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Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

Across the globe, agriculture has reached its peak at a variety of levels.

Agriculture started at an adequate pace at 500 BC. As we go farther into the future,

there is a rising concern about the impact of a set of resource and environmental limits

that may substantially impair our ability to continue agricultural output increases. One

source of concern is the environmental impact of agricultural intensifsication. Fertilizer

types and quantities applied to crops are critical in crop production and play an essential

role in cropping systems. Despite being acknowledged as a significant aspect in

satisfying the food requirements of a growing population, relying on inorganic or

chemical fertilizers is a major barrier due to their prohibitive cost (Bandera, 2020). The

contemporary increase of problems in the agricultural sector has been an increasing

trend in recent years to limit the usage of mineral fertilizers, particularly soil applied

minerals such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), and their use has

fallen sevenfold. The low organic matter content is one of the primary difficulties. Soil

acidity (pH levels), excess aluminium, and calcium deficiencies are other prevalent

concerns in tropical soils. Poor soil quality is also caused by poor land management

(Agustiyani et al., 2021).

Furthermore, there is a growing demand for organically farmed products. These

develop conditions for recognizing the value of foliar fertilization and the usage of
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organic fertilizers as a substitute for meeting plant nutrient needs during the growth

season (Kerin and Berova, 2003). Even with the best available cultivars and scientific

management, fertility decrease is the leading cause of land degradation of rice soils in

the Philippines due to long-term continuous cropping. By the 1980s, Philippine

agriculture had largely become conventional. Based on soil study from the 1970s to the

1990s, the general trend suggested very active soil mining, which resulted in higher

fertilizer inputs to sustain farm output. The period 1960-1970 is distinguished by the

requirement to utilize exclusively nitrogen fertilizers. To maintain output, the following

decade of 1970-1980 necessitates increased phosphorus fertilizer inputs in addition to

nitrogen. From 1980 to 1990, fertilizers must include not just nitrogen and phosphate,

but also enhanced potassium and micronutrients such as zinc for rice and magnesium

for corn. The overuse of urea fertilizers beyond the normal 3N:1P ratio contributed to

rice and corn yield standstill and soil nutrient imbalance (Victor et al., 2009). In Region

12 SOCCSKSARGEN, various lands also suffered the same soil nutrient drop by year.

Organic farming has been introduced by some farmers in order to lessen the significant

drop on soil fertility that provides a negative impact to the crops.

Moreover, agricultural waste, sludge from wastewater treatment, animal manure,

fish feed, shredded paper, mushroom growth media, vermicast, vermicompost and

other organic wastes can all be used to make compost and solid fertilizers. Frass, is a

by-product of Black Soldier Fly Larvae (BSFL) rearing, has recently been employed as

an alternative organic fertilizer in different countries. The frass contains substantial

amounts of nutrients that could be useful in crop production if converted into organic
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fertilizer. However, research on its performance on crop production remains largely

unknown.

Additionally, the growing demand for animal feed from black soldier fly (Hermetia

illucens L.) mass rearing utilizing organic waste gives an opportunity for organic waste

management while also improving soil fertility. Proteins, lipids, and minerals abound in

BSF larvae (Caruso et al., 2014). BSF larvae have a high waste degrading rate (65%-

79%) and can greatly reduce infections in garbage (Lalander et al., 2015). The frass, a

byproduct of BSF rearing, includes significant amounts of nutrients that, if transformed

into organic fertilizer, could be useful in crop production (Lalander et al., 2015, Oonincx

et al., 2015). The frass fertilizer produced would help improve income from insect

farming by selling organic fertilizer as a byproduct of BSF rearing or save the farmer

money on fertilizer purchases.

To address this concern, the researchers will conduct a study in cultivation of

Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis with the application of Black Soldier Fly Larvae Frass in

the effectiveness of its height, weight and number of leaves. Pechay is a vegetable crop

with monetary value. Pechay plant production is affected by environmental factors and

soil nutrient concentration; it can be grown from low to mid elevations throughout the

year. Production is best, however, during the dry season in sandy to clay loam soil, with

a pH of 5.5-6.5 (Department of Agriculture, 2021). Thus, the growth experiments with

Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay) is carried out in order to investigate the use of

BSF frass as an alternative organic fertilizer to see how this fertilizer affects plant

growth and soil fertility.

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Statement of the Problem

This study generally aims to determine the potential efficacy of Hermetia illucens

L. (Black Soldier Fly Larvae Frass) as an alternative fertilizer for the cultivation on

Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay).

Specifically, this study shall seek answers to the following questions:

1. What is the effect of Black Soldier Fly Larvae Frass as an alternative fertilizer in

cultivating Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay) in the following treatments?

3.1 T0 – 7g Commercial fertilizer, 2000g soil

3.2 T1 – 350 mL Water, 2000g soil

3.3 T2 – 15g BSF frass, 2000g soil

3.4 T3 – 28g BSF frass, 2000g soil

3.5 T4– 44g BSF frass, 2000g soil

3.6 T5– 57g BSF frass, 2000g soil

2. Which of the treatments of Black Soldier Fly Larvae Frass as alternative fertilizer

is the most effective in cultivating Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay) in

terms of:

2.1 A. Height?

2.2 B. Weight?
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3. Is there a significant difference between the treatments of Black Soldier Fly

Larvae Frass as an alternative fertilizer in cultivating pechay?

4. Is there significant difference between the treatments of Black Soldier Fly Larvae

as an alternative fertilizer in cultivating Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay)

in terms of:

4.1 A. Height?

4.2 B. Weight?

Hypotheses

1. There is no significant difference between the commercial fertilizer and Black

Soldier Fly Frass as sustenance for pechay cultivation.

2. There is no significant difference between the commercial fertilizer and Black

Soldier Fly Frass in terms of cultivated pechay plants’ weight and height.

3. There is no significant difference between the six (6) treatments in terms of the

time it takes the fertilizer to be absorbed by the plant.

4. There is no significant difference between the six (6) treatments as the most

effective in cultivating Pechay.

5. There is a significant difference between the weight and height of Pechay in the

different treatments.

Scope and Delimitation

This study focuses on determining the maximum advantage of Black Soldier Fly

Larvae Frass as an alternative fertilizer for cultivating Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis

(Pechay). This delimits only the Black Soldier Fly Farm (Limadol), located in Tacunan,
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Davao City, where the Black Soldier Fly Larvae Frass will be bought. The researchers

intend to address the growing concern about the agricultural market's inflation rate for

commercial fertilizers. The study will be conducted within the months of January and

February 2023 in Purok 16 Block 3, Barangay Fatima, General Santos City. The

researchers will commence by going to the Black Soldier Fly Farm (Limadol), located in

Tacunan, Davao City, to buy the Black Soldier Fly Larvae Frass to be used in the study

as an alternative fertilizer in cultivating the Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay).

Significance of the Study

The results and accomplishments of this study will be a benefit to the following

beneficiaries:

Environment. The environment is one of the primary concerns why this study is

being conducted. By using Hermetia illucens L. (Black Soldier Fly) Larvae Frass a

cheaper and an alternative fertilizer in plants, the study can help lessen the damage of

the environment and biological elements, as well as the deprivation among living

organisms.

Community. This study exists because of human health and the people in the

community will have ideas on how to preserve and save the environment. Also,

contamination of soil may pose risks and hazards to humans and the ecosystem,

hence, this sustainable method aids the community in combating such menace to the

public.
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Economy. This study will provide knowledge and understanding by using

powdered Hermetia illucens L. (Black Soldier Fly) Larvae Frass as an alternative

fertilizer in plants. This will be a great help to the growth and development of the plants.

Poultry farmers. This study will provide knowledge and understanding by using

Hermetia illucens L. (Black Soldier Fly) Larvae Frass in growth of the plants. This will

help the farmers to grow their crops and have healthier products.

Researchers. This study will help the future researchers be able to gather prior

facts and information about the maximum advantage of Hermetia illucens L. (Black

Soldier Fly) larvae frass as alternative fertilizer for the cultivation.

Future researchers. This study will provide knowledge and understanding by

using Hermetia illucens L. (Black Soldier Fly) Larvae Frass as an alternative fertilizer in

plants. This will be a great help as a reference to support their data and hypothesis to

their future studies.

Operational Definition of Terms

BSF Frass. a by-product of growing Black Soldier Fly Larvae (BSFL) including

their exoskeleton shedding, feed remnants, and larvae feces. It is an organic fertilizer

that is ideal for revitalizing soil, promoting the growth of leafy plants and vegetables, and

assuring consistent and ongoing plant growth. In this study, this organic fertilizer will be

used to replenish the soil's nutrients and make the plant grow faster and bigger.
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Pechay. a subspecies of the plant that has the scientific name Brassica rapa

subsp. chinensis also known as Chinese cabbage or Bok Choy. It is a plant that has

glossy dark green leaves and thick crisp white or green stalks in a loose head.

Furthermore, it will be operationally used as a subject to be cultivated by the Black

Soldier Fly Larvae Frass (BSFF).

Fertilizer. a natural or synthetic material that contains chemical ingredients that

help plants grow and produce more. Operationally, this will be the by-product of the

Black Soldier Fly Larvae Frass (BSFF) and will be used for the cultivation of Brassica

rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay).

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Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter provides an overview of previous research knowledge sharing

recent related findings as well as other related facts from the study. It also introduces

the framework and gaps that comprise the main focus of the study.

A. Related Literature

This section provides all the various related literatures used in relation to the

variables that will be used in this study.

Black Soldier Fly Larvae Frass (BSFFF)

The intensification of animal agriculture in recent decades has led to a significant

increase in the size of livestock units. As a result, farm specialization has facilitated the

decoupling of livestock production from land devoted to feed production and fertilization,

resulting in negative environmental impacts from unsustainable fertilizer management.

Improving nutrient cycling through a well-thought-out combination of animal agriculture

and cropland is important on the way to sustainable agricultural systems (Zhang et al.,

2019). In the context of shaping in agronomical industries, the contemporary insect and

especially plays important role to the bioconversion, the Hermetia illucens (Black Soldier
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Fly) production is expected to play an important role: BSF can be reared on manifold

organic waste substrates, even manures (Diener et al. 2011).

In addition, the discovery of BSF has expanded through the time (Derrien &

Boccuni, 2018). Along with this, BSFL frass is considered to constitute a major output

from these production systems (Schmitt and de Vries, 2020). With the upscaling of BSF

production, the valuation of frass is getting more economic and ecological weight. The

use of frass as a fertilizer is expected to be promising and would increase the circularity

of the production system (Cadinu et al. 2020). Among the marketable frass fertilizers,

the BSFFF contains the maximum yield in known potentials. The ideas of BSF Frass

are continuously arising that in the past studies, the implications of BSF frass are

subjected in greenhouse methods. However, Frass is not a single product. Its quality

and composition are greatly influenced by the feed substrate used in the feeding

process (Klammsteiner et al., 2020).

Moreover, the coefficient of variation (CV) varies significantly between

parameters. Micronutrients and some macronutrients show large variations. Differences

in feeding quality have decisive effects on plant growth (Song et al. 2021). Because

researchers used frass produced with different feeding substrates and post-treatment

methods, differences in nutrients and their availability may explain why both high and

low fertilization efficacy of BSFL frass were reported. The study was able to partially

explain this difference in plant nutrition and other properties of various marketable

forage fertilizers (Menino & Murta, 2021).

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Furthermore, the physiochemical content of BSFL frass is varied in terms of the

pH of BSFL frass typically ranges between 7.0 and 8.0, which is the optimum range for

promoting plant growth and providing a conducive environment for the beneficial

bacterial communities in BSFL frass. Using a suitable pre-treated waste in BSFL

treatment (processing parameters and feeding strategies) can produce dry frass. It is

worth noting that dry frass is considered immature compost since the organic waste

must undergo rapid composting for about two weeks which may contain phytotoxins

compounds that may inhibit plant growth. Many researchers recommend post-treatment

of the dry frass to ensure its maturity and stability (Lopez et al., 2022). The nutrient

content of BSFL frass has a high content of NPK. Continuous movement of BSFL can

lower the temperature of BSFL frass. This helps retain nitrogen in the BSFL frass and

ensures a high nitrogen content in the BSFL frass. The nutrient content of BSFL frass is

primarily influenced by the nutrient content of the substrate that feeds the BSFL (Chen

et al., 2019). BSFL frass derived from food waste have a total nitrogen content range

from 0.6 to 4.8, total phosphorus content ranges from 0.8 to 2.5 and total potassium

range from 0.2 to 2.1 (Basri et al., 2022).

Most significantly, the further nutrient profile of BSFL Frass has the comparison

of NPK in commonly used organic fertilizers which are the cow manure with a ratio of

0.6: 0.4: 0.5; pig manure- 0.8:0.7:0.5, chicken manure- 1.1:0.8:0.5, average homemade

compost- 0.5:0.2:0.8 and the BSFL frass has the NPK ratio of 5:3:2 and that means the

nitrogen present is 5%, 3% phosphorus and 2% potassium content. The data implies

that BSFL Frass is way more concentrated and it is beneficial to the plant yield than the
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common organic fertilizers with the exceptions of the commercial fertilizers (The Critter

Depot, 2019).

Black Soldier Fly (BSF)

The black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, is a true fly (Diptera) of the family

Stratiomyidae. Black soldier fly (BSF) occurs in tropical and temperate regions. It feeds

on a wide range of organic materials and has been used in small-scale waste

management using substrates such as manure. BSF accumulates lipids from their diet

for use as energy by the non-feeding adult, to the point that they can be converted to

biodiesel. Additionally, when BSF is at the pre-pupa stage, it will instinctively leave the

substrate and move to a self-harvesting behaviour that removes an otherwise labour-

intensive step from their farming. BSF is practical to rear and a suitable tool to valorise

wastes, plus possibly a sustainable animal feed or human food source (Wang and

Shelomi, 2017).

Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay)

Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis or also known as Pechay, Pakchoi or Buk choi is

a group of plants in the mustard family consisting of various widely cultivated species. It

is a type of Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa or Brassica campestris) of the Chinensis

group, sometimes called Brassica chinensis. It is a loose leaf, non-heading type of

chinese cabbage with thick white leaf stalks with green leaves that form in clusters. It
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has been cultivated since the 5th century in Asia, bok choy is now grown in many

countries around the world (Stephens, 2015). Pechay can be grown well in excellent

weather conditions with enough sunlight and soil fertility. The optimal soil acidity or pH

level for pechay is in 6.0 to 7.5 which yields from neutral to basic (CABI, 2019).

Additionally, pechay is a host for insects and other pests. Some of the common

diseases that may infect pechay are the following; Black Rot (Xanthomonas

campestris), powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca spp.) (fungus), and leaf spot (Alternaria

brassicae) (fungus). Also, these insects or pests may infect pechay like (Hellula

undalis), diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella), aphids (Family: Aphididae), cabbage

looper (Trichoplusia ni), and red fire ants (Family: Formicidae) (Tuquero et al., 2018).

Furthermore, Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis can be transplanted or planted

directly to the ground. The seeds will germinate within 3-4 days and it grows best at 17

to 19 degrees Celsius at light frost. It can also tolerate high temperature in temperate

areas with a supplemental ample amount of soil moisture. Pechay can be planted in

single or multiple rows and it can utilize minimal space in an area (Tuquero et al., 2018).

Moreover, the generalized fertilizer application for this plant in one growing

season is around 1500 lbs of 10:10:10 (N-P2O5-K2O) per acre, or approximately 3.5

lbs. of the same nutrient ratio for every 100 sq. ft. (Hemphill, 2014). The water irrigation

of pechay will consist of frequent watering in dry seasons. During the rainy season,

watering may not be necessary until the soil moisture becomes unsaturated. Mulching

around the plants will keep out the excess water from flowing directly to the plant. In

addition, the harvesting period of pechay is around 8 weeks at most, depending on its
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varieties. In standard varieties, pechay are usually harvested within 5 to 8 weeks,

reaching its height with 2 feet tall after the germination period. Also, the entire block or

rows of pechay can be harvested by cutting its white stalks. Pechay leaves can be

harvested multiple times using the method of harvesting the outer to inner leaves.

Younger stalks and leaves will be left until its full growth. This method is commonly

called “cut and come again” until the plant itself will decline (Tuquero et al., 2018).

Commercial Fertilizer

Commercial fertilizers are responsible for 40 to 60% of the world's food

production. The nutrient inputs in crop production systems have come under increased

scrutiny in recent years due to the potential impact from inputs such as N and P. The

benefits of nutrient inputs are often minimized in discussions of potential risk. The

calculated N, P, and K indicate that commercial fertilizer makes up the majority of

nutrient inputs necessary to sustain current crop yields (Majumdar, et al., 2021).

In addition, the commonly cited generalization that at least 30 to 50% of crop

yield is attributable to commercial fertilizer nutrient inputs is a reasonable, if not

conservative estimation (Samreen and Kausar, 2019).

Cultivation

Cultivation is developed to increase soil physical conditions and carried out for

plants to allow for better root growth and thus tree anchorage, improve root access to

soil nutrients and moisture, and improve planting quality. Cultivation also removes
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competing weeds, improving moisture and nutrient availability to planted seedlings, and

provides a surface to which herbicides can be applied effectively (Edwards et al., 2019).

In addition, evaluation of soil quality is essential in monitoring the long-term

effects of plant cultivation. It is usually restricted to soil manipulation to create a

seedbed suitable for crop seeding and establishment for the plant growth. Soil

chemistry profiles from each domesticated and uncultivated soil revealed that

geography, rather than soil record, largely determined soil chemical properties due to

uncultivated site supported differing sets of native plant species. Moreover, soluble

content, organic content in soil, and concentrations in plant shoots and roots exhibited

significant correlation in treated soil (Helm et al., 2019).

NPK Fertilizer

NPK represents the primary micronutrients product used for supplementing the

nutritional requirements of flowers, trees, grasses, and agricultural crops. In an NPK

ratio, the numbers specifically tell the percentage of nitrogen, phosphorus, and

potassium contained in the fertilizer. The soil used to plant crops or grow flowers often

lacks one or more of these essential nutrients. In order to help plants to grow, these

micronutrients are added due to its widespread availability. Additionally, manure can be

added to the soil to help provide these nutrients. It claimed that nitrogen in NPK is

useful for helping plants to grow leaves. Phosphorus, by contrast, helps to produce

healthy flowers, buds, roots, and fruits. Potassium is used by plants to help sustain

overall plant health (Tatomir, 2022).

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In addition, NPK is commonly used as a fertilizer among the organic and

commercial synthetic fertilizers that helps to boost soil fertility. NPK represents the

nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Nitrogen is one of the most important and a

primary content of NPK. Nitrogen is important in plant cycles due to its major

component to the chlorophyll. In terms of plant growth, nitrogen is responsible for amino

acids and protein creation in leaves and stems, which provide strength and structure.

It’s also a component of DNA, so is literally involved in plants right down to their basic

building blocks. Potassium is involved in the movement of water, nutrients, and energy

sources around and within plant tissues, and in the production of ATP for energy use.

Since potassium is involved in the movement of water, one of its main roles is to control

the opening and closing of pores on the surface of leaves called stomata. Stomata

control the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water with the air and are

important for carbon dioxide uptake for photosynthesis and transpiration for temperature

regulation. This transport around the cell also helps thicken the cell walls, strengthening

plant stems when potassium is readily available. Strong cell walls also mean greater

resistance to pests and disease (Arktivate, 2022).

Moreover, Plants cannot grow without the essential plant nutrients. In addition to

carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), plants do need those nutrients to be able to

grow and produce biomass. Fourteen essential plant nutrients are known, and based on

the amounts of nutrients that are required by plants, macro and micronutrients are

distinguished. Macronutrients are taken up in relatively large amounts (10 -100 kg or

more per hectare), while the number of micronutrients that is taken up by plants is

mostly limited to several grams per hectare. Macronutrients are nitrogen (N),
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phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulfur (S).

Micronutrients are Manganese (Mn), Boron (B), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn), Nickel

(Ni), Molybdenum (Mo) and Chlorine (Cl). The availability of N, P, and K in the soil

should be sufficient, but not too high. Too low availability stunts growth and reduces

yields. On the other hand, too high availability of one or more nutrients can inhibit plant

growth and adversely affect harvest yield and/or quality. Furthermore, the availability of

N, P, and K should be balanced, so the availability of other nutrients should be

considered while adjusting the availability of the nutrient under consideration

(Agrocares, 2022).

Organic Fertilizer

Organic fertilizers are naturally available sources of minerals that contain

moderate amounts of essential plant nutrients. They can alleviate problems associated

with synthetic fertilizers. They reduce the need for repeated application of synthetic

fertilizers to maintain soil fertility. They gradually release nutrients into the soil solution

and maintain nutrient balance for healthy crop growth. improve. Organic fertilizers are

generally considered slow-release fertilizers and contain many trace elements. They are

a safer alternative to chemical fertilizers. However, improper use of organic fertilizers

can lead to over-fertilization and under-nutrients in the soil. Controlled release of

organic fertilizers is therefore an effective and progressive way to overcome these

impacts and maintain sustainable agricultural yields (Shaji et al., 2021).

Additionally, organic fertilizers have been proposed as a solution to reduce

environmental impact and as a carbon-neutral alternative to liquid fossil fertilizers.

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Organic matter improves soil structure, increases water retention, and facilitates

biological transformations such as nitrogen mineralization. Several researchers have

studied the effects of timing of nitrogen and water application on crop yield in field

experiments (Li et al., 2017). There were many different types of organic fertilizers,

including manure, sewage sludge, straw, compost, biogas residue, and biogas fertilizer.

Although there is an increasing body of literature focusing on N-fertilizers for crop yield

and NO3-N leaching, there are few reports regarding NO3-N distribution (soil, leachate,

crop), vegetable yield and quality over time. Little literature addresses the comparison of

different types of organic fertilizers. of agricultural processes. To solve the problem of

excessive nitrate levels in vegetables, soil and groundwater caused by inadequate

fertilization. (Li et al., 2017).

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Moreover, the Cd-reducing properties of organic matter work well at pH values

below 6.0, but at pH values between 6.0 and 8.0 organic matter increases Cd

concentrations in soil (Roberts, 2014). A case study of fertilizer and atmospheric input of

Cd into agricultural soils in Sweden was published and they showed that his Cd input

per year was 0.8 g Cd ha-1 yr-1 when phosphorus fertilizer was applied at an average

rate of 22 kg P2O5 ha-1. However, the net Cd input from manure was 0.01 g Cd ha-1

yr-1, which was almost 10 times lower than the Cd concentration in P fertilizer

(Sternbeck et al., 2014).

Urea Fertilizer

Urea is a low-cost nitrogen fertilizer with an NPK (Nitrogen-Phosphorus-

Potassium) ratio of 46:0:0. Urea is naturally produced by humans and animals, but

synthetic urea is made using anhydrous ammonia. Urea often provides gardeners with

the most nitrogen at the lowest price on the market, but when applying urea to the soil,

special steps must be taken to prevent nitrogen loss through chemical reactions. Urea is

made when carbon dioxide is reacted with anhydrous ammonia. This process happens

under intense pressure, at 350 degrees Fahrenheit. Urea is processed to take the form

of granules or solid globules known as prills. Dry urea is very soluble and must be kept

away from moisture until its use. Urea is odourless and tasteless (SFGate, 2018).
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Furthermore, the advantages and disadvantages of urea fertilizer in general, urea

provides the most nitrogen at the lowest cost. It is easy to store, does not pose a fire

hazard even in long-term storage, and can be mixed with other fertilizers or applied

alone. For plants that prefer acidic soil, urea is one of the best fertilizers to acidify the

soil. For gardeners growing crops such as corn, strawberries, blueberries, and other

strong nitrogen sources, urea provides immediate and powerful nitrogen use. The

downside issues of this, the application of urea to soil involves a chemical reaction,

special care must be taken to ensure that no nitrogen is lost as the ammonium

evaporates. This makes it impractical for gardeners to use urea in large quantities.

Because of the high solubility of urea, dry storage is also absolutely necessary (SFGate,

2018). In addition, around 158.9 M tonnes of urea was produced within Asian regions in

2014. High capacities of urea in Africa, Europe and North America have been reported

since then. China is the most consumer and producer of urea fertilizer and followed by

India (Fertilizer Machine, 2015).

B. Related Studies

This section provides the foreign and local related studies, which is in line with

the study.

Foreign

In the study of Fischer and Romano, (2021), the growth and nutritional quality of

Hermetia illucens, the black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) have the capability to convert food

waste into a sustainable ingredient in terrestrial and aquatic nutrition while the ‘Frass’

can be used as a soil amendment. It is claimed that the BSFL produced from different
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substrates such as starch had the lowest amino acid levels. The BSFL produced from

vegetable substrates had significantly higher crude protein and essential amino acids

compared to all substrates, with the exception of histidine.

Also, in the study Zahn, (2017), the potential of frass has either used nutrient-rich

compost for nutrient-rich manure as an insect feed. By excluding nutrient rich inputs, it

became possible to explore the effect of frass on soil fertility and ultimately plant growth

in agricultural inputs such as compost and synthetic NPK fertilizer often come at a cost

and may not always be available for subsistence farmers.

Moreover, in the study of Lalander et al., (2022), the processing residues of the

treatment (frass) is constantly generated in waste management facilities in large

volumes, and this product can be used as an organic fertilizer in agriculture, stimulating

a transition to a circular economy. However, many aspects related to frass are still

unknown, such as its varying composition of nutrients, microorganisms and bioactive

compounds, its post-processing requirements for improved biological stabilization, its

behaviour in the soil and action in the plants’ metabolism, among other aspects.

In addition, the study of Gligorescu et al., (2022), also focuses on black soldier fly

larvae and frass scale production using foodstuffs. The essential amino acid profile of

BSFL reared on mixture at high density was analyzed on a DM basis and used to

estimate the amino acid of the BSFL meal. The N, P, and K content of technical frass

was estimated for individual treatments based on the pooled sample. The production of

BSFL biomass at all density and feed mixture treatments ranged between 2,000 g/tray

for mixture A at high density, and 950 g/tray for mixture C at low density. A higher larval
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density resulted in significantly larger BSFL essential nutrient contents. Additionally, the

BSFL substrate reduction was high across the different treatments, with the greatest

reduction of (86-87%) being obtained when BSFL were reared on a mixture at both

densities, and lowest reduction of (75%). The survival rate of BSFL was high across

different interactions of mixture and density.

Moreover, in the study of Aksoy et al., (2020), the potential source of protein for

livestock, where insect-based protein meals can be used as a more sustainable

alternative to conventional protein sources (fish or plant protein meals) used in

aquaculture black soldier fly larvae are rich in proteins (42.1% and 56.9% in defatted

meal) and lipids (19-37%) and their amino acid and fatty acids profiles are suitable for

inclusion in animal feeds. The BSFL was successfully used as a partial replacement of

fishmeal.

Additionally, the study of Elissen et al., (2019), the soil was infected with the

plant-pathogenic fungus Rhizoctonia solani while in the bioassay with cress, soil was

non-infected or infected with the plant-pathogenic fungus Pythium ultimum. Both

concentrations of the BSF frass (7.5 and 15 g/kg soil) proved to be useful as soil

application, leading to good plant emergence and growth of sugar beet and cress

plants. The highest concentration of BSF frass (15 g/kg soil, both as total product) had a

large fertilizer effect. In experiments with cress without addition of Pythium suppression

with BSF frass was found. In addition, keratin was added as a positive control

treatment, which had a higher suppression effect than BSF frass but comparable

fertilizer effects.
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Furthermore, In the study of Musyoka et al., (2020), stated that as an organic

fertilizer, black soldier fly frass fertilizer (BSFFF) is gaining popularity all over the world.

They compare how commercial organic fertilizer (SAFI) and BSFFF perform in terms of

producing maize (H513). The rates of both fertilizers were 0, 2.5, 5, and 7.5 t ha-1 and

0, 30, 60, and 100 kg nitrogen (N) ha-1, respectively. For the purpose of determining the

N fertilizer equivalency (NFE) of the organic fertilizers, mineral fertilizer (urea) was also

administered at rates of 0, 30, 60, and 100 kg N ha-1. The tallest plants and most

chlorophyll were found in the maize crops grown on plots that received BSFFF

treatment. Grain yields on plots treated with 7.5 t ha-1 BSFFF were 14% higher than on

plots treated with SAFI at the same rate. In comparison to those treated with equivalent

rates of SAFI and urea fertilizers, the grain yields in plots treated with 100 kg N ha-1 of

BSFFF increased by 27% and 7%, respectively. As applied at 7.5 t ha-1, BSFFF

considerably boosted N uptake by up to 23% when compared to SAFI at the same rate.

Similar to SAFI and urea, application of BSFFF at 100 kg N ha-1 increased maize N

uptake by 76% and 29%, respectively. In comparison to SAFI at equal rates, maize

treated with BSFFF at 2.5 t ha-1 and 30 kg N ha-1 had greater nitrogen recovery

efficiency. When maize was treated with 2.5 t ha-1 of BSFFF, the agronomic N use

efficiency (AEN) was 2.4 times greater than when an equivalent rate of SAFI was used.

Additionally, compared to values obtained using equivalent rates of SAFI and urea

fertilizers, the AEN of maize grown using 30 kg N ha-1 was 27% and 116% higher,

respectively. BSFFF's NFE (108%) was 2.5 times greater than SAFI's. While twofold

rates of SAFI were necessary, application rates of 2.5 t ha-1 and 30 kg N ha-1 of

BSFFF were shown to be effective in increasing maize output. The findings show that
 24

BSFFF is a promising and environmentally friendly substitute for synthetic fertilizers in

order to increase maize production.

In the study of Zou et al., (2021), Significant metabolic profile shifts were

observed during the growth stages of the Brassica rapa subsp. Chinensis (Pechay) that

are organically fertilized, the metabolites, especially the essential amino acids

decreased while most plant sugars increased from microgreens to seedlings. Most

essential minerals were concentrated in the organic fertilized pechay, while sodium

increased in adult plants. Overall findings reveal that most of the nutritional metabolites

were concentrated either in the adult pechay plant and seedlings.

Consequently, in the study of Shi et al., (2021), various soil ameliorants have

been widely applied in agricultural production. Five fertilization treatments were tested

under field conditions, including chemical fertilization (CK) and reduced chemical

fertilization applied in combination with biochar (T1), microbial agents (T2), organic

fertilizer (T3) and silicon-calcium-magnesium-potassium (SiCaMgK) fertilizer (T4). The

growth, yield, root properties and physiological quality of two varieties of Brassica rapa

subsp. chinensis (Pechay) and their rhizosphere soil properties were measured to

determine the effect of each amendment. Although biochar and other amendments had

no significant impact on cabbage yield, the physiological analyses revealed that

compared with CK, biochar application enhanced the vitamin c (VC) contents and soil

urease and invertase activities by 25.34%–49.58%, 3.75%–10.08%, 42.71%–103.19%

and respectively, in the two varieties of Pechay compared with CK, organic fertilizer

application significantly increased peroxidase (POD) activity and soluble sugar and

soluble protein accumulation and decreased the malondialdehyde (MDA) content in the
 25

two varieties of Pechay. The yield of pechay was affected mainly by soil urease activity,

superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and MDA content. The VC content may have been

regulated by the soil invertase activity and the root morphological parameters of the

plants. It claimed that biochar and organic fertilizer can improve root development and

soil urease, invertase and SOD activities and decrease MDA content, which are factors

related to cabbage yield and quality.

Also, in the study of Budiono et al., (2019), NPK components that were

influenced by fertilizer treatment were the number of panicles, panicle length, number of

filled grains per panicle, weight of 1 000 seeds, and productivity. The number of empty

grains per panicle was not affected by fertilization treatment. NPK fertilizer in fertilizer

treatment had a composition of 15 % for each element. The rational needs of N, P, and

K fertilizers can affect the yield components of the growth of the plant. The number of

empty grains per panicle was not significantly different due to the needs of KCl in plants

being sufficient as the Potassium plays a role in regulating the closing of flowers in

plants. The condition of potassium sufficiency in plants resulted in the effect of flower

closure being the same so that the panicle grain formed would be the same for each

treatment including control plants.

Local

In the study of Pamintuan et al., (2020), black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) have long

been considered a potential converter from waste to energy to convert organic waste

into lipids, daily measurements of larval length, width and mass were taken from

hatching to pre-pupal stages. The collected mass of larvae as a function of time is

 26

consistent with the Gompertz growth equation. Growth testing with these substrates

showed that larvae reared in the viscera of the sample milkfish had the highest growth

rates and the greatest final weight, length and width. In addition, they also showed

significantly higher digestible feed conversion efficiency and survival compared with the

other two substrates (control and plant waste). The nutritional composition is

determined in the fractions of crude protein, crude fat, carbohydrates and ash. The

approximate analysis analyzed that the highest protein and carbohydrate content of

larvae reared in milkfish viscera at 38.95% and 44.45%, respectively. Meanwhile, larvae

reared in plant waste obtained the highest fat and ash content, at 40.55% and 15.2%,

respectively. The study expanded the analysis immediately and it claimed the potential

for rearing black soldier flies in plant waste substrates as a fat source for feed through a

waste-to-energy conversion system.

Also, in the study of Navasero et al. (2022), the fatty acid present in black soldier

fly larvae BSFL is the short chain fatty acid. BSFL is composed of 70% saturated fatty

acid, 13.6% omega-9, and 13.4% omega-6 fatty acids. The variations of the nutrient

composition of BSFL and nature of its amino and fatty acid profile showed the ability of

BSFL to adopt the nutrient profile of substrates used as feed due to higher the protein

and fat content of the substrates are, the more likely to produce BSFL with high fat

content. Also, the variation of this by-product is essential for assessing possible

application purposes. The BSF frass analyses from the anonymized frass analysis of

production.

Furthermore, the study of Go, (2021), the fertilizer application using either

organic fertilizer to the pechay varies from the potential sources of organic compost. A
 27

form of organic fertilizer and considered low-analysis fertilizers as it contains about 1%

N and P and their organic nitrogen mineralization rate is about 10%. It is claimed that

the effect of different levels of compost depends on the source of organic fertilizers on

the growth and yield performance of pechay. The study expands on the growth and

yield performance of pechay in terms of leaf area and fresh weight of the application of

the organic fertilizer.

Additionally, in the study of Yruma and Lluz, (2019), the transplanted organic

fertilized Pechay at high density planting is favourable than other methods due to higher

number of plants that could grow per unit area. Increasing the number of plants growing

could result in a higher probability of increasing harvestable crops than the other

methods with a very high mortality rate and low number of growing plants per unit area.

It affirmed that the most appropriate method of planting for Pechay is through seedling

transplanting as compared to mustard and other vegetable crops. Based on actual

observation, low survival and actual plant density in direct seeded. Pechay is due to

high incidence of mortality due less root anchorage and high weed competition.

Whereas, transplanted Pechay seedlings have higher survival rate due to higher

capability to compete with weeds and firm anchorage into the soil.

Moreover, in the study of Bandera, (2020), the application of nutrient sprays is

indeed an important factor in the foliar fertilization method since the nutrients are

directly delivered to the plant in limited amounts, thereby helping to reduce the impact

associated with soil fertilization. However, response to foliar sprays is often variable and

not reproducible due to the existing lack of many factors related to the penetration of the

leaf-applied solution. The study showed that T2 (Recommended Rate (RR) Inorganic
 28

Fertilizer) plants are the tallest while T1 (Control) plants are the shortest with a mean

height of 14.56 and 8.66 cm, respectively. T2 plants also have the highest mean growth

rate of 3.015 mm/day, and T7 (50% RR Organic Fertilizer + 50% RR Foliar Fertilizer) as

the shortest with a mean growth rate of 1.237 mm/day. Further, T5 (50% RR Inorganic

Fertilizer + 50% RR Organic Fertilizer) plants show the highest mean number of leaves

of 10.197, and T1 plants are the least with a mean number of leaves of 6.867. Yield was

also highest in T2 and lowest in T1 with a mean weight of 225.863 g and 50.853 g,

respectively.

Therefore, the studies mentioned by different authors is in lined to the application

of BSFFF to the efficacy of Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay) in terms of height

and weight measurements.

C. Research Gaps

This section provides all the questions and problems that has not been answered

by any of the existing related literature and analysis or research within the field of this

study. Also, this section manifests all the gaps determined in this review.

Several studies have been conducted by numerous authors internationally in

relation to cultivation of Brassica rapa subsp. Chinensis (Pechay) with the use of Black

Soldier Fly Larvae Frass as an alternative fertilizer. In the study of Musyoka, et al.,

(2020), stated that as an organic fertilizer, black soldier fly frass fertilizer (BSFFF) is

gaining popularity all over the world. They compare how commercial organic fertilizer

(SAFI) and BSFFF perform in terms of producing maize (H513). The rates of both

fertilizers were 0, 2.5, 5, and 7.5 t ha-1 and 0, 30, 60, and 100 kg nitrogen (N) ha-1,
 29

respectively. For the purpose of determining the N fertilizer equivalency (NFE) of the

organic fertilizers, mineral fertilizer (urea) was also administered at rates of 0, 30, 60,

and 100 kg N ha-1. The tallest plants and most chlorophyll were found in the maize

crops grown on plots that received BSFFF treatment. Thus, the findings show that

BSFFF is a promising and environmentally friendly substitute for synthetic fertilizers in

order to increase maize production.

In the study of Fischer and Romano, (2021), proved that the growth and

nutritional quality of Hermetia illucens, the black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) have the

capability to convert food waste into a sustainable ingredient in terrestrial and aquatic

nutrition while the ‘Frass’ can be used as a soil amendment. The authors highlighted

that the BSFL produced from different substrates such as starch had the lowest amino

acid levels. Thus, the BSFL produced from vegetable substrates had significantly higher

crude protein and essential amino acids compared to all substrates, with the exception

of histidine.

Also, the study of Zahn, (2017), focused on the potential of frass, which has

either been used as nutrient-rich compost or nutrient-rich manure as an insect feed. The

researcher concluded that just by excluding nutrient-rich inputs, it became possible to

explore the effect of frass on soil fertility and ultimately plant growth. Hence, agricultural

inputs such as compost and synthetic NPK fertilizer often come at a cost and may not

always be available for subsistence farmers.

In addition, the study of Gligorescu et al., (2022), focused on black soldier fly

larvae and frass scale production using foodstuffs. The researchers explained the
 30

essential amino acid profile of BSFL reared on mixture at high density was analysed on

a DM basis and used to estimate the amino acid of the BSFL meal. Consequently, the

survival rate of BSFL was high across different interactions of mixture and density.

Therefore, the study is distinct because the study aims to determine the

maximum advantage of Hermetia illucens L. (Black Soldier Fly Larvae Frass) as

alternative fertilizer for the cultivation of Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay).

D. Conceptual Framework

This section illustrates the expected relationship between the variables to be

used and emphasize how these ideas relate to this experimentation. Specifically, this

shows the independent and dependent variables that will be used in this research study.

Hermetia illucens (Black Soldier Cultivation of Brassica rapa

Fly) Larvae Frass Fertilizer subsp. chinensis (Pechay)

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework

 31

Chapter III

METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the method approach that will be used to support the

quantitative design used in this study. It also includes the research design, procedural

flowchart, locale of the study, materials and instrumentations, data collection, data

analysis, and statistical tools

Research Design

This study uses quantitative experimental research methods. Specifically, it will

ascertain the efficacy and efficiency of Black Soldier Fly Frass Fertilizer through

cultivating Pechay seeds measuring its capability to substitute commercial fertilizer in

agricultural purposes which can be more cost-effective and essentially organic which

has a lesser ruinous disadvantage to the soil fertility. There will be five (6) treatments
 32

labelled as T0, T1, T2, T3, T4 & T5 that will be used in the study and each has three (3)

replicates, R1 R2, and R3. All treatments will have equal concentration of soil; treatment

0 (control) will consist of 7g commercial fertilizer, treatment 1 (negative control) will

contain water, treatment 2 will have 15g BSF frass, treatment 3 will be 28g BSF frass

fertilizer, treatment 4 will consist of 44g BSF frass, and treatment 5 will contain 57g BSF

frass fertilizer. Figure 2 shows the research design of the study that follows on the next

page.

Locale of the Study

The research will be conducted from January 2023 to March 2023 at DOST

Laboratory Backyard located at General Santos City National High School Campus,

General Santos City. The Black Soldier Fly Frass Fertilizer (BSFFF) will be collected at

Limadol, Barangay Tacunan, Davao City. The commercial fertilizer will be bought and

purchased at any local farm and fertilizer shop together with the Pechay seeds located

only in the locality of General Santos City.

 33

Hermetia illucens
Effectiveness of BSF
(Black Soldier Fly Larvae Frass Fertilizer in Pechay
Frass)

Height (cm)
R1

T0 R2 Weight (kg)

R3

R1 Legend:

T1 R2 Tn – Treatments

R3
Rn – Replicates
R1
T0 – 7g Commercial fertilizer, 2000g soil
T2 R2

R3 T1 – 350 mL Water, 2000g soil

R1 T2 – 15g BSFL frass, 2000g soil

T3 R2
T3 – 28g BSFL frass, 2000g soil
R3
 34

Figure 2. Research Design

Procedural Flowchart
This section shows the step-by-step manner of the course of the

experimentation.

Pre-Experimental Experimental Post-Experimetal

Phase Phase Phase

Gathering of Building of
Black Soldier Fly Greenhouse Gathering of data
Frass Fertilizer Facility
(BSFFF)

Cultivation of Analyzing and

Gathering of Brassica rapa Computation of
Commercial subsp. chinensis Data
Fertilizer (Pechay) (Oneway
ANOVA)

Preparation of
Materials
 35

Figure 3. Procedural Flowchart

Data Collection

The researchers will gather the Black Soldier Fly Larvae Frass Fertilizer from a

Black Soldier Fly Farm (Limadol) in Tacunan, Davao City. The Black Soldier Fly Frass

will be bought from a farm in Davao City. The Black Soldier Fly Larvae Frass will be

kept in a good and stable area to preserve its natural form and content. The data will be

collected within 1 month prior to the time frame. The data will be analyzed through the

accumulation of growth rate (weight, height, number of leaves) of Brassica rapa subsp.

chinensis (Pechay) in varying treatments and the number of days before the Pechay

integrates and absorb the nutrients content of the fertilizers, especially the BSFFF.

A. Gathering of Black Soldier Fly Larvae Frass Fertilizer (BSFFF)

 36

Black soldier fly larvae frass fertilizer (BSFFF) will be collected and bought at

Black soldier fly larvae farm (Limadol) at Tacunan, Davao city. After gathering the

BSFFF, the subject will be kept in an optimal and stable area.

B. Preparation of Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay) for cultivation

The Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay) seeds will be bought in the locality

of General Santos City. It will be kept in a secured location to preserve its natural form

and content. The growth rate of Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay) in terms of

weight and height would vary to the fertilizer that will be used.

C. Preparation of Commercial Fertilizer

The commercial fertilizer will be bought and purchased at any local farm and

fertilizer shop. It will also be kept in a secured location to preserve its natural form and

content.

D. Preparation of Treatments

The study will employ five (6) treatments with the designations T 0, T1, T2, T3, T4,

and T5. Each treatment will contain three (3) replicates, R 1, R2, and R3. The amount and

quality of soil in each replicate under different treatments will be uniform. Treatment 0

(control) will be 7g commercial fertilizer; treatment 1 (negative control) will only consist

water; treatment 2 will have 15g BSF frass; treatment 3 will be 28g BSF frass; treatment

4 will be 44g BSF frass; and treatment 5 will be 57g BSF frass fertilizer.

E. Cultivation of Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay)

The Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay) will be cultivated in pots with the

used of commercial fertilizer and black soldier fly larvae frass. The growth rate of
 37

Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay) in terms of weight and height would vary to the

fertilizer that will be used

F. Gathering of Data

All the data recorded during the experimental phase will be gathered, inclusive to

the treatments and replicates shown in the research design. After the experiment, the

researchers will be gathering data from each treatment, T 0, T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5. Each

treatment contains three (3) replicates (R1, R2, and R3). After gathering the data, the

researchers will analyse the data using the statistical tool One-Way Analysis of

Variance (ANOVA).

Materials and Instrumentation

The following instruments and materials needed in performing this study are

listed below:

A. Gathering and Preparation of Black Soldier Fly Larvae Frass (BSFFF)

The materials and instruments that will be used in gathering and preparation of

BSFFF are gloves, face mask and sack.

B. Preparation of Commercial Fertilizers

The materials and instruments that will be used in the preparation of commercial

fertilizer will be pots, sack, soil shovel, and apron

C. Preparation and Cultivation of Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay)

 38

The materials and instruments that will be used in the preparation and cultivation

of pechay are gloves, plastic flower pots, garden shovel, garden soil, and water.

D. Construction of Greenhouse Facility for the Saplings

The materials that will be used on the construction of greenhouse facility are

used coco lumber post, nails, hammer, wood planks and garden net.

Statistical Tools

The researchers will analyze the measured and collected data through utilizing

the statistical tool One-way Analysis of Variance known as ANOVA. This will be used to

compare mean and standard deviation of two groups of data namely, the weight and

height of the pechay plant. This will determine and grasp if the treatments have

significant difference with each other by using the fertilizer as the single factor. The

treatments will be analysed simultaneously to provide informative data results.

Chapter 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the result of experiments. Growth analysis of Brassica

rapa subs. chinensis (Pechay) also known as Bok Choy in terms of height measured

every 5th day until the 30th day as time span of its cultivation process and its weight

measured at the 30th day of the experiment.

Treatment results in terms of height

Table 1.1

Treatment 1
 39

Table 1.2

Treatment 2

Table 1.3

Treatment 3

And so on

Table 2

One Way ANOVA result

Chapter V

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter presents the interpretation of the results given and the conclusions

drawn from the analysis of the results, it also shows the recommendations done based

on the analysis.

Summary of the findings

This study set out to investigate the potential efficacy of hermetia illucens l.

(Black Soldier Fly Larvae) frass as an alternative fertilizer on the cultivation of Brassica

rapa subsp. chinensis (Pechay). The procedures that were made and done includes
 40

plant cultivation method specifically, organic container gardening grown in a

greenhouse with controlled temperature and humidity then transcribed into data through

One-way ANOVA.

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