s to @ unit Ioad applied at node r. As expected, since there is geometrical relation between menber Lengths and node coordinates, there is a relation be- tween the differentia} operators based ong and J, respectively. denna A.8.8 g° = be @.8.18) Proof. For any ecaler function £(L) a: REn as Lk Oe (chain mule) Since thi Fonction sult is true for an azbitrary So TR gee, A.8.5 optimizing the Volune Suppose that an initial contiguration is suggested (the choice may be quite arbitrary), and that the gradients of the volume with respect to the node coordinates OV/>qy are compte teble, “Then it should be possible to adjust the ode posi= tions in the direction of negative gradients and produce ® new configuration with reduced volume, Restrict consideration now to statically determinate Stressed structure, Squilibrium still portaine: Sb ESE ‘The menber-node displacement equation (Bq. A.8.5) now reduces +0 aefaen (a.8.19) and the force-digplacenent relationship (Bq. 8.8.6) becomes E=og' (4.8.20) Of course, the volune is veack (4.8.21)