FAO SOILS BULLETIN 48

micron utrients
and
the nutrient status of SOUS:
a global study

by
mikko sillanpAl

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

FAO SOILS BULLETIN 48

micronutrients
and
the nutrient status of soils:
a global study

by
mikko sillanpäd

sponsored by

the government of finland

executed at

the institute of soil science

agricultural research centre
jokioinen, finland
and

soil resources, management

and conservation service
land and water development division
FAO

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIO-NS

Rome 1982
 The designations employed and the presentation
of material in this publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the
part of the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations concerning the legal
status of any country, territory, city or area or
of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation
of its frontiers or boundaries.

M-52
ISBN 92-5-101193-1

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior
permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission,
with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should
be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100
Rome, Italy.

C) FAO 1982

Printed in Finland by Werner Söderström Osakeyhtiö.

Foreword

During the last two decades, the increasing use of mineral fertilizers and organic manures
of different types has led to impressive yield incrcases in developing countries. Major
emphasis was given to the supply of the main macronutrients, nitrogen, phosphate and
potash.
For a long time it was felt that under the existing farming systems and fertilizing
practices the level of micronutrients was adequate and that the problem of micronutrient
deficiencies was not a serious one. However, indications from developing countries show
that micronutrient problems are becoming more and more frequent.
In the early 1970s the Government of Finland, through its Institute of Soil Science
and FAO embarked on a system of investigation of microelement deficiencies in
developing countries.
In 1974, the project -Trace Element Study, TF/129/FIN" started under the FAO/
Finland Cooperative Programme, with the financial support of the Government of
Finland, and with the cooperation of the staff of the Institute of Soil Science,
under the direction of Prof. M. Sillanpää. The facilities of the Institute were
made available to the project. This programme involved a worldwide study on micro-
nutrients, in cooperation with 30 countries.
The study, which is presented in this document, shows that the undertaking was very
timely. It appears that micronutrients are becoming deficient in developing countries and
that remedial measuring will need to be taken to ensure full soil and plant productivity.
The study also gives guidance for the investigation of micronutrient deficiencies, which
should be dealt with at the country level.
FAO expresses its appreciation to the Government of Finland for its generous support
of the study and for its excellent cooperation throughout.

F.W. Hauck
Chief, Soil Resources, Management
and Conservation Service
 V

CONTENTS

page
PREFACE

PART I 1

PART I SOIL AND PLANT DATA, IvIETHODOLOGY AND INTERPRETATION 3

1 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3

1.1 Collection of original plant and soil samples 3

1.2 Indicator plants 3
1.2.1 General 3
1.2.2 Sampling time 4
1.2.3 Contamination 4
1.2.4 Plant varieties 6
1.2.5 Need for better grounds for comparing plant data 6
1.2.6 Growing new indicator plants in pots 7
1.3 Analytical methods 8
1.3.1 Methods of soil analyses 9
1.3.2 Methods of plant analyses 11
1.3.3 Statistical methods 12
1.4 Expression of analytical data 13
1.4.1 Soils 13
1.4.2 Plants 14
1.4.3 Regression graphs 14

2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 17

2.1 General properties of soils and their mutual relations 17
2.2 Macronutrients 21
2.2.1 General aspects 21
2.2.2 Comparison of the two original indicator plants 21
2.2.3 Comparison of macronutrient status in different countries 21
2.2.4 Macronutrient contents of plants and soils in relation to four soil characteristics 28
2.3 Micronutrients 33
2.3.1 Plant analysis versus soil analysis 33
2.3.2 Molybdenum 35
2.3.2.1 General aspects 35
2.3.2.2 Soil factors affecting the molybdenum contents of plants and soils 36
2.3.3 Boron 46
2.13.1 General aspects 46
2.3.3.2 Soil factors affecting the boron contents of plants and soils 48
2.3.4 Copper 54
2.3.4.1 General aspects 54
2.3.4.2 Soils factors affecting the copper contents of plants and soils 55
2.3.5 Iron 61
2.3.5.1 General aspects 61
2.3.5.2 Soil factors affecting the iron contents of plants and soils 61
2.3.6 Manganese 64
2.3.6.1 General aspects 64
2.3.6.2 Soil factors affecting the manganese contents of plants and soils 66
2.3.7 Zinc 75
2.3.7.1 General aspects 75
2.3.7.2 Soil factors affecting the zinc contents of plants and soils 75
VI

page
2.4 Mutual relations between micronutrients 83
2.5 Micronutrient contents of plants and soils in relation to yields with special reference to the
"concentratiim-dilution" phenomenon 86
2.6 Suitability of plant and soil analyses for large scale operations 90
2.7 Estimation of critical micronutrient Hants 90
2.8 Plant and soil micronutrieents and other soil data in relation to FAO/Unesco soil units 96

3 SUMMARY FOR PART I 97

PART II 101

PART II NUTRIENT STATUS BY COUNTRIES 103

4 INTRODUCTION 103

5 EUROPE AND OCEANIA 105

5.1 Belgium 105
5.2 Finland 117
5.3 Hungary 128
5.4 Italy 139
5.5 Malta 150
5.6 New Zealand 158

6 LATIN AMERICA 169

6.1 Argentina 169
6.2 Brazil 180
6.3 Ecuador 190
6.4 Mexico 194
6.5 Peru 207

7 FAR EAST 219

7.1 India 219
7.2 Korea, Republic of 232
7.3 Nepal 242
7.4 Pakistan 251
7.5 Philippines 262
7.6 Sri Lanka 271
7.7 Thailand 280

8 NEAR EAST 289

8.1 Egypt 289
8.2 Iraq 300
8.3 Lebanon 313
8.4 Syria 322
8.5 Turkey 332

9 AFRICA 343
9.1 Ethiopia 343
9.2 Ghana 355
9.3 Malawi 363
9.4 Nigeria 372
9,5 Sierra Leone 383
9.6 Tanzania 392
9.7 Zambia 401
 VII
page
10 SUMMARY FOR PART II 411

REFERENCES 417

APPENDIXES
1 Instructions for taking plant and soil samples 421

2 National mean values of basic analytica/ data on origina/ wheat plants and respective soils 422
3 National mean values of basic analytical data on original maize plants and respective soils 428
4 National mean v-alues of basic analytical data on pot-grown wheat plants and respective soils 434
5 Indicative data on fertilizer application to the original indicator crops 440
6 Average soil properties and macronutrient contents of soils classified by FAO/Unesco soil units 441

7 Average micronutrient contents of soils and respective pot-grown wheats for FAO/Unesco soil units 442

LIST OF TABLES

Page
Table 1. Comparison of nutrient content of two soils expressed on weight and volume bases. 13

Table 2. Numerical products of plant content x soil content along the lines dividing the regression
graphs into five zones. 15

Table 3. Mean macronutrient contents of the two original indicator plants, of the respective soils
and the mean amounts of N, P, and K applied in fertilizers to each crop. 21

Table 4. Regressions of pooled plant N, P, K, Ca, and Mg contents on respective soil macronutrients. 28

Table 5. Plant and soil macronutrients as functions of four soil characteristics in the whole
international material. 28

Table 6. Directions (+ or symbols) of regressions of plant and soil macronutrient contents on

four soil characteristics. 32

Table 7. Equations and correlation coefficients for regressions of A0-0A extractable soil Mo
(uncorrected and pH-corrected) and plant Mo on six soil characteristics. 39

Table 8. Correlations between plant Mo and A0-0A extractable soil Mo in various countries. Soil
Mo analyses are both uncorrected and corrected for pH and texture. 45

Table 9. Correlations between plant B and hot water extractable soil B in various countries. Soil B
analyses are both uncorrected and corrected for cation exchange capacity. 51

Table 10. Equations and correlation coefficients for regressions of hot water soluble soil B (un-
corrected and CEC-corrected) and plant B on various soil factors. 53

Table 11 Correlations between plant Cu and AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Cu in various countries.
Soil Cu analyses are both uncorrected and corrected for soil organic carbon contents. 58
VIII

page
Table 12.. Equations and correlation coefficients for regressions of AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Cu
(uncorrected and org. C-corrected) and plant Cu on various soil factors. 60

Table 13. Equations and correlation coefficients for regressions of AAAc-EDTA extractable soil
Fe and plant Fe on various soil factors. 64

Table 14. Correlations between plant Mn and DTPA extractable soil Mn in various countries. Soil
Mn analyses are both uncorrected and corrected for pH(CaC12). 69

Table 15. Equations and correlation coefficients for regressions of DTPA extractable soil Mn (un-
corrected and pH-corrected) and plant Mn on various soil factors. 71

Table 16. Correlations between plant Mn content and AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Mn in various
countries. Soil Mn analyses are both uncorrected and corrected for pH. 73

Table 17. Mutual correlations between extractable Mn contents of soils in the whole material as
determined by four methods. 74

Table 18. Correlations in various countries between plant Zn and soil Zn determined by three
different methods. 79

Table 19. Equations and correlation coefficients for regressions of AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Zn
(uncorrected and pH-corrected), plant Zn, and DTPA extractable soil Zn on various soil
factors. 81

Table 20. Mutual correlations between extractable soil micronutrients in the whole material. 86

»Table 21. Two-year averages of micronutrient contents of 17 crops grown side by side at nine sites. 91

Table 22. Tentative critical levels of micronutrients determined by various methods. 96

Table 23. Correlations between micronutrient contents of the three types of indicator plants and
respective soils. 97

Table 24. Comparison of micronutrient contents between high yielding maize varieties and local
variety 'Criollo', Mexico. 206

Table 25. Comparison of macronutrient contents of high yielding and local varieties of original
Indian wheats. 231

Table 26. Comparison of micronutrient contents of high yielding and local varieties of original
Indian wheats. 231

Table 27. Comparison of analytical data from non-irrigated and irrigated soils of Iraq and respective
plants. 311

Table 28. Comparison of macronutrient contents of high yielding and local varieties of original
Nigerian wheats. 376

Table 29. Relative frequencies of low, medium and high values of soil texture (TI), pH, organic
carbon content and cation exchange capacity in 30 countries. 412

Table 30. Relative frequencies of low, medium and high values of nitrogen, phosphorus potassium,
calcium and magnesium in soils of 30 countries. 413

Table 31. Relative distributions of six micronutrients in five plant x soil content zones in various
countries. 414
 IX

LIST OF FIGURES

page
Fig. 1. Variations in B, Fe, Cu, Mn, Mo, and Zn contents of wheat (ppin in DM) during the
growing season. 5

Fig. 2. Growing new indicator plants in pots (photo). 8

Figs 3
and 4. Mutual correlations between six soil characteristics. 18, 19

Fig. 5. Relationship between pH(H20) and pH(CaC12). 20

Fig. 6. Regressions of nitrogen content of original wheat and maize (pooled) on total nitrogen
content of soil a) for the whole international material, b) for crops fertilized with > 100 kg
N/ha, and c) for crops fertilized with < 50 kg N/ha. The national mean vaities are given. 23

Fig. 7. Regressions of phosphorus content of original wheat and maize (pooled) on NaHCO3
extractable phosphorus content of soil a) for the whole international material, b) for crops
fertilized with > 30 kg P/ha, and c) for crops fertilized with < 10 kg P/ha. The national
mean values are given. 24

Fig. 8. Regressions of potassium content of original wheat and maize (pooled) on CH3COONH4
exchangeable potassium content of soil a) for the whole international material, b) for crops
fertilized with > 30 kg K/ha, and c) for crops fertilized with < 10 kg K/ha. The national
mean values are given. 25

Fig. 9. Regression of calcium content of original wheat and maize (pooled) on CH3COONH4 ex-
changeable calcium content of soil for the whole international material. The national mean
values are given. 26

Fig. 10. Regression of tnagnesium content of original wheat and maize (pooled) on CH3COONH4
exchangeable magnesium content of soil for the whole international material. The national
mean values are given. 27

Fig. 11. Plant and soil macronutrients as functions of soil pH in the whole international material. 29

Fig. 12. Plant and soil macronutrients as functions of soil texture in the whole international
material. 30

Fig. 13. Plant and soil macronutrients as functions of soil organic carbon content in the whole
international material. 31

Fig. 14. Plant and soil macronutrients as functions of cation exchange capacity in the whole
international material. 32

Fig. 15. Regression of Mo content of pot-grown wheat on ammonium oxalate-oxalic acid extract-
able soil Mo for the whole international material. The national mean values are given. 37

Fig. 16. Relationships of A0-0A extractable soil Mo (uncorrected and pH-corrected) and plant
Mo to various soil characteristics in the whole international material. 38

Fig. 17. Relationships of A0-0A extractable soil Mo (uncorrected and pH-corrected) and plant Mo
to soil pH. 40

Fig. 18. Relationship of plant Mo to A0-0A extractable soil Mo in the whole material classified
for pH. 42
X
page
Fig. 19. Relationship of plant Mo to pH-corrected soil Mo (AO-0A) in the whole material
classified for pH. 42

Fig. 20. Regression of Mo content of the pot-grown wheat on the pH-corrected AO-0A extractable
soil Mo for the whole international material. National mean values are given. 43

Fig. 21. Regression of Mo content of the pot-grown wheat on the pH- and texture-corrected soil
Mo for the whole international material. National mean values are given. 45

Fig. 22. Regression of B content of pot-grown wheat on hot water extractable soil B for all the
international material. National mean values are given. 47

Fig. 23. Regression of B uptake by pot-grown wheat on hot water extractable soil B for all the
international material. The national mean values are given. 48

Fig. 24. Relationships of plant B and soil B (uncorrected and CEC-corrected) to cation exchange
capacity. 49

Fig. 25. Regression of B content of the pot-grown wheat on CEC-corrected hot water soluble B
for the whole international material. National mean values of plant and soil B are plotted
in the graph. 50
Fig. 26. Relationships of soil B and plant B to various soil factors. 52

Fig. 27. Regression of Cu content of pot-grown wheat on acid ammonium acetate-EDTA extract-
able soil Cu for the whole international material. National mean values are given. 55

Fig. 28. Relationships of soil Cu (uncorrected and org.C-corrected) and plant Cu to organic carbon
content of soil. 56

Fig. 29. Regression of Cu content of pot-grown wheat on k(org. C)-corrected AAAc-EDTA

extractable soil Cu for the whole international material. National mean values are plotted
in the graph. 57

Fig. 30. Relationships of AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Cu (uncorrected and org- C-corrected) and
plant Cu to various soil factors. 59

Fig. 31. Regression of Fe content of pot-grown wheat on acid ammonium acetate-EDTA extract-
able soil Fe for all the international material. National mean values are given. 62
Fig. 32. AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Fe and plant Fe as a function of six soil characteristics. 63

Fig. 33. Regression of Mn content of pot-grown wheat on DTPA extractable soil Mn for the whole
international material. National mean values are given. 65

Fig. 34. Relationships of DTPA extractable soil Mn (uncorrected and pH-corrected) and plant Mn
to soil pI-1. 67

Fig. 35. Relationships of Mn content of pot-grown wheat on DTPA extractable soil Mn in the
whole material classified according to pH. 68

Fig. 36. Relationships of plant Mn to pH-corrected soil Mn (DTPA) on the whole material
classified according to pH. 68

Fig. 37. Regression of Mn content of pot-grown wheat on pH-corrected DTPA extractable soil Mn
for the whole international material. National mean values of plant and soil Mn are plotted
in the graph. 69

Fig. 38. Relationships of DTPA extractable soil Mn (uncorrected and p1-corrected) and plant Mn
to various soil factors. 70
 XI
page
Fig. 39. Relationships of AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Mn (uncorrected and pH-corrected) and
plant Mn to soil pH. 72

Fig. 40. Regression of Zn content of pot-grown wheat on acid ammonium acetate-EDTA extract-
able soil Zn for the whole international material. National mean values of plant and soil
Zn are also given. 76

Fig. 41. Regression of Zn content of the pot-grown wheat on DTPA extractable soil Zn for the
whole international material. The national mean values are given. 77

Fig. 42. Relationships of extractable soil Zn (AAAc-EDTA, AAAc-EDTA + pH-correction,

DTPA) and plant Zn to soil pH. 78

Eig, 43. Regression of Zn content of the pot-grown wheat on pH-corrected AAAc-EDTA

extractable soil Zn for the whole material. The national mean values are given. 79

Fig. 44. Relationships of plant Zn and soil Zn (determined by three methods) to various soil
factors. 80

Figs 45 Mutual correlations between B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, and Zn contents of pot-grown wheat in
and 46. the whole international material. 84-85
Fig. 47. B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, and Zn contents of pot-grown wheat and respective extractable soil
micronutrients as a function of yield. 87

Fig. 48. Regressions of B content of pot-grown wheat on hot water soluble soil B corrected for
CEC, (a) all samples, (b) low yielding samples, (c) high yielding samples. 89

Fig. 49. Coefficients for correcting AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Cu for soil organic carbon
content, k(org. C), and hot water soluble B for cation exchange capacity, k(CEC). 99

Fig. 50. Coefficients for correcting DTPA extractable soil Mn, AO-OA extractable Mo and
AAAc-EDTA extractable Zn for soil pH. 99

Figure National Figure National

Nos data for Page Nos data for page

51-68 Belgium 105-116 69-86 Finland 117-126

87-104 Hungary 128-138 105-122 Italy 139-149
123-139 Malta 150-157 140-157 New Zealand 158-168
158-175 Argentina 169-179 176-193 Brazil 180-188
194-199 Ecuador 190-191 200-217 Mexico 194-205
218-235 Peru 207-217 236-253 India 219-229
254-271 Korea, Rep. 232-241 272-288 Nepal 242-250
289-306 Pakistan 251-261 307-324 Philippines 262-270
325-342 Sri Lanka 271-279 343-360 Thailand 280-288
361-378 Egypt 289-299 379-396 Iraq 300-310
397-414 Lebanon 313-321 415-432 Syria 322-331
433-450 Turkey 332-342 451-468 Ethiopia 343-353
469-485 Ghana 355-362 486-503 Malawi 363-371
504-521 Nigeria 372-382 522-539 Sierra Leone 383-391
540-557 Tanzania 392-400 558-575 Zambia 401-409
 XIII

Preface

In spite of increased use of fertilizers, substantially more macronutrients are still being
removed annually from the soil than are applied to it as mineral fertilizers. Some of the
nutrients removed are replaced by those in straw, farmyard manure, etc., but on the
average the nutrient balance is likely to remain negative. This applies especially to less
developed parts of the world.
Micronutrients have not generally been applied regularly to soil in conjunction with
common fertilizers, and fertilizing soils with macronutrients only is likely to promote
imbalances between these nutrient groups as well as between individual nutrients. Further-
more, increased yields, losses of micronutrients through leaching, liming, a decreasing
proportion of farmyard manure compared with chemical fertilizers and the increasing
purity of chemical fertilizers are among the factors contributing toward accelerated
exhaustion of the supply of available micronutrients in soils.
Hidden micronutrient deficiencies are far more widespread than is generally
suspected. Micronutrient problems, which are only local today, may well become more
serious and widespread in the relatively near future. They must be diagnosed and studied
promptly to avoid production problems related to the quantity and quality of foods and
feedingstuffs, keeping in mind also the geomedical aspects concerning both humans and
animals. Even though much is known of the nature of micronutrient functions, extensive
research and experimentation is needed to avoid mistaken use of this knowledge.
One of the greatest difficulties encountered in the study of microelements is that
different methodologies have been ,adopted for analyses in different countries and
laboratories. Sometimes even slight variations in procedure may cause quite substantial
differences in analytical results. Since these vary from case to case, it is difficult to
compare the results obtained by different scientists. It could be said that scientists using
different analytical methods are speaking "different languages". Consequently, knowledge
of microelement status is rather fragmentary and there is very little basis for comparison.
Discussions on this subject between FAO and Finland in 1973 led to the establishment of
an international project called the "Trace Element Study, TF 129 FIN".
The purpose of the study, as initially stated, "is to produce fresh information on a
world-wide basis on the problems of a number of micronutrients under different soil,
climatic and cultural conditions. The results to be obtained will be comparable because
all analytical work will be done in one laboratory and because there will be uniformity
of the analytical methods to be used. These results should then be used to make interested
countries better acquainted with the problems of micronutrients when developing their
agriculture and to provide them with guidelines for future research and practical work on
a national basis. In other words, the aim is 1) to obtain a general picture of micronutrient
status on a world-wide basis, 2) to locate and limit the problematic areas, soils and
conditions where one or more of the micronutrients are likely to be deficient and where
more detailed future research and field experimentation is needed and 3) to give guidelines
to solve the problems in practice."
The project was started at the end of 1974 in cooperation with FAO and was
financed by the government of Finland. Originally, it was hoped that 25 countries would
participate in the project and invitations were sent to 40 countries. Interest in the study
was, however, greater than anticipated, and acceptances were received from 35 countries,
XIV
30 of which took an active part in the project by collecting and sending soil and plant
samples to Finland for analysis in one laboratory (the Institute of Soil Science, Finland)
using the same procedures for all samples. Most of the participants were developing
countries, but some highly developed countries were invited for purposes of comparison.
The following persons acted as Head Cooperators for the 30 countries participating in
the study and were responsible for organizing the collection of representative plant and
soil samples for the study: Argentina: Dr. P.H. Etchevehere, Prof. A. Berardo; Belgium:
Prof. Dr. A. Cottenie; Brazil: Mr. A. F. Castro Bahia Filho, Mr. S. Wiethölter; Ecuador:
Ing. W. Bejarano, Ing. J. Villavicencio; Egypt: Dr. Abdel Hamit Fathi; Ethiopia: Ato
Desta Beyene; Finland: Prof. Dr. P. Elonen; Ghana: Dr. H.B. Obeng; Hungary: Prof. Dr. I.
Szabolcs, Dr. Eva Elek; India: Dr. N.S. Randhawa; Iraq: Dr. Khalil Mosleh, Dr. Nouri
A.K. Hassan; Italy: Prof. Dr. F. Mancini; Korea, Rep.: Dr. Tai-Soon Kim; Lebanon:
Dr. A. Sayegh; Malawi: Mr. D.R.B. Manda; Malta: Mr. A. Scicluna-Spiteri; Mexico:
Ing. G. Flores Mata, Dr. L. Lopez Martinez de Alva; Nepal: Mr. Manik L. Pradhan; New
Zealand: Dr. R.B. Miller; Nigeria: Dr. B.O.E. Amon, Dr. S.A. Adetunji; Pakistan:
Dr. M.B. Choudhri; Peru: Mr. J.H. Christensen; Philippines: Dr. G.N. Aleasid; Dr. J.
Mariano; Sierra Leone: Dr. I. Hague; Sri Lanka: Dr. S. Nagarajah; Syria: Mr. S. Kourdi;
Tanzania: Mr. J.K. Samki; Thailand: Mr. Samrit Chaiwanakupt; Turkey: Dr. M. Ozuygur;
Zambia: Mr. Kalaluka Munyinda.
I wish to express my gratitude to the above Head Cooperators, their colleagues and
subordinates for their excellent cooperation in furnishing me with the sample material
and other relevant data requested. A total of 7 488 samples (half of them soil and the
other half plant) were received, amounting to 94 per cent of the original target of 8 000.
I am greatly indebted to the professional and technical staff of the Institute of Soil
Science, Finland, for carrying out the demanding analytical task consisting of about
170 000 chemical and physical analyses and I wish to acknowledge the stimulating
discussions with Dr. J. Sippola and Mr. T. Yläranta and their practical help during
various stages of the study. I would also like to thank Mr. S. Hyvärinen, who sparing
no trouble has performed the statistical analyses and computer work involved. My special
thanks are due to Mr. H. Jansson, my assistant, who with unfailing enthusiasm and
interest in this work has been of excellent help to me during the long course of this study
and to Dr. F. W. Hauck, Chief, AGLS, FAO, for his keen interest in this investigation
and for his support and cooperation from the very beginning of the project.
I wish to extend my thanks to Dr. P. Arens, Prof. Dr. A. Cottenie and Dr.
K. Harmsen who read parts of the first manuscript and made several valuable comments
and suggestions for clarification, and to Dr. N.E. Borlaug and Dr. R.L. Paliwal who
were kind enough to check the lists of wheat and maize cultivars included in this study
and furnished me with useful information on this subject.
My thanks are also due to Mr. H.K. Ashby for his assistance with the final editing of
the text.

Mikko
PART I
 3

PART I
SOIL AND PLANT DATA,
METHODOLOGY AND
INTERPRETATION

1. Materials and methods

1.1 Collection of original plant and soil samples

Detailed instructions for taking the plant and soil samples were sent to all the field coop-
erators in various countries in order to standardize the sampling techniques and proce-
dures and to obtain material of good quality for analytical comparisons. The instructions
(condensed) are given in Appendix 1.
The collectors of samples were also asked to provide additional background informa-
tion on the sampled fields including: plant cultivars, estimated yields, use of chemical NPK
fertilizers during the past three years, applications of farmyard manure (FYM) and lime,
pest control measures, soil units (national and FAO/Unesco classification), known or
suspected micronutrient deficiencies or toxicities, etc. These data were collected on -Field
information forms" provided for the purpose.

1.2 Indicator plants

1.2.1 General

Wheat and maize were selected as original indicator plants for this study, not because they
would be the optimum indicators of soil rnicronutrients, but because they are the most
widely grown crops all over the world. They also complement each other territorially be-
cause maize is often grown in more humid areas while wheat grows also in more arid soils.
However, the original plant samples received from different countries proved to be too
heterogeneous to reflect reliably the micronutrient status of the soils where the plants had
grown. It was already known that the different micronutrient contents of wheat and maize
would alone cause heterogeneity among the plant samples as a whole and make compari-
son of the findings difficult. In addition, among other factors causing uncontrolled vari-
ation in the results of plant analyses were:
variation in the physiological age of plants at sampling. The age of maize and
4

spring wheat samples at sampling varied from less than 20 to over 60 days and simi-
larly for winter wheat;
contamination of plants by soil in the field or during sampling, sample pre-treatment
or transportation;
differences in main nutrient fertilization, yield levels, irrigation, use of herbicides and
pesticides possibly containing micronutrients. Some on these are referred to in Sec-
tions 2.2.1 to 2.2.3 and 8.2.4;
variation arising from different plant cultivars.
The magnitude of the effects of the above factors is variable from one sample to another
and cannot be reliably estimated, but the following attempts were made to quantify some
of them.

1.2.2 Sampling time

The effect of sampling time on micronutrient contents of plants was studied by planting
two fields each of spring and winter wheat. Sampling, sample pre-treatment and analytical
methods were the same as applied to the international study (Appendix 1) except that
sampling was carried out twice a week during the whole growing season. There were no
clear differences in the concentration or behaviour of micronutrients between the spring
and winter wheats. The data from all fields and both cultivars were therefore combined
and are illustrated in Fig. 1. They were reported in greater detail by Yläranta et al. (1979).
The highest concentrations of B, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Mo were recorded at an early stage of
plant growth and followed by substantial decreases toward the end of the growing season.
The decreases in B were from about 7 to less than 2 ppm, in Cu from about 7 to 3-4
ppm, and in Fe from 120 to 40-50 ppm. The changes in the Mn and Mo concentrations
were less regular, and in the case of Mn a tendency to increase could be observed toward
harvesting time. The behaviour of Zn differed from that of other micronutrients. The
changes in Zn concentrations were relatively small, consisting mainly of a slight tendency
to increase toward the later stages of growth. Clearly decreasing trends in the macro-
nutrient (P, K, Ca, and Mg) contents of wheat were also reported by Sippola et al. (1978).
Similar results have been published elsewhere with other plants.
Since the concentration of micronutrients in a plant is dependent on the sampling
time (physiological age of the plant), it is evident that concentrations in samples collected
at different stages of growth are not strictly comparable and may give a misleading
estimate of the micronutrient status of soils. See also Sections 2.5 and 7.1.4.

1.2.3 Contamination

Soil is likely to be the most contaminant of plant samples. It may arise from soil dust
raised by wind, the spattering of rain or some other plant-soil contacts. The effect of soil
contamination on plant micronutrient concentration depends on the degree of
contamination, the chemical element, the total micronutrient content of the contaminating
soil, etc. For example, if a plant sample of 2 g dry matter containing 6 ppm B, 7 ppm Cu,
61 ppm Fe, 112 ppm Mn, 0.32 ppm Mo, and 18 ppm Zn (average contents of pot-grown
wheat in this study) is contaminated with 10 mg of soil containing 10 ppm B, 50 ppm Cu,
40 000 ppm Fe, 1 000 ppm Mn, 2 ppm Mo and 80 ppm Zn (total contents commonly
 5

PPm PPm
120-
10 Fe
100 O

0
8
.0000 80
e
6
°00000 60 0 000
4 0.
o

40 0.00......
2
20

8 Cu 80 Mn
00000 o °
e
6 .00%. 60 0,00 0 000 000e
0.0. 0. es°
0.. e°00
4 40
0000000 009

2 20

.000000 Mo 60

.2 o
0. 00000.00
40
.0
0.000
.1 20

MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPT. MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPT.

Fig. I. Variations in B, Fe, Cu, Mn, Mo, and Zn contents of wheat (ppm in DM) during the growing season.

found in mineral soils) the result of the micronutrient analysis of the plant sample would
theoretically be affected by the contamination as follows: The B content would be in-
creased from 6.00 to about 6.02 ppm, i.e. an error of + 0.3 per cent. Similarly, the error
for Cu would be 3.1 per cent, for Fe 327 per cent, for Mn 4.0 per cent, for Mo 2.8 per cent
and for Zn 1.7 per cent.
According to this theoretical calculation, the risk of soil contamination is relatively
small in the case of B, Cu, Mn, Mo and Zn if compared to that of Fe. Comparison of the
Fe concentration in individual original plants led to the assumption that the samples were
liable to be severely contaminated with soil. Not uncommonly the plant Fe
concentrations were increased by obvious contamination to a much greater extent than
in the above example. Therefore, all results of Fe analyses from original plants were
discarded.
6

1.2.4 Plant varieties

The ability of different plant varieties (cultivars) to absorb micronutrients from soil as
well as their micronutrient requirements may vary considerably. For example, Randhawa
and Takkar (1975) have drawn special attention to differences in the susceptibility of
various species and varieties of crops to Zn deficiency. Because of the large number of
plant varieties, data on variety effects are fragmentary and may only be used in special
cases for interpreting the results of micronutrient studies.
The original plant material received from various countries for this study included over
200 wheat and over 200 maize cultivars, so preventing the study of differences between
individual cultivars. An attempt was therefore made to classify both species in two
categories each, high yielding varieties (HYV) and local varieties, and to compare the
nutrient contents of the two groups. These comparisons covering all plant samples failed
for a number of reasons. For example:
Neither of the two variety groups was homogeneous. Different high yielding varieties
were grown in different countries and the group of local varieties especially was very
heterogeneous, consisting as it did of native varieties in different developing
countries as well as highly improved wheat and maize cultivars, the products of
plant breeding work in developed countries.
Great differences between the variety groups in the rates of application of N, P
and K fertilizers in different countries affected the nutrient uptake.
The estimated yields of the HYV plants were generally higher than those of other
varieties; a factor which should be taken into account when nutrient concentrations
of plants are to be compared.
The nutrient contents of soils where the plants of the two variety groups had grown
varied so much that often the grounds of comparison were not justified.
In some countries plants of one variety group were mainly grown in irrigated and those
of the other mainly in rainfed conditions.
However, in a few countries, in spite of some differences in soils, yields or fertilization,
the differences in the plant nutrient concentrations between the two variety groups were
so clear that some indicative conclusions on their genetic diversities may be drawn. Some
of these are pointed out in Part II, see e.g. Mexico, B, Mn and Zn; India, N, P, K, Ca,
Mg, B, Cu, Mn and Mo; Ethiopia, Mg, Mn and Zn; and Nigeria, N and P. It must be kept
in mind, however, that these comparisons are local in nature and cannot be generalized or
applied to other conditions. They serve to draw attention to one of the factors partly
responsible for the heterogeneity of the original plant sample material and consequently,
for the discrepancy between the results of plant and soil analyses.

1.2.5 Need for better grounds for co paring plant data

In order to reduce the causes of uncontrolled variation in the micronutrient contents as

found in the original indicator plants, and to establish sounder grounds for comparison of
the results of plant analyses, fresh samples of indicator plants (wheat, cv. 'Apu') were
grown in pots on the soils received from the participating countries.
It must be understood, however, that environmental factors affecting the availability
of rnicronutrients to plants in the field, such as temperature, soil moisture and aeration
 7

(redox potential), were also standardized when growing the indicator plants in pots.
These effects must therefore be taken into account when interpreting the results obtained
from widely varying environmental conditions. Relatively few quantitative data on the
effects of temperature on the availability of rnicronutrients are available, but it is
generally known that reduction-oxidation processes affect the availability of Fe and Mn
more than that of the other four micronutrients included in the study. The reduced forms,
Fe2+ and Mn2+, are more soluble and available to plants than are the oxidiced Fe3+ and
Mn3+ or Mn4+. For example, in this study the data given in Table 27 in Part II
(comparison of original and pot-grown plants) indicate that the plant uptake of Mn is
substantially more affected by soil moisture conditions than that of B, Cu, Mo or Zn.
Another shortcoming of pot-grown plants is the effect of subsoils. Differences in the
micronutrient content and/or availability in the subsoil and top soil may affect the micro-
nutrient uptake by plants, especially during later stages of growth when the root system is
more highly developed. It is believed, however, that the foregoing disadvantages
are overshadowed by the benefits gained by growing fresh indicator plants in pots.
Although the results of micronutrient analyses of the original plants are given in
Appendixes 2 and 3, all further discussion (if not specifically stated otherwise) concerning
the behaviour of the six micronutrients B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo and Zn, is based on results
obtained from analyses of the whcat samples grown in pots under controlled and uniform
conditions.

1.2.6 Growing new indicator plants in pots

The small quantity of soil available from samples received from participating countries
necessitated the use of small pots (200 ml) partly (75 ml) filled with quartz sand (Fig. 2).
The quartz sand was washed with 6 N HC1 and thereafter repeatedly with deionized water
until no reaction to AgNO3 was observed. Two-thirds (50 ml) of the quartz sand was
placed below the soil (100 ml) and one-third (25 ml) above the soil to prevent destruction
of the soil surface structure and prevent crust formation due to repeated irrigations as well
as to minimize contamination of plants by soil. Holes in the bottoms of the pots were
covered with filter paper to prevent leakage of quartz sand but to allow excess irrigation
water to drain off. Any excess water was collected in a dish beneath the pot and re-used
for irrigating the plants in that pot. Irrigation was carried out once a day using de-
ionized water in quantities sufficient to keep the soil moisture content close to field
capacity.
To prevent deficiencies of macronutrients, fertilizers corresponding to about 60 kg N,
30 kg P, 30 kg K and 15 kg Mg per hectare were applied in liquid form in irrigation
water in two equal dressings, one at the end of the second and the other in the middle
of the fourth week from planting.
Spring wheat (cv. 'Apu') was used as an indicator plant. Ten seeds were placed in each
pot on the surface of the soil and covered with the 25 ml of quartz sand. After sprouting,
the number of plants was reduced to eight. The plant tissues from 1 cm above the surface
of quartz sand were harvested on the 36th day from planting, dried, weighed and analysed
as explained in Section 1.3.2. About five percent of the soil samples were too small to
enable new indicator plants to be grown in pots.
8

Fig. 2. Growing new indicator plants (spring wheat cv. 'Apu') in pots.

1.3 Analytical methods

In order to obtain background information on factors affecting the micronutrient
contents of soils and plants, a number of additional analyses were made both on soils and
plants. These data include soil texture, cation exchange capacity, pH, electrical
conductivity, CaCO3 equivalent, organic carbon content, volume weight of soils and
macronutrient contents of both soils and plants.
At an early stage of the study when selecting the methods for soil micronutrient
analyses, preliminary studies with different extraction methods were carried out on a
limited number of samples. For four micronutrients (Cu, Fe, Mn,, Zn) each of the
international samples was analysed by two different methods as described below.
 9

1.3.1 Methods of soil analyses

Particle size distribution was determined by dry and wet sieving and for the finer fractions
by a pipette method (Elonen, 1971). Four fractions (< 0.002, 0.002-0.06, 0.06-2.0 and
> 2.0 mm) were determined. For the expression of texture as a single figure a texture index
(TI) was calculated (TI = 1.0 x % of fraction < 0.002 + 0.3 x % of fraction 0.002-0.06 +
0.1 x % of fraction 0.06-2.0 mm).
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) of soil was determined by the Bascomb (1964) method
except that the Mg concentration was measured with an atomic absorption spectro-
photometer (Varian Techtron 1200; air-acetylene flame) after diluting the final filtrate
by a factor of ten with a 0.24 M HC1 + 0.28 % La solution.
Electrical conductivity was measured from a soil:water (1:2.5) suspension after letting
the suspension settle overnight.
Soil pH(H20) was determined on the above suspension after stirring. For measuring
pH(CaC12) the suspension was made 0.01 M with respect to CaCl2 and stirred. The pH
(CaCl2) was measured after two hours from a restirred suspension. The relationship be-
tween the two pH values is given in Section 2.1 and Fig. 5.
CaCO3 equivalent of soil was determined by a method described by Trierweiler and
Lindsay (1969).
Organic carbon was determined by a modification of Alten's (1935) method (Tares and
Sippola, 1978). An amount of soil containing 30-100 mg of humus, 25 ml 0.25 M
K2Cr207 and 40 ml conc. H2SO4 were put into a 400 ml flask. The mixture was kept for
1.5 h on a hot water bath, allowed to cool for 30 min. and 175 ml of water were added. After
standing overnight, the solution was measured colorimetrically and the reading compared
to standards (red filter, 620-645 nm).
Volume weight of soil was determined by weighing a 25 ml sample of air dried soil
passed through a 2 mm sieve (Tares and Sippola, 1978).
Soil total nitrogen was determined by the Kjeldahl method using Tecator equipment.
A 1-3 g sample of air dry soil was weighed into a digestion tube containing 8 g of
K2SO4 and 1 g of CuSO4. Conc. H2504 (20 ml) was added. The mixture was maintained
at about 420 °C (for 1-2 h) until clear. To the cooled digest 50 ml of water were added,
made alkaline with NaOH and nitrogen distilled into 4 % boric acid and titrated with
0.01 M HC1 using brómocresol greenmethyl red as an indicator.
Phosphorus was extracted with 0.5 M NaHCO3, pH 8.5 (Olsen ad., 1954). The
volumetric soil:extractant ratio was 1:20 and shaking time 1 h (27 r.p.m.). Phosphorus
was measured colorimetrically with ammonium molybdate-ascorbic acid reagent
(Watanabe and Olsen, 1965).
Potassium, calcium, magnesium and sodium were extracted from soil with 1 M
CH3COONH4, pH 7.0 (Cahoon, 1974). The volumetric soil:extractant ratio was 1:10
and shaking (end over end) time 1 h (27 r.p.m.). Conc. HC1 and La were added to the
extract to make the extract 0.2 M with respect to HC1 and contain 0.25 % La. The cations
were determined with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Techtron AA-4 or Varian
Techtron 1200) using an air-acetylene flame for Ca and Mg and air-propane for K and Na.
Boron. Hot water soluble soil B was determined by a modified Berger and Truog (1944)
method (Sippola and Erviö, 1977). A 25 ml soil sample, 50 ml of water and about 0.5 ml
of activated charcoal were boiled for 5 min. in a quartz flask and filtered immediately.
Two ml of the extract and 4 ml of buffer masking agent (250 g CH3COONH4 and 15 g
Na2EDTA dissolved in 400 ml water, and 125 ml 100 % CH3COOH added) were mixed
lo
and 4 ml of azomethine reagent (0.9 g azomethine-H and 2 g ascorbic acid dissolved in
200 ml water, prepared daily or weekly if refrigerated) added. The colour was allowed to
develop for 1 h, intensity measured spectrophotometrically at 420 nm and compared to
standards varying from 0 to 2 mg boron per litre.
To correct soil B values for CEC, see Section 2.3.3.
Copper, iron, manganese and zinc were extracted from all soils by two extraction
methods, AAAc-EDTA and DTPA as extractants.
The acid ammonium acetate-EDTA extraction solution, 0.5 M CH3COONH4,
0.5 M CH3COOH, 0.02 M Na2EDTA, was made by diluting 571 ml 100 % CH3COOH,
373 ml 25 % NH4OH and 74.4 g Na2EDTA (EDTA = ethylenediaminetetracetic acid) to
10 litres with water. The pH was adjusted to 4.65 with acetic acid or ammonium hydroxide
(Lakanen and Erviò, 1971). Soil (25 ml) and extracting solution (250 ml) were shaken for
1 h (end over end, 27 r.p.m.). The suspension was filtered using Whatman No. 42 filter
paper. The concentrations of Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn were determined with an atomic
absorption spectrophotometer (Varian Techtron 1200, air-acetylene flame) and appro-
priate standards.
The DTPA extracting solution was prepared to contain 0.005 M DTPA (diethylene-
triamine pentacetic acid), 0.01 M CaC12, 0.1 M TEA (triethanolamine) and was adjusted to
pH 7.3 with 11C1 (Lindsay and Norvell, 1969, 1978). Soil (25 ml) and extracting solution
(50 ml) were shaken for 2 h (end over end, 27 r.p.m.). The suspension was filtered using
Schleicher & Schtill selecta 589/3 filter paper. The concentrations of Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn
were determined with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Varian Techtron 1200,
air-acetylene flame) and appropriate standards.
The results presented in this paper are based an AAAc-EDTA extraction of Cu and
Fe and on DTPA extraction of Mn. For Zn the results obtained by both extraction
methods are given. For details, see Sections 2.3.4 to 2.3.7.
Molybdenum was extracted with A0-0A solution. The ammonium oxalate-oxalic
acid extracting solution, a modified Tamm's (1922) solution, was prepared by dissolving
249 g ammonium oxalate and 126 g oxalic acid in 10 litres of water. The pH was adjusted
to 3.3 with ammonium hydroxide or oxalic acid. Soil (10 ml) and extracting solution
(100 ml) were shaken for 16 h (end over end, 27 r.p.m.) and the suspension was filtered.
Mo was determined by the zinc dithiol method (Stanton and Hardwick, 1967). A 50 ml
aliquot of the filtrate was evaporated to dryness in a quartz dish on a water bath, oven
dried at 105 °C overnight and ashed by raising the temperature slowly to 600 °C. The ash
was moistened with 1 ml of water and dissolved in 15 ml 4M 11C1 on a water bath for 1 h.
If the residue had dissolved completely the solution was washed (4 times with 4 ml of
warm 4 M HC1) into a separating funnel. If there was an insoluble residue in the quartz
dish, the solution was filtered into a separating funnel and the dried (105 °C) filter paper
with the residue ashed at 600 °C for 1 h. The ash was treated with 0.5 ml 40 % HF and 0.1
ml 70 % HC104 in a teflon dish, dissolved in 1 ml 4 M 11C1 and combined with the main
solution in the separating funnel. The following reagents were added to the main solution:
2 ml of Fe reagent (10 g FeNH4(SO4)2 in 1 litre of 6 M HC1),
2 ml of reducing solution (15 g ascorbic acid + 7.5 g citric acid/100 ml 1170) shaken
and left to stand for 2 min.,
2 ml of 50 % potassium iodide, shaken,
2 ml of zinc dithiol solution (0.3 g Zn dithiol, 2 ml ethanol, 4 ml water, 2 g NaOH and 1
ml of thioglycolic acid were mixed and when clear, diluted with water to 50 ml, and 50
 11

ml of fresh 50 per cent potassium iodide solution added) mixed and left to stand for
2 min.,
5 ml of chloroform.
The separating funnel was shaken vigorously for 2 minutes. The chloroform phase was
separated. The intensity of colour in the chloroform was compared to molybdenum
standards using a spectrophotometer at 680 nm wavelength. The standards (0.2-10.0
mg Mo/30 ml 4 M HC1) also contained the same reagents as the sample solution in the
separating funnel and received a similar treatment.
For correcting the results of A0-0A extractable soil Mo values for pH, see Section
2.3.2.

1.3.2 Methods of plant analyses

Preparation of samples. Air dried plant material was ground with a hammer mill of pure
carbon steel to pass a 2 mm sieve (pure carbon steel). To avoid contamination, the samples
were stored in plastic (pure polyethylene) bags.
Since the mineral element contents were expressed on a dry matter basis, the DM
contents of air dry samples (5.0 g) were determined by drying the samples at 105 °C for
4 h. The samples were cooled in a desiccator for 2 h and weighed before ashing.
The nitrogen content of plant material was determined by the Kjeldahl method using
Tecator equipment. The procedure differed from that of soil total nitrogen determination
only as regards the size of sample which was 0.50 g of air dry plant material. Results were
expressed on a DM (105 °C) basis.
The boron content of plant material was determined by a modified azomethine-H
method (Basson et al., 1969, John et al., 1975, Sippola and Erviii, 1977). A 100 mg sample
of air dry plant material was weighed into a quartz dish, ashed at 450 °C overnight and
cooled. A 10 ml aliquot of 0.1 M HC1 was added and covered with a watch glass. The
solution was allowed to stand for 4 h and filtered into a test tube.
Two ml azomethine reagent were added and the spectrophotometric measurement was
made according to the procedure described for soil boron analysis. Results were expressed
on a DM (105 °C) basis.
Ashing and determination of Ca, K, Mg, P, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, and Zn. The oven dry
samples described above were ashed by raising the temperature slowly (about 2.5 h) to
450 °C and maintaining this temperature overnight. The ash was moistened with a few
drops of water, covered with a watch glass and 10 ml of 6 M HC1 slowly added. When
the reaction had ceased, the watch glass was removed and washed with 10 ml of 6 M
HC1. The solution was evaporated to dryness on a water bath, 40 ml of 0.2 M HC1 were
added, covered with a watch glass and kept on the water bath for 30 minutes. The hot
solution was filtered (SchleicherSchtill selecta 589/2) into a 100 ml volumetric flask.
The dish, filter, and undissolved residue were washed with about 40 ml of hot 0.2 M HC1.
The filter paper and residue were ashed in the original quartz dish by raising the oven
temperature (over a period of about 2 h) to 600 °C, thereafter cooled and transferred to a
teflon dish to which 0.2 ml HC104 and 5 ml HF were added. The dish was kept on a hot
plate (200 °C) until all the HF had been removed, cooled, and 0.5 ml 6 M HC1 was added.
The dish was kept on the hot plate until nearly dry, the residue dissolved in 5 ml of 0.2 M
HC1, filtered, and the filtrate combined with the main sample solution in the 100 ml
12

volumetric flask. The teflon dish and filter paper were rinsed and the flask was filled to
volume with 0.2 M HC1. For storage, polyethylene bottles were used.
For Ca, K, Mg, and P determinations, 8 ml of the main sample solution were diluted to
40 ml with lanthanum-HC1 solution (0.2 M HC1 containing 0.31 % La). Ca, K, and Mg
were determined with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Techtron AA-4 or
Varian Techtron 1200) using an air-acetylene flame for Ca and Mg and air-propane for K.
For determining P colorimetrically with a modified ammonium vanadate-molybdate
method (Gericke and Kurmies, 1952), 5 ml of the dilute sample solution and 10 ml
of reagent (7.5 g (NH4)6Mo7024. 4 H20 and 0.38 g NH4V03 in 1 litre of 0.13 M H2SO4)
were mixed. The colour intensity was measured and compared with appropriate
standards (0-70 mg P/1) one hour after mixing.
Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn were measured directly on the main sample solution with an atomic
absorption spectrophotometer (Varian Techtron 1200) as on soil extracts.
Mo determination was made by the zinc dithiol method (Stanton and Hardwick,
1967). To make the solution 4 M with respect to HC1, 20 ml of the main sample solution
and 10 ml of conc. HC1 were pipetted into a separating funnel and shaken. Fe reagent,
reducing solution, potassium iodide, zinc dithiol and chloroform were added and Mo was
determined according to the procedure described for soil Mo analysis. The same Mo
standards were used for plant and soil analyses.
Micronutrient contents of pot-grown wheat. Owing to small pot yields, the contents
of the six micronutrients (B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo and Zn) only were determined. The
analytical procedures and methods deviated from those described above only in that
smaller quantities of sample material were analysed.

1.3.3 Statistical methods

The evaluation of the micronutrient status of each soil was based on two analyses, i.e.
one of the soil and one of the plant grown on that soil. Regression graphs are used to
present the results of both analyses simultaneously. Furthermore, the correlation between
the results of the two analyses can be considered a good measure for judging the
reliability of the results.
In general, for statistical evaluation of the results of chemical micronutrient analyses
by countries (Part II) four simple regression equations were computed: the linear,
logarithmic and two semi-logarithmic models. The best fitting equations are graphically
presented. In addition to the above regression models, parabolas, cubic parabolas and
their respective logarithmic modifications were adopted when studying the relations
between micronutrients and various soil factors (Part I). In special cases multiple
regression and linear stepwise multiple regression analyses were used.
In respect of macronutrients and general soil properties the data in Part II are presented
only as arithmetic means and their standard deviations and frequency distribution graphs
of classified materials.
 13

1.4 Expression of analytical data

1.4.1 Soils

The results of nutrient analyses of soils have traditionally been expressed on a weight
basis, i.e. in ppm or mg/kg soil, but expressions on a volume basis, e.g. in mg/dm3 or mg/
litre of soil, are becoming increasingly frequent. The weights of a certain volume of soil
may vary considerably depending on soil texture, mineral composition etc., but especially
on the organic matter content of the soils. In the soil samples studied, which included only
a few organic soils, the volume weights varied from 0.51 g/cm3 (a New Zealand peat
soil) to 1.77 g/cm3 (a coarse sand from Nigeria). However, much lower volume weights
have been recorded, e.g. Sippola and Tares (1978) reported an average volume weight
of 0.15 for cultivated Sphagnum peat soils and a minimum value of 0.06 g/cm3. Although
the volume of soil where the roots of a plant are distributed may vary from one plant to
another, it can be assumed that the density of roots and nutrient absorption by plants are
much better related to soil volume than to the weight of the soil, since in the latter ten- or
twenty-fold variations often exist.
Often, in order to understand or to interpret conflicting results, the importance of the
dimension or unit in which the results are given must be realized. For example, if two
soils, one a mineral soil with a volume weight of 1.5 and the other a peat soil with a
volume weight of 0.1 g/cm3 are analysed and both show an equal content of 100 ppm
of nutrient X when expressed on a weight basis, the result is completely different if ex-
pressed on a volume basis, as shown below:

Table 1. Comparison of nutrient content of two soils expressed on weight and volume bases.

Soil Volume Content of nutrient X as expressed

weight on weight basis on volume basis
ppm mg/litre of soil
Mineral soil 1.5 100 150
Peat soil 0.1 100 10

Thus, in this example, the 100 ppm of nutrient X in the mineral soil is 1400 per cent higher
than the 100 ppm in the peat soil when the same results are expressed on a volume basis.
The above is directly applicable when the total nutrient contents of soils are determined.
In the case of a determination of extractable contents, the difference is not as pronounced
because of the effect of changing extraction ratio. Even so, misleading conclusions have
too often been drawn because insufficient thought has been given to the dimension of the
results presented. In areas where peat soils do not exist and volume weights of soils vary
less, the difference between the methods of expressing the results is, however, relatively
small. On the other hand, even within the same soil profile the volume weight of the
topsoil may be markedly different to that of the lower horizons.
The relative error due to inaccuracies in measuring a certain volume of soil for analysis,
or due to variation in extraction ratio, is negligible compared to the effects of variation of
volume weight among samples including both mineral and organic soils. The advantages
of volume-based expressions have been pointed out, for example, by Mehlich (1972) and
Sillanpää (1962a, b, 1972a, b).
14

In accordance with the above prihciples, the contents of all soil nutrients in this study
are expressed on a volume basis, i.e. in mg/I. However, the total soil N content is also
given as a percentage (Appendixes 2, 3 and 4) but for some of the soil characteristics such
as organic carbon content and CEC the traditional dimensions are used. The quantities of
various soil nutrients are expressed in terms of the element rather than oxide. The same
applies also to the nutrient contents of plants and fertilizers.

1.4.2 Plants

Plant analytical data are expressed on a concentration (To or ppm) basis rather than as
uptake per hectare. Both methods have certain advantages as well as disadvantages, as
discussed in Section 2.6. The plant/soil micronutrient correlations calculated for B, Cu,
Fe, Mn, Mo and Zn in all samples (Section 2.3) showed no indication of the superiority of
one method over the other. The decision to express as concentration was due to the
practical fact that in order to be able to calculate uptake, yield must also be known and,
generally, at the time of plant sampling only rough estimates of yield can be made.

1.4.3 Regression graphs

To facilitate the comparison of results (e.g. between different countries), the

corresponding values of the soil and plant analyses are presented in regression graphs in
order to combine the results of the two techniques. The higher the correlation coefficient,
the better the link between the soil and plant analyses. The regression linc and equation
as well as the mean values and standard deviations for all the international material
are usually given as background information and also in regression graphs concerning
only individual countries or other groups of data. Because of widely varying micronutrient
contents and their abnormal (linear) distributions, logarithmic scales were adopted for
regression graphs.
Each regression graph has been divided into five Zones (IV) in such a way that the
numerical product of plant micronutrient content multiplied by soil micronutrient content
is constant at every point on the line separating two zones. The numerical values along the
lines demarcating the zones are given in Table 2. The locations of the zone limits have
been determined so that five per cent of sample pairs (plant micronutrient content x
soil micronutrient content) of the whole international material falls below the line
separating Zones I and II, i.e. into Zone I. Accordingly, ten per cent of the material falls
below the line between Zones II and III, i.e. five per cent into Zone II. The next 80 per
cent of the material falls in Zone III and the highest ten per cent of the values in Zones IV
and V, i.e. five per cent in each.
Even though the most likely cases of deficiency are to be found among samples falling
in Zone I and the most probable cases of toxicity in Zone V, there is no proof that the
above zone limits would also be critical limits for deficiency or toxicity. Furthermore,
critical deficiency and toxicity limits vary from one plant species to another.
 15

Table 2. Numerical products of plant content x soil content along the lines dividing the regression graphs into
five zones.

Micronutrient and Lower Lower Higher Higher

soil extraction 5% limit 10 % limit 10 % limit 5% limit
methodl) between Zones between Zones between Zones between Zones
I and II II and III III and IV IV and V
B (hot water sol.) 0.67 0.87 9.4 18.7
B (CEC-corr. hot w.s.) 0.72 0.98 9.2 17.5
Cu (AAAc-EDTA) 3.7 6.4 107 160
Cu (Org.C-corr. AAA c-EDTA) 3.9 6.7 102 144
Fe (AAAc-EDTA) 1680 2300 22500 31900
Mn (DTPA) 206 295 14100 25100
Mn (pH-corr. DTPA) 166 201 14100 37100
Mc> (A0-0A) 0.00260 0.0040 0.166 0.280
Mo (pH-corr. A0-0A) 0.00070 0.0017 0.275 0.441
Zn (DTPA) 2.0 2.8 86 183
Zn (AAAc-EDTA) 7.2 9.5 169 336
Zn (pH-corr. AAAc-EDTA) 6.4 8.3 180 370

I) For CEC-, org. C-, and pH-corrections, see Sections 2.3.2-2.3.7.

 17

2. Results and discussion

2.1 General properties of soils and their mutual relations

The amounts of micronutrients removed yearly with normal crop yields represent only a
very small proportion, generally less than one per cent of the total amount present in soils.
The total amounts, even in serious deficiency cases, therefore far exceed the crop require-
ments. Cases of primary deficiency that are mainly caused by a low total content of
micronutrients, are therefore very rare in normal agricultural soils, but may occur in
severely leached sands or in certain peat soils.
Secondary micronutrient deficiencies are the most common and are caused by soil
factors reducing the availability to plants of otherwise ample supplies of micronutrients.
For the effective correction in the field of a micronutrient deficiency, it is necessary to
know which element is deficient and the reason why it is deficient.
While primary deficiency can usually be remedied by applying salts containing the
deficient micronutrient to the soils, the correction of secondary deficiencies is more
complicated. Direct salt applications to the soil may not lead to a cure because the original
cause of deficiency persists and renders the element added unavailable. Should it be
impossible to lessen the effect of the causative factor, other measures must be taken, such
as foliar applications or the use of chelates. It is most important to know the main reasons
for a deficiency.
Where micronutrient disorders occur, or are suspected, a general background know-
ledge of soil characteristics is essential. Therefore, in this study emphasis has been laid on
investigations concerning the relationships of plant and soil micronutrients to various soil
characteristics. For such work, the present abundant material with exceptionally wide
variations in respect of all soil characteristics was well suited. Relationships of plant and
soil micronutrients to various soil characteristics are presented in detail in Section 2.3,
separately for each of the six micronutrients under study. General information on soil
characteristics by countries is given in Appendixes 2, 3 and 4. The frequency distributions
of texture, pH, organic matter content and cation exchange capacity of soils in each
country against the background of corresponding distributions in the whole international
material are presented in Part II.
The effects of two or more different soil factors on the availability of certain micro-
nutrients are often very similar (e.g. effects of texture and CEC on Cu, Fig. 30). In other
cases the same soil factor affects the availability of two or more micronutrients very
differently (e.g. effects of pH on Mo and Mn, Figs 16 and 34). Furthermore, it is often
difficult to define which soil factor affects directly the availability of a certain micro-
nutrient and which factor is only in "pseudocorrelation" with the micronutrient, owing to
the mutual correlation between the two soil factors concerned. From the viewpoint of soil
chemistry these questions are of importance, but in practical micronutrient studies a
"pseudocorrelating" soil factor may often be as informative as a factor of direct effect.
To understand better the relations between various micronutrients and other soil
factors to be given in Sections 2.3 and 2.4 the mutual relations between the six soil
characteristics are presented in Figs 3 and 4.
18

a
90F log y =4.14-6.839 log x e
f k
y =5.11+0.0628 x-0.000561 x2 y=7.45-0.695 x+0.0356x2
X +4.547flogx)2 R=0,208 -*" R =0,401""
0.) -F.,
'0 70 R=0.177 - C.5 7 -------....N
. 7
C o C...)
17
a) 50
g._ U
ci, T
x301- 5 o_ 5
G)
I.-
10 4

O
log y=-9.065+24.62 log x log y=-1.729+1.635 log x log y=1.629+0.271 log x
6.4
-16.361log x)2 -0.3356(log x)` X -0 2642(log x)2
R=0 421***
a2 R=0.382 -0
(1) 70 R=0.413

50
ci
cr) .8
x 30
e5 4 0 .4 a)

10
.2 .2

h rIl
64 ,ogY=0.252-,0.330x-0.0235x2
,c
54 - log y=0.589+0.0243 x 64 log y=1.377+0.5142 log x
0CD R,.0.169 '-'' C3')-0.000132 x2 cr) -0.2126110g x ) 2
a, 32 0
0 32 - R=0.832*** 0 32 R=0.535 -"
,_.
9.)
E 16 ----------- 43
E
15 E
(-3.3
16

Li c.,5 CS
al 8 Lii 8
0 0 8

-T
log y =1.774-0.706 x 0694 x2 _ log y=-0.382+0.0251x log y=02543-O.0819 log x
E 25.6 E
u
(I)
R=0.571"-' o
25.6

R=0.255
-6.000224 x2 oo0)25.6 -0.2478(log xl2
R=0 099
S
54 -a-) 6.4
E
-c;
C
O
1.6 C
O
16 a 16
O
o o o
.4

e o
log y=-7195+1.017 x y=-2.795+0.0938 x log y =0.0445-3.374 x
6.4 r =0.887 "' 64 -0.000808 x` 6,4 r=-0.278"."
R=0.291'*"
7
cr 1.5 1.6
a) Cr
co 4 .4

0 o
1
C-)

4 5 6 7 8 10 30 50 70 90 .2 .4 .8 1.6 32 66
Soil pH (CaC(2) Texture index Organic C, %
Fig. 3.

Figs 3 and 4. Mutual correlations between soil pH(CaC12), texture (TI), cation exchange capacity (me/100 g),
organic carbon (%), electric conductivity (le s cm-1), and CaCO3 equivalent (%), in the whole
international material (n 3536). The best fitting regressions are given.
 19

8 - log y = 0.752 0.0452 log x 8 y=628+2.416 log x-1.037(log x12 8 y=7.21+ 0,626 log x-0,157(lo x12
r= = 0.578". R = 0.903"*
7 7 7

o 6 06
o o_

1. 4

b
90- iog y . 0.802 0.633 log x 90 log y .1.597+0.143 log x 90 log y =1.630 0.0352 log x
x -0.C282(log x -0.0642110g x) X 0.00232 (log x12
o o 70
-0 79 - R . 0.798 ' ''' -0 R 0.221" ." -0 7 R = 0.248 "
C C
a) 50 E, 50 w 50
I_
D o
4),- 30 .; 30 -5(-. 30
0 a)
H x)2 I-
G.)

10 10 10

rrl
log y = -1.356 +1.521 log x iog y.0.0412 +0.004186 log x y.1,08- 0.1305(09 x
6.4 -0.36261l0g x12 6.4 -0.07069110g x)2 6,4 C 0804(log x12
R. 0,538 "" 3.2
R. 0.093 - 32
0.296

.0 1.6
_ 1.6 (,) 1.6
E
0 .8 o .8 8

o.4 0 4
o4
2 .2 2

7 log y -0.852 +1.435 log x log y =1.354 0.2348 log x 54 log y=1.408 + 0.0333 tog x
E 25'6 -0 4493(log x)2 -0.1706 (log x12 -0.00897(log x12
o
U)
R R = 0.223 0 32 R.0.223-
(7) 6.4
O
--
4( 16
E
.6
L5
o
o
4

e o
log y -351, +3.53 log x log y -0.8645 2.614 log x .og y = 0.276 +0.1743 log x
,TE 25.6 -
-0.8979(log x12 6,4 -0.97050og x/2 ,-0.019201 log x12
R = 0,225 = . 0.545"
6.4

6
o
u
Eli
4 8 15 32 64 .4 1.6 6.4 25.6 .1 1.6 6.4 25.6
CEC, me/100g El. cond10-4S cm-1 CaCO3 equiv,%
Fig. 4.

Although all six soil factors are statistically highly significantly (0,1 per cent level)
correlated with each other, the correlation coefficients vary from 0.093*** to 0.903***.
(Regression curves between the best correlating soil factors, R>0.5, are drawn with thick
lines).
20
The closest correlations were found_ for pHCaCO3 equivalent, CECtexture, and
pHelectrical conductivity, but those for CaCO3 equivalentelectrical conductivity and
CECorganic C were also high. The relations between electrical conductivity and organic
C, pH and CEC, and pH and texture were the weakest but still highly significant.
Three of these soil factors (pH, CEC and organic carbon content) are of special
importance in connection with micronutrients because (a) they are highly responsible
for the degree of availability of micronutrients to plants, and (b) they influence the
extractability of micronutrients by the extractants used, and (c) because their effects
during the above processes (a and b) are dissimilar. With regard to soil pH the results
given in this study are based on determination of pH(CaC12). The advantages of this
method have been pointed out, e.g. by Peech (1965). In addition pH(H20) was
determined from all soil samples. The relationship between the two pH values is given in
Fig. 5. In general, the pH(H20) is higher than the pH(CaC12) and the difference was
somewhat greater in acid than in alkaline soils. To convert pH(CaC12) to pH(H20) or
vice versa the regression lines in Fig. 5 can be used.

ocs,

6
X n = 3538
CI,
pH (Ca Ci2) 0.808 +1.044 pH (H20)
pH (H20) 0.937 + 0.934pH (CaCl2)
r = 0.987 ***

4 5 6 9

pH (Ca C12)

Fig. 5. Relationship between pH(H20) and pH(CaC12).

 21

2.2 Macronutrients

2.2.1 General aspects

The data on macronutrients are based on analyses of soils and of the two original indicator
plants, wheat and maize, grown in those countries participating in the study. This plant
sample material was quite heterogeneous because, in addition to two indicator plants, it
consisted of numerous plant varieties, sampled at considerably varying stages of growth
and fertilized with widely different dressings of N, P and K fertilizers. Unlike the micro-
nutrient data of this study, macronutrients were not analysed from the more homogenf ous
plant sample material obtained from the pot experiment because these samples were too
small in size for determining macronutrients in addition to micronutrients. Furthermore,
the pot-grown wheats were fertilized with NPK.

2.2.2 Comparison of the two original indicator plants

In general the sampled wheats contained more N, P and K, but less Ca and Mg than maize
(Table 3). Despite the wide variations in the soil macronutrient contents, the mean values
for wheat and maize soils differed relatively little. More N, P and K had been applied to
the wheat than to the maize crops, so partly accounting for their higher N, P, and K
contents.

Table 3. Mean macronutrient contents of the two original indicator plants (%), of the respective soils
(total N %, others mg/1), and the mean amounts (kg/ha) of N, P and K applied in fertilizers to each crop.

Wheat fields Maize fields

(n = 1768) (n = 1976)
N P K Ca Mg N P K Ca Mg
Plants '), mean 4.28 0.375 4.03 0.428 0.172 3.14 0.330 3.13 0.470 0.251
+ s 1.15 0.125 0.97 0.166 0.060 0.87 0.104 0.96 0.205 0.119
Soils'), mean 0.133 20.2 365 4671 489 0.135 22.5 330 3450 446
+ s 0.084 24.7 283 3076 437 0.088 33.0 356 2815 462
Fert. appl., mean 66 21 21 27 6 7
+s 61 27 44 37 10 18

I) For analytical methods, see Section 1.3.

2.2.3 Comparison of macronutrient status in different countries

Since plant samples received from some of the participating countries consisted of wheat
only and others maize only, their plant macronutrient data were not directly comparable.
An attempt was therefore made to eliminate the difference in the uptake of macro-
nutrients between the two plant species by raising (pooling) the average macronutrient
contents of maize to the same level as those of wheat. For example, the N contents
of individual maize samples were multiplied by a factor of 1.36 to raise the average N
content of maize (3.14 %) to the same average level as that of wheat (4.28 %). The
national mean data for soil macronutrients and the respective adjusted plant data are
expressed in Figs 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.
22

It must be understood that even-though the main differences due to two indicator plants
were eliminated by statistical pooling (adjustment of the average macronutrient content),
other causes of uncontrolled variation, such as those due to different plant varieties,
varying ages of plants at sampling, fertilization, etc., remained, and good correlations
between the plant and soil macronutrient contents can hardly be expected. In fact, the
macronutrient correlations based on the original plants are generally poorer than those
of most micronutrients where many of the factors causing uncontrolled variation in
micronutrient contents of plants were eliminated by replacing the two original plants and
numerous varieties by pot-grown wheat of one variety, sampled at the same time (see
Section 1.2). Furthermore, compared to fertilization with macronutrients, the effects of
micronutrient fertilization were negligible because fertilizers containing micronutrients
were very seldom used.
The general effects of recent N, P and K fertilization are illustrated by dividing the data
into three fertilization classes (Figs 6, 7 and 8), but the data concerning farmyard manure
application were too fragmentary to be taken into account. The influence of different
wheat and maize varieties is discussed in Section 1.2.4.
The data in Figs 6 to 10 give only a general picture of macronutrient status in various
countries against the international background and will be discussed in more detail at
national levels in Part II.
Although the total nitrogen content of topsoil cannot always be considered a good
indicator of the nitrogen status of a soil, the correlation between the N content of the plant
and total soil N in the whole material is relatively good (Fig. 6, regression a). Nitrogen
fertilization is a factor with a strong effect on plant N content but affects little the total
soil N (Table 4) and consequently is likely to impair the correlation. Therefore, to obtain
a general outline of the effect of applied nitrogen on the N content of the original plant
samples, additional regressions were computed for two subgroups: one consisting of plants
that had received more than 100 kg N/ha (Fig 6, regression b) and the other of plants that
had received less than 50 kg N/ha (regression c). There is a considerable difference
between the elevations of the two sub-regression lines (b and c). Most of the countries
where high rates of nitrogen had been applied to the sampled crops (Hungary, Belgium,
Korea, Italy, Zambia) stand clearly above the general regression line (a), while
most countries of low nitrogen fertilizer use lie below that line.
In case of phosphorus the plant-soil correlation is better than that for other macro-
nutrients. Although the effects of recent phosphorus fertilizer applications can be seen
from Fig. 7, it is evident that the applied P not only increased the P content of the plant
but also the P extractable from the soil by 0.5 M NaHCO3. Since applied P is not leached
as easily from soil as N, and plants remove much less P from soils than N or K, many
countries with a traditionally high use of phosphates have built up the P reserves of their
soils during the past decades. According to FAO statistics (FAO, 1980a) phosphate
fertilizer consumption per hectare in 1961-78 has been considerably higher in New
Zealand, Belgium, Korea, Finland, Hungary and Italy than in the other countries included
in this study. In spite of relatively strong fixation of applied P in soils, the effects of recent
phosphate applications on plant P contents are quite substantial as shown by the
differences in the elevation of regression lines b and c representing high (> 30 kg P/ha)
and low (< 10 kg P/ha) phosphate application levels, respectively.
Since a large proportion of analysed samples which had received high (>30 kg P/ha)
phosphate dressings came from the countries with a traditionally high phosphate con-
sumption, the average NaHCO3 extractable P content of these soil samples was double
 23

N
_

b
6
6Hu

- a
0 . Ko
Be

5 a Fi
0 It oAr oNZ
ir C
4
Th o Et
Za e
RPo
. Me ..Eg pe
Q.
Tu eS ph Br
4
....,,..----- Ni c 0°
Sr o oGh ..,ic
o Mw
fro Ec
-I- o
c: In.
a)
Mt
Ta
oo 3
Aver. fert. application
o < 50 kg N /ha
la 50 -100 kg N/ha
2 e >100 kg N/ha
4 I I I I

.04 .Ö6 .08 .1 .2 .3 .6 .8

(total)
N in soil , %
Fig. 6. Regressions of nitrogen content of original wheat and maize (pooled) on total nitrogen content of soil
a) for the whole international material, b) for crops fertilized with >100 kg N/ha, and c) for crops fertilized
with <50 kg N/ha. Regression equations are given in Table 4. The national mean values for plant and soil
N contents of the 30 countries are plotted in the graph indicating also the general level of nitrogen fertilizer
application to the sampled crops in each country:

Ar = Argentina, Be = Belgium, Br = Brazil, Ec = Ecuador,

Eg = Egypt, Et = Ethiopia, Fi = Finland, Gh = Ghana,
Hu = Hungary, In = India, Ir = Iraq, It = Italy,
Ko = Korea, Rep., Le = Lebanon, Mt = Malta, Mw= Malawi,
Me = Mexico, Ne Nepal, NZ = New Zealand, Ni = Nigeria,
Pa = Pakistan, Pe = Peru, Ph = Philippines, Si = Sierra Leone,
Sr = Sri Lanka, Sy = Syria, Ta = Tanzania, Th = Thailand,
Tu = Turkey, Za = Zambia.

that of samples receiving only small (< 10 kg P/ha) phosphate dressings (Table 4). This
difference accounts for the divergence of regression line a from lines b and c. According to
the present data P deficiency is likely to occur more frequently in Pakistan, Iraq, Ghana
and India than elsewhere, although in most countries soils with low P status are common.
24

fert application
50 kg P /ha
50 -100 kg P/ha
>100 kg P/ ha

10 20 30 50 70 100 200
(Na HCO3)
P in soil , mg /I
Fig. 7. Regressions of phosphorus content of original wheat and maize (pooled) on NaHCO3 extractable
phosphorus content of soil a) for the whole international material, b) for crops fertilized with >30 kg P/ha,
and c) for crops fertilized with <10 kg P/ha. For regression equations see Table 4 and for abbreviations the
text for Fig. 6.

The potassium contents of plants were almost tenfold those of phosphorus. Even an
average crop therefore takes more K from the soil than is usually applied in potassium
fertilizers. Consequently, soil potassium reserves even in countries of traditionally high
potassium fertilizer consumption have not been increased appreciably, if at all. According
to FAO statistics (FAO, 1980a), among the 30 countries represented in this study, those
with the highest potassium consumption per hectare in 1961-78 were Belgium, Hungary,
Finland, Korea and Italy. The crops sampled from these countries for this study were also
fertilized with high rates of potassium. The locations of these countries in the "inter-
national K field" (Fig. 8), however, do not show such high soil K contents as could be ex-
pected from their traditionally high potassium fertilizer consumption. On the other hand,
the mean K contents of plants from countries where K had been generously applied to the
sampled crops are usually above the main regression line (a). Without doubt, the greatly
varying rates of recent K fertilizer application are one of the main reasons for the relatively
poor plant Ksoil K correlation in the whole material (Table 4).
 25

Aver. fert. application

o < 50 kg K /ha
50 - 100 kg K /ha
o >100 kg K/ha
30 50 70 100 200 300 500
I I

700
III
1000
1

2000
(CH3 COONH4)
K in soil , mg/I
Fig. 8. Regressions of potassium content of original wheat and maize (pooled) on CH3COONH4 ex-
changeable potassium content of soil a) for the whole international material, b) for crops fertilized with
>30 kg K/ha, and c) for crops fertilized with <10 kg K/ha. For regression equations see Table 4 and for
abbreviations the text for Fig. 6.

Since the majority of crops sampled had received no or only a minimal (< 10 kg K/ha)
dressing of K, the regression (line c) for low rates of applied K differs little from that for all
samples (line a). Potassium fertilization at high rates considerably increased the K contents
of plants as indicated by the regression line b.
In general, soils in countries of high mean exchangeable K contents (e.g. Argentina,
Egypt, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Mexico and Syria) are fine to medium textured (average
texture index 40-62), while soils in countries of low exchangeable K (Nepal, Sierra Leone,
Ghana, Sri Lanka and Zambia) are relatively coarse (mean TI 30-39). See also Fig. 12. In
the last mentioned countries potassium fertilization is likely to be one of the primary
requirements for obtaining reasonably high yields.
Calcium is essential, not only to correct soil acidity but also as a nutrient element
necessary for normal plant growth. Soil Ca plays an essential role in regulating soil pH.
All countries shown in Fig. 9 where the average exchangeable Ca content of soils was
less than 1000 mg/1 had a mean pH(CaC12) of 5.1 or lower, countries with a soil Ca
26

Ca
.7

.6
e u

'ji
Tu
It
.5
0_

o .4 _IIIflIjj I
IIIIIII
III
.4- M.e r
(t) NZe Et Eg

o
o .3 e TD

o
o
.2 I

600 1000 2000 3000 6000 10000 20000

(CH3COONH4)
Ca in soil , mg/I
Fig. 9. Regression of calcium content of original wheat and maize (pooled) on CH3COONH4
exhangeable calcium content of soil for the whole international material. For regression equation see
Table 4 and for abbreviations the text for Fig. 6.

content of 1000-1600 mg/1 had an average pH of 5.2-5.8, and those with soil Ca over
6500 mg/1 had a pH(CaC12) of 7.4 or higher. The relationship between Ca content of
plants and soil pH is similar although not as clear (Fig. 11).
Liming was most frequently practised in Korea and Finland where 9 out of every 10
sampled soils received lime in recent years preceding sampling. In Belgium, Brazil, New
Zealand and Hungary liming frequencies (7, 6, 5 and 3 out of 10 sampled soils, respectively)
were also high. Liming was uncommon in other countries.
In countries of very low soil Ca status the low pH may also be accompanied by toxic or
excess contents of elements such as Mn and Al. Owing to the general abundance of ex-
changeable Ca in soils in relation to Ca requirements of plants, the absorption of Ca by
plants may rarely be directly limited by low soil Ca contents, and further, the Ca contents
of soils are poorly reflected in the Ca contents of plants. It is apparent that true Ca
deficiency is relatively rare and of less importance than the indirect malfunctions due to
shortage of soil Ca.
 27

.26 -Mg
.24
6Ph

.22
°Hu

20
-I eNe In
C
Eg
oKo
Q. .18 ,Tu
Ni
o Ir
o .16
A
Sr e Pe oTa
Le e
oMw Ec
Fi
Za Gh°
Et
he
Si
Bee
Mt

.08
Lt2
50 70 100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000
( CH3 COONI-14)
Mg in soil , mg/I
Fig. 10. Regression of magnesium content of original wheat and maize (pooled) on CH3COONH4
exchangeable magnesium content of soil for the whole international material. For regression equation see
Table 4 and for abbreviations the text for Fig. 6.

The correlation between plant magnesium and exchangeable soil Mg was only slightly
better than that of Ca. Even though in almost every country there are a few soils with low
contents of exchangeable Mg, their relative frequency is very low in countries such as
Egypt, Syria, Philippines, Iraq, Mexico, Lebanon, Turkey and Hungary, where fine
textured soils (national mean texture indexes 46-60) with medium to high pH(CaC12)
(national mean 6.0-7.7) predominate. In typical low Mg countries such as Belgium, Sierra
Leone and Zambia, soils with a low pH and coarse texture (national mean pH(CaC12)
4.9-5.8, TI 27-33) are in a majority.
The internal variations within each country of plant and soil macronutrient contents
are given in Part II.
28

Table 4. Regressions of pooled plant N, P, K, Ca and Mg contents (y) on respective soil macronutrients (x).
For regression curves, see Figures 6-10.

S-4± s Tc s Regression r Fig.

N, whole material 3732 4.27 ± 1.16 0.134 ± 0.086 y = 5.61 + 1.43 log x 0.280*** 6a
N, fert. > 100 kg N/ha 1102 4.80 ± 1.11 0.131 ± 0.086 y = 6.47 + 1.78 log x 0.334*** 6b
N, fert. 50 kg N/ha 1955 3.99 ± 1.05 0.138 ± 0.081 y = 5.11 + 1.22 log x 0.274*** 6e
P, whole material 3732 0.375 ± 0.121 21.4 ± 29.4 y = 0.205 + 0.155 log x 0.556***7a
P, fert. > 30 kg P/ha 763 0.457 ±0.123 35.1 ± 32.7 y = 0.275 + 0.133 log x 0450*** 7 b
P, fert. < 10 kg P/ha 2089 0.347 ± 0.106 17.2 ± 28.4 y = 0.212 + 0.134 log x 0.523*** 7e
K, whole material 3732 4.03 ± 1.12 346 ± 324 log y = 0.329 + 0.108 log x 0.304*** 8a
K, fert. > 30 kg K/ha 709 4.31 ± 1.01 204 ± 139 log y = 0.229 + 0.175 log x 0.398*** 8b
K, fert. < 10 kg K/ha 2810 3.97 ± 1.12 396 ± 352 log y = 0.286 + 0.120 log x 0.338*** 8c

Ca, whole material 3732 0.428 ± 0.177 4027 ± 3004 log y =-0.663 + 0.075 log x 0.183*** 9

Mg, whole material 3732 0.173 ± 0.072 466 ± 451 log y = -1.028 + 0.093 log x 0.219*** 10

2.2.4 Macronutrient contents of plants and soils in relation to four soil characteristics

In order to obtain a broad assessment of factors influencing the macronutrient contents in

this material, regressions of N, P, K, Ca and Mg contents of plants (pooled) and soils
(total N, CH3COONH4 exchangeable Ca, Mg, and K, and NaHCO3 extractable P) were
computed on four important soil characteristics. The regression lines are given in Figures
11-14 and the respective equations in Table 5.

Table 5. Plant and soil macronutrients as functions of four soil characteristics in the whole international
material (n = 3731). For regression curves, see Figs 11-14.

Variables Regression Variables Regression Fig.

y x y x

Plant N pH log y = 0.718 - 0.130 log x _0.074*** Soil N pH y = 0.281 - 0.0221 x - 0.289*** 11
" TI log y = 0.485 + 0.0788 log x 0.099*** TI log y = - 1.76 + 0.510 log x 0.390*** 12
" Org.0 y= 4.24 + 0.932 log x 0.213*** Org.0 log y = - 0.959 + 0.765 log x 0.890*** 13
CEC log y = 0.491 + 0.0881 log x 0.161*** CEC log y = - 1.60 + 0.484 log x 0.528*** 14

Plant P pH log y = - 0.371 - 0.0116 x - 0.090*** Soil P pH log y = 1.59 - 0.0734 x - 0.190*** 11
" TI y = 0.412 - 0.000835 x - 0.113*** TI Y= 28.4 - 0.158 x - 0.089*** 12
" Org.0 log y = -0.451 + 0.0824 log x 0.152*** Org.0 log y = 1.08 + 0.631 log x 0.384*** 13
., 0.835 + 0.193 log x
CEC y= 0.392 - 0.000617 x - 0.074*** CEC log y = 0.110*** 14

Plant K pH y= 4.58 - 0.677 log x - 0.047** Soil K pH log y = 1.41 + 1.19 log x 0.256*** 11

TI log y = 0.509 + 0.0485 log x 0.064*** TI log y = 0.906 + 0.916 log x 0.432*** 12
Org.0 log y = 0.585 + 0.0797 log x 0.163*** Org.0 log y = 2.38 + 0.305 log x 0.220*** 13
CEC log y = 0.548 + 0.0287 log x 0.055*** CEC log y = 1.37 + 0.739 log x 0.501*** 14

Plant Ca pH y= 0.157 + 0.332 log x 0.146*** Soil Ca pH log y = 0.065 + 4.14 log x 0.773*** 11
" TI y= 0.455 - 0.000604 x - 0.056*** TI log y = 1.43 + 1.25 log x 0.513*** 12
" Org.0 y= 0.439 - 0.00841 x - 0.059*** Org.0 Y= 4240 - 178 x - 0.073*** 13
CEC Y 0.438 - 0.000362 x - 0.030 n.s. CEC Y= 609 + 124 x 0.603*** 14

Plant Mg pH log y = -0.942 + 0.0221 x 0.149*** Soil Mg pH log y = 0.471 + 2.49 log x 0.495*** 11
" TI y -= 0.176 - 0.000066 x - 0.015 n.s. TI log y = 0.364 + 1.32 log x 0.581*** 12
" Org.0 log y = -0.792 - 0.0899 log x - 0.144*** Org.0 Y= 483 -15.1 x - 0.041* 13
CEC log y = -0.771 - 0.000638 x - 0.056*** CEC log y = 1.15 + 0.984 log x 0.620*** 14
 29
10 .2
N (r. -c89
.,
xxx)
7 ,

5
__ .0
N ( r =-.074 x") -
4
K (r.-.047 m")
3 100
600 11'5
2 400
o Ca
E 200

a 100
U

/ 600 ,04 1
oo .7 l 495
-
400
Mg
XXX
Ca r . 146 cr, (r- Z56xx
2 200
K
p(r -.090 XXX)
=
100

60
o-
:-..149 xxxl 40
Mg (

- 20
(/)
190 .cxx)

10

4 5 6 7 4 5 6 8
pH (CaCl2) pH (CaCl2 )
Fig. 11. Plant and soil macronutrients as functions of soil pH in the whole international material (n = 3731).
Regression equations are given in Table 5.

In respect to soil pH (Fig. 11) the firmest relationship was obtained for exchangeable
soil Ca, which increased from about 400 to 6000 mg/1 when the pH increased from 4 to
81). The respective increase in plant Ca content was from about 0.35 to 0.45 %. If these
increases (400 to 6000 and 0.35 to 0.45) aie compared to the regression given in Fig. 9, it
can be seen that between soil Ca levels of 400 and 6000 mg/1 the respeçtive increase in the
Ca content of plants is about from 0.34 to 0.42 %. The increase in plant Ca is therefore
almost entirely due to an increase in exchangeable soil Ca, and pH seems to have
practically no effect on absorption of Ca by the plants.
The increasing soil Mg and decreasing soil N and P contents as functions of pH are
accompanied by similar relationships between the Mg, N, and P contents of plants and the
pH. Comparing these to the respective plant-soil regressions given in Figs 6, 7 and 10
(as in the case of Ca) it can be seen that the changes in the Mg, N, and P contents of
plants are almost entirely due to the respective changes in the soil Mg, N and P contents,
and the effect of pH on the absorption of these elements by plants is minimal.
Potassium is the only macronutrient the availability of which to plants seems to be
affected by soil pH. In spite of increasing exchangeable K contents of soils with increasing
pH, the K contents of the plant decrease. While these relationships are statistically not as
firm as those for the other macronutrients, they still point to pH as being one cause for the
relatively poor correlation between the results of the plant and soil K analyses.

') Although soil Ca is given as a function of pH the cause and effect are likely to be the opposite.
30
10 ..
.2 r 390'
7
e
5
0-.099x") .0
N
4
o
3
K( r = .064 xxx) 1000
600
400
I515.,-----Ca

II'
2
o o)
E 200

o 100
o
60
-,_
.......
-r.... Mg
111.117 1
,
.5
40 MIL
I= -/117-- 32
- C r,._.056 xxx) 2 20
---
D ( r = -.773 )(xx) 10
M .3
o 6 (AS
=IIIII
o .2 Mg 4
o ( r.-.015 n.s.)
2 02 r - 089

1 I
1
10 30 50 70 90 10 30 50 70 90
Texture index Texture index
Fig. 12. Plant and soil macronutrients as functions of soil texture (TI) in the whole international material
(n 3731). Regression equations are given in Table 5.

The contents of soil total N and exchangeable Ca, Mg, and K increased significantly
from coarse to fine textured soils but the NaHCO3 extractable P contents decreased (Fig.
12). Similar changes in the plant contents of N, P and K took place, indicating that texture
has a relatively small effect on the availability of these elements to plants.
In spite of the strong increases in the exchangeable soil Ca and Mg toward fine
textured soils, there were no corresponding increases in the Ca and Mg contents of plants.
Instead these showed a slight decrease, and indicate that plants can absorb these elements
more easily from coarse than from fine textured soils. Clearly the varying relative
availability of Ca and Mg in texturally different soils is one of the factors impairing the
plant-soil correlations for these elements.
The plant and soil macronutrient data given as functions of the organic carbon content
of soil in Fig. 13 are relatively consistent with each other. The N, K and P contents of both
the soil and the plant increased and those of Ca and Mg decreased with increasing organic
carbon content of soils. The magnitudes of the changes are also of the same order as those
given in Figs 6 to 10. For example, the total N content of soil increases from about 0.03 to
0.45 % and the N content of plants from about 3.6 to 5.0 % when the organic carbon
content increases from 0.2 to 6.4 % (Fig. 13). Likewise, with the total soil N content in-
creasing from 0.03 to 0.45 % (Fig. 6, line a) the plant N content increases from about 3.4
to 5.1 %. Thus, the increase in the plant N content is due to the respective increase in the
soil total N content, and the varying soil organic carbon contents do not interfere with the
plant Nsoil N correlation to any marked extent. The same is true for the relationships be-
tween the other macronutrients and soil organic carbon content.
 31

.4

0_

o
10

2
7

r
Il
moil/
NEW

(r-

(y
al 3 x" )
163x% )_
z-

'2O0
.2

.0

1000

600
400
.
NM

=I
LW
E ii
.......
.....`'-a°

E
100

=NE MIME MINI=

1
Q)
=MIMI MI= o
(-) 60 MIIIIIIMIIIIII
EN
o .7 Ell r = - 041 x )
(
o
.5
=.152xxx 1
C
o
40

20 I
MIEN1111111111111=1111111/
11111111 -

P
10
7 MN

Ill 2 llMail
o
o .2 CL 4

I 111111111"
o ("" - 144 xxx)
2
.1
IMg o
1
M il
MIN
minomr
illirIMEM
MIIMINIIIIIIIIMEN
MNIIMMIIMIIIIIIMIN
4 =MN= =NM
.4 .6 1.6 3.2 64 .2 .4 .8 16 3.2 64
Organic C ,% Organic C ,

Fig. 13. Plant and soil macronutrients as functions of soil organic carbon content in the whole international
material (n = 3731). Regression equations are given in Table 5.

The soil contents of all five macronutrients increased with increasing cation exchange
capacity (Fig. 14). For N, Ca, Mg and K these relations are more firm than for P. Of the
plant macronutrients, only the contents of N and K increased with increasing CEC but
Ca, Mg and P decreased. The plant macronutrientCEC regressions are generally less firm
than the respective relations between soil macronutrients and CEC.
Because of the pronounced effects of texture and organic matter content on CEC
(Figs 3 and 4), the effects of these factors on soil and plant macronutrients are indirectly
reflected also in macronutrientCEC relations.
The dissimilarity between the regressions of plant and soil Ca, Mg and P contents on
CEC (Fig. 14) can be considered as one of the factors interfering with the plant-soil
correlations for these elements.
The above regression data of the plant and soil macronutrient contents on four soil
characteristics are summarized in Table 6.
With rising pH the N and P contents decreased but those of Ca and Mg increased. With
increasing texture index the N and K contents increased but P contents decreased. With
increasing soil organic matter content the N, P and K contents increased but those of Ca
and Mg decreased. With increasing CEC the N and K contents increased.
32
)00,1
10 .20 .5228

.84-)
.10
N '
7

5
N(r = .161 xxx
.05

K( 0
4
r= .055 xxx )
1
3
600
400
MINN
MNIE

= ,Agil
all
2
MI
E 200 MillIPPINE
111.1

[
o 100
C.) =I
mom ..11
/NM
=
..4111M
60 MIll
o .7 -o -. PP.'".
40 ,

MI ..APP."-
.5 Ca
____(r= - .030 n.s.
pc r = - .074 xxx
2 20 )

MilpPW -.4

1 ))

6
cL
.2 4 )
C-,
0 Mg ("-056 x",
0 2 )
1.0 ( r . 110 X" /
.1 1 )

4 a 16 n 64 4 8 16 32 64
CEC , me/100g C EC , me /100g
Fig. 14. Plant and soil macronutrients as functions of cation exchange capacity in the whole international
material (n 3731). Regression equations are given in Table 5.

These relationships are supported by both the plant and the soil macronutrient analyses,
and the soil characteristics specified are unlikely to have any marked adverse effect on the
plant-soil correlations for the particular elements. In the cases of pHK, TICa,
TIMg, CECP, CECCa and CECMg the soil characteristics have opposite effects
on the plant and soil nutrient contents, and are likely to interfere with the plant-soil
correlation for those nutrients. Taking these effects into consideration may help with the
interpretation of the data from plant and (or) soil analyses.

Table 6. Directions (+ or symbols) of regressions of plant and soil macronutrient contents on four soil
characteristics.

Soil Macronutrient
characteristic N Ca Mg
Plant Soil Plant Soil Plant Soil Plant Soil Plant Soil
pH(CaCl2)
Texture index
Organic C
CEC
 33

2.3 Micronutrients

2.3.1 Plant analysis versus soil analysis

Opinions of scientists differ as to the relative value of plant and soil analysis. In the present
study both techniques were used on all soils and the evaluation of results is based on both
(see Section 1.4.3).
The analysis of over 3500 original pland from the field and the respective soils, plus
over 3500 pot plants grown on the same soils, gave an opportunity to compare the data
and to draw certain conclusions at theoretical and practical levels.
To understand better the characteristics of these two widely used techniques, plant
analysis and soil analysis, for diagnosing the micronutrient status of soils, one must realize
that these analyses are based on fundamentally different principles.
The most essential difference between these analyses is that the micronutrient fractions
to be analysed are obtained by different ways. Micronutrient absorption by a plant is a
process taking place under laws of biochemistry and plant physiology while chemical
soil extraction obeys the laws of chemistry. Consequently, the same micronutrient fractions
do not appear in the analysis, nor is it always the aim that they should. Therefore, it is
understandable that many soil factors react differently during these two processes.
Furthermore, the amounts (total) of micronutrients found in plants represent micro-
nutrient fractions in the soil which have been available to the plant during its period of
growth. Depending on the analytical method and on the micronutrient analysed, the
results of soil analyses also include varying amounts of soil micronutrient reserves. The
total contents of soil micronutrients, even though having an influence on the soluble or
on plant available amounts, are in general, poor estimates of the available fractions. A
variety of extraction methods has therefore been developed to obtain more reliable
estimates of the fractions available to plants. Even the extractable fractions, although
representing only a small portion of the total, exceed the requirements of plants by a
considerable margin.
From a theoretical point of view, the amounts of micronutrients absorbed by plants
from soils are to be considered as the most reliable measure of the fraction available
to plants since the process of absorption is one taking place under the laws of nature. Soil
analysis again is to be considered as an attempt to imitate plants. If there is contradiction
between the results there should be no doubt who is wrong, the plant or the soil chemist.
If both analyses give similar estimates of the micronutrient status of soils, i.e. the mutual
correlation between the results of plant and soil analyses is good, the quantitative
differences between the micronutrient fractions analysed from plants and extracted from
soils are of little importance.
When there is contradiction between the results obtained by the two techniques, it is
important to find the main reason(s) for it, i.e. which soil factor impairs the correlation
between the results of soil and plant analyses by affecting the results of plant analyses in
one way and those of soil analyses in another way. Such a contradiction indicates that the
soil extraction method used fails to take into account the effect of a soil factor regulating
the availability of a micronutrient to plant. In order to improve the method of soil
analysis, its results must be corrected so that they are in accord with the results of plant
analyses with regard to the effects of the soil factor in question. In other words, a
34

correction coefficient is required for eliniinating or minimizing the deviating effects of the
particular soil factor(s).
The prerequisite for introducing a correction coefficient is that both the plant material and
the soil material meet certain requirements:
large numbers (preferably thousands) of plant-soil sample pairs
widely varying soil characteristics')
comparable plant material consisting of one indicator plant species, the same variety,
same sampling time (physiological age), same parts of plant analysed, minimum
contamination, and comparable growing conditions2).
The present material (soils and pot-grown plants) can be considered to meet these
requirements rather well.
Differences between the absorption of most microelements by a plant and the extraction
of that microelement from the soil by chemical treatment are caused by more than one
soil factor, but in practice all these cannot be taken into account. Therefore, in this study
only the factors with the greatest effects (the key factors) are used as a basis for correcting
the results of soil analyses.
Examples of the effects of two correction factors (pH and TI), however, are given in
case of Mo (Section 2.3.2) and an example of correcting the results of two extraction
methods (DTPA and AAAc-EDTA) for one soil factor (pH) is given in the case of Mn
(Section 2.3.6).
Identification of the soil factor(s) responsible for impaired correlation between the
results of plant and soil analyses was carried out by computing regressions for both the
results of plant analyses and the results of soil analyses as functions of all six soil charac-
teristics determined for all the international material. Comparing the regressions of plant
and soil micronutrient contents as functions of various soil factors, it was usually possible
to identify visually the factors with the most impairing effects on the plant-soil correlation.
In verification, the actual impairing effects of all soil factors involved were computed,
quantified and compared.3) According to these data the soil factors impairing the plant-
soil correlation most severely appeared to be as follows:
Micronutrient Soil factor* Soil extraction method
CEC Hot water
Cu Organic carbon AAAc-EDTA
content
Mn pH AAAc-EDTA and DTPA
Mo ' pH A0-0A
Zn pH AAAc-EDTA

* In the cases of AAAc-EDTA exractable soil Fe and DTPA extractable soil Zn, none of the correction coefficients
calculated for the six soil factors improved the respective plant-soil correlation appreciably.

Identification of soil factors responsible for impaired correlation between the results of
plant and soil analyses is the first step toward a more systematic interpretation of
analytical results. These factors must be taken into account in one way or another when
interpreting the results of soil analyses.

For example, it would not be justifiable to make general conclusions about the effect of pH, if the range of variation in pH
of the soil samples were one or two pH units only.
For details, see Section 1.2.
In the next Section (2.3.2) the data concerning Mo are presented in detail to give a fuller account of the principles and
procedures for quantifying the impairing effects of various soil factors, for identifying the soil factor with the greatest
effects and for eliminating these effects by determining and applying a correction coefficient.
 35

For example, in case of Mo the soil pH is one such factor. The results of soil Mo
analyses must be either:
interpreted differently at different soil pH levels, or
the interfering effects of pH must be eliminated by making the effect of pH on soil
chemical extraction equal to its effect on Mo absorption by plants.
Should course (a) be adopted, a number of parallel stepwise interpretations would be
needed. Thus, for example, extractable soil Mo contents obtained from a soil of pH
4 would have to be interpreted quite differently to the contents measured from soils with
a pH of say 5,6 or 7.
In order to simplify the interpretation of soil analytical data, the second course of action
(b) was adopted and applied to the results of this study. Accordingly, the interference
of soil pH was eliminated by introducing a "correction coefficient" for pH to the results
of the soil Mo analyses so that the extractable soil Mo values as a function of pH became
similar to plant Mo values as a function of pH. The introduction of this coefficient is not
aimed to eliminate the influence of a given soil factor (in the case of Mo, the pH) but to
liberate soil Mo values from an interfering factor (pH) and to minimize its impairing
effects on the plant Mosoil Mo correlation. With the application of a pH correction to
soil Mo values, the need for different parallel interpretations at different soil pH levels
vanishes.
As pointed out above, soil factors exercising the greatest interference with the plant-soil
correlation vary from one micronutrient to another depending also on the method of
extraction. In the next Sections (2.3.2 to 2.3.7) the effects of six soil factors on the six
micronutrients are discussed. Departing from the otherwise alphabetic order of the
elements, the data concerning Mo is given first and in more detail than those of other
micronutrients. The underlying reasons for so doing were that the soil Mo analysis needs
to be corrected more than those of other micronutrients and also because in the case of
Mo two correction coefficients (for pH and for texture) are introduced.

2.3.2 Molybdenum

2.3.2.1 General aspects

The average Mo contents of the three types of indicator plant, the A0-0A extractable
Mo contents of the respective soils, and the best fitting regressions of plant Mo and soil
Mo for all the international material are shown below. The corresponding national
averages are given in Appendixes 2, 3 and 4.

Molybdenum content
in plant DM in resp. soils
Indicator mean ± s mean + s Regression of plant Correlation
plant n (PPrn) (mg/1) Mo (y) on soil Mo (x) (r)
Original maize 1966 0.86 ± 1.35 0.212 ± 0.273 y = 0.715 + 0.661 x 0.134***
Original wheat 1766 0.94 ± 1.03 0.204 ± 0.229 y -= 0.836 + 0.525 x 0.117***
Pot-grown wheat 3537 0.32 ± 0.36 0.210 ± 0.257 y = 0.529 + 0.246 x 0.245***

The differences in the average Mo contents of soils between the three groups are small.
Mo differed from the other micronutrients in that the mean Mo content of maize was
36

lower than that of the original wheat. This may not so much be due to the lesser ability
of maize to absorb Mo from soils as to the generally lower pH of maize soils (mean pH
6.40) than of soils where the wheats were originally grown (mean pH 6.91). For much
the same reason, the Mo contents of the original wheats exceeded those of the pot-grown
wheats (mean soil pH 6.64) by a considerable margin. The effect of soil pH on extractable
Mo and Mo content of plants will be discussed later in this chapter. The small amounts
of soil in pots (see Section 1.2.6) may have further lowered the Mo contents of the pot-
grown wheat as compared to the contents of the original wheat plants.
The regression of Mo contents of pot-grown wheat on soil Mo is shown in Fig. 15,
where the national mean values of plant and soil Mo are also plotted. There was a
substantial improvement in the correlation when the original plants were replaced by the
pot-grown wheat plants. In spite of this, the correlation (r = 0.245***) was weaker than
those for the other five micronutrients.0 Nor was the respective correlation between the
Mo uptake (pot-grown wheat) and soil Mo (y = 0.711 + 0.341 log x; r = 0.243***) any
better than that in Fig. 15.
It is clear that soil Mo analysis (ammonium oxalate-oxalic acid, pH 3.3) as such does
not give a sufficiently reliable index of Mo availability to p1ants.2) For instance, the
average extractable Mo contents of Pakistani and Brazilian soils were approximately equal,
but the Mo contents of plants from Pakistan were about 20 times higher.
Studies concerning the reasons for the contradictory results of soil and plant analyses
are presented in Section 2.3.2.2.

2.3.2.2 Soil factors affecting the molybdenum contents of plants and soils
To obtain first a general picture of how various soil factors are related to the amounts of
Mo absorbed by plants (Mo contents of pot-grown wheat) and to A0-0A extractable
soil Mo, both the plant Mo and soil Mo contents were computed as functions of the six
soil characteristics (pH, texture, organic carbon content, CEC, electrical conductivity and
CaCO3 equivalent) determined from all the soil samples. These regressions are presented
graphically in Fig. 16 (graphs on the left and in the centre), and the respective regression
equations and correlation coefficients are given in Table 7. To give a better visual picture
of these relations the soil data were classified into 11 to 18 classes (columns) with respect
to each soil characteristic.3) The number of samples falling into each class is given.
Visual comparisons of the regressions show that the effect of a soil characteristic on
plant Mo usually differs considerably from its effect on A0-0A extractable soil Mo.
Only the effects of CEC on plant Mo and soil Mo seem to be in conformity; the other soil
factors affect the absorption of Mo by plants to an extent considerably different to their
effect on the extractability of soil Mo by A0-0A extractant. These differences account
for the conflicting results between the soil and plant analyses. A0-0A extraction is thus
insensitive to the effects of those soil factors on the availability of Mo to plants and,
therefore, gives a poor estimate of Mo availability to plants. In fact, three of the soil
factors studied (electrical conductivity, pH and CaCO3 equivalent) are better correlated

Because of the very large number of samples (n = 3535 3538) used in this study, correlation coefficients of 0.033, 0.043
and 0,055 would have been significant at the 5 %, 1 % and 0.1 % level, respectively.

At an early stage of this study other extraction methods for soil Mo were examined on limited materials, but none of these
proved promising enough for acceptance.

The reason for the low location of some regression curves (e.g. curve a) in relation to the columns is that the columns
indicate arithmetic mean values and the regression is in a logarithmic form.
 37

y -±s 0 2±
3
= 0 529 + 2
2 r=0 45"
E
0.
o_
_J

.6
.
*I r
'a
It Pe
S
F.
L TuHu Ph

"C"
o

.06

.03
.02

.011
.01 .02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1

Mo in soil, mg/I.
Fig. 15. Regression of Mo content of pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil
Mo (x) for the whole international material. Abbreviations for national mean values:

Ar = Argentina, Be = Belgium, Br = Brazil, Eg = Egypt,

Et = Ethiopia, Fi = Finland, Gh = Ghana, Hu = Hungary,
In = India, Ir = Iraq, It = Italy, Ko = Korea, Rep.,
Le = Lebanon, Mt = Malta, Malawi, Me = Mexico,
Ne = Nepal, NZ = New Zealand, Ni = Nigeria, Pa = Pakistan,
Pe = Peru, Ph = Philippines, Si = Sierra Leone, Sr = Sri Lanka,
Sy = Syria, Ta = Tanzania, Th = Thailand, Tu = Turkey,
Za = Zambia.

to Mo content of plants (r values 0.498***, 0459*** and 0.410***, respectively, Table 7)

than is the A0-0A extractable soil Mo (r = 0.245***, Fig. 15). Also the other three soil
factors studied (texture, organic carbon content and CEC) seem to have significant effects
on the Mo content of plants (Fig. 16, regressions f, i and 1). Furthermore, all six soil
factors studied affect significantly the A0-0A extractable contents of soil Mo (Fig. 16,
regressions a, e, h, k, n and q).
38
2.0

1.0

.8

.6

.4

5 6 7
pH (Ca C12) pH (0x012)

1.71

E o
Q. 30 30 50 70 90
Texture index (Ti)
10
Texture 2 Texture i idex (Ti)

a>

o
.4 .8 t6 az 64 al 4 .8 16 32 6.4 .4 .8 16 32 64
Organic C, % Organic C, % Organic C, %
-8

+E.
a.)

o o
o
8 16 32 64 8 16 32 64 8 16 32 64
CEO me/ 009 CEC , me/100g CEC me/ 00g
o

16 6.4 256 .4 16 64 zas .4 16 64 256

El. conductivity, , 10-4 Scm El. conductivi y , 10-4 Scm El. conductivi y , 10-4 Scm
S

,4 16 64 256 . .4 16 64 256
Ca CO equiv., % Ca CO equiv., % Co CO, equiv., %

Fig. 16. Relationships of ammonium oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo and plant Mo to various soil
characteristics in the whole international material.
Graphs on the left: A0-0A extractable soil Mo as a function of six soil factors.
Graphs in the middle: Plant Mo as a function of six soil factors.
Graphs on the right: pH-corrected A0-0A extractable soil Mo as a function of six soil factors.
In regard to the six soil characteristics the material is classified into 11-18 -classes. The columns indicate
arithmetic mean Mo values of each class. The number of samples (n) within each class is given. The
equations and correlation coefficients for regressions are given in Table 7. See also Footnote 3 on p. 36.
 39

Table 7. Equations and correlation coefficients for regressions of A0-0A extractable soil Mo (uncorrected
and pH-corrected) and plant Mo on six soil characteristics. Regression curves are given in Figs 16 and 17.

Variables Regression Correl. Regr.

Y coeff. curve
Soil Mo (uncorr.) pH 3537 log y = -6.741 + 16.40 log x - 11.15 (log x)2 .306*** a
Soil Mo (uncorr.) pH 18 y = -8.558 + 4.429 x - 0.722 x2 + 0.0383 x3 .796*** al
Plant Mo pH 3537 y = 0.574 - 0.251 x + 0.0312 x2 .459***
Plant Mo/soil Mo pH 3537 log y = -2.300 + 0.360 x .770***
pH-corr. soil Mo pH 3537 y = 0.909 - 0.336 x + 0.0338 x2 397***

Soil Mo (uncorr.) TI 3535 y = -0.274 + 0.299 log x .199*** e

Plant Mo TI 3535 y = -1.559 + 2.344 log x - 0.722 (log x)2 075***
pH-corr. soil Mo TI 3535 y = -1.328 + 1.642 log x - 0.423 (log x)2 .195***

Soil Mo (uncorr.) Org. C 3537 y= 0.102 + 0.0914 x - 0.00353 x2 .255***

Plant Mo Org. C 3537 y= 0.380 - 0.0483 x + 0.00157 x2 .098***
pH-corr. soil Mo Org. C 3537 y= 0.244 - 0.0280 x + 0.000753 x2 .078***

Soil Mo (uncorr.) CEC 3537 y = -0.390 + 0.738 log x - 0.213 (log x)2 .177***
Plant Mo CEC 3537 y = -0.202 + 0.809 log x - 0.302 (log x)2 .066***
pH-corr. soil Mo CEC 3537 y = -0.251 + 0.584 log x - 0.175 (log x)2 .115***

Soil Mo (uncorr.) El. cond. 3537 y = 0.219 - 0.135 log x + 0.121 (log x)2 .122***
Plant Mo El. cond. 3537 log y = -0.856 + 0.784 log x - 0.213 (log x)2 .498*** o
pH-corr. soil Mo El. cond. 3537 log y = -1.043 + 0.776 log x - 0.217 (log x)2 .498***

Soil Mo (uncorr.) CaCO3 eq. 3537 log y = -0.844 - 0.107 log x - 0.0254 (log x)2 307***
Plant Mo CaCO3 eq. 3537 y = 0.406 + 0.0910 log x - 0.0243 (log x)2 .410***
pH-corr. soil Mo CaCO3 eq. 3537 log y = -0.700 + 0.118 log x - 0.0820 (log x)2 .580***

In this connection it should be remembered that although all six soil characteristics
studied seem to affect significantly both the plant Mo and A0-0A extractable soil Mo,
some of these correlations are only "secondary" or "pseudocorrelations" due to the
significant (r values from 0.093*** to 0.903***) mutual correlations between the six soil
characteristics (see Section 2.1). Some of these are referred to later in connection with Mo
as well as other micronutrients.
One of the principal differences between the effects of the above soil characteristics and
extractable soil Mo on plant Mo seems to be that these soil characteristics act as
regulators for the availability of Mo to plants, while extractable soil Mo values are more
influenced by the Mo reserves of soil but fail to take into account the effects of the factors
regulating the availability of Mo to plants. Therefore, a combination of one or more of
the above soil factors and A0-0A extractable Mo would give a better estimate of the
*amounts of Mo available to plants than any of them alone.
So far the twelve regressions of A0-0A extractable soil Mo (Fig. 16 a, e, h, k, n, q)
and plant Mo (b, f, i,. 1, o, r) on the six soil characteristics discussed above, indicate how
soil Mo and plant Mo are correlated to these factors, but only broadly quantify the
interference of these factors with the plant Mo-soil Mo correlation.
To quantify the interfering effect of a soil factor its effect on A0-0A extractable soil
Mo must first be equalized to its effect on plant Mo, i.e. a correction coefficient for soil Mo
values is required. Applying this coefficient to all the international material gives a
measure of the interfering effect of the soil factor in question in the form of a new
correlation coefficient. The more the plant-soil Mo correlation is improved the greater
the interference of the factor in question has been. Furthermore, by comparing the effects
40

tO
E

.6
o
.4
"E.
o
o .2
o

Soil pH

5 6 7 8 4 5 6
Soil pH Soil pH
Fig. 17. Relationships of A0-0A extractable soil Mo and plant Mo to soil pH(CaC12).
Graph a: Soil Mo as a function of pH.
Regression curve a is calculated for the whole material (n = 3537) and curve al for mean values of pH
classes (see text).
Graph b: Plant Mo as a function of pH.
Graph c: Ratio of plant Mo to soil Mo as a function of pH.
The regression curve also indicates the coefficient, k(pH), for correcting soil Mo for pH (right-hand ordinate).
Graph d: pH-corrected soil Mo as a function of pH.
Columns and points indicate mean values of each pH class, n values of pH classes are given in Graph a.
Equations and correlation coefficients for the regression curves are given in Table 7.

of correction coefficients calculated for different soil factors, the factor which has most
impaired the correlation can be identified. A concrete example of the procedures involved
is given in the following:
The effects of soil pH on A0-0A extractable soil Mo are also given in Fig. 17 a.
A large increase in soil Mo up to about pH 5-6 was first followed by a decrease,
reaching a minimum at about pH 7.5-7.7, and then by another increase.r)
The Mo contents of plants increased strongly toward alkaline soils (Fig. 17 b). This
general tendency, however, was interrupted at about pH 7.5-7.7, i.e. at the very pH level
where soil Mo values reached a minimum. In view of the large number of samples at this
pH level, the connection between these minima is scarcely a coincidence but possibly due
to soil chemical reactions affecting both the extractability of soil Mo and the availability of
soil Mo to plants.

I) Because of the abnormal distribution of samples into pH classes, the regression curve (a) calculated for the whole
material ignores the latter increase. Therefore, another regression curve (a1), based on mean values of pH classes, is also
given.
 41

The ratio of plant Mo/soil Mo plotted as a function of pH in Fig. 17 c, shows that there
is a very close relationship between the plant Mo/soil Mo ratio and soil pH (r = 0.770***).
It should be noted that this regression (curve c) was calculated from all the sample
material, 3537 sample pairs. The regression line (c) can be used to read off the correction of
soil Mo values needed at different pH levels to eliminate the difference between pH effects
on soil Mo and plant Mo analyses.
However, if the regression equation of curve c (modified to y = 10-2.30 + 0.36 pH) as
such is used to correct A0-0A extractable soil Mo values, it would raise the soil Mo
values from their original average level of 0.210 mg/1 to an average of 0.297 mg/l. There-
fore, to avoid this and also to restore the original average level for the corrected values, a
reversion coefficient 0.210
(0.297 = 0.707) has to be introduced into the equation. The pH cor-
rection coefficient, k(pH), is now given by:
k(pH) = 0.707 X 10-2.30 + 0.36 pH

which in a simplified form is:

k(pH) = 10-2.45 + 0.36 pH

The numerical values for k(pH) can also be read off directly from the right hand
ordinate of the regression curve c in Fig. 17. The k(pH) has been calculated for pH
(CaC12). The relation between pH(H20) and pH(CaC12) in this material is given in Fig. 5
(Section 2.1).

When the soil Mo values in the whole international material are corrected with k(pH),
the soil MopH relation given in graph d is obtained. The latter is very similar to the
plant MopH relation given in Fig. 17, graph b, i.e. the effect of pH on soil Mo has not
been eliminated but it has been made equal to its effect on plant Mo.
The plant Mosoil MopH relations are further illustrated in Fig. 18, where the
data given in graphs a and b of Fig. 17 are combined. The respective relations after pH
correction (combining data of graphs d and b) are given in Fig. 19. The S-shaped line
depicting plant Mo and soil Mo in pH classes (Fig. 18) which transversely crosses the
regression line for the whole material, illustrates how severely the effect of pH impairs the
plant Mosoil Mo correlation. After pH-correction (Fig. 19) the new line is in good
agreement with the calculated regression line.
Application of k(pH) to the whole international material raised the correlation between
plant Mo and soil Mo from r = 0.245*** (uncorrected, Fig. 15) to r = 0.696***. The
latter regression is given in Fig. 20 with national mean values.
After correction for pH, correlations between plant Mo and soil Mo within different
countries were considerably higher than without correction (Table 8). The only exception
was Malta, where the variation of soil pH was only from 7.48 to 7.64. The largest
improvements in correlations were obtained in countries where the variation of soil pH
was relatively wide. In five countries, non-significant correlations became significant:
in Ghana r = 0.134 n.s. to r = 0.643***, Malawi 0.062 n.s. to 0.487***, Sierra Leone
0.040 n.s. to 0.586***, Sri Lanka 0.161 n.s. to 0.650** and Zambia 0.004 n.s. to
0.656***.
The effects of the other five soil factors on soil Mo and plant Mo were investigated in a
way analogous to that of pH. Correction coefficients for each of the five soil factors were
42

Fig. 18. Relationship of plant Mo to

Mo A0-0A extractable soil Mo in the
n=c.:
0.322 ±1 36 whole material classified for pH. The
0.210 ± 25
3 110.2,61,1 points indicate mean plant Mo and
soil Mo contents of various pH classes
2
in Fig. 17 b and a. The lower
E
cL limit of each pH class is given.
0.1 37.

MAI

Mi."=11=11o111
1.1-40Iy
MWMEMMINMEINNEtWar,6411
.06 NWIMMEMENI
1/fMIONIIIMMZIMM
.03
11111411
.02

.01 1116111, IIE

.01 .02 .03 .06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23

Mo in soil, mg/l (AO -0A)

12UNEMONIMMOSEMII11111111=
L.==LIIMIEN11111111MOIMIONOMIIIIMIEMEMIIIMI Fig. 19. Relationships of plant Mo
6
Mo IMMOIMIIIRIMMTIMIIMMIME131111 1111
to pH-corrected soil Mo (A0-0A)
MENNINIMEMAIIMMI111110111111111111111111MIN
in the whole material classified for
3 .111111=ZUMMIIIMMI11111 pH. See Fig. 17 b and d.
2

E
o_
ifï
1 IllaragliP1111
w .6

'6. .3

w, .2 UIIIIIIIPiIIhiiiH
o
o
o '1
Nor ININEli
1Milrr=1-16[4
W.011M1210=MMENNI1MI
.06 MMMENNOINMM=MMENII
.03
.02

.01 11111.11111111111.1
.006 .01 .02 .03 06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
pH - corrected MO in soil, mg/l (A0-0A)

calculated and their effects were tested and compared by applying them to the whole
international sample material. These comparisons show that application of the various
correction coefficients improved the plant Mo-soil Mo correlation from an r value of
0.245*** (uncorrected) to the following r values:
 43

Mo n
MN
NM ninnInnaninininnu=1Mlin
13MNSIONSUMENNIMMIMMIIMMIIMIMIESIMMIENIMMINEMINEMIII
Namminommirarmin SIIIMIIMMINIEMENI
MIMMIIIIIMIIIMENIMEMEMMOI11101MMINNI
6 MEMMIII=1511ZEREB=IMMINIIIIIMMIIIIIIMIll
oBEENE3111 MUM
IIIIII
=ME=MEMELs

3 MIIIIIIMOZEILISIIIII NMI
2 1111111.1111111C5.9711Mill ME
11111 11111111.11111111P111 --
IN-1111 11, 11
Mill 11111111M1 WEI
o '1

.06
Ellini111011
mm... .......
....................
flIMMEIBMOIMIEUMME
...
En
.....
1111101
== ... =
.03
.02 1111111111111111 iii 11
.01 MililliNIN
.006 .01 .02 .03 06 .1 .2 .3
iiiii 23
.6
ILI
1

pH-corrected MO in soil,mg/t (A0-0.4)

Fig. 20. Regression of Mo content of the_pot-grown wheat (y) on the pH-corrected A0-0A extractable
soil Mo (x) for the whole international material. National mean values are plotted in the graph. For
abbreviations see Fig. 15.

Soil Mo corrected for Value of r

pH 0.696***
Texture (TI) 0.277***
Organic carbon content 0.308***
CEC 0.260***
Electrical conductivity 0.460***
CaCO3 equivalent 0.620***

Correction for pH proved to be more effective than correction for any other soil factor
involved, although those for CaCO3 and electrical conductivity also led to considerable
improvements in the plant Mosoil Mo correlation. These, however, are clearly due to
high mutual correlations between pH and the two soil characteristics in question (see
Section 2.1). This applies partly to the other soil factors as well. Therefore, the effects
of pH correction on the relations between soil Mo and the five other soil factors were
further investigated. These results, given in Fig. 16 (the right hand graphs), show the
following:
44

Soil Texture. A0-0A extractable soil Mo contents increased quite substantially from
coarse toward fine textured soils (Fig. 16 e). The ability of plants to absorb Mo reached
a maximum in medium textured soils and a further increase in texture index (TI) resulted
in lowered Mo contents of plants (Fig. 16 f). Evidently, Mo is fixed in heavy textured clay
soils so firmly that its availability to plants is limited. This fixation, however, does not
seem to affect the extractability of Mo by a chemical extractant. These correlations
(Table 7, e and f) are less close than those between Mo and pH (a and b).
Correction of soil Mo values for pH brought the soil Motexture relation slightly
closer in form to the respective relation between plant Mo and texture (curves g and 0
but their essential differences still remain.
As the organic carbon content of soils increased, the Mo contents of plants decreased
and there was a tendency for A0-0A extractable soil Mo to increase (Fig. 16, h and i).
When soil Mo values were corrected for pH, they also became corrected for organic
carbon, i.e. the effect of organic carbon on pH-corrected soil Mo (curve j) is very similar
to its effect on plant Mo (curve i).
Cation exchange capacity. Both the A0-0A extractable soil Mo and Mo content of
plants increased initially with increasing CEC (Fig. 16, k and 1). With a further increment
in CEC, there was a tendency for a decrease which in the case of plant Mo was very
pronounce.d. Correction for pH also corrected slightly the soil Mo values for CEC.
Electrical conductivity and CaCO3 equivaient of soils affected A0-0A extractable
soil Mo values and Mo contents of plants quite differently (Fig. 16, no and qr). After
pH correction, however, these discrepancies were almost eliminated (op and rs) be-
cause of strong mutual correlations between pH and electrical conductivity and pH
and CaCO3 equivalent (see Figs 3 and 4).
As shown above, due to mutual correlations between pH and the other five soil factors,
the correction of A0-0A extractable soil Mo values for pH also reduced to varying
degrees the discrepancies among the relationships of soil Mo and plant Mo to these
soil factors.
To quantify the remaining interfering effects of various soil factors all the procedures
explained above were repeated, this time with soil Mo values already corrected for pH.
They showed that texture was the factor now causing most interference with the plant
Mosoil Mo correlation. The calculation of the second correction coefficient, that for
texture k(TI), has been presented earlier in detail (Sillanpää, 1981). The formula for
the texture correction coefficient is given by:

k(TI) = 101.472 0.899 log TI

Application of the texture correction (in addition to the pH correction) to all the
international material raised the correlation between plant Mo and soil Mo from an r
value of 0.696*** (Fig. 20) to 0.739*** (Fig. 21).
A visual assessment of the efficacy of the pH and texture corrections can be made by
comparing Figs 15, 20 and 21. Application of the texture correction at the national level
gave the highest plant Mosoil Mo correlations in 20 out of 29 countries (Table 8).
Quantitatively, the improvement is not so marked as that of the pH correction, but
substantial enough to be taken into account, especially in cases where soil materials with
wide textural variation are to be analysed and accurate information on the Mo status of
the soil is required.
 45

=1.0.

"It
MN .....rommil =Imo
i 0 Nimmilmowiliklumma
mini MOM MUM
11111111111111111111111111111111MBH
wwwsimmenemelmollommom
mmEINEHNIII111111111111111111111111111=
11111111111111111111111111MINIMMINI
6 IIMMOMMI=MMUNIMMEMENIMMENNII=.1.
MEMEMEI R..uiii
3 HEIM= Miini1 11111111111111111

MN
MIME
NEE
2
111E-
11111öt
'
y71g005
- +"'0.79
g '
Io x

mmo. Ill
NE= IN

, P4t
111411111 MS

SIEMEMiii
r
1.11 -I'
Be
mg
,

Il
h. Le. ;
HuFj

Ar
Ko_,
u
*Et
IL V I
.06
Lk.
MMMI ,
.z.
Sr

in
Val
...
in
Elm
.03
.02 Mr Br.

.01 Nomm
li
I
.006 . .02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 2
pH-texture -corrected Mo in soil, mg/l (A0-0A)

Fig. 21. Regression of Mo content of the pot-grown wheat (y) on the pH- and texture-corrected soil Mo
(x) for the whole international material. National mean values are also given. For abbreviations see Fig. 15.

Table 8. Correlations (r values) between plant Mo and A0-0A extractable soil Mo in various countries.
Soil Mo analyses are both uncorrected and corrected for pH and texture. Correction coefficients are: k(pH)
= 10-2.45 + 0.36 pH and k(TI) =- 101.472 - 0.899 log TI. Correlations of the best fitting regressions are given.
Regression models: (a) y = a + bx; (b) y = a + b log x; (c) log y = a + bx, and (d) log y = a + b log x.

No correction pH correction pH + TI No correction pH correction pH + TI

Country n only correction Country n only correction
regr. r regr. r regr. r regr. r regr. r regr. r
Belgium 36 c -0.207 n.s. c 0.036 n.s. d 0.217 n.s. Egypt 198 a 0.544*** a 0.614*** b 0.523***
Finland 90 d 0.341*** a 0.638*** a 0.743*** Iraq 150 b 0.778*** b 0.817*** d 0.800***
Hungary 201 b 0.172* d 0.642*** d 0.664*** Lebanon 16 a 0.637** a 0.779*** a 0.819***
Italy 170 a 0.418*** d 0.565*** d 0.539*** Syria 38 d 0.706*** d 0.742*** d 0.749***
Malta 25 c 0.914*** c 0.906*** c 0.827*** Turkey 298 a 0.664*** a 0.751*** a 0.727***
N. Zealand 35 a -0.121 n.s. b 0.171 n.s. b 0.240 n.s.
Ethiopia 125 a 0.480*** a 0.908*** a 0949***
Argentina 208 a 0.583*** a 0.790*** a 0.709*** Ghana 93 a 0.134 n.s. a 0.643*** a 0.601***
Brazil 58 c -0.078 n.s. d 0.117 n.s. c 0.287* Malawi 97 c 0.062 n.s. a 0.487*** a 0.597***
Mexico 242 b 0.252*** d 0.583*** d 0.632*** Nigeria 153 b 0.088 n.s. d 0.645*** d 0.711***
Peru 68 a 0.484*** a 0.692*** d 0.651*** Sierra L. 48 b 0.040 n.s. a 0.586*** a 0.668***
Tanzania 163 d 0.545*** d 0.765*** d 0.846***
India 258 b 0.514*** b 0.613*** d 0.685*** Zambia 44 b -0.004 n.s. a 0.656*** a 0.717***
Korea, Rep. 90 b 0.280** d 0.623*** d 0.694***
Nepal 35 a 0.335* d 0.749*** b 0.794***
Pakistan 237 d 0.598*** d 0.618*** d 0.587***
Philippines 194 a 0.265*** d 0.662*** a 0.697***
Sri Lanka 18 c -0.161 n.s. a 0.650** a 0.694** Whole
Thailand 149 b 0.388*** d 0.671*** d 0.677*** material 3537 b 0.245*** d 0.696*** d 0.739***
46

The mutual relations between plant Mo and A0-0A extractable soil Mo, and the
effects of various soil factors on plant and soil Mo are summarized as follows:
Owing to the heterogeneity of plant material, the original plants (maize and wheat)
were unreliable indicators of the Mo status of soils.
The heterogeneity was minimized by growing fresh plant samples (wheat) in pots on
soils received from participating countries.
Replacing the original plants by pot-grown wheat improved the plant MoA0-0A
extractable soil Mo correlations from r values of 0.117-0.134*** to 0.245***.
Soil Mo analysis (ammonium oxalate-oxalic acid, pH 3.3) as such does not give a
reliable index of the Mo availability to plants as the data are much affected by soil pH.
Both plant Mo and A0-0A extractable soil Mo were significantly affected by
all six soil characteristics studied.
Soil pH proved to be the factor which most disturbed the plant Mo and A0-0A
extractable soil Mo correlation.
Equalizing the effects of pH on soil Mo and plant Mo by correcting soil Mo values
for pH raised the overall plant Mosoil Mo correlation (r) from 0.245*** to
0.696*** and individually in 28 out of 29 countries.
the pH correction also moderated and sometimes almost eliminated the differences be-
tween the effects of the other five soil factors on plant Mo and soil Mo.
After correcting for pH, differences in soil texture had the greatest effect on plant Mo
and soil Mo correlation.
Texture correction (in addition to pH correction) improved the plant Mosoil Mo
correlation from an r value of 0.696*** to 0.739***, and in 20 out of 29 countries.
When the results of this study are expressed by countries (Part II), the uncorrected
as well as the pH-corrected A0-0A extractable soil Mo contents are presented.

2.3.3 Boron

2.3.3.1 General aspects

The national average B contents of original indicator plants, those of pot-grown wheat,
and the average hot water extractable B contents of the respective soPls are given in
Appendixes 2, 3 and 4. Corresponding data for the whole of the international material as
well as plant/soil regressions are tabulated below:

Boron content
Indicator in plant DM in resp. soils Regression
plant mean + s mean ± s of plant B (y) Correlation
n (PPm) (mg/1) on soil B (x) (r)

Original maize 1966 9.24 ± 8.00 .65 ± .71 y = 5.25 + 6.15x 0.548***
Original wheat 1768 6.56 ± 7.80 .81 ± .75 y = 0.68 + 7.23x 0.694***
Pot-grown wheat 3538 6.09 ± 4.80 .73 ± .75 y = 2.63 + 4.75x 0.741***

On average, the B contents of maize were almost 50 per cent higher than those of wheat.
The difference between the original and pot-grown wheat was small. This may be partly
due to the small difference in soil B contents, and also to the small amount of soil in
pots partly filled with quartz sand (see Section 1.2.6). The variation in B values was wide.
 47

The standard deviations (s) of both plant and soil B are of the same magnitude as the
respective mean values.
Because of the factors causing uncontrolled variation in analytical results from the
original plants (see Section 1.2), the correlation between plant B and soil B was lower
for the original plants than for pot-grown plants. The difference, however, was small
compared with differences for other micronutrients. As in the case of other micro-
nutrients, better quality information on the behaviour of B was obtained from pot-grown
wheat.
The regression line of B content of pot-grown wheat on soil B for all the international
material is given in Fig. 22. The correlation is highly significant (r = 0.741***). The

100 1111111MINIIIIIMIIIIIMMIMIIMMIIIIIIIIIMINNIIIIIill
80 IMMINEIN 'INNIIIMMIIIIIM11111111111=1111111111M111111
IM=11110111111 MINIMIlli
60
50 oil
1111
am
MMIIIIIIIIIIIIIM1111111
ENE i
n = 3538
40
E30 ERN: :°'11111K11111
cL IIII y = 2.63
.... r = 1.741*
4.75

AIM
9-. 20
a)

NNW
Ill ilm Om
INIFAM=MIMIUMEWA17ANIIIMMINION
11101111111111=
111111111.
MINI
111111111111111111=1111111111
=11100irint221IMMIIMIIIIIII
a) 5 Miliah. MIIIILIEMItil allImill
IIIIIMMINSISMillillMIIIIIIIIIII
o
o
4
3 iiiiMaiiiiii ME111111
co
2
1111
lie
E,IIIIIII 111E1
I,
1 kig 19I
.3 .4.5.6 .810 3 4 56 810
B in soil, mg/l (Hot W. so/
Fig. 22. Regression of B content of pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water extractable soil B (x) for all the
international material. National mean values of plant and soil B are also given. Countries:

Ar = Argentina, Be = Belgium, Br = Brazil, Eg = Egypt,

Et = Ethiopia, Fi = Finland, Gh = Ghana, Hu = Hungary,
In = India, Ir = Iraq, It = Italy, Ko = Korea, Rep.,
Le Lebanon, Mt -= Malta, Mw = Malawi, Me = Mexico,
Ne = Nepal, NZ = New Zealand, Ni = Nigeria, Pa = Pakistan,
Pe = Peru, Ph = Philippines, Si = Sierra Leone, Sr = Sri Lanka,
Sy = Syria, Ta -= Tanzania, Th = Thailand, Tu = Turkey,
Za = Zambia.
The boron content zones IV are explained in Section 1.4.3.
48

national mean values of plant and soil B contents are also given in the graph. Because of
a wide internal variation within most countries, the national mean values only loosely
define the B status in different countries.
However, distinct differences between some of the countries can be seen. For example,
B deficiency is likely to be more common in Nepâl, Zambia, Nigeria and Philippines
than in Iraq or Mexico. Detailed examination of the data by countries is given in Part II.
The regressions of micronutrient uptake as opposed to micronutrient content of
pot-grown wheat, on micronutrients in soil were calculated for all six micronutrients.
In general, the uptake correlations differed little from the content correlations. The
greatest difference in favour of uptake was found in the case of boron, for which element
the correlation (r) between the plant content and soil content was 0.741*** and the
respective uptakesoil correlation 0.758***. The latter regression for the whole material
is given in Fig. 23.
Comparison of the regressions in Figures 22 and 23 reveals no essential dissimilarities
between the two methods of expressing plant B.

100
80
60
70.01
=immiumimm i mmmoommini

50
40
30 II 6.00
0.75E111111 MINNIE
1111111..11111111
1UIIIliiI1NhIIII
8 mmospporAmmoimmEn
1111NREIPMENWINI
4 NIMPrjahEIMIII
3 ill RENEW
2

liiiDI

.3 .4.5.6 .8 10 3 456 8 10
B in soil, mg/l (Hot w sol.)

Fig. 23. Regression of B uptake by pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water extractable soil B (x) for all the
international material. For abbreviations see Fig. 22.

2.3.3.2 Soil factors affecting the boron contents of plants and soils
The regressions of hot water extractable soil B and plant B on six soil factors are given
in Figs 24 and 26. The regression equations and correlation coefficients are given in
Table 10.
 49

8 16 32 64 8 16 32 64
CEO, me/100g CEO, me/100g

20

f I I 1P
16 32 64
CEC,me/100g CEO. me/100g

Fig. 24. Relationships of plant B and soil B to cation exchange capacity.

Graph a: Hot water soluble soil B as a function of CEC.
Columns indicate arithmetic mean soil B values of each CEC class))
Graph b: Plant B as a function of CEC; n values within each CEC class are given in this graph.
Graph c: Ratio of plant B to soil B as a function of CEC. Points indicate the ratios within each CEC class.
The regression curve calculated for the whole material (n = 3538) also indicates the coefficient, k(CEC),
for correcting soil B for CEC (right-hand ordinate).
Graph d: Soil values as corrected with CEC correction coefficient.
Equations and correlation coefficients for the regression curves are given in Table 10.
i) Because the columns indicate arithmetic mean values but the regression curves are logarithmic, the latter are often located at a lower level.

Both soil B and plant B were significantly correlated with all six soil factors studied.
The highest correlations were found in the case of electrical conductivity and pH. The
plant B and soil B contents, however, were similarly correlated to pH as well as to
electrical conductivity. A closer statistical examination showed that cation exchange
capacity had the most disturbing effects on plant B and soil B. Therefore, the CEC,
obviously indirectly, was the most likely soil factor impairing the correlation between hot
water soluble soil B and plant B.
Effects of CEC on soil B and plant B. Based on analytical data from
3538 sample pairs of soils and plants, the contents of hot water soluble soil B
increased with increasing CEC reaching a maximum at CEC values of about 35-45
me/100 g and decreased with further increase of CEC (Fig. 24 a). The B content of plants
was quantitatively somewhat less dependent on CEC and the maximum was already
reached at CEC values around 20 me/100 g (Fig. 24 b).
The ratio of B content of plants to hot water soluble soil B is given as a function of
CEC in Fig. 24 c. The regression (curve c) indicates the correction of soil B values needed at
50
100
80 g n= 38
60 T±s= ±48
50 =07 072
40
E = 2 08+ 50x
a_ 30 r=0 826 "
4,5; 20
a)

10
8
u.
a)
6 L Si. cij
5 Ni *a 0 r
4C-
o 4 e Th

3
2

EZ

.081 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10

C EC -corrected B in soil, mg /l (Hot w. sol.)
Fig. 25. Regression of B content of the pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected hot water soluble B (x) for the
whole international material. National mean values of plant and soil B plotted in the graph. For
abbreviations see Fig. 22.

various CEC levels to eliminate the difference in CEC effects between soil B and plant B
analyses. The CEC correction coefficient for hot water soluble soil B is given by:
k(CEC) = 0.1164 X 101.4 0.026 CEC + 0.000273 CEC2
where the exponent is obtained from the regression equation in Table 10 c and the
constant (0.1164) is a reversion coefficient for restoring the soil B values to their original
level. The formula above can be simplified to:
k(CEC) = 100.466 0.026 CEC + 0.000273 CEC2

Numerical values for k(CEC) can also be read off the right-hand ordinate of the regression
curve in Fig. 24 c.
When soil B values in the whole material are corrected with k(CEC), the relationship
between soil B and CEC given in Fig. 24 d is obtained. This relationship is very similar to
the one between plant B and CEC given in Fig. 24 b. In other words, the effect of CEC
on soil B has not been eliminated but it has been made equal to its effect on plant B.
Application of k(CEC) to all soil B values of the whole international material improved
the correlation between plant B and soil B from an r value of 0.741*** (uncorrected)
to 0.826*** (Figures 22 and 25). This improvement takes place in spite of the fact that B
which normally is present in anionic form is corrected for cation exchange capacity.
Obviously, the total contribution of all soil factors related to CEC are indirectly reflected
by CEC.
 51

Application of the CEC correction at the national level improved the plant B-soil B
correlation in 24 out of 29 countries (Table 9). The improvement was most warranted in
those countries (e.g. Thailand, Tanzania and Zambia) where the variation of soil CEC
was wide.

Table 9. Correlations (r values) between plant B and hot water extractable soil B in various countries. Soil B
analyses are both uncorrected and corrected for cation exchange capacity [k(CEC) = 10 0.466 - 0.026 CEC -
0.000273 CEC2]. Correlations of the best fitting regressions are given. Regression models: a) y = a + bx;
b) y = a + b log x; c) log y = a + bx, and d) log y = a + b log x.

Uncorrected CEC -corrected Uncorrected CEC -corrected

Country n Regr. Regr. Country n Regr. Regr.
model r model r model r model r
Belgium 36 a 0.521** a 0.469** Egypt 198 a 0.597*** a 0.761***
Finland 90 a 0.668*** a 0.605*** Iraq 150 a 0.945*** a 0.947***
Hungary 201 a 0.506*** a 0.579*** Lebanon 16 a 0.132 n.s. b 0.255 n.s.
Italy 170 a 0.700*** a 0.740*** Syria 0.696*** d 0.715***
Malta 25 a 0.771*** c 0.784*** Turkey 29
388 a 0.851*** a 0.905***
New Zealand 35 a 0.179 n.s. a 0.079 n.s.
Ethiopia 125 a 0.338*** a 0.418***
Argentina 208 a 0.524*** a 0.537*** Ghana 93 a 0.162 n.s. c 0.208*
Brazil 58 a 0.501*** c 0.458*** Malawi 97 a 0.336*** a 0.363***
Mexico 242 a 0.793*** a 0.814*** Nigeria 153 a 0.381*** d 0.409***
Peru 68 a 0.560*** a 0.677*** Sierra Leone 48 a 0.357* b 0.470***
Tanzania 163 a 0.195* d 0.346***
India 258 a 0.809*** a 0.828*** Zambia 44 a 0.236 n.s. a 0.500***
Korea, Rep. 90 a 0.738*** a 0.771***
Nepal 35 a 0.544*** a 0.577***
Pakistan 237 a 0.910*** a 0.886***
Philippines 194 a 0.371*** a 0.393***
Sri Lanka 18 a 0.206 n.s. a 0.236 n.s.
Thailand 150 a 0.013 n.s. d 0.223** Whole material 3538 a 0.741*** a 0.826***

Effects of other soil factors on soil B and plant B. Soil pH seems to have a relatively
small effect on hot water soluble soil B as also on the B content of the plant within the pH
range of 4 to about 7.7. Nevertheless, a slight increase with rising pH can be observed,
especially in soil B (Fig. 26, curves e and g). With a further rise in pH, however, there was
a very marked increase in soluble soil B as well as in the contents of plant B.
Correction of soil B values for CEC did not appreciably affect the soil B-pH relation-
ship, apparently because of the relatively low correlation between pH and CEC (Fig. 24 c
and Fig. 4 a, Section 2.1).
Soil texture is a factor closely related to the cation exchange capacity of soils (R =
0.802***, Fig. 3 h). Consequently, the relations of soil B and plant B to soil texture
(Fig. 26) are very similar to the respective B-CEC relations (Fig. 24). For the same
reason, the correction of soil B values for CEC renders the relationship between soil B
and texture index more like the relationship between plant B and texture (Fig. 26, curves
i and j).
Organic carbon content of soils is another factor accounting for the cation exchange
capacity of soils (R 0.535***, Fig. 3 m). Since this relation is not so close as that be-
tween CEC and texture, the resemblance of B-organic carbon regressions (Fig. 26,
curves k, 1 and m) to B-CEC regressions is not so good as in the case of texture. It is
obvious, however, that the CEC correction decreases the difference between the regressions
of soil B and of plant B on the organic carbon content of soil.
52

Fig. 26. Relationships

of hot-water soluble soil
B and plant B to various
soil factors.
Graphs on the left: Un-
corrected soil B (wide
columns and regression
curves e, h, k, n, and q)
6
and CEC-corrected soil
Soil pH B (narrow columns and
regression curves f, i, 1,
o, and r) as functions of
various soil factors.
Graphs on the right:
Plant B as a function of
various soil factors.
Number of samples (n)
within each class is
given. The equations
and correlation coef-
10 30 50 70 90 0 30 50 70 90 ficients for regression
Texture index Texture index (al curves (e to s) are given
in Table 10. See also
footnote to Fig. 24.

.8 16 32 64 4 .8 16 32 64
Organic C,% Organic C.%

30

20
o

10

00

16 64 25.6 .4 1.6 6.4 25.6

EL conductivity,10'-Scro-1 El. conductivity,10-4Scml

1.5-

.4 1.6 64 256 .4 16 6.4 256

CaCO3 eguiv ,% CaCO3 eguiv.,%
 53

Table la Equations and correlation coefficients for regressions of hot water soluble soil B (uncorrected and
CEC-corrected) and plant B on various soil factors. Regression curves are given in Figures 24 and 26.

Variables Regression Correl. Regr.

coeff. curve
Soil B (uncorr.) CEC 3538 log y = -0.711 + 0.0274 x - 0.000320 x2 0.389*** a
Plant B CEC 3538 log y = 0.375 + 0.637 log x - 0.263 (log x)2 0.153*** b
Plant B/soil B CEC 3538 log y = 1.400 - 0.0260 x + 0.000273 x2 0.524***
CEC-corr. soil B CEC 3538 log y = -- 0.760 + 0.868 log x 0.349 (log x)2 0.105*** d

Soil B (uncorr.) Pi I 3538 log y = 0.260 - 0.300 x + 0.0324 x2 0.405*** e

CEC-corr. soil B pH 3538 log y ----- 0.972 - 0.508 x + 0.0475 x2 0.396*** f
Plant B pH 3538 log y = 2.094 - 0.500 x + 0.0433 x2 0.427*** g

Soil B (uncorr.) TI 3536 log y = -0.937 + 0.0246 x 0.000187 X2 0.391*** h

CEC-corr. soil B TI 3536 log y = -0.433 + 0.00794 x - 0.000075 x2 0.091*** i
Plant B TI 3536 log y = 0.664 + 0.00403 x - 0.000047 x2 0.097*** j

Soil B (uncorr.) Org. C 3538 log y = -0.249 + 0.284 log x - 0.316 (log x)2 0.234*** k
CEC-corr, soil B Org. C 3538 log y = -0.238 + 0.00459 log x - 0.146 (log x)2 0.052** 1

Plant B Org. C 3538 log y = 0.736 - 0.122 log x + 0.084 (log x)2 0.185***

Soil B (uncorr.) El. cond. 3538 y= 0.528 + 0.0729 x 0.436*** n

CEC-corr. soil B El. cond. 3538 y= 0.511 + 0.0789 x 0.489*** o
Plant B El. cond. 3538 y= 4.44 + 0.586 x + 0.00144 x2 0.594*** p

Soil B (uncorr.) CaCO3 eq. 3538 log y =- -0.237 + 0,115 log x + 0.0133 (log x)2 0.413*** q
CEC-corr. soil B CaCO3 eq. 3538 log y = -0.234 + 0.0930 log x + 0.0146 (log )02 0.348*** r
Plant B CaCO3- eq. 3538 log y = 0.735 + 0.0563 log x + 0.0154 (log x)2 0.338*** s

Electrical conductivity and CaCO3 equivalent of soils have a high mutual correlation
(Fig. 4, j and o). Furthermore, both of these characteristics are highly correlated with soil
pH (Fig. 3, d and e; Fig. 4, f and k). Therefore, the relations of soil B and plant B to
these factors resemble the respective B-pH relationships. A common feature of these
relationships is the increase of both soil B and plant B with increasing electrical
conductivity and with increasing CaCO3 equivalent (Fig. 26). In short, both of these
soil characteristics affect equally the soil B and plant B. Because of the relatively low
correlation between CEC and the above soil factors (Fig. 4, d, e, i, n) the correction of
soil B values for CEC does not materially affect the soil B-electrical conductivity or
the soil B-CaCO3 equivalent relationships.
The effects of the above six soil characteristics on soil and plant B can be summarized
as follows:
Determination of soil B by the hot water extraction method is clearly a useful way of
estimating the B status of soils. The correlations between B content of plants and hot
water soluble soil B (uncorrected and CEC-corrected) are higher than those for any
other of the six micronutrients under study.
Soil pH, etectrical conductivity and CaCO3 equivalent have similar effects on hot
water soluble soil B as on the B content of plants. Therefore, these soil factors do not
cause appreciable differences between the analytical results of soil B and plant B, and
no corrections due to these factors were necessary. The correction of soil B for CEC
does not materially affect the relationship of soil B to the above three soil charac-
teristics.
CEC, texture, and organic carbon have quite similar effects on hot water soluble B
54

values but very different effects on the ability of plants to absorb B. This dissimilarity
is most pronounced in the case of CEC, apparently because the nature of the other
two characteristics (texture and or_ganic carbon content) is partly reflected in CEC.
Therefore, the correction of soil B values for CEC substantially corrects the soil B
values for texture and organic carbon as well.
Correction coefficients were also calculated (analogously to the procedure for CEC)
for the other five soil factors. These are not presented because none of them, as applied
to the whole material, improved the soil Bplant correlation as fundamentally as does
the CEC correction.
When the results of this study are expressed by countries (Part II), both uncorrected
and CEC-corrected soil B values are given.

2.3.4 Copper

2.3.4.1 General aspects

The average Cu contents of the original and pot-grown plants the AAAc-EDTA
extractable Cu contents of the respective soils in the whole material, and the best fitting
plant/soil regressions are given below. The corresponding mean values by countries are
given in Appendixes 2, 3 and 4.

Copper content
in plant DM in resp. soils
Indicator mean + s mean + s Regression of plant Cu (y) Correlation')
plant n (PPm) (mg/1) on soil Cu (x) (r)
Original maize 1966 11.6 ± 4.2 6.0 ± 7.9 log y -= 0.97 + 0.114 log x 0.344***
Original wheat 1768 9.4 ± 5.7 6.1 ± 6.4 log y = 0.90 + 0.0062 x 0.254***
Pot-grown wheat 3537 7.0 ± 2.6 6.0 ± 7.0 log y = 0.62 + 0.309 log x 0.664***

1) Respective correlations between plant Cu and DTPA extractable soil Cu were: 0.114***, 0.125*** and 0.518***. The
mutual correlation between AAAc-EDTA extractable and DTPA extractable soil Cu was 0.829***. Because of their
better correlation with plant Cu, the results given in this study are based on AAAc-EDTA extraction.

The average Cu content of maize exceeds that of the original wheat by 2.2 ppm and
that of the pot-grown wheat by 4.6 ppm. There is no difference, though, in the mean
values of extractable soil Cu between the three groups. The higher Cu contents of the
original wheat as compared to the pot-grown wheat may partly be due to the small
amount of soil in the pots (the pots were partly filled with quartz sand, see Section 1.2.6).
The plants were not able to absorb from this small amount as much Cu as could plants
grown on the same soils under field conditions. The coefficients of variation of the Cu
contents of plants ranged from 36 to 61 percent in the three groups, and those of soils
from 105 to 132 percent.
For reasons explained previously (Section 1.2), the correlation between the Cu contents
of the original plants and the extractable Cu in soils was weak compared with that between
the pot-grown wheat and soil. The regression for the latter is given in Fig. 27, where also
the national mean values of plant and soil Cu contents have been inserted for a general
comparison of the Cu status in the different countries. The correlation between Cu uptake
and soil Cu (r = 0.674***) is about equal to that between the Cu content of plants and
soil Cu. Also within individual countries, the differences between these two methods of
expression are very small.
 55

22

20 n = 3 38
y ±s 0
0
18
E
a_
cal 6 11111g 0 g 111.111111

111111111
1111111111 11021111111
(-) 6 1111111EMIENIEN111111
4

2 IINIENIME
11111
ismompli 1111 MI
11,M1111111EN1111

0.1 .2 .4 .6 .81.0 2 4 6 810 20 40 60 80

Cu in soil, mg/l (A AA c - EDTA)

Fig. 27. Regression of Cu content of pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium acetate-EDTA extractable
soil Cu (x) for the whole international material. National mean values of plant and soil Cu are also given.
Countries:
Ar = Argentina, Be = Belgium, Br = Brazil, Eg = Egypt,
Et = Ethiopia, Fi = Finland, Gh = Ghana, Hu = Hungary,
In = India, Ir = Iraq, It = Italy, Ko =--- Korea, Rep.,
Le = Lebanon, Mt = Malta, Mw= Malawi, Me = Mexico,
Ne = Nepal, NZ = New Zealand, Ni = Nigeria, Pa = Pakistan,
Pe = Peru, Ph = Philippines, Si = Sierra Leone, Sr = Sri Lanka,
Sy = Syria, Ta = Tanzania, Th = Thailand, Tu = Turkey,
Za = Zambia.

2.3.4.2 Soil factors affecting the copper content of plants and soils
The Cu content of pot-grown wheat and AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Cu as functions
of six soil characteristics are given in Figures 28 and 30. The regression equations and
correlation coefficients are given in Table 12.
The AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Cu as well as the Cu content of wheat were
significantly correlated with all six soil characteristics studied. In general, the effects of
various soil factors on extractable soil Cu were in relatively good agreement with their
respective effects on the Cu contents of plants. The most marked exception was the
organic carbon content of the soil whose effect on the extractable soil Cu differed clearly
from its effect on the Cu content of plants. Consequently, the different roles of soil organic
carbon during the chemical extraction of soil Cu and during the Cu absorption by plants
are likely to impair the plant Cusoil Cu correlation.
56

.8 16 3.2 6.4 .8 16 32 64
Organic C,% Organic C,%

3
3 ,6, 7
5'
o _:5 6
.. .
'5
2 ...2 Le)
5

oo
3 4
c C.)
-a
..2 3
o 11
1 a)

8 6
(.)
til
¿1
ch
1

ci c5-

.4 .8 1.6 3.2 6,4 .8 16 32 64

Organic C,% Organ c C,%

Fig. 28. Relationships of AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Cu and plant Cu to organic carbon content of soil.
Graph a: Soil Cu as a function of soil organic carbon content.
Graph b: Plant Cu as a function of soil organic carbon content.
Graph c: Ratio of plant Cu to soil Cu as a function of soil organic carbon content. The regression curve c
also indicates the coefficient, k(org. C), for correcting soil Cu for organic carbon (right-hand ordinate).
Graph d: Soil Cu as corrected with k(org. C), as a function of organic carbon content. Columns and points
indicate mean values of each organic carbon class; n values of classes are given in Graph b; equations and
correlation coefficients for the regression curves are given in Table 12.

Effects of soil organic carbon content on soil Cu and plant Cu. AAAc-EDTA extractable
soil Cu increased with increasing organic matter content of soils up to organic carbon
contents of about 1-2 percent (Fig. 28 a). With further increases of organic carbon, the
Cu contents of soil begin to decrease. On the basis of the results of this study, it is not clear
whether this decrease is due to firmer Cu fixation by organic matter in soils of high
organic matter content, or due rather to a progressive parallel decrease in the total Cu
content toward organic soils. The latter possibility seems more likely. For instance,
Sillanpää (1962 a, b) found a similar correlation between total Cu content of soils and
soil organic matter, while the relative solubility of Cu increased slightly with increasing
organic matter content of the soil. The Cu content of plants increases only slightly with in-
creasing soil organic carbon in soils of very low organic matter content, while further
increases in organic carbon cause a decrease in the Cu content of plants.
The ratio plant Cu/soil Cu (Fig. 28 c) indicates the difference between the effects of soil
organic carbon on plant and soil Cu contents. The regression (curve c) also indicates the
correction required to eliminate this difference. The correction coefficient for correcting
soil Cu values for organic carbon is given by:
 57

22

20
Intern 111111111111111111
18 1111111111111111111
E 16 1111111111111.111111
o_
o_
4-7 14 111111111111111111111
o
_c
12 1111111111111111111
o 10 111111111111111111111
a)
8 11111016111111111111
o
6 1111111111111MEN011111111111
C.)
4 11111111111111MIT°111111141111111
2 1111111111M111111111
MI11116
o:1 .2 .4 .6 .810 2 6 810 4 20 40 60 100
Org.C-corrected soil CU,mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)

Fig. 29. Regression of Cu content of pot-grown wheat (y) on k(org. C)-corrected AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Cu (x) for the whole international material. National mean values of plant and soil Cu
are plotted in the graph. For abbreviations see Fig. 27.

k(org. C) = 0.668 X 100.175 0.491 log x + 0.470 (log x)2

where the exponent is obtained from the regression equation in Table 12 (curve c where x
= organic carbon content of soil) and the constant (0.668) is a reversion coefficient for
restoring the soil Cu values to their original level. The formula above can be simplified to:
k(org. C) = 10-0.491 log x + 0.470 (log 0
Numerical values for k(org. C) can be read off the right-hand ordinate of the regression
curve in Fig. 28 c.
When soil Cu values in the whole material are corrected with k(org. C), the relationship
between soil Cu and organic carbon given in Fig. 28 d is obtained. This relationship
resembles basically the respective plant Cuorganic carbon relationship (Fig. 28 b), i.e.
the effects of soil organic carbon on soil Cu and plant Cu have been equalized.
Application of k(org. C) to AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Cu values in the whole
material improved the correlation between plant Cu and soil Cu from an r value of
0.664*** to 0.731*** (Figures 27 and 29). At the national level it improved the correlation
in 21 out of 29 countries (Table 11). The improvement is not so pronounced as, for
example, in the case of pH corrections applied to Mn and Mo. This may be partly due to
the relatively narrow range of variation in organic carbon content in this material which
included only a few peat soils.
58

Table 11. Correlations (r values) betweerf plant Cu and AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Cu in various
countries. Soil Cu analyses are both uncorrected and corrected for soil organic carbon contents [k(Org. C)
= 10-0.491 log x + 0.470 (log x)2, where x = Org. C, Vo]. Correlations of the best fitting regressions are given.
Regression models: a) y = a + bx; b) y = a + b log x; c) log y = a + bx, and d) log y = a + b log x.

Uncorrected Org. C-corrected Uncorrected Org. C-corrected

Country n Regr. Regr. Country n Regr. Regr.
model r model r model r model r
Belgium 36 d 0.583*** d 0.686*** Egypt 198 d 0573*** d 0579***
Finland 90 d 0.633*** d 0.622*** Iraq 150 d 0.317*** d 0.400***
Hungary 201 b 0.289*** a 0.368*** Lebanon 16 b 0.149 n.s. b 0.097 n.s.
Italy 170 b 0.804*** b 0.814*** Syria 38 d 0.644*** d 0.652***
Malta 25 d 0.760*** d 0.834*** Turkey 298 d 0.538*** b 0.523***
New Zealand 35 b 0.842*** b 0.817***
Ethiopia 125 d 0.830*** d 0.840***
Argentina 208 d 0.606*** d 0.693*** Ghana 93 b 0.726*** b 0743***
Brazil 58 b 0.625*** d 0.649*** Malawi 97 d 0503*** d 0.558***
Mexico 242 d 0.520*** d 0.587*** Nigeria 153 d 0.598*** d 0.651***
Peru 68 d 0.616*** d 0.568*** Sierra Leone 48 d 0.706*** a 0.751***
Tanzania 163 d 0.727*** d a735***
India 258 b 0.396*** a 0.281*** Zambia 44 b 0848*** b 0.870***
Korea, Rep. 90 b 0.456*** a 0.548***
Nepal 35 d 0.410* d 0.519**
Pakistan 237 d 0.371*** d 0.282***
Philippines 194 d 0.632*** d 0.687***
Sri Lanka 18 d 0.723*** d 0.665***
Thailand 150 d 0.742*** d 0.759*** Whole material 3538 d 0.664*** d 0.731***

Effects of other soil factors on soil and plant Cu.

Soil pH affects the AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Cu and Cu content of plants
considerably less than the respective contents of Mn and Mo. However, a clear increasing
trend of soil Cu and plant Cu toward alkaline soils can be noticed (Fig. 30 and Table 12,
curves e, f, g). Correction with k(org. C) alters the soil Cu-pH relation slightly in the
direction of the respective relationship between plant Cu and pH.
As soil texture becomes finer (texture index rises), the Cu contents of plants and especially
the Cu contents of soils increase quite substantially (Fig. 30 and Table 12, curves h, i, j).
The correction for organic carbon slightly moderates the effect of texture on soil Cu.
Cation exchange capacity, owing to its close correlation with texture (Figs 3 h and 4
b; see also Section 2.1), has very similar relations to soil and plant Cu as those of texture.
Electrical conductivity and CaCO3 equivalent of soil are highly correlated with each
other as well as with pH (Figures 3 and 4). Consequently, the relations between soil and
plant Cu to these soil factors (Fig. 30, curves n-s) do not differ substantially from the
Cu-pH relations. The copper contents of plants increased steadily with increasing
electrical conductivity as well as with increasing CaCO3 equivalent. Increases in the
AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Cu at the highest levels of electrical conductivity and
CaCO3 equivalent levels tended to result in decreases in Cu contents of plants. The
correction of soil Cu values for organic carbon had relatively small effects on the above
relationships.
The results given in this Chapter can be summarized as follows:
- Soil Cu values determined from AAAc-EDTA extracts were better correlated with
Cu contents of plants (r = 0.664***) than those determined from DTPA extracts (r =
0.518***). Therefore, the results presented in this study are based on the former
extraction.
 59

Fig. 30. Relationships

10
of AAAc-EPTA extract-
able soil Cu and plant
8
Cu to various soil
6 factors.
Graphs on the left: Un-
4
corrected soil Cu (wide
columns and regression
curves e, h, k, n, and
4 6 7 8 q) and org. C-corrected
Soil pH
soil Cu (narrow columns
and regression curves f,
i, 1, o, and r) as
10-- functions of various soil
8
factors.
Graphs on the right:
E 6
Plant Cu as a function
4 of various soil factors.
Number of samples (n)
o 2
within each class is
given. The equations and
30 50 70
Textu e index (To Texture index Cm correlation coefficients
for regression curves (e
to s) are given in Table
12. See also footnote to
Fig. 24.

32 64 8 16 32 64
6
CEO, me 1009 CEO, me/100g

10
8

256 16 6.4 256

16 64
El. conductivi y,10-4 S cm El. conductivity, 0- S cm-i

E 8
0.

'ae;
6

4
4

CO 04 03 03
N n
02 7
2 cn
N N
o
64 256 6 64 25.6
.4 16
CaCO3 equiv. %
CaCO, equiv., /
60

Table 12. Equations and correlation coefficients for regressions of AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Cu (un-
corrected and Org. C-corrected) and plant Cu' on various soil factors. Regression curves are given in Figs 28
and 30.

Variables Regression Correl. Regr.

Y coeff. curve
Soil Cu (uncorr.) Org. C 3538 log y = 0.655 + 0.406 log x - 0.675 (log x)2 0.315*** a
Plant Cu Org. C 3538 log y = 0.830 - 0.0857 log x - 0.205 (log x)2 0.204*** b
Plant Cu/soil Cu Org. C 3538 log y = 0.175 - 0.491 log x -F 0.470 (log x)2 0.447***
Org. C-corr. soil Cu Org. C 3538 log y = 0.657 - 0.0868 log x - 0.239 (log x)2 0.104*** d

Soil Cu. (uncorr.) pH 3538 log y = -1.598 + 0.600 x - 0.0390 x2 0.330*** e

Org. C-corr. soil Cu pH 3538 log y = -1.107 -F 0.405 x - 0.0208 x2 0.447*** f
Plant Cu pH 3538 log y = 0.840 - 0.0712 x + 0.00984 x2 0.357*** g

Soil Cu (uncorr.) TI 3536 log y = -3.682 -I- 4200 log x - 0.942 (log x)2 0.574***
Org. C-corr. soil Cu TI 3536 log y = -2.334 -F 2.822 log x - 0.602 (log x)2 0.450***
Plant Cu TI 3536 log y = -0.138 -F 0.904 log x - 0.193 (log x)2 0.296*** j

Soil Cu (uncorr.) CEC 3538 log y = -1.417 -F 2.223 log x - 0.524 (log x)2 0.561*** k
Org. C-corr. soil Cu CEC 3538 log y = -0.439 + 1.037 log x - 0.179 (log x)2 0.391*** I
Plant Cu CEC 3538 log y = 0.378 -F 0.536 log x - 0.155 (log x)2 0.191***

Soil Cu (uncorr.) El. cond. 3538 log y = 0.548 -F 0.543 log x - 0.287 (log x)2 0.368***
Org. C-corr. soil Cu El. cond. 3538 log y = 0.562 + 0.532 log x - 0.254 (log x)2 0.389*** o
Plant Cu El. cond. 3538 log y = 0.776 -F 0.184 log x - 0.0300 (log x)2 0.349***

Soil Cu (uncorr.) CaCO3 eq. 3538 log y = 0.707 + 0.0666 log x - 0.0311 (log x)2 0.347***
Org. C-corr. soil Cu CaCO3 eq. 3538 log y = 0.749 + 0.0747 log x - 0.0428 (log x)2 0.441***
Plant Cu CaCO3 eq. 3538 log y = 0836 00513 log x 0.383***

Both the AA Ac-EDTA extractable soil Cu and the Cu content of pot-grown wheat
were highly correlated with all six soil characteristics (pH, texture, organic carbon
content, CEC, electrical conductivity, and CaCO3 equivalent) under study. In general,
these soil factors affected the extractable soil Cu in much the same way as they affected
the Cu content of plants. An exception, however, was the organic carbon content
of soils.
Correction of soil Cu values for organic carbon improved the plant Cu-soil Cu
correlation for the whole material from an r value of 0.664*** to 0.73 l***.
Similarly calculated correction coefficients for the other five soil characteristics did
not improve the plant Cu-soil Cu correlations.
-- When the results of this study are expressed by countries, both the uncorrected and
the k(org. C)-corrected soil Cu values are given.
 61

2.3.5 Iron

23.5.1 General aspects

Various factors caused uncontrolled variation in the analytical results of the original
plants, as explained in Section 1.2. There was thus no correlation between the Fe contents
of original plants and extractable soil Fe contents in the respective soils. The correlations
(r values) between plant Fe and AAAc-EDTA extractable Fe for the original maize and
wheat were 0.007 and 0.032, respectively. For DTPA extractable Fe the respective
correlation coefficients were 0.028 and 0.030. The original plants were obviously
contaminated, which affected the Fe analyses to a much greater extent than those of other
micronutrients. Accordingly, the results of Fe analyses of the original plants were
discarded.
The Fe contents of pot-grown wheat were more consistent with the contents of
extractable soil Fe. The plant FeAAAc-EDTA extractable soil Fe and plant Fe-
DTPA extractable soil Fe correlations (r values) in the whole material were 0.325*** and
0.263***, respectively)) The former relation is given in Fig. 31. The national mean values
are shown in the graph.
The correlation between the Fe contents of pot-grown plants and AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Fe (r = 0.325***) is weak compared to correlations for other micro-
nutrients in this study, but stronger than the correlation between Fe uptake and soil Fe
(log y = 1.65 X 0.106 log x; r = 0.266***).

2.3.5.2 Soil factors affecting the iron contents of plants and soils
The AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Fe and the Fe content of pot-grown wheat as
functions of the six soil characteristics are given in Fig. 32. The respective regression
equations and correlation coefficients are given in Table 13.
Contrary to the cases of the other five micronutrients, none of the six soil factors studied
greatly affected the Fe contents of plants. The regression curves depart only slightly from
the horizontal and consequently, the correlations are relatively weak.
Soil Fe seems to have been more affected by the various soil factors than plant Fe.
Increases in soil pH and CaCO3 equivalent values were accompanied by decreases in the
extractable soil Fe contents. A similar, though milder relation between these soil char-
acteristics and plant Fe can be noticed (Fig. 32 a, b, k, 1).
Increasing texture index, organic carbon content and CEC were accompanied by in-
creases in the contents of extractable soil Fe. The effects of these soil factors on Fe
contents of plants are similar in direction to, but of lesser magnitude (Fig. 32 c, d, e,
f, g, h). The effects of electrical conductivity on Fe (Fig. 32 i, j) are not marked.
None of the above six soil factors affected the plant Fesoil Fe relations to such a
degree that correction for these soil characteristics would have appreciably improved the
correlation between plant Fe and soil Fe. This may be partly due to the insensitivity of
plant Fe to the soil factors studied. Wheat is apparently a poorer indicator of the Fe status
of soils than of the status of the other micronutrients studied. The oxidation-reduction
conditions of soils are important in determining the behaviour of Fe in soils and its
availability to plants. In this study the evaluation of these aspects was not possible.

I) The mutual correlation (r) between AAAc-EDTA extractable and DTPA extractable soil Fe was 0.741***. Because of
their better correlation with plant Fe, the AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Fe contents only will be presented in this study.
62

300
275
2 50
Fe
n . 3 38
225 y o 1.
s=1 5
200 1

Lo =1 4 91
1 75 r 0 32
E 1 50

125
o
100 \ 1 1 11111

45 90
4E' 80 Ph

4E. 70
o
o 60 Et
a) e

50

40

30 BI
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1111 2000
Fe in soil, mg/l (AAAc- EDTA)

Fig. 31. Regression of Fe content of pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium acetate-EDTA extractable soil
Fe (x) for all the international material. National mean values of plant and soil Fe are also given.
Countries:
Ar = Argentina, Be = Belgium, Br = Brazil, Eg = Egypt,
Et = Ethiopia, Fi = Finland, Gh = Ghana, Hu = Hungary,
In = India, Ir = Iraq, It = Italy, Ko = Korea, Rep.,
Le = Lebanon, Mt = Malta, Malawi, Me -= Mexico,
Ne = Nepal, NZ = New Zealand, Ni = Nigeria, Pa = Pakistan,
Pe = Peru, Ph = Philippines, Si = Sierra Leone, Sr = Sri Lanka,
Sy = Syria, Ta = Tanzania, Th ---- Thailand, Tu = Turkey,
Za = Zambia.
The Fe content zones IV are explained in Section 1.4.3.
 63

300
Fig. 32. AAAc-EDTA extractable
soil Fe (graphs on the left) and plant
Tri Fe (graphs on the right) as a
function of six soil characteristics.
Number of samples (n) given within
each class. The equations and
a,
u_
correlation coefficients for regression
curves (a-1) are given in Table 13.
Soil pH

u_

30 50 70 90
Texture index (,) Texture index 1,1

1500

1200

,S 900
2
.9 600
u_
300

.8 16 az 6
Organic C,%

250
E
200 a
E 150

.5 100
a,
L'-
50
a,
u_

8 16 32 64 8 16 32 64
CEC, me/100g CEC me/100g

16 64 256 16 64 256
El conductivity,10" S cm' El. conductivi y,10- S cm'

.4 18 6.4 256 .4 18 6.4 256

CoCO, egiuv. CaCO, equiv, %
64

Table 13. Equations and correlation coefficients for regressions of AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Fe and plant
Fe on various soil factors. Regressions are given in Fig. 32.

Variables n Regression Correl. Regr.

y x coeff. curve
Soil Fe pH 3538 log y = -0.965 + 9.127 log x - 6.538 (log x)2 0.300*** a
Plant Fe pH 3538 log y = 1.580 + 0.0757 x - 0.00688 x2 0.136*** b

Soil Fe TI 3536 log y = 1.374 + 0,442 log x 0.228***

Plant Fe TI 3536 y= 59.14+ 0.040x 0.038*** d

Soil Fe Org. C 3538 y= 62.2 + 80.2 x 0.547*** e

Plant Fe Org. C 3538 log y = 1.769 + 0.0629 log x - 0.0176 (log x)2 0.145*** f
Soil Fe CEC 3538 y = -37.62 + 147.7 log x 0.230*** g
Plant Fe CEC 3538 y= 52.74 + 5.949 log x 0.084*** h

Soil Fe El. cond. 3538 y= 162.4 + 33.05 log x - 23.18 (log x)2 0.049**
Plant Fe EL cond. 3538 log y = 1.769 - 0.0274 log x + 0.0368 (log x)2 0.074*** j

Soil Fe CaCO3 eq. 3538 log y = 2.057 - 0.0586 log x 0.00395 (log x)2 0.241*** k
Plant Fe CaCO3 eq. 3538 log y = 1.767 - 0.00868 log x 0.000533 (log x)2 0.095*** 1

2.3.6 Manganese
2.3.6.1 General aspects
The average Mn contents of the three types of indicator plant, the DTPA extractable Mn
contents of the respective soils, and the best fitting plant Mn-soil Mn regressions for the
whole material are given below. For the respective national averages, sec Appendixes 2,
3 and 4.

Manganese content
in plant DM in I-esp. soils
Indicator mean ± s mean ± s Regression of plant Mn (y) CorrelationO
plant n (PP91) (mg/1) on soil Mn (x) (r)
Original maize 1966 78 ± 48 43.2 ± 38.4 y = 68.9 + 0.200 x 0.161***
Original wheat 1768 74 ± 40 25.2 ± 33.1 y = 70.0 + 0.143 x 0.119***
Pot-grown wheat 3538 112 ± 155 34.7 ± 36.9 log y = 1.24+ 0.474 log x 0.552***

0 Respective correlations between plant Mn and AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Mn were: -0.108-***, 0.046* and 0.039*.
The mutual correlation between DTPA extractable and AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Mn was 0.416***. Because of
their better correlation with plant Mn, the final results given in this study are based on DTPA extraction.

The difference between the average Mn contents of the two original indicator plants is
small and may be attributable more to differences in the respective soils than to the plant
species. Contrary to the case with the other micronutrients, the average Mn content of the
pot-grown wheat was about 50 per cent higher than that of the original wheat. Obviously,
the difference is partly due to higher average extractable contents of Mn in soils in the pot
experiment than in soils where the original wheats had grown. The effect of a higher Mn
content of soils, however, may be nullified or even reversed by the small quantity of soil
in the pots (Section 1.2.6). Another, more likely reason for the high Mn contents of the
pot-grown wheats may be that the soils in the pots were in a less aerobic condition than
they were in the field. The pot soils were kept near field moisture capacity during plant
growth while in the wheat fields the soils must have been much drier. The availability of
 65

Mn is strongly affected by oxidation-reduction reactions which largely depend on the soil

moisture content. For example, Graven et. al. (1965) found a more than tenfold increase
in Mn contents of plants due to flooding. See also Part II on the effect of irrigation on Mn
in Iraq. The soil pH, which in the case of the pot soils was about 0.3 unit lower than in the
original wheat soils (means 6.64 and 6.91, respectively), may also have been partly
responsible for the increased Mn contents of the pot-grown wheats. The effect of pH will
be discussed later in this Chapter. The variation in Mn contents of the pot-grown wheat is
much wider than that for the other two plant types. In soils, the standard deviations (s)
are of the same magnitude as the respective mean values.
The correlations between the Mn content of the original indicator plants and DTPA
extractable soil Mn are highly significant but poor as compared to that between the Mn
content of pot-grown wheat and soil Mn. The latter regression (with national mean plant
Mn and soil Mn values) is given in Fig. 33.

NM NM MI INN INC= II II
2000 NOININUIPM110

1000 IMPII111111111
MIEN111
800 MTV.
600 111111111111101111111111

E 400
mown
t 300
g 200
_c
II IMI&
1111111
--MEN
4E.a)
100
80 111=11
=11kWEEMEIMIMIFAMIMMEMNII
mi
IfJW=MMEMM=1
11
Pi4C/INIIMMEMEN
g 60 min
40 MMIMIONEMMEll
MNIIIIIMM=11111
30
20
111
10
8

1 2 34 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80100 200 300

Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)
Fig. 33. Regression of Mn content of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extractable soil Mn (x) for the whole
international material. National mean values of plant and soil Mn are also given.
Countries:
Ar = Argentina, Be = Belgium, Br = Brazil, Eg = Egypt,
Et = Ethiopia, Fi = Finland, Gh = Ghana, Hu = Hungary,
In = India, Ir = Iraq, It = Italy, Ko = Korea, Rep.,
Le = Lebanon, Mt = Malta, Mw= Malawi, Me = Mexico,
Ne = Nepal, NZ = New Zealand, Ni = Nigeria, Pa = Pakistan,
Pe = Peru, Ph = Philippines, Si = Sierra Leone, Sr = Sri Lanka,
Sy = Syria, Ta = Tanzania, Th = Thailand, Tu = Turkey,
Za = Zambia.
66

The Mn uptakesoil Mn correlation in the whole international material (log y =

1.33 + 0.481 log x; r = 0.565***) differs only slightly from that given in Fig. 33. In
national materials, with a few exceptions, the differences between the two methods of
expression are also small.

2.3.6.2 Soil factors affecting the manganese content of plants and soils
DTPA extractable soil Mn and Mn content of pot-grown wheat as functions of six soil
factors are given in Figs 34 and 38. The respective regression equations and correlation
coefficients are given in Table 15.
The DTPA extractable soil Mn as well as the Mn content of the plant correlated
significantly with all six soil factors studied. The effects of some of these soil factors on
soil Mn agreed fairly well with their respective effects on the Mn content of plants. The
most striking exception was the pH of soil which affected the soil Mn and the plant Mn
very differently. This difference impaired the plant Mnsoil Mn correlation.
Effects of soil pH on soil Mn and plant Mn. The Mn contents of plants decreased
steadily with rising pH (Fig. 34 b). This relationship is very close (R = 0.644***). The
DTPA extractable soil Mn contents first increased with rising pH, reaching a maximum
between pH 5 and 6, and thereafter decreased strongly toward alkaline soils (Fig. 34 a).
This correlation is likewise close (R = O.695***).
The ratio plant Mn/soil Mn (Fig. 34 c) illustrates the difference in pH effects at
different pH levels. The equation for the regression curve (Fig. 34 c and Table 15 c)
multiplied by a reversion coefficient (0.457) gives the correction coefficient, k(pH),
required to eliminate the difference between the pH effects on plant Mn and soil Mn:
k(pH) = 107.06 - 2.20 pH + 0.164 pH2

k(pH) can also be obtained directly from the right-hand ordinate of the curve in Fig. 34 c.
When k(pH) is applied to DTPA extractable soil Mn values in the whole material
(n = 3538) we obtain the relation between soil Mn and pH given in Graph d. Comparison
of the relations given in Graphs b and d (Fig. 34) shows that the effect of pH on soil Mn
has been equalized with its effect on Mn content of plants. In other words, the pH-
corrected soil Mn values and plant Mn values are similarly correlated to soil pH.
It should be noted that the pH correction coefficient is calculated for pH(CaC12). The
relationship between pH(H20) and pH(CaC12) in this material is given in Fig. 5 and
Section 2.1.
The plant MnDTPA extractable soil MnpH relationships are also expressed in
Fig. 35 where the data given in Graphs a and b (Fig. 34) are combined. The respective
relationships after pH correction (combining data of Graphs d and b) are given in Fig. 36.
As can be seen from Fig. 35, the DTPA extractable soil Mn values e.g. at pH levels 4 to
5 and 6 to 7 are very similar in magnitude. The Mn contents of plants grown in acid (pH 4
to 5) soils, however, are several times higher than those grown in soils having pH 6 to 7.
This clear conflict between the results of soil and plant analyses was eliminated by
correcting the soil Mn values for pH (Fig. 36).
As numerous investigators have reported, the possibility of Mn deficiency or a
response to Mn fertilization occurring in acid soils is very unlikely. Hence, the correction
of soil Mn for pH will doubtless improve the reliability of soil analyses.
Application of a pH correction to DTPA extractable soil Mn values in the whole of the
international material improved the correlation between plant Mn and soil Mn from an
r value of 0.552*** to 0.713*** (Figures 33 and 37). At the national level the correlations
 67

500
E
-a`i: 60 a.
ct400
o

E 40 3 300
o o
2 200
c 20 o
100

Soil pH Soil pH

200

E 160
o
.E 120
2-o
80

6 6
Soil pH Soil pH

Fig. 34. Relationships of DTPA extractable soil Mn and plant Mn to soil pH(CaC12).
Graph a: Soil Mn as a function of pH.
Graph b: Plant Mn as a function of pH.
Graph c: Ratio of plant Mn to soil Mn as a function of pH.
The regression curve also indicates the coefficient, k(pH), for correcting soil Mn for pH (right-hand ordinate).
Graph d: pH-corrected soil Mn as a function of pH.
Columns and points indicate mean values within each pH class; n values of pH classes are given in Graph a;
equations and correlation coefficients for the regression curves are given in Table 15.

were improved in 25 out of 29 countries (Table 14). These were most substantial in
countries having generally acid soils with wide pH variation, e.g. Belgium, Finland,
Brazil, Peru, Korea, Philippines and all the African countries. In countries where the pH
correction was ineffective (India, Pakistan, Egypt and Iraq) alkaline soils with a
relatively narrow pH range were predominant.
Effects of other soil factors on soil Mn and plant Mn. The total Mn contents of soils
increased toward fine textured -soils while the relative solubility of Mn (extractable Mn
as a percentage of total Mn) increased toward coarse textured soils (Sillanpää, 1962 a, b).
Clearly, the plant Mntexture relations given in Fig. 38 (curves e, f, g) result from these
two opposing functions. The pH correction of soil Mn values (curves e and 0 brought
the soil Mntexture relation closer to that between plant Mn and texture (curve g).
Generally, the Mntexture correlations are much weaker than those between Mn and
pH (Table 15).
As organic carbon content of soil increased, the Mn content of plants and the DTPA
extractable soil Mn content tended to increase (Fig. 38, curves h, i, j). The columns
indicate a tendency for soil Mn content to decrease at the highest organic carbon levels,
 68

2000 191 Fig. 35. Relationship of Mn

content of pot-grown wheat
to DTPA extractable soil Mn
1000
800 MNUlailitiliMiiiii01111111111111M1111
MMEEINNLINKELEIM11111111111
in the whole material classified
MI
600 III MmnEMMIIMPNWn
IIIMII=EINTRE121121173MMISIEMIIIII
according to pH. The points
indicate mean plant Mn and
MEISMEINII
E
a. 300
cL
400 11
11 IIIIIII IMMISMIII1
IIIIMEMI .
soil Mn contents of various
pH classes. The lower limit of
oG) 200 111O1111111111 IIIII1Pik each pH class is given.

.................
_c

o
100 1011111111 11111
80 IMMOMMii=iNENNEMIZMNPAS:MAN
iiiIMNIMUWMCIMMENNO1=1.0rIMEN
o 60
WIMMIMMIMENNIIIMMI
11111111.111111

o inlilltiiMUIDMIIIPNIMCIIii.M111
40 UNIMMININIEKVIMILIMEIMIIII
wommul
0111111.1.11Mill
30
imi
20 1110Pr111111111111111

lo Ir
litim IINIIIMIIIIIII
Momminlemlail 11WIMIIMIIMMEN
8 IIIOIIIIMIMIIIIIÌIIIIMUMIIIIIIIIIIIMEMIWIIWMLMMNMMM
IIIIIIIINIIIIIIIMINIMINIFINRIMIMMIRMILMTCMINEB
1111111.11111111MMUIIIIIIRMIMIIIIIIIIMMUNIIIMMINMEN
2 34 6 8 10 20 30 40 6080100 200 300
Mn in soil mg/l (DTPA)

2000 N1041111111MINV IMMEN101.

Fig. 36. Relationship of

1000
800
Mn lnt
n e ÌÏiNÌiIlhII
- -minTrarinmmummmorisimuswaiminammaitio
*
plant Mn to pH-correct-
ed soil Mn (DTPA) in
the whole material
600 MINEMIll11E111111111111=11111111111=11111 classified according to
E 10. ITHEINECINEETIMMEIMIIIPE11111111111111111101211
MEIE111
pH.
0- 400
T:.; 300 111111
200 1.11111111111011111
o

ai u.-'--
100 ROMMILIIM MME=1PFillal.1=MMEM11 MINIM
80 Nommm =MMEMENPMaiRMIMMMEMIN111W7M11
Nimommomariimmimmosskiwmmosnum
o 60 11111MIL. INNIMIIIIIIPPNINIMMEM11=MINIMI
IIMIIIII 1MMONEWOMMIIMINMENIII=MMENNI
o
40 11 ElliMMINEIMMI111 =MIME
2 30 ii '.1111161111111111 MINNIEN
20 1111.12F' 11M1111111111MIER
10 MI
.......
MOI11
.................
111111111111111
IIMMINIMI1111MM=NIMINEN
1111111
___ ..
IN=MMEN
8
IIIIMMIll =.1111111MIRMIMMMEMEN
M11111111111!=11111.111MMINMENI
=111MWIN
1=NILL1I
1 2 34 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
pH - corrected Mn in soil, migil (DTPA)
 69

2000

1000 MMEITINIMIWTZTPPE1N_M='MMIllillIMMEN111111MMIIIIMIMMI
800 I. tiaiiiiiiiiiiiiingri=11111111M111111111111111111M
IMMIFLWAEM.17/ =1MMEINIIMMIIMINIMMIll
600 u.IN MMINEEMIIIIMMILM11111 EMU
E II MMEMPAINEEELE 33 0 X WMEMINUIPAMEMIIMMEMPai
II EiguI
Q. 400
II Mann mmuramalmo
15;
_C
200
300
I I. I 1111111101M1111111111
1111
SI
100 =IMINTIOMMINIMMEN=11111MINII
80 MIIIIlh,0:701MWirilIMMEN111MIMIWZMU
ENONIMINMENNIn rmiiiiatm,MMENOMW=nimitzign
60 111111111MMINIMIMIIIMIMMIIIUiI
iiIMUMMIIMEN1===IMMI 1NMEMISNI
=MERIN =MUNN MMEIL
2
40
30 1111.2dlill 111111Mall
20

10 IIÏIIIIIIÌIUUIIIIIII_fib
Immiminmlinsa EMMEME
8 IMMIliiiiMEMEMMIMMINEEM amiTamm..... =NEEZ:11
lommomreas
II NIMINIMMIMAN
3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100 200 300 600
pH-corrected Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

Fig. 37. Regression of Mn content of pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected DTPA extractable soil Mn (x)
for the whole international material. National mean values of plant and soil Mn are plotted in the graph.
For abbreviations see Fig. 33.

Table 14. Correlations (r values) between plant Mn and DTPA extractable soil Mn in various countries. Soil
Mn analyses are both uncorrected and corrected for pH(CaC12) [k(pH) = 107.06 - 2.20 pH -I- 0.164 pH2].
Correlations of the best fitting regressions are given. Regression models: a) y = a + bx; b) y = a + b log x; c)
log y = a+ bx; d) log y a + b log x.

Uncorrected pH -corrected Uncorrected pH -corrected

Country n Regr. Regr. Country n Regr. Regr.
model r model r model r model r
Belgium 36 c 0.347* c 0.737*** Egypt 198 d 0.171* d 0.139*
Finland 90 a 0.104 n.s. a 0.639*** Iraq 150 d 0.057 n.s. d 0.046 n.s.
Hungary 201 c 0.573*** c 0.742*** Lebanon 16 d 0.537* d 0.6425*
Italy 170 d 0.462*** d 0.531*** Syria 38 d 0.384* d 0.455**
Malta 25 b -0.128 n.s. b -0.090 n.s. Turkey 298 a 0.195*** a 0.232***
New Zealand 35 c 0.403* a 0.593***
Ethiopia 125 c 0.469*** d 0.665***
Argentina 208 a 0447*** a 0.664*** Ghana 93 a 0.430*** a 0739***
Brazil 58 c 0.433*** d 0.704*** Malawi 97 d 0.485*** d 0.769***
Mexico 242 d 0.568*** a 0.807*** Nigeria 153 c 0395*** d 0.729***
Peru 68 c 0.508*** a a945*** Sierra Leone 48 b 0.269 n.s. b 0.635***
Tanzania 163 d 0.126 n.s. d 0.387***
India 258 a 0.438*** a 0.356*** Zambia 44 d 0.266 n.s. d 0.607***
Korea, Rep. 90 c 0.663*** a a935***
Nepal 35 d 0.368* b 0.606***
Pakistan 237 a 0.287*** a 0.198**
Philippines 194 d 0.517*** a 0.815***
Sri Lanka 18 c 0.674*** d 0.871***
Thailand 150 c 0.671*** a 0.827*** Whole material 3538 d 0.552*** d 0.713***
70

30.0
Fig. 38. Relationships of
DTPA extractable soil
60
Mn and plant Mn to
various soil factors.
E
40 Graphs on the left: Un-
corrected soil Mn (wide
.! 20 columns and regression
curves e, h, k, n, and q)
and pH-corrected soil
30 50 70 90 70 90
10
Texture index (Ti
10 30 50
Texture index (Ti) Mn (narrow columns
and regression curves f,
i, 1, o, and r) as a
150 function of five soil
60 E factors.
o Graphs on the right:
40
100
Plant Mn as a function
E of five soil factors.
7S,

50
Number of samples (n)
.E 20
within each class is
given. The equations
.8 16 az 64 .8 6 az 64
and correlation coef-
Organic C, % Organic C,./ ficients for regressions
(e to r) are given in
60 Table 15. See also foot-
note to Fig. 24.
E
a 300
40 o
E
200
E
LI 20
3 100

8 16 32 64
CEC,me/ 00g CEC, me 100g

a0
E

200

100

16 6.4 256 16 64 256

El. conduct'vi y,10-4Scrn-1 El. conductivity,10-4Scrn-1

200
E
o

150
c

00
-E

50

.4 16 64 256 .4 16 64 256
CaCO3 equi, % CaCO3 equiv., %
 71

Table 15. Equations and correlation coefficients for regressions of DTPA extractable soil Mn (uncorrected
and pH-corrected) and plant Mn on various soil factors. Regression curves are given in Figs 34 and 38.

Variables Regression Correl. Regr.

Y coeff. curve
Soil Mn (uncorr.) pH 3538 log y = -3.075 + 1.684 x - 0.149 x2 0.695*** a
Plant Mn pH 3538 log y = 4.900 - 0.716 x + 0.0382 x2 0.644*** b
Plant Mn/soil Mn pH 3538 log y = 7.600 - 2.200 x + 0.1640 x2 0.513***
pH-corr. soil Mn pH 3538 log y = 3.892 - 0.486 x + 0.0126 x2 0.781*** d

Soil Mn (uncorr.) TI 3536 y= 35.2 - 0.291 x + 0.0055 x2 0.114*** e

pH-corr. soil Mn TI 3536 y= 59.1 - 1.384 x + 0.0165 x2 0.098*** f
Plant Mn TI 3536 y= 339 - 9.44 x + 0.0860 x2 0.218***

Soil Mn (uncorr.) Org. C 3538 log y = 1.358 + 0.492 log x - 0.372 (log x)2 0.312*** h
pH-corr. soil Mn Org. C 3538 log y = 1.218 + 0.595 log x - 0.0256 (log x)2 0.329***
Plant Mn Org. C 3538 log y = 1.865 + 0.187 log x - 0.0848 (log x)2 0.148*** j

Soil Mn (uncorr.) CEC 3538 y= 27.0 + 0.490 x - 0.00599 x2 0.056*** k

pH-corr. soil Mn CEC 3538 y= 39.9 + 4.712 log x - 5.973 (log x)2 0.044**
Plant Mn CEC 3538 Y 745 - 817.8 log x + 251.7 (log x)2 0.267***

Soil Mn (uncorr.) El. cond. 3538 log y = 1.441 - 0.549 log x + 0.182 (log x)2 0.389***
pH-corr. soil Mn El. cond. 3538 log y = 1.348 - 0.807 log x + 0.395 (log x)2 0.446*** o
Plant Mn El. cond. 3538 log y = 1.965 - 0.695 log x + 0.392 (log x)2 0.491***
Soil Mn (uncorr.) CaCO3 eq. 3538 log y = 1.313 - 0.227 log x + 0.0356 (log x)2 0.623***
pH-corr. soil Mn CaCO3 eq. 3538 log y = 1.088 - 0.240 log x + 0.0225 (log x)2 0.720***
Plant Mn CaCO3 eq. 3538 log y = 1.724 - 0.123 log x + 0.054 (log x)2 0.666***

but owing to the small number of samples at the highest organic carbon levels the
regression curves do not reflect this tendency.
Cation exchange capacity has a relatively weak effect on DTPA extractable soil Mn
(Fig. 38, curves k, 1). Correction for pH slightly altered the direction of the regression
curve, bringing it somewhat closer to the plant Mn-CEC regression curve (m).
As electrical conductivity and CaCO3 equivalent of soils increased the Mn contents of
plants as well as the extractable soil Mn decreased (Fig. 38, curves n, o, p, q, r, s).
Correlations between Mn and these soil characteristics are strong, but somewhat lower
than those between Mn and pH. Correction of DTPA extractable soil Mn for pH changed
the relationship between soil Mn and both these soil factors slightly but distinctly toward
the respective relations between plant Mn and these soil factors.
The above relations of plant Mn and DTPA extractable soil Mn to the six soil
characteristics may be summarized as follows:
As in the case of other micronutrients, the original plants (maize and wheat) due to
their heterogeneity were poor indicators of the Mn status of soils.
Determination of soil Mn by DTPA extraction gave a much higher correlation be-
tween plant Mn and soil Mn than did the AAAc-EDTA extractable Mn.
Both plant Mn and DTPA extractable soil Mn were significantly correlated with all six
soil characteristics studied.
Correction of DTPA extractable soil Mn for any of the six soil factors would improve
the correlation between plant Mn and soil Mn. (Correction coefficients for the
other five soil factors were also calculated analogously to the procedure for
correction for pH). The effects of these corrections, however, were small compared to
that of pH correction. Therefore, these are not presented.
72

Correction of DTPA extractable soil Mn for pH improved the plant Mnsoil Mn

correlation substantially. It also moderated the differences between the effects of the
other five soil factors on plant Mn and soil Mn.
When the results of this study are classified by countries (Part II), both uncorrected
and pH-corrected soil Mn values are presented.
The extractable Mn contents of soils in the whole material of this study were analysed
by two extraction methods (DTPA and AAAc-EDTA). The main differences between
these methods as well as their usefulness are discussed in the next Section.

AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Mn as an indicator of Mn status of soils. The very poor

correlation between the Mn contents of plants and AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Mn (r =
0.039*) is mainly due to the predominant role of pH in plant and soil Mn analyses. The
Mn contents of plants decreased strongly with rising pH (Fig. 39 b). The AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Mn increased with rising pH to about pH 7 and decreased thereafter
toward alkaline soils (Fig. 39 a). Both of the above relations are very firm (R values
0.644*** and 0.404***, respectively). Thus, in acid soils the plant Mn seems to be
negatively correlated, and in alkaline soils positively correlated with the AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Mn.

Q log y =-3.142+1.643 x -0.120 x2 b log y = 4.900-0.716 x +0.0382 x2

n=3538 n=3538
2 400 500
R=0.404" aE
R=0.644"

-5 400
300

"E,. 300
E' 200
o CS: 210000
0
100 o

Od111111111111
6 6
Soi pH Sol pH

4C log y =7.670-2.275 x .0.152 x2

1.- 1200 log y=4.834-0.594x .0.0289 x2
n=3538 10 o) n=3538
R=0.729" R=0.547"
1000
c
8 .92

6
Y
á,
S
.. -
c
X
800
Ill
c -0 600
a.,

a, ! 400

Soil pH
2
I
Y
a
u
T200
200

Illiiiii
111111iiiiiiii
1
Soil pH

Fig. 39. Relationships of AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Mn and plant Mn to soil pH(CaC12).
Graph a: Soil Mn as a function of pH.
Graph b: Plant Mn as a function of pH.
Graph c: Ratio of plant Mn to soil Mn as a function of pH.
The regression curve also indicates the coefficient, k(pH), for correcting soil Mn for pH (right-hand ordinate).
Graph d: pH-corrected soil Mn as a function of pH.
Columns and points indicate mean values of each pH class; n values of pH classes are given in Graph a.
 73

This AAAc-EDTA extractable Mn-pH relationship is basically of the same form as

that between DTPA extractable Mn and pH. There is, however, an essential difference.
The DTPA extractable Mn contents reached a maximum at pH 5-6 while the maximum
for AAAc-EDTA Mn was reached first at about pH 7. This means that DTPA extract-
able soil Mn is positively correlated with plant Mn over a wider pH range than the
AAAc-EDTA Mn. This also explains the poor correlation between plant Mn and
AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Mn in this material consisting predominantly of soils
approaching neutrality or alkalinity.
As in the case of DTPA extractable soil Mn, the correction coefficient for pH was
calculated for AAAc-EDTA Mn. The ratio of plant Mn to AAAc-EDTA extractable
soil Mn is given in Fig. 39 c. The regression equation in Graph c, multiplied by the
reversion coefficient (2.642), gives the pH correction coefficient for AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Mn:
k(pH) = 108.092 - 2.275 pH + 0.152 pH2

The pH correction coefficient is also given in Graph c (right-hand ordinate). The

pH-corrected soil Mn as a function of pH is given in Graph d. This relation closely
resembles the one between plant Mn and pH (Graph b) as well as that between
pH-corrected DTPA Mn and pH (Fig. 34 d).
Application of the pH correction to AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Mn values in the
whole material (n = 3538) improved the plant Mn-soil Mn correlation from an r value of
0.039* (uncorrected) to 0.588***. At the national level the respective correlations were
(for uncorrected AAAc-EDTA Mn) non-significant or even negative in 22 out of 29
countries (Table 16). After pH correction, the correlations remained non-significant in
two countries only (Malta and Iraq) and became highly significant in 20 countries.

Table 16. Correlations (r values) between plant Mn content and AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Mn in various
countries. Soil Mn analyses are both uncorrected and corrected for pH [k(pH) = 108.092 - 2.275 pH + 0.152 pH2 ].
Correlations of the best fitting regressions are given. Regression models: a) y = a + bx; b) y = a + b log x;
c) log y= a+ bx, and d) log y = a + b log X.

Uncorrected pH -corrected Uncorrected pH -corrected

Country n Regr. Regr. Country n Regr. Regr.
model r model r model r model r
Belgium 36 b -0.099 n.s. 0.645*** Egypt 198 d 0.668*** d 0.666***
Finland 90 b -0.117 n.s. a 0.603*** Iraq 150 a 0.024 n.s. b 0.022 n.s.
Hungary 201 d 0.028 n.s. d 0.720*** Lebanon 16 b 0.500* b 0.502*
Italy 170 d 0.185* d 0.462*** Syria 38 d 0.351* d 0.352*
Malta 25 b -0.376 n.s. b -0.375 n.s. Turkey 298 d 0.200*** d 0.261***
New Zealand 35 d 0.245 n.s. d 0.439***
Ethiopia 125 b -0.123 n.s. a 0.572***
Argentina 208 c 0.150* d 0.565*** Ghana 93 a -0.027 n.s. a 0.722***
Brazil 58 d 0.211 n.s. d 0.553*** Malawi 97 c 0.094 n.s. d 0.718***
Mexico 242 d 0.066 n.s. a 0.659*** Nigeria - 153 a -0.024 n.s. d 0.648***
Peru 68 c 0.124 n.s. a 0.867*** Sierra Leone 48 b 0.018 n.s. b 0575***
Tanzania 163 a -0.317*** c 0.204**
India 258 c 0.075 n.s. 0.151* Zambia 44 d -0.075 n.s. d 0.556***
Korea, Rep. 90 d 0.150 n.s. 0.895***
Nepal 35 c -0.184 n .s. ab 0.496**
Pakistan 237 b 0.161* a 0.186**
Philippines 194 a 0.076 n.s. a 0.754***
Sri Lanka 18 c 0.312 n.s. 0.773***
Thailand 150 c -0.194* a 0.632*** Whole material 3538 c 0.039* d 0.588***
74

Comparison of correlations between plant Mn and AAAc-EDTA Mn corrected for pH,

given in Table 16, with respective correlations between plant Mn and DTPA Mn
(uncorrected and pH-corrected, Table 14) shows that plant Mn correlated best with
pH-corrected DTPA Mn. The r value for the whole material is 0.713*** and in 28 out of
29 countries the r values exceed those obtained by any other method. The second highest
correlations were obtained with pH-corrected AAAc-EDTA and the third highest by
uncorrected DTPA, r values 0.588*** and 0.552*** for the whole material, respectively.
At the national level the former is better in 21 and the latter in 7 countries.
Comparison of relations between extractable Mn contents of soils obtained by different
methods (Table 17) shows that the two methods that correlated best with the Mn contents
of plants (pH-corrected DTPA and pH-corrected AAAc-EDTA) also have the highest
mutual correlation.

Table 17. Mutual correlations (r values) between extractable Mn contents of soils in the whole material
(n 3538) as determined by four methods.

Extraction AAAc-EDTA pH-corrected pH-corrected

method (uncorrected) AAAc-EDTA DTPA
DTPA
(uncorrected) 0.416*** 0.672*** 0.751***

pH-corrected
DTPA 0.159*** 0.840***

pH-corrected
AAAc-EDTA 0.415***

It is clear that the essential difference between the two basic extraction methods, DTPA
and AAAc-EDTA, lies in their divergent responses to soil pH. Therefore, the
relationship of each of the two methods to pH mainly determines their usefulness for
estimating the Mn status of soils. The difference between the methods, however, can be
largely eliminated by correcting the analytical data for soil pH.
Soil analysis giving results that are in harmony with the results of plant analysis is
naturally a more reliable index of the availability of a nutrient to a plant than a method
giving contradictory results. Often a method which is well suited for one nutrient fails in
the case of another. Nevertheless, the above results with Mn show that even a method
which in itself gives poor results may be successfully used if its special features and its
behaviour with respect to various soil characteristics are known and properly taken into
account.
 75

2.3.7 Zinc

2.3.7.1 General aspects

The average Zn contents of the three types of indicator plant in the whole international
material, those of the respective soils determined by two extraction methods (AAAc-
EDTA and DTPA) and the plant Zn-soil Zn regressions are given below.
Zinc content
in plant DM in resp. soils
Indicator mean + s mean ± s Regression of plant Zn (y) Correlation')
plant (PPIn) (mg/I) on soil Zn (x) (r)

AAAc-EDTA
Original maize 1966 35.7 ± 47.2 4.13 ± 8.62 log y = 1.39 + 0.211 log x 0.391***
Original wheat 1768 27.4 ± 11.3 3.48 ± 7.72 y = 23.3 + 12.62 log x 0.405***
Pot-grown wheat 3537 18.3 ± 10.8 3.81 ± 8.26 y = 15.0 + 0.87 x 0.665***

DTPA
Original maize 2.14 ± 6.49 log y = 1.46 + 0.195 log x 0.381***
Original wheat (as above) 1.77 ± 7.30 log y = 1.42 + 0.181 log x 0.473***
Pot-grown wheat 1.97 ± 7.05 log y = 1.23 + 0.321 log x 0.732***

I) The mutual correlation between AAAc-EDTA extractable and DTPA extractable soil Zn was high (r = 0.819***),
and the differences between their relations to plant Zn were small. In order to get more information on their usefulness,
the relations of both methods to various soil factors were investigated.

The difference between the Zn contents of the original maize and original wheat may be
partly due to maize being better able than wheat to absorb Zn from soils and partly to the
higher contents of available Zn in maize soils. The average Zn content of the pot-grown
wheat is one-third lower than that of the original wheat plants. Evidently the plants were
unable to absorb from the small amounts of soil in pots (see Section 1.2.6) as much Zn as
plants grown in field conditions. The standard deviation of Zn contents of maize (± 47
ppm) was much wider than for wheat (about 11 ppm). The variation of extractable soil Zn
was considerably wider than in the cases of other micronutrients.
As for the other micronutrients, the correlations between the Zn content of pot-grown
wheat and extractable soil Zn were much closer than those for the original maize and
wheat. The former regressions (with national mean values) are shown in Figs 40 and 41.
The correlations of Zn uptake with AAAc-EDTA and with DTPA extractable soil
Zn were very similar to those given in Figs 40 and 41, with r values of 0.669*** and
0.707***, respectively. At the national level, too, the differences were small.

2.3.7.2 Soil factors affecting the zinc contents of plants and soils
The regressions of plant and soil Zn on six soil characteristics are given in Figs 42 and 44
and in Table 19. The correlations were always highly significant with r varying from
0.055*** to 0.475***. In general, the organic carbon content of soils pH were better
correlated with Zn than were the other soil factors studied. As in the case of the other
micronutrients, correction coefficients were calculated for each of the six soil factors
studied, as well as for the two extraction methods. The coefficients were tested over the
whole soil and plant material. Possibly due to the relatively good agreement between
the plant Zn and uncorrected (AAAc-EDTA and DTPA) soil Zn values, the corrections
were less effective than in the cases of some other micronutrients, e.g. Mn and Mo.
76

200

100
90
80
E 70
60
4-7 50
CD
-c 40

o° 20
NJ

10
9
8
7
6

.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 6080

Zn in soil, mg/1 (.4 A Ac- EDTA)

Fig. 40. Regression of Zn content of pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium acetate-EDTA extractable
soil Zn (x) for the whole international material. National mean values of plant and soil Zn are also given.
Countries:
Ar = Argentina, Be = Belgium, Br = Brazil, Eg = Egypt,
Et = Ethiopia, Fi = Finland, Gh =- Ghana, Hu = Hungary,
In = India, Ir = Iraq, It = Italy, Ko = Korea, Rep.,
Le = Lebanon, Mt = Malta, Mw= Malawi, Me = Mexico,
Ne = Nepal, NZ = New Zealand, 'Ni ,---- Nigeria, Pa = Pakistan,
Pe = Peru, Ph = Philippines, Si = Sierra Leone, Sr = Sri Lanka,
Sy 7------ Syria, Ta = Tanzania, Th = Thailand, Tu = Turkey,
Za = Zambia.
The Zn content zones IV are explained in Section 1.4.3.

Compared to the other soil factors studied, soil pH caused the greatest difference be-
tween AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Zn and plant Zn. In the following paragraphs,
the effects of pH and those of the other five soil characteristics are discussed.
Effects of soil pH on soil Zn and plant Zn. Comparison of the regression lines and
columns in Graphs a, b and e (Fig. 42) shows that the correspondence between the effects
of pH on plant Zn and DTPA Zn is greater than for the effects of pH on plant Zn and
AAAc-EDTA Zn. The contents of plant Zn decreased with rising pH over almost the
whole pH range. DTPA Zn decreased from about pH 5 upwards, while in the case of
AAAc-EDTA, Zn values increased up to about pH 6 and only began to fall in the
alkaline pH range. pH thus had a similar influence on plant Zn and DTPA Zn over a
relatively wide pH range, whereas the effects of pH on plant Zn and AAAc-EDTA Zn
resembled each other within only a rather narrow pH range on the alkaline side. There-
 200 1 IMM ... __
77

111111111111 1111111
100
90
80
70 millimil mom 1111

60
50
40

30
lionnolimmi
20 11111111111111111111111

10
9
111111111111111111111111
IIIIMPAMMENIIIII=MMINI MM=MEMBII I III
8
7
6
iirMilirilli MMEM"" 1..1.11"1..
E EL IL
.2 .3 .4 .6 .81 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
Zn in soil, mg /I (DTPA)

Fig. 41. Regression of Zn content of the pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extractable soil Zn (x) for the whole
international material. For abbreviations see Fig. 40.

fore, the pH correction coefficient calculated for DTPA Zn was ineffective, but that
calculated for AAAc-EDTA Zn improved the plant ZnAAAc-EDTA Zn correlation.
The ratio of plant Zn to AAAc-EDTA Zn as a function of pH (Fig. 42c) indicates
quantitatively the systematic difference between the pH effects on the two forms of Zn,
and the regression curve (c) shows the correction required to eliminate this difference. The
correction coefficient for pH is given by:

k(pH) = 0.1903 X 104-1 0.976 pH + 0.068 pH2

where the exponent is the regression equation for curve c (Fig. 42 and Table 19) and the
constant (0.1903) is a reversion coefficient for restoring the AAAc-EDTA Zn values to
their original level. The simplified formula is given by:

k(pH) = 103.379 0.976 pH + 0.068 pH2

The numerical values for k(pH) can also be read from the right-hand ordinate of Fig. 42c
and the regression line. The k(pH) applies to pH(CaC12). For the relation between
pH(H20) and pH(CaC12) see Fig. 5 and Section 2.1.
When the AAAc-EDTA Zn values are corrected for pH in the whole material, we
obtain the soil ZnpH relation given in Fig. 42d. This curve shows that the effects of pH
on plant Zn and on AAAc-EDTA Zn have been made almost equal.
Application of k(pH) to AAAc-EDTA Zn values improved the plant Znsoil Zn
correlation from an r value of 0.665*** (Fig. 40) to 0.706*** (Fig. 43) in the whole
material and in 23 out of 29 countries (Table 18). The highest correlations, however, were
78

25

20

15

'le 10

g5
N
Soil pH Soil pH

d
4 5 8
Soil pH Soil pH

Fig. 42. Relationships of extractable soil Zn and plant Zn to soil pH(CaC12).

Graph a: AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Zn as a function of pH.
Graph b: Plant Zn as a function of pH.
Graph e: Ratio of plant Zn to AAAc-EDTA Zn as a function of pH.
The regression curve also indicates the coefficient, k(pH), for correcting AAAc-EDTA Zn for pH
(right-hand ordinate).
Graph d: pH-corrected AAAc-EDTA Zn as a function of pH.
Graph e: DTPA extractable soil Zn as a function of pH.
Columns and points indicate mean values of each pH class, n values of pH classes are given in Graph b.
Equations and correlation coefficients for regression curves are given in Table 19.

obtained between plant Zn and DTPA extraction (Fig. 41 and Table 18). The r value for
the whole material is 0.732*** and in national materials the best correlation was obtained
in 15 out of 29 countries. In general, the pH-corrected AAAc-EDTA extractable Zn was
better correlated with plant Zn in countries where acid soils predominate and DTPA Zn
in countries with alkaline soils.
In the case of Zn, the main difference between the DTPA and AAAc-EDTA
extraction methods in favour of DTPA lies in the different reaction to pH. This difference
can largely be eliminated by correcting AAAc-EDTA Zn for pH. In fact, correcting
AAAc-EDTA Zn for pH raised the coefficient of correlation (r) between these two
extraction methods from 0.819*** to 0.911***.

Effects of other soil factors in soil Zn and plant Zn. Figure 44 shows the relationships be-
tween uncorrected and pH-corrected AAAc-EDTA Zn (left-hand graphs), plant Zn
(middle graphs), and DTPA Zn (right-hand graphs) and five soil characteristics.
Soil texture. The patterns of behaviour of Zn as a function of texture are quite similar
irrespective of the method by which the Zn values have been determined (curves f, g,
h, i, Fig. 44 and Table 19). With increasing texture index, the Zn values first decrease,
reaching a minimum among medium textured soils and showing thereafter a tendency to
increase towards fine textured clay soils. The effect of texture seems to be quantitatively
more pronounced on extractable soil Zn values (f, g, i) than on plant Zn (h). Apparently
 79

Table 18. Correlations (r values) in various countries between plant Zn and soil Zn determined by three
different methods. Correlations of the best fitting regressions are given. Regression models: a) y = a + bx;
b) y = a + b log x; c) log y = a + bx; d) log y = a + b log x.

AAAc-EDTA-extractable DTPA-extr. AAAc-EDTA-extractable DTPA-extr.

Uncorrected pH-correctedl) Uncorrected Uncorrected pH-correctedi) Uncorrected
Country n Regr. Regr. Regr. Country n Regr. Regr. Regr.
model r model r model model model r model r
Belgium 36 d 0.803*** a 0.895*** d 0.829*** Egypt 198 d 0.739*** b 0730*** d 0.784***
Finland 90 d 0.595*** a 0.768*** d 0.645*** Iraq 150 a 0.672*** a 0.660*** a 0705***
Hungary 201 a a394*** b 0.540*** b 0.581*** Lebanon 16 d 0.715** d 0.709** d 0.792***
Italy 170 d 0.751*** b 0.795*** d 0.814*** Syria 38 a 0.843*** a 0.840*** b 0.881***
Malta 25 d 0.916*** b 0.941*** b 0.896*** Turkey 298 a 0.507*** a 0.536*** b 0.712***
New Zealand 35 d 0.678*** b 0.684*** b 0.712***
Ethiopia 125 d 0.773*** a 0.846*** d 0.788***
Argentina 208 a 0.641*** a 0.676*** a 0.635*** Ghana 93 a 0795*** b 0.827*** b 0.805***
Brazil 58 a 0.778*** a 0.825*** a 0.698*** Malawi 97 d 0.542*** d 0.607*** d 0.625***
Mexico 242 d 0.615*** b 0.651*** b 0.658*** Nigeria 153 d 0.758*** a 0.873*** a 0.869***
Peru 68 a 0.699*** a 0.760*** b 0.752*** Sierra Leone 48 a 0.900*** a 0.893*** a 0.936***
Tanzania 163 d 0.604*** b 0.630*** b 0.669***
India 258 a 0.556*** a 0.560*** a 0.584*** Zambia 43 d 0.693*** b 0.787*** b 0.752***
Korea, Rep. 90 a 0.758*** d 0.815*** d 0.761***
Nepal 35 a 0.626*** b 0.591*** b 0.666***
Pakistan 237 d 0.682*** b 0.706*** b 0.734***
Philippines 194 d 0.702*** a 0.827*** a 0.812***
Sri Lanka 18 a 0.943*** a 0.948*** a 0.944*** Whole
Thailand 150 d 0.660*** d 0.761*** d 0.842*** material 3537 a 0.665*** a 0.706*** d 0.732***

I) k(pH) = 103.379 - 0.976 pH + 0.068 pH2

200 Fig. 43. Regression of

Zn content of the pot-
grown wheat (y) on pH-
corrected AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Zn (x)
100 for the whole material.
90 For abbreviations see
80 Fig. 40.
70
60
E
o.
50

"6
4-6a, 20

N
10
9
8
7
6 IMO NEM
.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 3040 60 100
pH-corrected Zn in soil, mg/1 (AAAc-EDTA)
80

10 30 50 70 go 10 30 50 70 90 0 30 50 70 90
Texture index Ti) Texture hdex (TO Texture index Ti)(

.8 16 32 64
Organic C,%

8 16 32 64 8 16 32 64
CEC. me 100g CEC, me/100g

E
TD"

N
16 6.4 25.6 16 6.4 256
El. conductivi y,10- S cm-1 El. conductivity, 10" S cm"' El. conduc ivi y,10- S cm-1

0,

.4 16 6A zas 1.6 6A 256 .4 16 6.4 25 6

COCO equiv.,/o CaCO equiv. % CoC0 equiv.,%

Fig. 44. Relationships of plant Zn and soil Zn to various soil factors. Graphs on the left: Uncorrected
AAAc-EDTA extractable Zn (wide columns and curves f, j, n, r, v) and pH-corrected AAAc-EDTA
Zn (narrow columns and curves g, k, o, s, w) as a function of five soil characteristics.
Graphs in the centre: Plant Zn as a function of five soil characteristics.
Graphs on the right: DTPA extractable soil Zn as a function of five soil factors. The number of samples (n)
within each class is given in the centre graphs. The equations and correlation coefficients for regressions
are given in Table 19. See also footnote to Fig. 24.
 81

Table 19. Equations and correlation coefficients for regressions of AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Zn
(uncorrected and pH-corrected), plant Zn, and DTPA extractable soil Zn on various soil factors. Regression
curves are given in Figs 42 and 44.

Variables Regression Correl. Regr.

Y
coeff. curve
Soil Zn (AAAc-EDTA, uncorr.) pH 3537 log y = -5.238 + 14.00 log x - 8.713 (log x)2 0.128*** a
Plant Zn pH 3537 log y = 0.960 + 0.177 x - 0.0204 x2 0A75*** b
Plant Zn/soil Zn (AAAc-EDTA) pH 3537 log y = 4.100 - 0.976 x + 0.0680 x2 0.402***
Soil Zn (AAAc-EDTA, pH-corr.) pH 3537 log y = 1.660 - 0.327 x + 0.0181 x2 0.267*** d
Soil Zn (DTPA) pH 3537 log y = -2.971 + 1.101 x - 0.0969 x2 0.378*** e

Soil Zn (AAAc-EDTA, uncorr.) TI 3535 y 46.50 - 51.63 log x + 15.43 (log x)2 0.089*** f
Soil Zn (AAAc-EDTA, pH-corr.) TI 3535 y= 66.02 - 76.14 log x + 23.04 (log x)2 0.118***
Plant Zn TI 3535 log y = 1.439 - 0.00883 x + 0.000075 x2 0.184*** h
Soil Zn (DTPA) TI 3535 y= 31.07 - 34.33 log x + 9.990 (log x)2 0.082*** i

Soil Zn (AAAc-EDTA, uncorr.) Org. C 3537 log y = 0.324 + 0.529 log x - 0.141 (log x)2 0.343*** j
Soil Zn (AAAc-EDTA, pH-corr.) Org. C 3537 log y = 0.288 + 0.673 log x + 0.0449 (log x)2 0.434*** k
Plant Zn Org. C 3537 log y = 1.202 + 0.210 log x + 0.0725 (log x)2 0.286*** 1

Soil Zn (DTPA) Org. C 3537 log y = -0.0731 +0.735 log x 0.423***

Soil Zn (AAAc-EDTA, uncorr.) CEC 3537 log y = -1.153 + 1.970 log x - 0.629 (log x)2 0.224***
Soil Zn (AAAc-EDTA, pH-corr.) CEC 3537 log y = -1.069 + 1.916 log x - 0.644 (log x)2 0.176*** o
Plant Zn CEC 3537 log y = 1.128 + 0.193 log x - 0.0925 (log x)2 0.075***
Soil Zn (DTPA) CEC 3537 log y = 0.929 + 1.229 log x - 0.417 (log x)2 0.098*** q

Soil Zn (AAAc-EDTA, uncorr.) El. cond. 3537 log y = 0.280 + 0.429 log x - 0.263 (log x)2 0.261***
Soil Zn (AAAc-EDTA, pH-corr.) El. cond. 3537 log y = 0.292 + 0.170 log x - 0.110 (log x)2 0.099***
Plant Zn El. cond. 3537 log y = 1.230 - 0.0723 log x 0.135*** t
Soil Zn (DTPA) El. cond. 3537 log y = -0.0407+0.0924 log x - 0.170 (log x)2 0.089*** u

Soil Zn (AAAc-EDTA, uncorr.) CaCO3eq. 3537 log y = 0.338 + 0.0169 (log x)2 0.055***
Soil Zn (AAAc-EDTA, pH-corr.) CaCO3eq. 3537 log y = 0.206 - 0.00801 logx +0.0555 (log x)2 0.252*** w
Plant Zn CaCO3eq. 3537 log y = 1.174 - 0.0599 log x +0.00717 (log x)2 0.433*** Y

Soil Zn (DTPA) CaCO3eq. 3537 log y = -0.0896+ 0.129 log x -0.00995 (log x)2 0.340***

this is due to the wider range of variation in soil Zn than in plant Zn contents. The shape
of the curves may be the result of two opposing factors, the increasing total contents
of Zn and decreasing relative solubility of Zn towards finer textured soils (Sillanpää 1962
a, b). Correction of AAAc-EDTA Zn for pH had a relatively small effect on the Zn-
texture relationships (f, g).
As the organic carbon content of the soil increased, there was a simultaneous increase in
all four regression curves (Fig. 44, j, k, 1, m). All four correlations are relatively close
(Table 19). There seems to be a tendency for extractable soil Zn to decrease at an organic
C content of about 0.4 percent (see columns). This, however, is not confirmed by the
regressions, probably because of the small number of samples in the highest organic C
classes and the general lack of organic soils in this material. Correction of AAAc-EDTA
Zn for pH steepened the slope of the regression curve (j, k) but did not otherwise change
the character of the relationship.
Cation exchange capacity had only moderate effects on plant and soil Zn (Fig. 44 n, o, p,
q and Table 19). With increasing CEC the Zn values first increased but the curves turn
slightly downwards at high CEC levels. The maximum for plant Zn was reached at a
somewhat lower CEC level than in the case of extractable soil Zn. Correction of
AAAc-EDTA Zn for pH affected only slightly the Zn-CEC relationship.
82

As the electrical conductivity of soil increased, the Zn contents of plants decreased

(curve t), while extractable soil Zn values show at first a tendency to increase and begin to
decrease only at higher levels of electrical conductivity. This tendency is more pronounced
in the case of AAAc-EDTA Zn (curve r), but was moderated by pH correction (curve s).
With the increasing CaCO3 equivalent of the soil, there was a general tendency for a
slight decrease in the values of plant Zn and DTPA Zn (curves y and z) while the other
two curves (v and w) are more independent of CaCO3. The highest CaCO3 equivalent class
with its extremely high Zn values was an exception to this tendency. This class, however,
was very small (n = 38) and two-thirds of its samples came from a very restricted area
(Malta).
The mutual relations between plant Zn and extractable soil Zn, as well as the influence
of various soil factors on Zn, are summarized as follows:
Replacing the original plants (maize and wheat) by pot-grown wheat improved the
plant Znsoil Zn correlations.
Both the AAAc-EDTA and DTPA extraction methods for determining soil Zn gave
good indexes of Zn availability to plants. The highest correlations between plant Zn
and extractable soil Zn were obtained when DTPA extraction was used.
Both plant Zn and extractable soil Zn contents were significantly affected by all six
soil characteristics studied.
Most of the difference between the AAAc-EDTA and DTPA extraction methods in
favour of DTPA is attributable to their different reactions to soil pH.
Correction of the AAAc-EDTA Zn values for pH largely eliminated the above
difference and improved the plant ZnAAAc-EDTA Zn correlations.
The plant ZnDTPA Zn and the plant ZnpH-corrected AAAc-EDTA Zn correla-
tions (r) for the whole international material were 0.732*** and 0.706***, respectively.
The former were higher in 15 countries where alkaline soils predominate, and the latter
in 14 countries with predominantly acidic soils.
When the results of this study are classified by countries (Part II), both pH-corrected
AAAc-EDTA and DTPA extractable soil Zn values are presented.
 83

2.4 Mutual relations between micronutrients

The contents of various micronutrients in plants vary with plant species and varieties
and depend on the total micronutrient supply in soils and on factors controlling their
availability to plants. Although there might be some differences between plant species in
their reactions to soil factors controlling micronutrient availability, it is reasonable to
assume that soil factors limiting the availability of micronutrients to one plant species
react similarly in cases of other species. The mutual relations between the plant contents
of six micronutrients presented (Figs 45 and 46) were obtained from a pot trial in which
wheat, cv. 'Apu', was used as an indicator plant. Respective relations between the six
micronutrients in soils (r values) are given in Table 20.
As shown earlier, the micronutrient contents of plants depend both on the micro-
nutrient contents of soils and on soil factors regulating their availability. The effects of
these factors vary considerably from one micronutrient to another as well as in their
relative degree of efficacy. In general, when there is good correlation between the plant
contents of two micronutrients, the availability of these micronutrients is largely
controlled by the same soil factor or factors. Because of the large number of soil factors
involved, these relationships are complicated but in some cases the reasons for correlations
can be explained with a relatively high certainty. The best example of these is the highly
significant negative correlation (r = 0.515***) between Mo and Mn. The regressions are
given in Fig. 46. The availability of both these micronutrients is so strongly affected by
soil pH that the other factors are overshadowed. While the Mn contents of plants decrease
greatly with rising pH (R = 0.644***, Fig. 34 b), the Mo contents increase (R = 0459***,
Fig. 16 b) and deficiencies of both Mn and Mo can therefore hardly exist in same soil.
A deficiency of Mn is often combined with an excess of Mo and vice versa, as will be seen
in Part II. Extractable soil Mn and Mo are highly significantly negatively correlated
(r = 0.390***) if both are corrected for pH (Table 20). Without pH corrections this
relationship would be equally significant (r = 0.391***) but positive, i.e. in strong
contradiction to the plant MnMo correlation.
The second highest correlation found between various plant micronutrients is that of
Mn and Zn (r = 0.420***, Fig. 46). In this case also the soil pH exercises the leading
effect on the availability of these micronutrients to plants. The plant contents of both
these micronutrients decrease strongly with rising pH (Fig. 34 b and 42 b). Comparing
the results given in Fig. 38 (graphs on the right) and Fig. 44 (graphs in the centre) it can be
seen that there are also other soil factors e.g. texture and organic carbon content, which
correlate with plant Mn much as they do with plant Zn. Therefore, in addition to good
correlations (r values 0.346*** and 0.299***; Table 20) between extractable soil Mn and
Zn, these factors may contribute to the good plant MnZn correlation.
For the three next highest correlations between the plant contents of Fe and Zn (r =
0.350***), Fe and Cu (r = 0.344***), and Fe and Mn (r = 0.329***) the common soil
factors are not as clearly defined, since the Fe contents of plants were less strongly affected
by any of the soil factors studied than were the other micronutrients (see Fig. 32 and
related text). In all three cases, FeZn, FeCu, and FeMn, the extractable soil contents
are correlated to a degree similar to the plant contents (r values 0.380***, 0.270*** and
0.222***, respectively; Table 20).
Plant B was best correlated to plant Mo and Mn, in the former case positively
(r = 0.329***) and in the latter negatively (r = 0.244***). Respective correlations
84

Cu
Cu =5.45+210 log B 16 log B=0.675+0.00898 Cu 6 log 8=0.723+0.000244 Fe
15 r =a137." r =0.137. r =0.025 n.s.

10

16 g 10 15 Cu 40 80 160 Fe
Fe Fe Cu
Fe .59.0+2.59 log B tog Fe=1.67+0.0148 Cu Cu =-711+797 tog Fe
160 r .0.025n.s. 160 r =0.344** 5 r =0.344."

10
80 80

40 40

16 g 10 5 Cu 40 80 160 F
Mn Mn Mn
512 log Mn = 2.25-0506 log B 512 log Mn =2.00-0.154 log Cu 512 log Mn =0.0484+1.033 log Fe
r =-0.244". r=-0.076" r =0.329**

128 128 .
128

32 32 32

6B 10 15 40 80 160 Fe
Moj Mol Mo
Mo =-0.204+0.713 log B log Mo.-1.26+0.668 log Cu Mo =0.217+0.00172 Fe
r =0.329." . r =0.243*. .8 r =0.082."
. ,

.2

.05 .05 .05

8 16 B 10 15 40 80 160 Fe
Zn Zn Zn
log Zn=1.35-0.186 log B log Zn=1.09+0.0170 Cu log Zn =0.107+0.625 log Fe
40 40 40
r=-0.157** r =0.221". r =0.350."

20 O 20

10 10 10

16B 5 10 15 Cu 40 80 160 Fe
Fig. 45.

Figs 45 and 46. Mutual correlations between B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, and Zn contents of pot-grown wheat (ppm)
in the whole international material (n = 3536). Points indicate arithmetic mean contents of the
micronutrients given on the y axis in content classes of the micronutrient given in the x axis.
 85

16 log 8=0.959-0.118 log Mn 16 log B=0.689+0.152 Mo 16 log B =0.900-0.133 log Zn

r =-0. 244 r =0.329*** r =-0.157***

32 128 512Mn .05 0.2 0.8 Mo 10 20 40 Zn

Cu Cu
log Cu =0.884-0.0376 log Mn log Cu =0.877+0.0884 tog Mo Cu =3.53+2.86 log Zn
15 r =0.243*** 15 r =0.2 21"*"
r =-0.076***

10 10

32 28 512 mn 0.8 mo 10 20 40 zn
Fe Fe Fe
log Fe =1.57+0.105 log Mn Fe =59.7+3.90 Mo log Fe =1.53+0.196 log Zn
160 r =0.329'*. 160 r =0.082 '** 160 r =0.350

80 80 80

40 40 40

32 128 512Mn .05 0.2 0.8 mo 10 20 40 zn

Mo Mn Mn
tog Mo =0.598 -0.698 log Mn 512 log Mn=1.61-0.379 log Mo 512 log Mn =0986+0.734 log Zn
.8 r =-0.515 . r=-0.515**" r =0.420* .
.
128 128

32 32

32 128 512 Mn .05 0.2 0.8 Mo 20 Zn

Zn Zn Mo
log Zn =0.767+0.238 log Mn log Zn =1.17-0.0589 log Mo log Mo =-0.306 -0.335 log Zn
40 r =0.420*** 40 r =-0.140*** 80 r=-0.140***

20 20

10 10

32 128 512 Mn .05 0.2 0.8 Mo 10 20 40 zn

Fig. 46.
86

Table 20. Mutual correlations (r values) between extractablel) soil micronutrients in the whole material
(n = 3536). Correlations of the best fitting regressions are given. Regression models are indicated by letters:
a) y = a -1- bx; b) y = a -F b log x; c) log y = a -I- bx; and d) log y = a + b log x.

x B Cu Fe Mn Mo
Y

Cu c 0.069***
Fe d 0.178*** d 0.270***
Mn d 0.201*** d 0.251*** d 0.222***
Mo d 0.365*** d 0.469*** d 0.037* d 0.390***
Zni c 0.089*** c 0.150*** d 0347*** d 0.346*** d 0.015 n.s.
Zn2 d 0.038* c 0.186*** d 0.380*** d 0.299*** d 0.064***

I) Extraction methods used:

B: hot water extr. + CEC correction Mo: A0-0A + pH correction
Cu: AAAc-EDTA + Org. C correction Zni: DTPA
Fe: AAAc-EDTA Zn2: AAAc-EDTA + pH correction2)
Mn: DTPA + pH correction
2) The mutual correlation (r) between the two extraction methods for Zn is 0.911***.

(r values 0.365*** and 0.201***) existed between the extractable soil contents of these
micronutrients (Table 20).
In addition to the CuFe correlation mentioned above, plant Cu correlated well
with plant Mo (r = 0.243***) and with plant Zn (r = 0.221***). Especially good
correlation was found between soil Cu and Mo (r = 0.469***); those between soil Cu and
Zn (r values 0.150*** and 0.186***) were also relatively high. The other correlations
between the plant contents of the six micronutrients were highly significant with only one
exception (BFe), but compared to those specifically cited above these relations are less
firm.
In general, taking into account the very small concentrations of micronutrients in soils,
the possibility that one micronutrient directly affects the availability of another seems
less likely than that their mutual relationships are indirectly determined by other soil
factors affecting their behaviour. However, on the basis of the present data the possibility
of direct chemical effects between two or more micronutrients cannot be entirely ruled out.

2.5 Micronutrient contents of plants and soils in relation to yields with

special reference to the "concentration-dilution" phenomenon
Factors determining the yield of a plant are so numerous that the effects of a single
micronutrient are almost inseparable from those of other factors simultaneously
affecting the growth of the plants used in this study. However, there are certain matters
which must be taken into consideration when dealing with yields of pot-grown wheat
and their relationships to micronutrients. Samples of the plants acting as indicators had to
be harvested at an early stage of growth when they had only developed vegetatively (see
Section 1.2). At this time, the early dry matter (DM) yield may not always be a reliable
measure of the final grain yield since the shortage of some micronutrients, if not severe,
may appear first at relatively late stages of growth, thus limiting the grain more than the
vegetative yield.
Taking into account the above comment on micronutrient-yield relations, in this section
the yields are not presented as functions of micronutrients but vice versa. The micro-
 87

nutrient contents of plants and soils as functions of yield are of special interest in
connection with the interpretation of the results of plant analyses. For example
Cottenie (1980) pointed out that enrichment of a nutrient in a plant may be due to a high
nutrient level in the soil or to reduced growth, and Tölgyesi and Mik6 (1977) found that
with increasing maize yields the uptake of nutrients increased but their concentration in
plant DM decreased. The contents of the six micronutrients in plants and soils as
functions of yield are presented in Fig. 47. To obtain a better quantitative illustration of
the effects of yields on the micronutrient contents of plants and soils in relation to their

12
10- 9
a) log y=186-0360 log x r=-0194rn 1.2
b) log y=-0801+0178 log x r=0 054".
8 8
8

E .8 7
0. 6 o)
o E
o 4
a,
6

4 ".6
5
2 oE
Ei 2- o 4 log y=0.831-0.000013 x r=-0.020n.s.
o 8
o log y=-0.78040.457 log x r=0.117*** ora
o o
811.10 1200 1600 20'00 860 1200 1600 2000
DM yield, mg/pot DM yield, mg/pot

80
300
3001
y=1313-387 log x r=-0.225'
70 y=216-58.4 log x r=-0.084` 100
E
200
60 b,- 200 ra
E
.c
50 75

50 a) y =153 -297 log x

b) y =385-70 7 log x
r S-0155"
r =-0041'
a 100 o,
E

re;
45 100

40
o

2
o a o

800 1200 1600 2000 800 1200 1600 2000

DM yield,mg/pot DM yieldimg/pot

a) logy =-928+0 000167x r=0 090'1' 301-

.6
b) log y =-1372,0 000364x r=0200"

o o
log y=1 26-0 000039 x r=-0 049.* o
logy=-11134 342 log x r=0068" -3 .5

N
800 1200 1600 2000 eio 1200 1600 2d00
DM yield, mg/pot DM yield, mg /pot

Fig. 47. B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, and Zn contents of pot-grown wheat (a-curves and left-hand ordinate) and
respective extractable soil micronutrients (b-curves and right-hand ordinate) as a function of yield (n =
3537). The hatched areas indicate the ranges of the standard deviations (y ± s) for both the plant and the soil
micronutrient contents.
88

variations, the scales for the graphs have been adjusted so that the ranges of the standard
deviations (y- ± s) of the plant and the soil contents are equally wide and are indicated by
the hatched areas. (For example, plant B content 6.09 ± 4.80 ppm and soil B 0.73 ± 0.72
mg/1, as in Fig. 25).
The behaviour of B, Cu and Zn is similar in that their soil concentrations increase with
increasing yield but the concentrations in plants decrease. In the cases of Fe and Mn both
the plant and soil contents decrease and the contents of Mo increase with increasing yield.
The general direction of the regression curves, however, is of little importance because
apart from the single micronutrient in question other factors are involved.
The most important information to be drawn from Fig. 47 concerns the mutual
relationship between curves a and b. For all six micronutrients, the slopes of the a curves
(regressions of plant contents on yield) show a relatively greater rate of decrease or a
smaller rate of increase than the respective b curves (regressions of soil contents on yield).
In other words, at low yield levels plants absorb more micronutrients per unit of produced
plant mass in relation to available soil micronutrients than they do at high levels of yield.
The principles of these relations, called here as concentration-dilution phenomenon,
can be explained as follows:
Restricted plant growth (low yield) in most cases is often due to some factOr other
than the micronutrient in question. In such cases micronutrients which are available in
soil in high or reasonable quantities tend to concentrate in the slowly produced plant mass,
so raising the contents of these micronutrients to a higher level than when plant growth is
normal or rapid. Therefore, as in this material, most of the very high plant micronutrient
concentrations are to be found in those of restricted growth or in plants grown on soils
where the micronutrient in question was abundantly available or, most often, where the
effects of both these factors were combined.
When the plant growth is rapid (high yields), the plants are apparently unable to
absorb micronutrients from soil in quantities related to the mass of DM produced.
Consequently, portions of the micronutrients already absorbed are diluted in the increased
DM mass and the micronutrient contents of the plants in relation to available micro-
nutrients in soil decrease with increasing yields.
It is clear that the concentration-dilution phenomenon is in main principle the same as
that prevailing during the growth of any plant in that variations in the micronutrient
concentrations of a plant are related to the speed at which that plant produces new DM
(see Section 1.2.2).
Because the extractable micronutrient contents of soils are independent of plant yield,
the differences between the results of plant and soil analyses due to the concentration-
dilution phenomenon are to be considered as a source of error affecting the results of plant
analyses only. To compare the relative importance of the effects of yield (concentration-
dilution) and the extractable soil micronutrient contents on the contents of micro-
nutrients in plants, stepwise multiple regressions including these two variables were
computed. The percentages of variation explained by the two characteristics were:

Percentage of variation explained

Characteristic B Cu Fe Mn Mo Zn
Soil micronutrient
content alone 68.2 53.4 10.5 50.8 48.4 53.6
Soil micronutrient
content + yield 69.4 54.6 10.6 51.0 48.5 54.6
 89

The above comparisons show the relatively unimportant role of yield in explaining the
total variations in plant micronutrient contents in this material.
For further, estimation of the quantitative role of the concentration-dilution
phenomenon, regressions of plant micronutrient contents on respective soil contents were
computed separately for low yields (<1100 mg/pot) and high yields (>1500 mg/pot),
each group consisting of about one-fifth of the whole material. Since in case of B the
effect of yield was more pronounced than for other micronutrients, these regressions for
B are given in Fig. 48 as example. The regression line calculated for high yields (curve e) is
located at a level about 25 percent lower than that calculated for low yields (curve b) . T'he
locations of curves b and c on both sides of curve a (whole material) give, however, a
rough visual picture of one source of variation in the plant Bsoil B correlation, i.e. that
of the concentration-diltition phenomenon. On the average, this difference in location of
the curves is quantitatively relatively unimportant in comparison with the total variation of
plant B contents. However, in cases of some single samples it may be quite substantial as
mentioned before.

100
so B rn id
60 -+ 09±4
50 R±s. 3±072
40 + x
E r=
o_ 30
ca.

-8: 20
n=672
.c St-±s=5 8±4 7
5±01
10 =

8 4i 60

-
4,,E, 6
5 b

4
3

BI r
.081 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10
C EC -corrected B in soil, mg/l (I-iot w sot)

Fig. 48. Regressions of B content of pot-grown wheat on hot water soluble soil B corrected for CEC, (a) all
samples, (b) low yielding samples, (c) high yielding samples.
90

2.6 Suitability of plant and soil analyses for large scale operations
A combination of plant and soil analyses offers a better means of estimating the micro-
nutrient status of soils than either alone, but the improvement in quality is gained at the
cost of quantity and vice versa. A decision to choose one or other of the two techniques
must therefore often be made.
Plant analysis holds a theoretical advantage over soil analysis in that the micronutrient
fractions found in plants have indeed been in the soil in forms available to plants. This
advantage is offset by practical difficulties arising with work on a large scale. One such is
the need for standardization of the plant material which must meet all requirements (see
Sections 1.2 and 2.3.1) if comparable analytical data are to be obtained. Uniform
standards are almost impossible to meet in practice. Even in small countries more than a
dozen important crops are grown; comprehensive interpretation systems have been
developed for only relatively few plant species, very little is known about differences
between plant varieties, and no general agreement has been reached as to which parts
of different plants should be analysed. One of the greatest drawbacks to using plant
analysis to diagnose the micronutrient status of soils may be that plant samples, in order
to obtain comparable results, must be taken when the plants are at the same physiological
age. The sampling time is thus limited to a very short period. Plants grown in the field are
more vulnerable to contamination than soil samples.
The limitations to the applicability of plant analysis on a large scale do not apply to soil
analysis. Soil samples can be taken irrespective of the crop or variety growing on the land
and the sampling time is not limited to any special period. Soil analysis is therefore well
suited for use on a large scale but its value depends on how closely the data indicate the
availability of the nutrients to plants. The basic differences between the two techniques
for diagnosing the micronutrient status of soils are explained in Section 2.3 and the
principles and quantitative measures needed to harmonize their results are presented in
Sections 2.3.2 to 2.3.7. The aim has been to develop soil analyses in such a way that the
findings would be consistent with those from the analysis of plants that meet all
requirements and so combine in one method the advantages of both techniques. What-
ever technique(s) may be adopted, the findings can only be considered indicative. There is
a need for calibration by field trials with different crops to improve interpretation and
establish critical deficiency and toxicity limits.

2.7 Estimation of critical micronutrient limits

As explained in Section 1.4.3 the zone limits presented in plant-soil micronutrient graphs
are statistically defined, dividing the present international micronutrient data into five
zones which do not however reveal critical deficiency or toxicity limits. Depending on
micronutrient and crop, these zone limits may be too high or too low. Furthermore, the
zone limits in this study are based on both the plant analyses and the soil analyses. In
practical micronutrient studies both these data are seldom available and estimates of
critical limits are usually based on one or other diagnosis alone.
In order to obtain a general understanding of the relative differences between the
micronutrient contents of various plant species, an experiment was established at nine
 91

sites in different parts of Finland where 17 crops were grown side by side at each site.
The micronutrient contents of the plants were analysed with the same methods as used
in the present study, except that most of the plants were analysed at maturity. The results
of the experiment will be published later (Yläranta and Sillanpää) but some preliminary
data are given in Table 21.

Table 21. Two-year averages of micronutrient contents (ppm in DM) of 17 crops grown side by side at nine
sites (some of the crops were successfully grown at only 7 or 8 sites).

Crop and part No. B Cu Fe Mn Mo Zn

of
sites Tc ±s Fc ±s Tc ±s R ±s ± s' R±s
Spring wheat, grain 9 1.7 0.5 6.7 2.2 60 15 86 37 0.20 0.11 56 21
straw 9 2.2 0.8 3.4 1.2 69 21 87 43 0.45 0.43 31 26

Winter wheat, grain 9 1.6 0.2 6.2 2.4 66 40 76 27 0.26 0.12 48 11

straw 9 2.1 0.8 3.8 1.8 86 47 106 56 0.43 0.27 33 20

Oats, grain 9 1.4 0.4 3.8 0.9 60 13 70 23 0.40 0.19 42 11

straw 9 2.6 0.5 3.5 1.2 79 37 98 52 0.45 0.27 21 7

Barley, grain 9 1.4 0.2 7.1 2.2 52 10 24 6 0.33 0.16 37 14

straw 9 3.4 0.6 5.0 2.3 73 15 61 37 0.37 0.31 28 20

Rye, grain 9 2.2 0.2 7.4 1.1 53 10 39 8 0.40 0.17 50 9

straw 9 3.1 0.8 4.3 1.4 70 23 55 22 0.61 0.17 35 22

Timothy, silage, 1. cut 9 8.7 2.2 6.0 1.6 74 18 69 28 0.47 0.39 29 7

2. cut 8 8.0 2.2 5.9 1.4 81 22 113 31 0.91 0.57 30 8
dry hay 9 6.6 1.3 4.9 1.3 64 18 71 35 0.41 0.36 27 10
fresh growth 9 6.7 2.1 5.4 1.2 109 39 128 41 1.13 0.65 32 12

Rye grass, silage, 1. cut. 8 8.5 2.4 7.1 2.4 164 50 92 31 0.81 0.56 22 5
2. cut 7 6.7 1.7 6.8 1.1 190 92 149 59 1.34 0.96 22 2

Red clover, dry hay 7 26.4 6.4 10.0 3.0 75 11 87 53 0.61 0.42 42 14
fresh growth 7 24.1 8.0 13.1 3.9 105 19 119 86 0.69 0.62 48 17

Pea, seed 8 7.5 1.0 9.3 1.9 86 22 21 8 1.84 1.43 46 6

stalk 9 29.4 9.2 8.7 2.4 153 34 133 100 1.24 1.20 81 47

Turnip rape, seed 7 13.2 2.2 4.9 0.6 73 8 36 13 0.27 0.10 42 7

stalk 7 17.6 6.2 3.3 0.5 47 12 45 42 0.59 0.45 24 12

Turnip, root 9 20.8 4.9 4.5 0.8 44 12 19 13 0.19 0.12 29 14

Swede, root 9 18.6 4.1 3.1 0.5 45 18 19 10 0.14 0.06 19 8

tops 9 25.1 6.4 4.9 0.8 150 81 94 62 0.74 0.39 34 11

Sugar beet, root 7 13.5 0.8 4.4 1.2 37 15 92 54 0.07 0.03 29 18

tops 7 26.3 7.8 8.6 1.6 162 43 277 178 0.39 0.22 109 69

Red beet, root 8 17.9 2.0 7.7 1.2 71 26 113 48 0.09 0.05 52 37

Carrot, root 9 19.3 2.8 4.6 0.7 54 29 28 11 0.04 0.01 20 5

Potato, tuber 9 6.2 0.6 5.6 1.6 41 10 8 2 0.15 0.08 16 4

Onion, bulb 9 12.1 2.0 4.7 0.7 29 7 24 13 0.16 0.25 25 11

92

These data show that different plant -species can absorb widely different amounts of
micronutrients from the same soils. Critical deficiency or toxicity limits established for
one plant species cannot therefore be generally applied to others, and it would be necessary
to develop different analytical interpretation systems for almost every plant species. These
should include clearly specified stages of growth at which the plant is to be sampled and
which part is to be analysed as well as details of analytical methods. For some crops and
micronutrients systems of this kind have been fairly well established but are lacking or
vague for the great majority of crops.
An extensive review of literature on the interpretation of results of plant analyses, in-
cluding the six micronutrients dealt with in this study, was presented by Bergmann and
Neubert (1976). A similar review concerning boron was recently published by Gupta
(1979) who also stated that in practice there can be no single value or even a very narrow
range of values to describe "critical" levels in crops. A value considered critical by
workers in certain areas may not be critical under conditions in other areas, and for certain
elements the margin between deficiency and sufficiency is so narrow as to cause an over-
lapping of values.
Most of the differences between the values considered critical for a certain crop by
various investigators are clearly due to differences between the analytical procedures and
methods adopted and not only to different environmental conditions. Reference to the
above two reviews often shows differences of more than tenfold between the values
considered critical (deficient or toxic). For example, were the lowest critical (deficiency) B
level given for wheat (0.3 ppm) to be comparable to plant B values obtained in the
present study, there would be no B deficiency in the 30 countries studied. Again, if the
highest deficiency limit referred to (5 ppm) were to be correct, about half of these soils
studied would be deficient in B. The toxicity B levels in wheat referred to by the above
reviewers vary from 16 to 100 ppm.
Typical B contents of healthy and B-deficient plants were also reviewed for a number of
crops by Brandenburg and Koronowski (1969). For example, the B contents of healthy
sugarbeets on a DM basis were 25-40 ppm in leaves and 15 ppm in roots; while those for
B-deficient plants were 13-20 and 13 ppm, respectively. Healthy mangel-wurzel contained
20-46 ppm in leaves and 17 in roots (B-deficient 7-18 and 16 ppm, respectively);
turnips 30-40 ppm in leaves and 18-22 in roots (B-deficient 9-20 and 8-15 ppm,
respectively); potato leaves 14-30 ppm (B-deficient 4 ppm); lucerne 20-29 ppm (B-
deficient 7-19 ppm); apple 20-25 ppm in leaves and 16-26 in fruit (B-deficient 12-16
and 2-6 ppm, respectively); tobacco leaves 16-50 ppm (B-deficient 4 ppm); celery leaves
26-38 and tubers 19-29 ppm (B-deficient 15 and 13 ppm, respectively).
Since the situation with regard to other micronutrients studied is very similar to that of
B, the range of plant micronutrient values obtained from the literature is undoubtedly
too wide to help in establishing precise critical ranges for values obtained in this study.
Comparison of the results of soil analysis in the present study with those of others is
also limited because of the wide variety of extraction methods used by different
investigators. Boron is an exception in this respect; the hot water extraction method has
been widely used and estimates of critical soil B values have been presented. For example,
Reisenauer et. al. (1973), referring to several sources, and Kurki (1979) considered hot
water extractable soil B values < 1 ppm not high enough for optimum plant growth, and
Smilde (1976) has presented a value of 0.3 ppm. Severe B deficiency (more than 100
percent yield response to B) has been reported in soil with a hot water extractable soil B
content of 0.15 ppm (Hong 1972). According to several authors (e.g. Bould and Hewitt
 93

1963, Jackson 1964, Mitchell 1974, and Park and Park 1966) the deficiency limit may be
in the range of 0.5 ppm depending on soil factors and plant species))
Many investigators consider B deficiency to be more widespread than that of any
other micronutrient. For example, in the United States the most commonly found micro-
nutrient deficiency was that of B. It occurred in one or more crops in 41 sta tes, and in
Wisconsin alone nearly two million acres (about 800 000 ha) of alfalfa showed B deficiency
at one time or another during the growing season (Berger 1962). Against this background,
the lower five percent zone limit and even the lower 10 percent zone limit seem for many
plants to be too low to be considered as deficiency limits or values below which B
deficiency can be suspected. Tentatively in this study hot water extractable B values
<0.3-0.5 mg/I are considered suspect for B deficiency.
The margins between the amounts of B required for normal growth and those
producing symptoms of excess or toxicity vary with plant species and are considered rather
narrow for B in comparison to most other micronutrients. Critical, excessive or toxic, hot
water extractable soil B values varying often from 2.5 to 5 ppm have been recorded
(Anderson and Boswell 1968, Gupta and Munro 1969, Kurki 1979, Mortvedt and Osborn
1965). In general, data on B toxicity seem to be more rare than those on deficiency. Many
of the plantsoil B values falling in Zone IV or the lower part of Zone V may therefore still
not be considered high enough to indicate conditions of B excess, especially for crops
with high tolerance to B.
Very little appears to be known about deficiency or toxicity limits for Mn based on
DTPA soil extraction since the method has been in use for a relatively short period of time.
Lindsay and Norvell (1978) when characterizing the possible usefulness of the DTPA soil
test for Mn, suggested that the critical level of DTPA extractable Mn could be tentatively
set at 1 ppm until further information is available. Compared to the DTPA data of the
present study, this value seems very low since the minimum value recorded was 0.9 mg/1
and in only a very few sois out of more than 3500 sois from 30 countries was Mn as low
as 1 ppm. Nevertheless, Mn deficiency has been reported from numerous countries and
symptoms of Mn deficiency have been described for more than 20 crops including oats,
rye, wheat, rice, maize, peas, soya beans, potatoes, tomatoes, cotton, tobacco, sugarbeet,
tea, sugar-cane, pineapples, pecan, peaches, spinach, citrus and a number of forest trees
(e.g. Bergmann and Neubert 1976, Koronowski 1969, and Sprague 1964).
Against the above background, instead of DTPA values of < 1 mg/1, values of 2 or
3 seem a more appropriate deficiency limit for Mn and values of up to 4-5 mg/1 may still
be considered to indicate susceptibility. For pH-corrected DTPA the respective figures
would be somewhat lower. The above figures are still tentative and subject to the soil
material in this study being representative enough and the soil variation range wide enough
for such estimates. The widely varying Mn requirements of different plant species should
also be kept in mind.
DTPA values indicating excess or toxicity of Mn are not well established. Therefore,
it cannot be stated whether the upper 10 or 5 percent zone lines of this study are too high
or too low for predicting Mn excess. Tentatively, until further experience is gained,
DTPA values exceeding 140-200 mg/1 may be considered suspiciously high.
DTPA has been quite widely used to extract Zn from soils and, therefore, information
on the interpretation of DTPA Zn values is more abundant than for other micronutrients.

o Taking into account that only about 0.2 percent of the soil material of this study were peat soils with a very low volume
weight and also the effect of extraction ratio, the numerical ppm values can be considered about equal to those of mg/l.
94

Since Zn toxicity is generally not considered as serious a problem as Zn deficiency, the

interpretation data given in literature concern mainly the estimation of critical deficiency
level. Depending on the crops and other factors, various authors have proposed somewhat
different DTPA values as critical deficiency limits, but in general, this limit seems to be
relatively well established compared to most other micronutrients. Singh et al. (1977)
considered 1.4 ppm DTPA extractable Zn as the critical limit for maize in pot trials.
Randhava and Takkar (1975) proposed different deficiency limits for different Indian
soils and crops (wheat, maize and rice) varying from 0.5 ppm (Deep and shallow black)
to 1.0 ppm (Sierozem). Sedberry et al. (1980) found a response of rice to Zn on soils
containing less than 1 ppm DTPA extractable Zn. Lindsay and Norvell (1978) considered
0.6 ppm sufficient for sorghum but a somewhat higher value (0.8 ppm) for maize. Viets
and Lindsay (1973) estimated that less than 0.5 ppm was critical and 0.5-1.0 marginal for
sensitive crops. Several other authors (Brown et al., 1971, Rathore et al. 1978, Sakai
et aL, 1979, Whitney et al., 1973, Whitney, 1980) have come to the conclusion that DTPA
extractable Zn values of about 0.5 ppm represent the critical deficiency limit for several
crops. A Zn value of 0.5 ppm (-,0.5 mg/1) of DTPA extractable Zn in this study would
correspond to a Zn content of about 14 ppm in the pot-grown wheat and somewhat higher
contents in original wheat and maize (see Zn graphs and Section 2.3.7). These figures
are in relatively good agreement also with many recent data concerning deficiency limits
based on plant Zn content. For example, Franck and Finck (1980), Rathore et al. (1978),
Takkar et al. (1974) and Weir and Milham (1978) gave plant Zn contents varying from
12 to 20 ppm in wheat and maize as deficiency limits for Zn.
If a DTPA value of 0.5 mg/lis considered to be the deficiency limit for Zn and applied
to the DTPA data of this study, it would mean that even the lower 10 percent zone line
(corresponding to about 0.25 mg/1 DTPA extractable Zn) given in the Zn graphs is located
far too low to indicate the critical deficiency limit, and instead of 10 percent about one-
third of the soils in the 30 countries could be suspected to be deficient in Zn. This would
not be surprising since during recent years an increasing amount of information has
emerged on Zn deficiency, especially from developing countries.
Zn toxicity may be relatively rare and little information on toxic DTPA Zn levels is
available. According to Takkar and Mann (1978), DTPA values of 7 and 11 ppm and
plant Zn contents of 60 and 81 ppm may be considered to be levels at which wheat and
maize, respectively, are susceptible.
Since in this study the results given for soil Cu and Fe are based on AAAc-EDTA
extraction which is a relatively new method, there are very few reference points in the
literature concerning the deficiency or toxicity limits for this extractant. Therefore,
direct comparisons to earlier published data are not possible. However, these elements
were also extracted with DTPA from the whole of the international soil material of this
study (see Sections 2.3.4 and 2.3.5) which makes some indirect approximations of
deficiency limits possible.
For DTPA extractable soil Cu, 0.2 ppm has been considered as a limit below which
plants are likely to suffer from Cu deficiency (Viets and Lindsay, 1973, Lindsay and Nor-
veil, 1978). Of the DTPA Cu data of this study, varying from 0.03 to 100 mg/1 (mean
1.8 mg/1), about 5 percent of soils show values lower than 0.2 mg/I indicating that in this
material approximately 5 percent of soils are suspect for Cu deficiency. Thus, the lower
5 percent line given in the Cu graphs would give a rough estimate of the deficiency limit
 95

for Cu. When converted to AAAc-EDTA and organic C-corrected AAAc-EDTA Cu

values, the deficiency limits would be in the range of 0.8-1.0 mg/1 which according to
the regression lines in the Cu graphs would correspond to wheat Cu contents of 4 ppm or
slightly less. The latter figure is somewhat higher than is considered to be a critical
deficiency level for wheat e.g. by Mitchell (1974) and Panin et al. (1971) who estimated
Cu contents of 2.5-3.0 ppm as critical limits. The latter authors considered 11.3 ppm in
wheat as a critical level of Cu toxicity but both lower and higher figures have been
presented.
The DTPA Fe values measured from the soil material of this study varied from 1 to
586 mg/1, averaging 37 mg/l. Lindsay and Norvell (1978) expected soils with >4.5 ppm
Fe not to show Fe deficiency. The present material includes about 5 percent of soils with
DTPA Fe values lower than that. Since the correlation between DTPA Fe and
AAAc-EDTA Fe is relatively good (r = 0.741***) the lower 5 percent line in Fe graphs
could be tentatively considered as a line to separate cases of possible Fe deficiency and
sufficiency. Converted to AAAc-EDTA extractable Fe values this would correspond to
some 30-35 mg/l.
Estimation of available Mo status of soils based on A0-0A extraction is rather
difficult because the results obtained with this method as such do not correlate well with
the results of plant analyses of Mo (see Section 2.3.2). By correcting the A0-0A extract-
able soil Mo values for pH the plant-soil correlation is considerably improved, but there
are no previous data for comparison or for assessment of any deficiency or toxicity limits
for the pH-corrected soil Mo values. Furthermore, individual crops differ markedly in
their Mo requirement, the Cruciferae and legumes usually considered to be the most
demanding and monocots the least. Critical Mo deficiency or toxicity levels in different
plant species are not well defined. For example, in the literature review by Bergmann and
Neubert (1976) Mo contents of wheat considered as low varied from 0.09 to 0.7 and those
considered as high from 0.18 to 1.5 ppm.
On the basis of the above it seems impossible to identify any soil or plant Mo values
as critical limits. Therefore, until further information is available, plantsoil Mo values
falling in the lowest and the highest Mo zones (I and V) may be considered indicative of
possible Mo deficiency or excess, after taking into account the plant species concerned.
The respective limits as applied to pH-corrected A0-0A extractable Mo data would be
in the range of 0.01-0.02 mg/1 for deficiency and 0.5-1.0 mg/1 for excess.
The above discussion concerning the estimation of deficiency and toxicity limits for
micronutrient data of this study can be briefly summarized as follows:
The statistically defined lower 5 and even the lower 10 percent limits given in B and Zn
graphs seem to be located at too low a level to be considered as critical deficiency limits for
B and Zn, nor may B and Zn values falling in Zone IV and lower parts of Zone V
necessarily indicate an excess of these micronutrients.
For the other four micronutrients (Cu, Fe, Mn and Mo) the data obtained from
literature either indicate that the lower 5 percent lines locate fairly well within the
ranges below which deficiencies of these micronutrients are likely to exist, or the data
are too heterogeneous to give clear indications of these lines being located at too low or
too high levels. The same concerns the upper statistical 5 percent lines for Cu, Mn, and
Mo and possible excess of these elements.
96

Converted into soil micronutrient data obtained by various extraction methods used
in this study, the critical levels (mg/1) are estimated as shown in Table 22.

Table 22. Tentative critical levels of micronutrients determined by various methods.

Micronutrient and method Range of

deficiency excess
B, hot water extraction <0.3-0.5 > 3-5
B, hot w. extr. CEC correction <0.3-0.5 > 3-5
Cu, AAAc-EDTA <0.8-1.0 > 17-25
Cu, AAAc-EDTA org. C correction <0.8-1.0 > 17-25
Fe, AAAc-EDTA <30-35
Mn, DTPA <2-5 > 140-200
Mn, DTPA + pH correction <2-4 > 150-220
Mo, A0-0A + pH correction <0.01-0.02 > 0.5-1.0
Zn, DTPA <0.4-0.6 > 10-20
Zn, AAAc-EDTA pH correction < 1.0-1.5 > 20-30

The values are tentative only and are subject to revision when more information is
available. It is important when interpreting the results to take into account the varying
micronutrient requirements of different crop species.

2.8 Plant ani soil micronutrients and other soil data in relation
to FAO/Unesco soil units
Classification of soils of the present study by FAO/Unesco soil "Orders" (Dudal, 1968)
was carried out in the field by the sample collectors in the various participating countries.
The data are incomplete because all sample collectors did not consider themselves com-
petent enough to classify the soils. Out of 3744 soils 2265 were classified (Appendix 6).
Further, there is bound to be a certain degree of heterogeneity in the classification of the
soil material because more than 100 sample collectors participated in classifying the soils,
all of them not equally highly qualified in this particular field. In some cases when the
soils were classified by sample collectors according to the national classification system
only, experts at FAO Headquarters were able to convert these into FAO/Unesco soil
units. Since full profile descriptions were not available, coordination of the classified s- oil
data and correction of possible errors were limited only to a few orders (e.g. Chernozems,
Phaeozems and Rendzinas) having diagnostic features within the surface soil layers.
Because relatively little information on relations of micronutrients to FAO/Unesco soil
units is available, it was considered justifiable to publish these results. However, taking
into account the foregoing reservations, the data can only be considered as indicative, and
therefore only the average micronutrient contents of soils and respective plants for various
soil units are presented in Appendix 7. It should be noted that the background data in the
graphs (regression curves, mean, standard deviations (s), zones) are calculated from the
whole of the pot experiment data (n = 3538) but the soil unit data plotted in the graphs
represent the number of soils classified (n = 2265) only. The average data concerning
general soil characteristics and macronutrients are given in Appendix 6.
 97

3. Summary for Part I

The original sample material collected from 30 countries totalled 7488 samples, half of
which were soils and half plant samples growing on those soils. The plant (wheat and
maize) samples, however, proved too heterogeneous to reflect reliably the micronutrient
(B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mg, Zn) status of soils where the plants had grown. Among the factors
causing uncontrolled variation in analytical results were: differences due to the two plant
species and cultivars (over 200 maize and over 200 wheat cultivars); variation due to
differences in the physiological age of plants when sampled; differences in main nutrient
fertilization, yield levels, irrigation, use of herbicides possibly containing micronutrients;
contamination during sampling, sample pre-treatment and transportation. Therefore, to
minimize the uncontrolled variation, fresh indicator plants (wheat, cv. 'Apu') were grown
in pots on the original soils under uniform and controlled conditions. Owing to the su-
periority of this plant material, the discussion concerning micronutrients is based on the
analytical results of the new indicator plants. After preliminary methodological studies
from limited materials, soil micronutrients were extracted from all the soil samples as
follows: B with the hot water extraction method, Mo with ammonium oxalate-oxalic acid
(A0-0A), and Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn with both the acid ammonium acetate-EDTA
(AAAc-EDTA) and the DTPA extraction methods.
The correlations between the results of plant and soil analyses for all six micronutrients
were considerably improved when data from the new pot-grown plants were used instead
of data from the original indicator plants (Table 23).

Table 23. Correlations between micronutrient contents of the three types of indicator plants (original maize
and wheat and pot-grown wheat) and respective soils.

Micronutrient and Original Original Pot-grown

extr. method maize wheat wheat
(n = 1966) (1768) (3537-3538)
B hot water extr. 0.548*** 0.694*** 0.741***
Cu AAAc-EDTA 0.344*** 0.254*** 0.664***
Cu DTPA 0.114*** 0.125*** 0.518***
Fe AAAc-EDTA -0.007 n.s. -0.032 n.s. 0.325***
Fe DTPA -0.028 n.s. -0.030 n.s. 0.263***
Mn AAAc-EDTA -0.108*** 0.046* 0.039*
Mn DTPA 0.161*** 0.119*** 0.552***
Mo A0-0A 0.134*** 0.117*** 0.245***
Zn AAAc-EDTA 0.391*** 0.405*** 0.665***
Zn DTPA 0.381*** 0.473*** 0.732***

In spite of the improvements in correlations, satisfactory conformity between the results

of plant and soil analyses was not achieved.
To understand the contradictions still prevailing between the results of plant analyses
and soil analyses, it must be realized that these two techniques are based on fundamentally
different principles. Plant analyses give measures of micronutrients which have been avail-
98

able to and have indeed been absorbed by plants. Absorption of micronutrients by plants
is a process that takes place under the laws of biochemistry and plant physiology while
chemical soil extraction mainly follows the laws the chemistry. Accordingly the results of
plant analyses (if based on reliable and comparable plant material) are to be considered as
the most reliable measure of the soil micronutrient fractions available to plants. Soil
analysis in more of a "shortcut" method and an attempt to imitate plants. Therefore, if
the results of plant analyses obtained from reliable and comparable plant material contra-
dict those of soil analyses, and if the responsible factor (which affects plant and soil
analyses in different ways) can be identified and its effects quantified, it is the soil analysis
which must be corrected accordingly.
In large scale micronutrient studies, results of both plant and soil analyses are seldom
available and one or other technique must be chosen. The theoretical advantages of plant
analyses are diminished by the practical difficulties of obtaining comparable plant
material or of interpreting results from the analysis of heterogeneous materials. For
example, comprehensive interpretation systems have only been developed for relatively
few plant species, very little is known about differences between plant varieties and no
general agreements have been reached as to which parts of different plants are to be
analysed. Furthermore, to obtain comparable results plants must be sampled at the same
physiological age which severely limits the sampling time. In contrast, soil samples can be
taken irrespective of the crop or variety growing on it and the sampling time is not limited
to any special period. Soil analyses are therefore well suited for large scale use, but their
applicability depends on how closely their results agree with those from plants. The major
aim in this study has therefore been to devise means of calibrating soil analyses so as to
eliminate discrepancies between plant and soil analyses.
To identify the factors responsible for impairing the plant-soil micronutrient correla-
tions, and to quantify and eliminate their contradictory effects, both the plant micronutri-
ent data and the soil (extractable) micronutrient data were studied in relation to six soil
characteristics (pH, texture, organic carbon content, CEC, electrical conductivity and
CaCO3 equivalent). These studies covering all the international soil samples, showed that
in the case of hot water soluble B such a soil factor was the cation exchange capacity and
for AAAc-EDTA extractable Cu the organic carbon content of the soil. The DTPA
extractable Mn, A0-0A extractable Mo and AAAc-EDTA extractable Zn required
correction for soil pH. The principles and procedures for such corrections are presented in
detail. These adjustments should be considered as an essential part of soil analysis.
The mathematical equations of correction coefficients for the above micronutrient
extraction methods are:

Boron: k(CEC) = 100.466-0.026 x 0.000273x2

where x cation exchange capacity (me/100 g)
Copper: C) = 10-0.491 log x + 0.470 (log x)2
where x = soil organic carbon content (%),
Manganese: k(pH) = 107.06 - 2.20 pH + 0.164 pH2
Molybdenum: k(pH) = 10-2.45 + 0.36 pH
Zinc: k(pH) = 103.38 - 0.976 pH + 0.068 pH2

These five correction coefficients can also be obtained directly from graphs in Figs 49 and
50.
 99
3

o 1

O
'03ta0

22
.25 .5 1 2 4 8 16 32 64
Organic C (%) or CEC ( me/100g )
Fig. 49. Coefficients for correcting AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Cu for soil organic carbon content, k(org.
C); and hot water soluble B for cation exchange capacity, k(CEC).

o.

o
Q
2
o

4 5 6 7 8
pH (Ca C12)
Fig. 50. Coefficients for correcting DTPA extractable soil Mn, A0-0A extractable Mo and AAAc-EDTA
extractable Zn for soil pH.
100

Application of these correction coefficients to the whole of the international material

(n = 3537 - 3538) improved the correlations (r values) between the results of plant
analyses (pot-grown plant material) and soil analyses as follows:

Micronutrient and r value Correction r value

extr. method without coefficient with
correction correction
B hot water extr. 0.741*** k(CEC) 0.826***
Cu AAAc-EDTA 0.664*** k(Org. C) 0.731***
Mn DTPA 0.552*** k(pH) 0.713***
Mo A0-0A 0.245*** k(pH) 0.696***
Zn AAAc-EDTA 0.665*** k(pH) 0.706***

In addition to the uncorrected data the above correction coefficients are applied when
presenting the micronutrient data by countries in Part II. Correction coefficients calcu-
lated for AAAc-EDTA extractable Fe and DTPA extractable Zn did not appreciably
improve the respective plant-soil correlations and were not adopted. The most effective
correction coefficient was that calculated for AAAc-EDTA extractable Mn for pH which
improved the plant Mnsoil Mn correlation (r) from 0.039* to 0.588***. This also shows
that even an extraction method which in itself gives poor results may be successfully used
if its special features and its behaviour with respect to various soil factors (in this case the
pH) are known and properly taken into account.
As the DTPA extractable Mn generally correlated better with plant Mn the results of
AAAc-EDTA Mn are not presented in Part II.
The mutual relations between the contents of the six micronutrients in plants as well as
those extractable from soils are presented. In general, if there is a good correlation be-
tween the contents of two micronutrients in plants or those extracted from soil, their
availability to plants or their extractability from soils is largely controlled by the same soil
factor or factors.
The micronutrient contents of plants and soils in relation to yield are presented with a
special reference to the effect of yield on the micronutrient contents of plants. In general,
plants with restricted growth (low yields) contain more micronutrients per unit plant mass
produced in relation to available soil micronutrients than do the plants growing more
rapidly (high yields). Rough quantitative estimates of this phenomenon called here the
"concentration-dilution phenomenon" are given with special reference to its effects on the
results of plant analyses.
Estimations of critical levels for various micronutrients are presented. These are to be
considered tentative and are subject to revision when more information is available.
Although the main emphasis of this study is put on micronutrients, the macronutrients (N,
P, K, Ca, Mg) of soils and plants (original wheat and maize) were also analysed and data
on their plant-soil relations as well as on their relations to various soil characteristics are
presented, though in less detail.
PART II
 103

PART II

NUTRIENT STATUS BY
COUNTRIES

4. Introduction

Although the main emphasis of this study is on micronutrients, a number of additional

analyses on soils and plants were carried out in order to obtain further information on
factors affecting the behaviour of macronutrients in soils and plants. When expressing the
results of the whole study by countries, these additional data are included, though in a
more general way than data concerning micronutrients.
To facilitate comparison of the results from one country with those from all combined,
the national results from each country are presented graphically and jointly with the
respective data for all international samples. Accordingly, when presenting data on
general soil properties and macronutrients, the frequency distributions of national results
are expressed by columns and the respective international data superimposed on the same
Figure as a slightly generalized frequency curve. Numerical data (number of samples,
mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum) for both the national and interna-
tional material are also given in each graph.
The data on micronutrients are presented in greater detail. The micronutrient contents
of each plant-soil sample pair are shown as points in each Figure; also given are the best
fitting national regression line, regression formula, correlation coefficient, mean and
standard deviation. Summarized data for all the international samples are given in each
graph in order to make it easier to evaluate tbe national results against the background of
the international data. Since it is not possible to plot the values of single sample pairs of
the whole international data in one graph, five zones (I---V) are given to show, in broader
terms, the distribution of the micronutrient in question in all samples. Of the whole
international material, the lowest 5 percent of plant x soil content values fall in Zone I, the
next lowest 5 percent in Zone II, the "normal" values (80 percent) in Zone III, and the
highest 10 percent in Zones IV and V (5 percent in each). For more details concerning the
five zones, see Section 1.4,3.
It must be noted that when data concerning the macronutrient contents of plants are
presented, only the contents of the two original indicator plants are given, i.e. wheat and
maize grown in various participating countries. Since no distinct differences in the macro-
nutrient contents between spring wheat and winter wheat were found, the results for these
crops were combined. In case of micronutrients, the study is based on the contents of
104

pot-grown wheat only. The reasons for this departure from uniformity of method are
simple: because of the heterogeneity of the original plant samples (differences due to plant
varieties, age at sampling, fertilization, contamination etc., see Sections 1.2.1 to 1.2.4) too
much uncontrolled variation in the rnicronutrient contents of plants was involved to give a
reliable picture of the actual micronutrient status in various countries. It is clear that this
concerns the macronutrients as well, even if to a lesser extent. The analytical data on
micronutrients presented in Part II therefore only refer to micronutrient contents of pot-
grown wheat samples, although the original plants were also analysed. Unfortunately, the
plant samples obtained from the pot experiment were too small to allow analyses of
macronutrients in addition to micronutrient analyses.
To locate approximately the origin of the samples studied, national maps indicating the
sampling sites in each participating country are usually included. The data for the maps
were received from the cooperators in each country who also have more detailed geo-
graphical information on the sampling sites (town, village, farmer, field) in their
possession for possible future use.
The national results presented in Part H are expressed in graphical forms which are
self-explanatory. Therefore, these are furnished with rather short comments only.
 105

5. Europe and Ozea-aia

5.1 Belgium

5.1.1 General

The sites for sampling plants and soils in Belgium are shown in Fig. 51 and the frequency
distributions of four important soil characteristics, texture (expressed as texture index), pH
(CaCl2), organic carbon content, and cation exchange capacity, are given in Fig. 52. The
mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values for other soil properties
(particle size distribution, pH(H20), electrical conductivity, CaCO3 equivalent and
volume weight) are given in Appendixes 2, 3 and 4, separately for soils from wheat fields,
maize fields and soils used in the pot experiment.

,----

/ L., ,.....L.

43321-322 'S..,

BRUGGE
\ .---r -..... ANTWERPEN
I
,
0 si.
4332 327

43328-334
GENT
5
\
'I SI.
o 43303 4 (4 ., HAS8ELT
/
i 04330 43105 BRUXELLES
..., 43301 e 43332-340 04330-3
43306
\ 43315-320
\ 43305 10

LIEGE
k.....,
o 43307
0 43300 ..;
I. (
NAMUR
MONS
0 CHARLEROI
\
N

i-':-',
/
,....\

I 50°
-... /I
)

BELGIUM ...._

o)
ARLON N
.1.-
. f

10 20 60 60 7?

4 5° 6°

Fig. 51. Sampling sites in Belgium (points = wheat fields, triangles maize fields). Identification numbers of
sample pairs are given.
106

35 Belgium Internat Belgium iriternot Fig. 52. Frequency distribution of

30
o. 41
= 29
3764
44
n =
0= 5.80
41 3783
6.64 texture, pH, organic carbon content
ts 10 s= .76 1.12
awl
=
= 15
16
9 35 min = 4.45 3.62 and cation exchange capacity in
max 43 92 max .4 7.40 8.56
25
=

30 Belgian soils (columns). Curves show

20 25
the international frequency of the same
o 20
characters. The number of samples (n),
mean (TO, standard deviation (s) and
oUi minimum and maximum values are
given for both national and interna-
tional data.
10 20 30 0 50 60 70 80 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Co Cl2

Belgium Internat. Belgium Internat

40 n = 41 3779 n = 41 3777
= 1.2 1.3 0 0. 18.0 27.3
-E 35 os. .4 1.2 ts= 3.2 14.6
Iran.= .6 rmn = 12.8
max = 21 39.1 25 max = 24.5 99.9
,a 30

25
o
uj 20

o
10

16 32 6) 12.8 25.6 16 32

ORGANIC C,% CEC, me/100g

Compared with all the international soil samples studied, the Belgian soils are relatively
coarse textured and acid. The average texture index is 29 and pH 5.80 (international
averages 44 and 6.67, respectively). The soil samples from the northeastern part of the
country (samples 43321-34), classified as Arenosols and Podzols, are especially sandy and
acid (clay content 5 %, TI 15-19 and pH 4.45-5.90), so differing from soils in other
parts of the country (mainly Luvisols and Regosols, TI 29-43 and pH 5.00-7.05). These
differences are often reflected in other properties of soils and plants as will be discussed
later.
The organic carbon contents of studied Belgian soils are at the average international
level with a relatively narrow range of variation. The highest organic C contents were
found in samples from the northeastern region.
The average cation exchange capacity (18.0 ± 3.2 me/100 g) is low compared to the
international mean (27.3 ± 14.6) and varies only slightly from one sample to another.
Electrical conductivity of Belgian soils is somewhat lower and CaCO3 equivalent substan-
tially lower than those in most other countries (Appendixes 2, 3 and 4). Low sodium
contents are typical of most Belgian soils.

5.1.2 Macronutrients

The macronutrient contents of plants were analysed from the original wheat and maize
samples only. The results of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium
analyses of Belgian soils and plants are given as frequency distribution graphs in Figures
53-57, separately for wheat and maize and the respective soils. It should be noted that the
differences in plant varieties, fertilization, climate and other local factors (see Section 1.2)
 107

Figs 53-57. Frequency distributions of Belgium Internet Belgium Internat.

n= 20 1958
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, 5
n=
=
21
3.95
1765
4.27 = 5.01
.28
3.14
.87
= .61 1.15 =

calcium and magnesium in original 30

min
max
=
=
2.68
5.04
.80
745
min n 4.41
max 5.54
.88
6.51

wheat and maize samples and re- 25

0-
spective soils (columns) of Belgium. (>3 20
Curves show the international frequency 1-,1 15
of the same characters. o
u-

2 0 5 6 4 5 6

N content of wheat% N content of maize,%

70
Belgium I nternat Belgium Intermit
60 n= 21 1765 60 n= 20 1958
X= .103 .133 7. .134 .135
,s= .013 .084 *s= .023 .088
min = .081 .009 min = .088 .008
non. 129 1.023 50 max . .171 1.657

005 01 02 04 n 0 32 128 00 02 04 uo 16 32 64 1.28

Fig. 53. Nitrogen, Belgium. N in wheat soils, % N in maize soils,%

may have caused variation in the macronutrient contents of plants in addition to those due
to soils.
The mean nitrogen contents of the original Belgian wheat and soils are somewhat below
the international averages (Fig. 53). The nitrogen contents of Belgian maize (mean 5.01 %)
are the highest in this study (Appendix 3) and those of the maize soils (0.134 %) about
average internationally. Nitrogen was applied to Belgian crops (wheat 98 ± 21 and maize
118 ± 66 kg N/ha) at rates that were high compared to most other countries represented in
this study. See also Fig. 6.
The average phosphorus content of Belgian maize samples (0.535 %) is the highest
among the countries studied, exceeding the international mean content by a factor of 1.6.
In the case of wheat, the Belgian average (0.501 %) is exceeded only by that of Malta
(Appendixes 2 and 3). The average 0.5 N NaHCO3 extractable P contents of Belgian maize
soils (119.8 mg/1) and wheat soils (83.7 mg/1) are also higher than those of any other
country. They are more than ten times the national mean P contents of soils in many
developing countries and exceed the international mean contents by factors of 5.3 and 4.0,
respectively.
According to information on phosphorus fertilization received from sample collectors,
the Belgian wheat and maize crops had received 21-39 kg more P per hectare than the
average for the crops studied in other countries (Appendix 5).
To what extent the high P contents of Belgian maize and wheat samples are attributable
to the exceptionally high P contents of Belgian soils and how much to the most recent
phosphorus application cannot be stated. Clearly, the exceptionally high P contents of
Belgian soils are at least partly due to the liberal use of phosphates for many decades. See
also Fig. 7 and related text. The higher extractable P contents of the coarse textured north-
eastern soils may be due to lower fixation of fertilizer P applied in past years.
108
00 00
Belgium Internat. Belgium Internet Fig. 54. Phosphorus, Belgium.
35 n o 21 1765 n = 20 1967
.30 .38 o.53 .33
*5 =.10 .12 ss o .10 .10
8 30 min o.33 .05 30 min. .37 .05
0000.. .67 502 max...78 1.04
ert
0- 25 25
)-
r2") 20
Ui
8s
Ui
10
EL,

2 3
P content of wheat, /o P content at maize,°/0
0. 40
Belgium Internet.
n = 21 1765
Belgium Internet.
o 83.7 20.2 5 n= 20 1967
ts o 213 24.7 8. 119.8 22.5
min.= 45.6 1.0 ss = 313 33.0
max.= 121.6 271.4 min.. 43.2 0.1
0 max, 187.0 656.0

D 15

u_ 10

2.5 5 10 20 40 BO 160 320 640 2.5 5 10 20 40 80 160 320 640

P in wheat soils, mg/I P in maize soils, mg/I

Belgium Internet Belgium Internat. Fig. 55. Potassium, Belgium.

no 21 1765 n= 20 1967
30 A= 3.9 4.0 A. 4.4 3.1
no- 0.6 1.0 - s0.5 1.0
non = 2.9 0.9 non.- 3.2 0.6
8 25 max.= 4.8 6.8 max.= 5.0

5 6 5 6 7

K content of wheat,°/0 K conterit of maize,%

Belgium niernol. Belgium Internet

no 21 1765 n= 20 1967
0= 213 365 0232 330
30 ss = 58 283 its oi 94 356
min.= 122 20 min.= 108 18
max.= 369 2097 max = 406 5598

20
o

25 50 100 20 00 800 1600 3000 6400 25 50 00 200 40 800 1600 3200 6400
K in wheat soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I

The mean potassium content of the original Belgian wheat samples is at the international
average in spite of the relatively low 1 N CH3COONH4 exchangeable K content of Belgian
wheat soils (Fig. 55). The K contents of Belgian maize samples are considerably higher
than the international average of this material, notwithstanding that the exchangeable K
 109
Fig. 56. Calcium, Belgium. Belgium Internal Belgium Interne
n = 21 n= 1765 n. 20 1967
= .36 R. .43 8.62 .47
is = .08 is = .17 is = .11 .20
.24 min.= .42 .09
max.= .49 1.68 max.= .86 1.88

Ca content at wheat, % Ca content of maize %

Belgium internat. Belgium Internat.

n= 21 n 1765 n. 20 1967
35 R = 1868 = 4671 35 8.1740 3450
is = 983 ts = 3076 is = 866 2865
805 min.= 110 min = 490 10
max.= 5045 mm.. 21930 max =4050 17996

23 25

100 200 400 800 1603 3e00 4400 12800 25600 50 000 200 400 1300 7-00 012. 6400 12800
Ca in wheat sois, mg/I Ca in maize soi s, mg/I

content of Belgian maize soils is below the international average. The high rates of K
applied to Belgian wheat and maize crops (Belgian means 130 ± 29 and 122 ± 90 kg K/ha;
inteimational means 21 ± 44 and 7 ± 18 kg K/ha, respectively) may explain the discrep-
ancy between the high plant and low soil K contents, but the relatively low pH of Belgian
soils may also have played a part (see Section 2.2.4). For a general assessment of K status
in Belgium against the international background, see Fig. 8 and related text (Section 2.2.3).
The calcium status of Belgian plants and soils is similar to that of K. The average Ca
content of wheat is somewhat below, and the Ca contents of maize above the international
averages, but the exchangeable Ca contents of soils are well below the international mean
(Fig. 56). It is evident that there is always enough Ca in soils to meet the requirements of
plants and that factors other than the Ca content of soil largely determine the uptake of
Ca from soils. As mentioned in Section 2.2.4 (Fig. 12 and related text), Ca is relatively
more available to plants in coarse than in fine textured soils. The Belgian maize crops
sampled were grown on much coarser textured soils than wheat (mean TI values 23 and 36,
respectively, Appendixes 2 and 3). This may at least partly explain the relative/y high Ca
contents of maize compared to wheat. Most of the sampled Belgian soils had recently been
limed. See also Fig. 9.
The exchangeable magnesium contents of Belgian soils, on average, are lower than those
of any other country included in this study (Appendixes 2, 3 and 4). The lowest soil Mg
values come from the northeastern part of the country (samples 43321-34) but even the
highest soil Mg value from Belgium (sample 43315, 146 mg Mg/1) is only about one-third
of the international average. The low Mg contents of soils are reflected in the Mg contents
of the plants. The mean Mg content from Belgian wheats (0.088 %) is the lowest national
average in this study, and in the case of maize only three countries (New Zealand,
Thailand and Sierra Leone) have slightly lower mean Mg contents than Belgium. Although
110

Belgium Internat Belgium 991 Internal Fig. 57. Magnesium, Belgium.

. 21 1764 5 n. 20 n= 1967
R = .088 .172 R..184 R. .251
ts. .018 .060 *5= .040 9,-. .119
.057 .044 0 mm..083 min.= .036
'Fs; max = .132 .948 max...250 mox... 1.125

k25 25

(-) 20 20

D 15 5

Mg content of wheat,% Mg content of maize,./0

40 40

Belgium /nter not Belgium Internat.

n= 21 1764 5
n= 20 1967
R. 92 489 4. 76 446
-±s= 29 437 31 462
46 min, 35
0 max.. 146 3214 30 max = 135 5490

Ú 25

o
111

o
Lii

25 50 1 0 200 400 800 1600 3200 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400
Mg in wheat soils. mg/I Mg tn maize soils. mg/I

the amount of Mg removed annually from soils by crops is relatively small (e.g. when
compared to K), it is apparent that in Belgium where decade after decade the national crop
yields have been among the highest in the world, considerably more Mg has been removed
from soils than in most other countries. This may be one of the reasons contributing
toward the present low Mg status of Belgian soils. No information is available on any
possible Mg dressing or the Mg content of lime applied to the soils sampled for this study.
To obtain a broad view of the Belgian soil Mg status against the international background,
see Fig. 10 (Section 2.2.3).

5.1.3 Micronutrients

Boron. The B contents of individual pot-grown wheat samples and respective soils are
given in Figures 58 and 59. The Belgian B points lie somewhat above the international
regression line (Fig. 58) but come closer to it when the soil B values are corrected for CEC
(Fig. 59). Because of the narrow range of variation of CEC in Belgian soils, the CEC
correction only slightly affects the mutual relations between the points that indicate plant
and soil B values of individual sample pairs. In view of the limited number of Belgian
samples, the B situation in Belgium seems to be about average, internationally. Almost all
the B values fall in the normal range (Zone III) with no extremely low or high B values.
See also Figs 22 and 25 (Section 2.3.3).
 111

Fig.58. Regression of B content of loo

80-,B ilziEsILIIIIIIMPAinii
lifilMIIIIIIIMMIMIE Wien
IN= ECM=
MEN
pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
soluble soil B (x), Belgium. The points
on the graph and the short regression
60
50
40
=
1n . IIMIIIII
= 6 98
31 0.52 omIZIEE111
11.IIIIII
=MINIM
line indicate the position of Belgian 91111111MIMIN IMMI11111
plant-soil B data relative to the
respective international data (long
cp_

9720
30
MEW= =11111
regression line and Zones IV; for
details see Chapter 4).
0.)

10 I=iMIMIIIMPIMMENI
1111115111111111
1101=11MMMIILMMI11
"6 8 1,%1111AILMNPlia.1
111.111 =ii1211101111111
6 IIMaiMNEFIENN=MMIMINil
5
11=ENNIII
o
4
3 1.111mOMMIii Minii
MINEMIIII
co
2 I Wili1111 MEER
.2
11011
.3 .4.5.6 .810 2
DI 11111
3456 8 10
B in soil, mg/I (Hot w. sol.)

Fig. 59. Regression of B content of pot- 100

grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected soil 80
n= 35 8
B (x), Belgium. 60 tl 10 694
50 7ts=0 027 o 7

E
40
a..30
=578+1 9x Y 1. X

r= 0 469 * 08
20

08
4E.G,

o 4

.08:1 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .81.0 2 3 4 56 8 10

CEC -corrected Bin soil, mg/t (Hot w soL)

Copper. The Cu contents of Belgian plant and soil samples and their mutual regressions
are given in Figures 60 and 61 against the background of the international data. The great
majority of the Cu values fall within the "normal" international range (Zone III). The
correction of soil Cu values for soil organic carbon improves the plant Cusoil Cu
correlation but does not otherwise change the position of Belgium in the "international Cu
field" (Figs 27 and 29, Section 2.3.4). Only one sample pair falls in the highest Cu Zone
(V) and one in Zone IV. The extremely high plant Cu content (20.6 ppm) of the latter
(sample pair 43301) is obviously due to Cu contamination, because both the Cu content of
that soil as well as that of the original plant (6.6 ppm) are "normal".
112
22 Fig. 60. Regression of Cu content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid
20
ammonium acetate-EDTA extractable
18 111 ìiinffill111111111111111 soil Cu (x), Belgium.
E
S.16 1111MEITEI MINIM
o
w14 111111111111111111111111111111
_c

.5 12111111111111111111111111811
V,10 111111111=11111E11211111
88 1111111111111111111M111111
06
4

2 MiellifilltE11111111=1111;
111111111111111111M1111111
.4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080
Cu in soil, mg/I (AA Ac- EDTA)

i!IIIII
Fig. 61. Regression of Cu content of
22
pot-grown wheat (y) on soil Cu correct-
20
Internas 11111111111111111 ed for organic carbon (x), Belgium.
18 riuoi 1111111111111111
1111111111
11111111111111
1111111111M inummoinm
111111P AIN11111111
EL 1111111 IIIME1111111111
o
6 1111111111111119111101LIMIIIIIIII
11111111M1IIIIIMMOI11111
2 liniii1611111111INOILI
.4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 60 100
Org.C-corrected soi CU,mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)

Iron. The average Fe content of Belgian plants is slightly below the international mean,
but the mean extractable Fe content of the soils is twice that of the international mean
(Figs 31 and 62). Two-thirds of the Belgian Fe values fall in the normal range (Zone III)
but one-third lies within the two highest Zones (IV and V).
Manganese. In spite of the limited material, the variations in Mn contents of Belgian
plants and soils are relatively wide (Figs 63 and 64). Most of the values, however, fall
within the normal range (Zone III), and the Belgian national means of plant and soil Mn
(Figs 33 and 37) deviate less from the international means than those of most other coun-
tries. Because of the quite wide pH variation in Belgian soils (from 4.45 to 7.40), pH
correction of DTPA extractable soils Mn values improved the correlation between plant
Mn and soil Mn substantially (from r = 0.347* to 0.737***). The Mn contents of only one
 113

Fig. 62. Regression of Fe content of 300

pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammo-
nium acetate-EDTA extractable soil
275
250 1/701211111E1111119
225 MHEINIVIOIMMUMI111111111111mi
Fe (x), Belgium. MIESIEUNEWINAINI1111111111111
2 Ob
1 75 LW r°9011111/1111515-i.iiiiini3111111
k1 50 1111111111M1111111111111111
. 125 111111111111101111111111111
coD

100
15 90
80
70
60
11U11111 iII!!!i
50 1111.1111=1111111111
40 Ni11111111111111111111
30 11111111111111111111
--tontinmmmitaisin
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 6C0 1000 2000
Fe in soil. mg/l MAAc- EDTAl

sample pair (43327) fall in the lowest Mn Zone (I) and those of four pairs (43321-22,
43328-29) in Zone IV. All these Belgian extreme values originate from the northeastern
part of the country.
Molybdenum. The Mo contents of individual pot-grown wheat samples and respective
soils are given in Figs 65 and 66. The ranges of variation in Mo contents of soils and plants
are rather small in comparison to the whole international material. The highest Mo
content found in Belgian wheat samples exceeds the lowest by a factor of 32 and in the
whole international material by a factor of almost 1 000. Corresponding factors for the
A0-0A extractable Mo contents of Belgian soils are 6 (uncorrected) and 17 (pH-cor-
rected), and for the international material over 500 and 1 500, respectively. The correlation
between plant and soil Mo contents in Belgian material is not significant. Correction of
soil_ Mo values for pH changed the direction of the regression from negative to positive,
but Belgium still remains one of the three countries where pH-correction is unable to
improve the correlation to a statistically significant level (Table 8, Section 2.3.2.2).
The mean Mo content of plants is slightly above the international mean and that of soils
(Fig. 66) is lower than the international average. All Belgian Mo values fall within the
normal range (Zone III), and there are no extreme Mo contents that might indicate poss-
ible Mo deficiency or toxicity. See also Figures 15 and 20.
Zinc. The relationships between Zn contents of Belgian plants and the respective soils
determined by two different extraction methods are presented in Figures 67 and 68. In
both cases the correlations are very high and the mutual locations of individual points are
very similar', irrespective of the extraction method used.
Almost all the Zn contents of plants and soils are above the international means. The
Belgian national mean for plant Zn content is twice as high as the international mean and
those for soil Zn (AAAc-EDTA and DTPA extractable) are over sixfold the respective
114

2000 Fig. 63. Regression of Mn content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
1000
± 75 3
ZION.
1111751/1111111.11
IMEMItYMEWIAIMMIONNIiN11=0
11EilMMIMPII111MIIMIMMIIM
able soil Mn (x), Belgium.
800 .kTYWOMMINIK4M147,1173V611111111
600 Ili===iMKINOUMMMENO
1111IMMERIIII=MINIE
400
g: 300 nummmollimm
-tai 200
111=1111111111MICI
100
11111111111111
=1M1==1.00.21111Mli
80
t 60 suramimiamsIIImm
EMBI!1MIT2=MMEPOl
40 lareimmximmaimmoi
30
20

10
rill.1111111111
111111
8 1111inIIMMIMMIIMINE
MONraMILIMMIIII
2 34 6 810 20 30 40 60 80100 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/l DTPA)

2000 Mmirigramt Fig. 64. Regression of Mn content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
1000 Eill11111111111111111111111
mm...6,P.IN;epv.=mmAwromussmiwisoumma
MAL12:12EkEIESAMULAMMENNIIIMMIIIMMI
DTPA extractable soil Mn (x),
800 NUMMENNEME,MUMIMINNUMMWIIIIIN
MMTIORINCHIELE=MNITITIEFEIIMMIIIMIMIMMINIIIIN
Belgium.
600 IIM MINBEFZEIREMIEMMWMIGNMEIMUMMEMEMMEIM
400
300
200

100 11.111111111.11111111111111
80 riViaE.:MHIMMImAa...=monss
sommoonsmmom-emoniimmonmmmolos
60 II
40 IIMINEMPCIUMMIEMMEIMIMMIN
30
20 1Iil!iilIIIIIIIUlÌiN
10
8
iriiiiiiiiìuiiiiiiiuiiiiiii
==MINIMMIN ieraammuna =1IMMILAI
M=IMINEN
=MMMIN
1 2 3 4 6 810 20 301.0 60 100 200 300 600
pH - corrected Mn in soil, mg/i (DTPA)

international averages. Malta is the only other country where the plant and soil Zn
contents are at the same high level as those of Belgium (Figs 41 and 43).
Half of the points in the Figures fall in the highest Zn range (Zone V) and the other half
are in Zone IV or in the higher part of Zone III. The highest Zn values were recorded in
plants and soils from the northeastern part of Belgium. It appears therefore that the poss-
ible Zn problems in Belgium are not those of deficiency but of excess. Industrial pollution
is likely to be at least partly responsible for the high Zn values of Belgian soils and crops.
For example, data from the UK indicate that as much as 370 to 4340 grammes of Zn per
hectare/year may be deposited in non-urban sites (Cawse 1980, Wadsworth and Webber
1980).
 115

Fig. 65. Relationship between Mo

content of pot-grown wheat (y) and 6MO =6
42 032 00 36
ammonium oxalate-oxalic acid extract- ± 01 85 021 ±025
able soil Mo (x), Belgium. 3 log
r 0 7
3 843x y.0 2 r
02
2 t

2
E
0_
a. 1

ci
,0 .6
3
o
<7, .2
o
o '1

.06

.03
.02
I II
.01
.01 .02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 2 3
Mo in soil, mg/l M 0 - 0A I

Mmorimas
Fig. Relationships between Mo
66.
content of pot-grown wheat (y) and
pH-corrected A0-0A extractable soil
6 uILUIIUfl
M=1011M111
MN

M o MI 114Q11. IIIMOMMIMUlairl7Mira=LMNIMMONINI111=1.111
EIMMIIIIMMERINEMEMESEEKEEMIIIMEINIMI
11110111111M1111111111110

Mo (x), Belgium. 3 NUMB-- °11238°11111111112EILIIIIIIIMMEll

2 1111111°3! 5^3:
E

-2
,c)- 1

MIMIII=ESEINUIM=MIIMICRIEIIMIMMI
r
MMENIIIMIMIMENIIM=IMMS112101===11M
.6
_c
ENNIIIIMEIMIIIIMM=PME1111111111
c
a>
.3
iÍiHIIUIIIIflhIiIIhHI -*411111

rnelorammiewmkme.
11111.11111111111111MMI
EMMIN=1M111RINIM
==l1M.M.LIMIMINIMIM
=MMUMNIM...7TIMMENNENMIMMENNEU=0O
MUMENIII =MMIIMMIIMMI=Mal
.03
I N

.02

.01
.006 .01 .02.03 06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23
pH- corrected MO in soil,mg/l (AO-0A)

5.1.4 Summary

The Belgian soils are generally acid, mostly coarse in texture, have a medium organic
matter content and a low cation exchange capacity. The P contents of plants and soils are
the highest recorded in this study. K, Ca and N are usually at the normal level but the N
contents of maize are very high. The Mg contents of plants and soils are among the lowest
of the 30 countries in this study. The B, Cu, Mn and Mo contents correspond more or less
to the normal international level, Fe is somewhat high and the Zn content of most
sampled Belgian soils and plants is exceptionally high.
116

200 11111 Fig. 67. Regression of Zn content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
'.77
5
able soil Zn (x), Belgium.
321 log

100
90
80
70
E 60

20
o
N
10
9
8
7
6
DI

.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .81 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100

Zn in soil, mg/1 (DTPA)

200
Fig. 68. Regression of Zn content of
Zn
89 I111 pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Zn (x),
100
.
Belgium.
90
80 1.11111.6x IIIIiiiiIMMANIN
E 50
70
60

leli III
"Iniglimillf
11 mom
01 1 Hopmein
o
1; 20
o
0
30

9 1
I lb I 1 ill
1-1111
NJ
10 11, I
MERL MMIIII IL
MM1111
9
8
=NMI 11101111MAMMIIIIII
MMINIIL ME111111111MSO1111
7
6
NIMIk 111111 al 111111
EMMIrka WWII mnElliri
.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 13 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
2
pH-corrected Zn in soi mg/1 AAAc-EDTA)
 117

5.2 Finland

5.2.1 General

The wheat and soil sampling sites in Finland are shown in Fig. 69. The sampled area
consists only of the southern part of the country since wheat is not successfully grown in
the northern parts. Maize is not normally grown in Finland.
The frequency distributions of texture (TI), pH(CaC12), organic carbon content, and
cation exchange capacity of Finnish soils are given in Fig. 70 and data on other soil
properties in Appendixes 2 and 4.

Fig. 69. Sampling sites in Finland 26° 28° 54° 36°

(wheat fields). The last three numerals

of each sample pair number (48151
48257) are given.

66°

66°

64°

64°

62°

60°

26°
118

5 Finland Internal Finland Internet Fig. 70. Frequency distributions of

n= 94
= 45
3764
44
40
n= 94
R= 5.21
3783
6.64
texture, pH, organic carbon content,
o g-18 5s= .52 1.12
min= 16
16
9 35 min.= 4.10 3.62 and cation exchange capacity in soils of
max.= 86 92 mox = 6.90 8.56
30
Finland (columns). Curves show the
20 25
international frequency of the same
characters.
20

15

10

0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca C17)

Finland Internat. 5 Finland Internat.

n= 94 3779 n= 94 3777
R. 3.9 1.3 31.8 27.3
0 14.6
5s= 2.8 1.2 1-s= 13.9
35 rmn, 1.4 .1 min.= 12.5 .2
max . 17.5 39.1 max = 89.7 99.9

a.
25
o
20

oui 15

2 4 6 16 32 68 12.8 25.6 16 32

ORGANIC C,% CEO, me/ 009

The average texture of the Finnish soils is very similar to that of all the soils studied and
the range of variation is exceptionally wide. In general, the finest textured soils occur in the
coastal areas of southern and western Finland and the coarsest in the central parts of the
country. Most of the fine textured soils were classified as Cambisols and the coarse
textured as Podsols. The soils are generally acid. The pH(CaC12) varies from 4.1 to 6.9
and the national average (5.2) is among the lowest found in this study. The average organic
matter content (org. C 3.9 %) of Finnish soils (including five peat soils) is three times as
high as the international mean (1.3 %). Only the soils of New Zealand are higher in
organic matter. Compared to all soils studied, the cation exchange capacity of Finnish soils
is slightly on the high side and the range of variation is relatively wide. Electrical
conductivity, CaCO3 equivalent and sodium contents of soils are low compared to most
other countries (Appendixes 2 and 4).

5.2.2 Macronutrients

The frequency distributions of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calsium and magnesium

contents in original Finnish wheat samples and in respective soils are shown in Figures
71-75. To compare the average macronutrient situation in Finland to that in other coun-
tries, see Figs 6-10 (Section 2.2.3).
The mean nitrogen content of the soils (0.288 %) is more than twice as high as the
international mean (0.133 %) and it is exceeded only by that of New Zealand (0.340 %;
Appendix 2). Only two countries, Hungary and the Republic of Korea, have higher
national averages for the N content of wheat (5.46 and 5.27 %, respectively) than Finland
(5.03 %). The higher rates of nitrogen applied to the sampled wheat crops in Hungary
 119

4. 35
Finland Internat. Finland Internat.

35 ris 93
Rs 5.03
1765
4.27
" Finland
n:94
Interno t.
1765
30
n= 94
0: 4.3
1765
4.0
±S. .76 1.15 35 6=.43 .38 ss= 0.6 1.0
min.= 2.64 .60 1.5=.09 .12 4.6 min = 3.3 0.9
30 ..e.
max.= 7.17 7.45 min...23 .05 25 max.= 6.7 6.8
o 23 30 max.=.75 102
25 03

0-25 M a' 20
>-
- 20 O
us 15
1015
o
o 15
Lu
10 u_
u-

mvz.,
3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6
N content of wheat, % P content of wheat, % K content of wheat%
40
70
Finland Internat.
Finland intemcit n=
0: 61.0
94 1765
202
ne 94 1765 55. 32.5 24.7
5 Finland Internat.
60 8..288 .133 mia= 142 1.0 n: 1765
+s= .160 .084 max+208.0 271.4 si 205 365
so
min.= .106 .009 30 ±, 100 283
maa=1.023 1.023 nnn, 40 20
50 max.= 632 2097
o o
25
,cri,

a 40

D 15
o
u_
o

.005 0 .02
/1 .04
N in wheat soils, %
.08
9' ;,'
... AA 2 ...../..W.
.6 .32 64 1.28
cc
10

2.5 5 10 20
P in wheat soils, mg/l
40 80 160 320 640 25 50 100 200
K in wheat soils, mg/I
400 800 1600 3200 6400

Fig. 71. Nitrogen, Finland. Fig. 72 Phosphorus, Finland. Fig. 73. Potassium, Finland.

4
Finland Internat.
40
Finland Internat. Figs 71-75. Frequency distributions
35
n: 94
=.40
n =1765
R.. .43
n. 94
4:142
1764
.172
of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
es =.09 ±ssi .17 35..038 .060
min...22
max+.65
min.= .11
max.= 1.66
30 min.=.076
max...285
.044
.948
calcium and magnesium in original
P.25 25
wheat samples and respective soils
>- 3- (columns) of Finland. Curves show
0 20 0 20
the international frequency of the
D 15 D
o o
Ui
15
same characters.
ix 10

1.6 5 2

Ca content of wheat.% Mg content of wheat%

80
Finiand Interno).
n= 94 1765
Finland Internat.
35 = 1521
R 4671 35 n= 94 1764
ts = 969 3076 R= 207 489
min.= 190 110 ±s= 213 437
max = 8800 21930 min.= 10 10
30 max.= 1075 3298

025 25

20 20
>- >-
O O
Ill 15 L.LI 15

o o
1.1.1 Lu
ct 10

100 200 900 884 1600 3 00 6400 12800 25600 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200
Ca in wheat soils, mg/I Mg in wheat soils, mg/I

Fig. 74. Calcium, Finland. Fig. 75. Magnesium, Finland.

120

(140 ± 74 kg N/ha) and Korea (100 ± 25 kg) compared to Finland (76 ± 24 kg) and New
Zealand (9 ± 16 kg) are likely to explain these differences (Appendix 5). Peat soils and
other soils of high organic matter content were, in general, higher in N than other Finnish
soils. See also Fig. 6.
The mean phosphorus (NaHCO3 sol.) content of the soils is the third highest (after
Belgium and Malta) in this study, and the average P content of wheat is exceeded only by
those of Belgium, Malta and Hungary (Appendix 2). In all these countries applications of
phosphorus fertilizer to the sampled wheat crops were above the international average
(Belgium 42 ± 9, Finland 43 ± 26, Hungary 52 ± 55, Malta 26 ± 0, international mean
21 ± 27 kg P/ha, Appendix 5).
In general, the highest soluble soil P and plant P contents in Finnish material were
found in coarse and medium textured soils and in plants grown in those soils, apparently
because both the applied and the native soil P were less firmly fixed in these soils than in
finer textured soils. See also Figs 7 and 12 in Sections 2.2.3-2.2.4.
The mean potassium content of the original Finnish wheats is at the international
average in spite of the relatively low exchangeable K of the soils (Figs 73 and 8). Evidently,
the high potassium application (mean 63 ± 19, international mean 21 ± 44 kg K/ha)
compensates for the low contents of native soil K. The generally low pH of the soils may
also contribute to the relatively high K content of the plants (See Fig. 11, Section 2.2.4).
The calcium contents of the wheats are only slightly, but the exchangeable Ca of soils
are considerably below the international average (Fig. 74, Appendix 2). See also Fig. 9 and
related text.
The magnesium content of the soils varies widely from one soil to another, but the
national average is one of the lowest among the countries in this study. The low soil Mg
contents are also reflected in plants. Only five countries have lower national mean Mg
contents of wheat than Finland (Appendix 2), but when maize growing countries are'
included in the comparison (pooled plant Mg contents, Fig. 10) Finland's position is the
ninth lowest. Response to Mg is likely in several of the sites sampled.

5.2.3 Micronutrients

Boron. The B contents of Finnish soils and pot-grown wheats are given in Figures 76 and
77 and show that both soils and plants contain slightly less than the international average
(see also Figures 22 and 25). A great majority of the sample pairs are within the normal B
range (Zone III) and only a few in the two lowest or the two highest B Zones. No clear
geographical differences between the high B and low B soils can be distinguished. Low
and high B values can often be found in fields located relatively close to each other (e.g.
sampling sites 48159 and -160, 48177 and -178, 48199 an -200, 48249 and -250).
The limited number of samples in this study may give too high an estimate of the
general B status of Finnish soils since the average hot water soluble soil B content (0.55
mg/1) is somewhat higher than those (based on more numerous samples) published earlier
by Sippola and Tares (1978) and Kurki (1979), 0.38 and 0.48 mg/1, respectively. The latter
data, based on the results of general soil testing, showed also that the average B content of
Finnish soils has been improving from the years 1966-1970 (0.41 mg/1) to 1976-77 (0.48
mg/1). The improvement was attributed to increased B fertilization following soil testing
and to the addition of some B to most of the fertilizers generally used in Finland.
 121

Fig. 76. Regression of B content of pot- 100

B 0MINLEMO imm =MI
onanium
grown wheat (y) on hot water soluble
soil B (x), Finland. For details of
80
60 n=
IMMEEEMMT Mil
Mr. 111M
50
summarized international background 40
data, see Chapter 4. ENEIMMEIMMI PflI
E 30

"es
20 iiiuui
_c
10 ...111 111111 111111
"6
a.)
8

5 iuimui ..10=11
1=1=111
11=
MINNIIN
MNIM
l NMI
o
co
4

3
nomPosmimil inn
2 N 111

1
111 1111111 BI
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .81.0 2 3456 8 10
B in soil, mg/l (Hot w. sol.)

Fig. 77. Regression of B content of 100

pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected 80
n= 3
(hot water soluble) soil B (x), Finland. 60 ±s=5 4 132 60 t
50 7±s =05 027
40
E y= 412+ 94x o
o_ 30 r 0 605 **
20
_C

10
08
0)56
-ta'

o 4
C.)

CO
3
2

.08.1 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10

C EC -corrected B in soil, mg /l (Hot w. sol.)

Copper. The national averages for Cu contents in wheat and soils are slightly on the low
side compared to the whole international range (Figs 78, 79, 27 and 29). Because of the
relatively high organic matter contents of Finnish soils, the correction of AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Cu values for organic carbon reduces the soil Cu values somewhat in
relation to other countries and so lowers their position in the "international Cu field".
Although most of the Cu values remain within the normal range, the relative number of
Cu values falling in the low Cu Zones (I and II) becomes more than doubled and indicates
that the possibility of response to copper fertilization is somewhat more likely than in most
other countries.
122

22 Fig. 78. Regression of Cu content of

C d Fi len, Inte nat
I\ pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
20 n= 3538
5,-± 5 99 ±11 700 2.57 acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x),
431 # 268 6.00-7.05
18
Tc±
Finland.
E
Q. Lc'? 6=3 54 + 3 292 . g x 11374 9' 2

c
.6 12

10
hill
88
06 I\111WW_ 111 MM.\ ' ..,40.1.41

wommilla,
4

2 _...................w
--.1
I
IN -. .... ....7.
- 1
.
, .
nan , 1 G. LI A" ,rt 1 n crtnn
Cu in soil, mg/t /AAA c- EDTA)

Fig. 79. Regression of Cu content of

22- Cu pot-grown wheat (y) on organic carbon-
20 corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.) soil Cu
(x), Finland.

;Ill
18

l'It'211.111 11111 A
Ill 111,11
r=0622 '' 1 .1
16

14
I
12

11 AIN
10

6 . ..
4 111111111tiii11ldilli1111111
2 Pliillittal 1111 1019111
O
.2
illig1131.1111MIIIIN
.4 .6 .810 240 60 100
4 6 810 20
Org.C-corrected soi CU,mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)

Most of the samples within the low Cu Zones I and II represent relatively coarse tex-
tured soils in the central parts of the country. Previous investigations (e.g. Tainio, 1960;
Tähtinen, 1971) indicate that Cu deficiency occurs quite frequently in Finland, especially in
the peat soils and in the coarse textured mineral soils of the northern parts of the country
(for reasons explained earlier, the present material does not include samples from the
northern parts). The average AAAc-EDTA extractable Cu contents of Finnish soils, based
on a substantially larger number of soil samples (n = 2015) including also northern Fin-
land, is 2.83 ± 2.90 (Sippola and Tares, 1978). This suggests that Cu deficiency may be
more common in Finland than is indicated by the limited data of this study.
According to soil testing data for the period 1955-1977 (Kurki, 1979) the Cu status of
Finnish soils was declining until about 1970, but since then a slight improvement has been
observed. This was attributed to the increased use of fertilizers containing Cu.
 123

300
Fig. 80. Regression of Fe contents 275 pgrammulooromminnme
of pot-grown wheat (y) on acid 250 sammosonomummonumis
ammonium acetate-EDTA extractable 225
soil Fe (x), Finland. 200 =1611111116i11611111111111111111
1 75

E 1 50 M1111111111111111.111
a.
- 125 IMM111111111111111A11111111
o
100
90

o
o
80
70 L11111111 R!M!!I
60

50

40
iNIIIIIIiiÌIISI
30 11111111111111111111
I=IMIIIINtillPRIEN11111M811
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/l (A AA c- EDTA)

Iron. The Fe contents of plant and soil samples are plotted in Fig. 80. The plant Fesoil
Fe correlation does not reach the 5 percent but only the 10 percent significance level. Both
the average Fe contents of plants and soils exceed the respective international means, and
Finland is the only country in which the national plant-soil average falls in the highest Fe
Zone (V) (Fig. 31). Almost half of the samples fall within Zone V and less than one-third
within the normal range (Zone III) (Fig. 80). The soils having the highest extractable Fe
contents (> 1000 mg/1) include the five peat soils and soils with high clay and organic
matter contents, high cation exchange capacity and low pH. The average AAAc-EDTA
extractable Fe content of 2015 Finnish soils (677 ± 656 mg/1) presented by Sippola and
Tares (1978) was still slightly higher than the national average recorded in this study
(569 ± 367 mg/1).
Manganese. The regressions of Mn contents of pot-grown wheat on the DTPA extract-
able soil Mn without and with pH corrections are given in Figures 81 and 82. Correcting
DTPA Mn for pH changes the distribution of points in the Figure, improves the correla-
tion from being non-significant (r =0.104 n.s.) to a highly significant level (r = 0.639***),
and moves the Finnish material to the right in the "international Mn field" (see Figures 33
and 37). Notwithstanding that the Finnish soils are generally acid with high availability of
Mn to plants (Fig. 34), the national mean values for plant Mn and extractable soil Mn are
lower than the respective mean values for the whole international material. This is an
indication of relatively low total Mn contents of Finnish soils. However, cases of
"primary" deficiency (due to low total Mn content) are very rare compared to "secondary"
deficiency (low availability mainly due to high soil pH).
Most of the Finnish samples fall in the normal Mn Zone (III), only a couple of sample
pairs are in the two lowest and three in the two highest zones (Fig. 82). The highest Mn
contents of plants and soils were found in samples collected from sites where acid soils
(pH <5) prevailed and the lowest from sites having soils of only moderate acidity.
124
2000 17111:-7111-1.1 MIMMIONMF
Fig. 81. Regression of Mn content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
1000
800 NM MMONNEN
.VXM.41 IMAM VAINEZ01/Matb.11.1MINIMMI
VMMIllEra-MMEM:ITMIFPritervrimamil
1111
MOMIMM".
MEMI
able soil Mn (x), Finland.
600 ilII mmummimmmommuli
400
D 300

.c
200 11=11111111111.11111
"CI
100 11011111111111111.41 111
8
80
60
40
30
uiiìiuuiuiIM mumm..
1111111111MINIMINIMIMMENINI
BINIONEMMORIMNISIMINIMMMIIII
iiiiiMPAINUMMEMMIN
&WIER

20 1111

10
10111.1111rErird
8 111111111111111111111111MINIIIIIMIlia=0.SMIMINM

2 34 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80100 200 300

Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

2000 65-1-10....1111.011 Fig. 82. Regression of Mn content of

1
Mn pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
1000
.... .
arrinimiimm....r.......mon=w.ra-un able soil Mn corrected for pH (x),
800
NI
=1MMISMU1=1101MINMINMIMMINE.
MIERMISMEMIImirrnmanimaimmou Finland.
E
600 11111=1- 711i2E111111
PP"
0- 400
1111111MEMPAII
A ...41
4011111

300
200 L.1.01111111.1.1114M111111 I
o
"`c- 100 umvimmo......................
11.1111111111111111-1101111111
BO 11._ 1...i .....7.01....wwX01M11111^^711
.;MI=MMEMIUMFIIMPFainiMMMEH MIN161111
inNOWAMEraiiiilliMMIN=IMMEMENE K1M=MITHE
o
60
40 r
11.11=111EMEMEOPMMMMEIMENI
.
MEMMEIEffig

30
20 1111
.1dillaMli11111111111.6ii
OP' 111
10
8 ma
011
ummatailmwmons MMMINEN
INEMMITil
IIM=MIM421
2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
pH-corrected Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

Molybdenum. The average Mo content of wheat grown on Finnish soils is somewhat

lower than the international average, while the mean of ammonium oxalate-oxalic acid
extractable soil Mo exceeds the international mean by a factor of 2.6 (Fig. 83). This
inconsistency is eliminated by correcting the soil Mo values for pH (Fig. 84). In conse-
quence, points in the Figure took up new positions; the plant Mosoil Mo correlation
improved substantially and the whole Finnish material is moved to the left in the "interna-
tional Mo field" (see also Figures 15 and 20). After pH correction only four points remain
in the two highest Mo Zones (IV and V), one only is in Zone II and most of the remainder
are within the normal range.
 125

Fig. 83. Regression of Mo content

of pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium 6
MZEPINLW=PSM
Numuniiimamongs .4 ......._
=limETIMIBEIMIMICEIBLEI
oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil
mansammo 2 Pill
Mo (x), Finland. 3

2 iiiiiils ill '

logy

E
0.
11111E1
_.....__a_NINO IN
MMINEMIIMIIMIIMINNIE
MIIMENULIMINICIMEMINI
ninillME=CREMEN
....11 1=11.1011Mill-
B11111MiMallaill
mmunimmememin
it,\MIIIIIHME15210"-
o '1
N1111111.11111111\L
......amommemmErmloam
1kWIMEMENIIIMI=MEMM101MLTA.
.06 WimmouNi=MENENI.
AMMIIIIMMMENNEMIIIMIMPEME111.
wIIIUMNIIMMENNII.
.03
.02

.01 11111161111111
................
.01 .02 .03 .06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo in soil, mg/ (A0-0A)

Fig. 84. Regression of Mo content of M oulsromm-cun.,,;,,i-maisto

pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected 6

A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x), munizerr-9°Erafflaigiiiiirommanni

3 111111114ORMIWIELICEIL1101111
Finland.
2

E
o.
15;
a,
1

.6
--............. m
_c
immmil=5.uuiiiuiuuuniiijii
ó

5
.3

.2 iniii.iiijiii.iiiiiii \
oo

2
.1
121221111==0:11:111,====11:1
06 IMINEIMMINOI MMIMENNEMI11
MMI111111115111MMEMBIIMMI=MMIll
.03
.02

.01
.006 .01 .02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 2 3
p14- corrected MO in soil. mg/I (A0-0A)

The highest Mo values were found in samples from sites where the soils have pH above
the average and medium texture, while the lowest values were recorded from sites of low
soil pH and either coarse (TI 16-30) or fine (TI 50-80) soil texture. In coarse textured
soils the low Mo values are apparently due to low total contents and in fine textured soils
due to low plant availability (see also Fig. 16). No clear geographical distinction can be
made between the high and low Mo areas. The present material does not indicate any
serious Mo problems in Finland. However, heavy nitrogen applications (300-450 kg
N/ha/yr) commonly practised by fodder producers may induce Mo deficiency on acid soils
if the pH is not kept at a reasonable level by liming (Rinne et al., 1974 b).
126

200
Zn t-8
i ' Ili
,34
1
,y
11,7
1
c 321 log K
Fig. 85. Regression of Zn content
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Zn (x), Finland.

VII
100
90
80
70
il
"i111
E 60
50 illii

I
"t5
40

"a 30
\\
.cl

-s 20 . 411;11111PV
N
10
9
8
/111111111111
wir
N
7
6
1

.3 .4 . .81 2
m
6 81034 20 3040 60 100
r' \
ZD in soil, mg /I (DTPA)

200
I te n Fig. 86. Regression of Zn content of
Zn lc° Y 2
'
:4
33
3 I :
pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH
100
6 11. x .kris'aisi IIMII. (x), Finland.
90
80 MEE Vill
70
I i MI
E 50
60
1=1
2: 40 ill P7
o
cu

30 I Ilk IC
o
An
PPP
o
20
0.10.0L
10
9
8
7
:I
1W
MMMENIIIIIMEL
.....,
II i
6
ri I Ili E\
.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
2
pH-corrected Zn in soi ,mg/i AAAc-EDTA)

Zinc. The national averages for both plant Zn and extractable soil Zn are distinctly
above the respective international averages (Figures 85 and 86). Irrespective of the extrac-
tion method used (DTPA or pH-corrected AAAc-EDTA), the correlations between plant
and soil Zn are high. Comparison of Figures 85 and 86 shows that the locations of
individual points have changed little. With only a few exceptions, the same points falling in
Zones V and IV when DTPA was used as an extractant are within the same zones when
the soil Zn contents were determined by AAAc-EDTA method and corrected for pH.
 127

No Zn values fall in the two lowest Zn zones, and although almost one-third of the Zn
points are within the two highest zones no extremely high Zn contents were found (see e.g.
Figs 67 and 68). Geographically, the lowest and highest Zn values are quite evenly distrib-
uted all over the southern part of the country.

5.2.4 Summary

The Finnish soils are generally acid with widely varying texture, high organic matter
content and relatively high cation exchange capacity.
The P and N contents of soils and original plants are among the highest in this study
and those of Mg among the lowest. The K and Ca contents of wheat are average but those
of soi/s are low.
The Mn and Mo contents of Finnish soils and pot-grown wheat are, with few excep-
tions, within the normal international range. The Cu and B contents are somewhat below
but those of Zn and Fe distinctly above those of most other countries. It appears that no
extensive, but some local (Cu and B), micronutrient problems are to be expected in
Finland.
128

5.3 Hungary

5.3.1 General

The sarnpling sites in Hungary were well distributed across the country (Fig. 87) and soil
properties therefore varied widely. About half of the soils sampied were classified as
Phaeozems (125). Other soils commonly found were Chernozems (46), Luvisols (25),
Vertisols (15) and Cambisols (10).
The frequency distribution graphs for soil texture, pH and cation exchange capacity
given in Fig. 88 show that on average, the soil properties in the Hungarian sample material
correspond closely with the whole international material and the ranges of variation are
almost as wide as those internationally. Organic matter contents in Hungarian soils are
relatively high and quite uniform. The average electrical conductivity and CaCO3
equivalent values of Hungarian wheat soils are lower than those internationally (Appendix
2), but in the case of maize soils the Hungarian averages exceed the respective international
means (Appendix 3). With a few exceptions (mainly Halos°1s) the sodium contents of the
soils are relatively low.

%...1 915B-9150 05-4.0

.--,0- 121. 0252-4255
I 7.7'''':---- --- --Ì----- J ....H____2-.f$ 2,2_ 4125.-4125 '1""2`±_l_7 , 1

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I :,::::)z..4,.....4,,,,i4.: 41.,3:7:14:01:5:2-1
,1 5145-2140
, 1'4129-.131 1 a,6-11aa ,, ,, ,
9
5116-9J25 1

9132-4154 : .60 ,

BUDAPEST 4252
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1.- te427221.2 4235
9252-4232 \I 412- .1255-,4260
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9169-4160 7- 4' 2 9 i
4252-.42Li
1

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2136;9142
4167-4169 2.\o 4112-6113415144.273._:.
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1 9146;9131
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4292-92,6 ';211. 6 4206-4217
1

4161-911 1

4170 $2,"12.

YecFL. 10
4,4-4,00
1
/.4/, ii
.;e4
1 42, tji25-4225
02
- 4300 if.
I

2011

Fig. 87. Sampling sites in Hungary (points wheat fields, triangles = maize fields). The last four numerals
of each sample pair number (44101-44300 and 49101-49150) are given.
 129

Fig. 88. Frequency distributions of 5 Hungary Internat, Hungary Interno!

texture, pH, organic carbon content, n z 250
6. 47
3764
44
40
n= 250
= 6.89
3283
6.64

and cation exchange capacity in soils t 30 os = 12

min.= 15
mox a 84
16
9
92
35
os= .88
min 4.20
max = 8.00
1,12
3.62
8.56
of Hungary (columns). Curves show 30

the international frequency of the 'CD

20 2
>-
same characters.
20
W 15
o
10

10 20 30 0 50 60 70 80 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca C12)

Hungary Internet Hungary Internet

40 n.250 3779 n= 250 3777
k = 1.6 1.3 30 0= 29.7 27.3
Z 35 os = 6 1.2 08: 10.6 14.6
min.= 4 .0 min.= 4.6 2
0'./
1.6 max.= 3 9 39.1 max.= 64.2 999

2 .8 16 32 6.4 12,8 25.6 2 4 8 16

ORGANIC C,% CEC, me/100g

5.3.2 Macronutrients

The frequency distributions of macronutrient (N, P, K, Ca and Mg) contents of the

original wheat and maize samples and respective soils are expressed in Figures 89 to 93.
The Hungarian averages for nitrogen contents of soils are high compared to most other
countries in this study (Appendixes 2 and 3, Figs 6 and 89). Hungarian wheats contain on
average more N than those of any other country, and only Belgian maize samples have
higher mean N contents than Hungarian maize. It is apparent that apart from the inherent
high N contents of these soils, the liberal applications of nitrogen fertilizers to the sampled
wheat and maize crops (140 ± 74 and 136 ± 58 kg N/ha, respectively) are further respon-
sible for the high N contents of Hungarian plants.
The average phosphorus contents of the original wheat and maize (0.49 and 0.50 %,
respectively) are among the three highest national mean values recorded in this study (Figs
90 and 7). The contents of soluble P in Hungarian soils are also well above the average
130

Hungary Internat. Hungary Internat. Figs 89-93. Frequency distributions of

n= 144 1765 n= 106 1958
35
R= 5.46
= .78
4.27
1.15
0= 4.72
ts= .50
3.14
.87
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, cal-
min.= 2.72
max.= 7.45
.60
7.45
min.= 2.93
mox.= 5.87 6.51
.88
cium and magnesium in original wheat
25 and maize samples and respective soils
20 (columns) of Hungary. Curves show
15
the international frequency of the same
o characters.
10

2 3 4 5 6
N content of wheat, % N content of maize,%
70
Hungary Internat. Hungary interno).
n= 144 1765 n= 106 1958
60 0..103 .133 7= .169 .135
SOSOS) .084 tS= .061 .088
min...052 .009 min.= .036 .008
max.= .331 1.023 max.= .404 1.657
(15 50

o
Z 30

IL 20

10

.005 .01 .02 .04 .06 .16 .32 .64 128 .005 0 .02 .04 08 .16 .32
N in wheat soils, % N in maize soils,% Fig. 89. Nitrogen, Hungary.

40
Hungary internot. Hungary intm-i.t Fig. 90. Phosphorus, Hungary.
35
n =144 1765 n .= 106 1967
= .49 .30 k= .50 .33
68= .13 .12 to= .10 .10
i.13 30 Min.= .26 .05 mm= .26 .05
max.= .83 1.02 max =1.04 1.04

0-25
>-
C.)
20

8 15
L1.1

10 10

iririfeA7
.8 9

P content of wheat% P content of maize,%

40 40

Hungary Internat Hungary Internat.

35 n = 144 1765 n = 106 1967
35
32.7 20.2 = 38.9 22.5
AS= 20.3 24.7 = 34.0 33.0
min.=55 1.0 min.= 7.6 0.1
max=130.0 271.4 max.=322.0 656.0

2.5 5 10 20 40 BO 160 320 640 5 10 20 o. 160 320 640

P in wheat soils, mg/I P in maize soils, mg/I

international level. The very high and largely varying rates of phosphorus fertilizers
applied to the sampled crops (52 ± 55 and 52 ± 33 mg P/ha, respectively) also appear to
have affected the P contents of Hungarian crops both by increasing the average plant P
level and by widening the variation ranges.
 131

Fig. 91. Potassium, Hungary. Hungary Internat,

35
Hungary Internet
n= 144 1765 n= 106 1967
30 0= 4.1 4.0 30 0. 4.1 3.1
es= 0,9 1,0 es= 0.9 1.0
min.= 1.5 0.9 mm = 1.5 0.6
25 max = 6.6 6.8 25 MaX = 6.0 6.7

a
2-
o P
U..1 15

000k
JAA4mil
2
Ali&
K content of wheat, %
3 4 5 6 2
44/.4
3

K content of maize,%
4 6 7

75 Hungary t
38
Internet ' Hungary Internat.
n.144 7 1765 n= 106 1967
0.217 365 9,241 330
30 05=122 283 ±s= 136 356
..C..
mm.= 46 20 msn.= 50 18
mae.=843 2097 max.= 956 5598
t5-t' 25
P
20
o
U, 15

25 50 1 0 200 4 0 800 1600 3200 6400 25 50 100 200 4 0 800 1600 3200 6400
K in wheat soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I

Fig. 92. Calcium, Hungary. Hungary

n=144
Internat. Hungary
n= 106
Internet.
1957
35 1765 5
9= .53 .43 5= .77 .47
os= .11 .17 *s = .26 .20
.30 .11 0 min.= .33 .09
max.= .77 1.68 max.= 1.88 1.88

25

20

15

1°

.8

Ca content of wheat, % Co content of maize.%

Hungary internot Hungary Internet
n= 144 1755 n= 106 1967
5 9.4910 4671 35 6.4858 3450
1893 3076 5 .2094 2815
min= 520 110 min e 165 10
max, 8850 21930 max.= 8270 17995

100 200 400 800 1400 3 00 5400 17900 25500 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12000
Ca in wheat soils mg/I Ca in maize soils. mg/I

The exchangeable potassium contents of most Hungarian soils are well below the inter-
national average. However, the average K content of maize is considerably above the
international mean and that of wheat slightly so (Figs 91 and 8). Both crops had received
generally high but widely varying rates of potassium fertilizer (98 ± 96 and 104 ± 56 kg
132
0
Hungary inter-not Hungary intemt
Fig. 93. Magnesium, Hungary.
5 nn 124 1764 5 n. 105 1967
9..177 172 01,
060r
i R. .305 .251
7.9P .348 01= .13E1 .159
3
1..3 min = .105 044 sin. .144 .036
mox...399 9.8E1, 01.5,1,1.073 1.125
25

23

.05
Mg content of whea.t,% Mg content of rosa ze.%

40

Hungary Hungary Internot

n- 140 1764 n. 106 1567
7. 437 409 7- 40 445
55. 310 437 ±65 262 462
mir 30 10 emn . 15
riom 1926 3290 P,X, /352 6490

25 50 170 20 400 003 3201 12.5 25 SO 100 2u 40 000 1600 00 5707

Mg in wheat soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils, mg/.

Klha, respectively) which is likely to explain the dissimilarity between the K contents of
soils and plants as well as the wide variation of K contents in plants. The average level of
potassium fertilization in Hungary was exceeded only by that of Belgium.
Calcium contents of both indicator crops as well as of the respective soils are high (Figs
92 and 9).
The Hungarian mean for Ca contents of maize is the highest and that of wheat is
exceeded only by Turkey (Appendixes 2 and 3).
Exchangeable magnesium contents of Hungarian soils as well as the Mg contents of
wheat are very close to the international average but high Mg contents are typical of
Hungarian maize (Fig. 93, Appendixes 2 and 3). According to these data a response to
Mg fertilization seems unlikely. See also Fig. 10.
 133

Fig. 94. Regression of B content of pot- 100 moiimmuss

hilL11101=1111ilfaiTi4IIMM M===121::
grown wheat (y) on hot water soluble
80 igi1111111.11III
1:3 1=rjaKMEnall
MIMINMENII
M=MMIIMI1
60
soil B (x), Hungary. For details of 50 min .1.02 clUZLIE1111
summarized international background 40
1.11 .70 +1.62 WHIM MEMO
data, see Chapter 4.
Q
30
ca: 20 Mil' INIM O/1111
Ell 111111111111111
01.1MINNIV.W.MCWIMIMMENNNE
6 1=11MOMMOSeriaM MMINMENI
MIIIIKIEMEMIE113111MMEMIlli
IMMIMINI10111111
2 11 E1111111
19p
.2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 10 2 3 4 5 6 8 10
B in soil, mg/I (Hot w. sol.)

Fig. 95. Regression of B content of pot- 100

grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected 80i
n. 3
60
1

(hot water soluble) soil B (x), Hungary. 50

--±s- 4 154 6
7..ts. 0 8 -.0 3
40
E -412+2 9x y 0 x -
30 r. 0 579 8

10
"5 8

C6
5
o 4
o
co 3

I _

.081 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 56 8 10

C EC - corrected B in soil. mg /I ( Hot w. sol.)

5.3.3 Micronutrients

Boron. The B status of the soils and the B content of pot-grown wheat are, in general, at a
satisfactory level (Figures 94 and 95). Only four out of 201 sample pairs fall in the two
lowest Zones (I and II). Although about 12 percent of the samples are within the two
highest B Zones (Fig. 95), there were no extremely high plant or soil B values. No geo-
graphical areas of low or high B soils can be clearly defined although most of the high B
values were measured in samples from sites east of Donau, either near the southern border
or in the middle eastern part of the country on Phaeozem and Chernozem soils.
134
22 Fig. 96. Regression of Cu content of
20 MR °Ill ritern°
111111111111111111 pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium

E
18
11. 4,111111 rip', ERIN 111111 acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x),
Hungary.
8:16 1111111111111:11 nY,-.0- 1112111111111111 11111
o
w14 11111 11111 SIIUIIIISUIIIHII
_c

.6 12
11 li I NIIIIIIHISUPJIIIII
E,10 1111111111 1111111111 111111
8 8 111
111111 II .1111=1111111111
1111111111111 1111PM111111 111111
III
6
IIIIIMENISINIMMI111111
4

2 11111.111111111E01111111 liblill
11111111111M111111PIMIN11111
oi .2 .4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080
Cu in soil, mg/l IA A Ac- EDTA)

22
Fig. 97. Regression of Cu content of

20 i ii`Jin rill ,ter111111111011 pot-grown wheat (y) on organic

carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.)
18
±s6
-, MIll ;_'''''7:. MINN MU soil Cu (x), Hungary.

Y173°6 1111 NO
=_587111311
NM 11111kMOM
16

14

12 wino I MERIN
111111111111=11111 mom
10

6
N111li116
l iora
. ardif 11155111
in ,

101
4

2 PE MEE
o MI 111111 rdilin311115111
.2 .4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 60 100
Org.acorrected soi CU,mg/l ( A AAc -EDTA

Copper. Hungarian mean values for plants and soil Cu correspond closely to the respect-
ive international values (Figures 27, 29, 96 and 97). Since the variation of Cu contents is
rather narrow and no extremely low or high Cu values were recorded, the Hungarian
sample material falls almost completely in to the normal copper Zone (III). According to
these analytical data, Cu problems seem unlikely.
 135

Fig. 98. Regression of Fe contents of 300

pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammo- 275 IMMINHOLIMMIIIIIIII III
250 11111111111MmEn11111 O
nium acetate-EDTA extractable soil FERWRIENallnillffill1111 II
Fe (x), Hungary. 225
200
1 75 ILIV,ESIMINEMIIiiiiii11111
RIM 111111111 111111 1
E 1 50
97 1 25 MIIIIIIIIMI 111111 I
MI i I
111111111111111
NNW IIIIIIg
100
-b- 90 mom Omni a
mg
80 1111111 P.
-~c

7() MNIEMMERingrail
o
60 MNIIIHNINEad2111 I
u_
50 eingsiirdiiiiiiill i
40 ElliiihN111 EMI I
30 IIADHN 1111111
mum El monvonvigi
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/l (AAAc- EDTA)

Iron. The Hungarian material includes some plant samples with fairly low Fe contents
(Fig. 98), but, in general, the Fe status of Hungarian soils and plants seems to be quite
"normal". Fe data are distributed within the normal range (Zone III) with only six ex-
ceptions, four in Zone IV and two just slightly inside Zone V. In the "international Fe
field" (Fig. 31), Hungary stands at the centre.
Manganese. The correlation between the plant Mn and DTPA extractable soil Mn is
high and because of the widely varying pH of Hungarian soils the correlation is further
improved by correcting the soil Mn values for pH (Figs 99 and 100). The averages for
plant and soil Mn contents deviate less from the respective international means than those
of the most other countries (Figs 33 and 37). The Mn variation in Hungary, however, is
very wide, and some very high as well as quite low plant and soil Mn values are included.
Most of the high Mn values (falling in Zones IV and V) originated from sites in the
northeastern part of the country or northeast of Budapest on soils classified as Cambisols,
Arenosols or Luvisols. With several exceptions the low Mn values originate from southern
areas east of Donau or from the middle eastern part of the country. These were often
recorded on Phaeozem and Vertisol soils.
Molybdenum. The initially low correlation between plant Mo and A0-0A extractable
soil Mo (Fig. 101) improves and becomes highly significant when correction is made for
pH (Fig. 102) owing to the wide variation in pH of Hungarian soils. Internationally, the
Hungarian plant Mo and soil Mo contents are slightly on the low side but about 93
percent of Mo values are within the normal Mo range (Zone III, Fig. 102). See also Fig.
20. Indications of quite severe Mo deficiency are shown by samples from two sites (44133
and 44134) located near Budapest.
Zinc. The Hungarian mean plant Zn content is the seventh lowest among 29 countries,
and the mean soil Zn is the ninth lowest regardless of the extraction method used (Figures
136

2000 __woe Fig. 99. Regression of Mn content

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
1000 1511111:1111111111101
MEMMIIMINNII1111M
12M1:1.:N:WIIIMMINIMMEWc MIMMINNIIMININIEN extractable soil Mn (x), Hungary.
800 lIZZWILWITIriTVIMiTZWINWRIEMATIFITIIIII1MM
600 rarimilion11011mamilliusuirimm
11111MMIMIMIIIMMINEUISIMINI
400
ca- 300
200 iiiIIIIIIHhIHOiIii!!

o 100 k
11E1111111111111111P41 Y
80 mi====MMimmENIIMMIP:111MinainTIOSIMMO
60 IIMMINIMIMMENIIIMPtiarKIISIMPIIIMI111114
o
40 11111M1MORIIIMNIMFIVIS1111MM.
30
20 11111211111111=11111111111111
10
8
111MII/IMMEIMIN11
siiimINMEElliaMOSTMIIMENINI 1==
WTI=
234 6810 20 30 40 60 80t0 200 300
Mn in soil. mg/I (DTPA)

2000 Fig. 100. Regression of Mn content

Mn of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
1000 MN MUKTZ13 Sat:S211.1.1=1111II:11411.6WMWMIN1111=1Mf =Mail
Mi=111IMPIIIIIIMINIMMMIIIM111//1_10.011
extractable soil Mn corrected for pH
800 MEMEZEMMEII1 1212NMENNEMIMMIEMIMIIIIIIM (x), Hungary.
E
600 IIIMMECEEMIEUTIMEM=1117111:altkVill
ra- 400 11111112113111111111GIBEIMILIWIMION
If 300 IIIMMNIIIIIMMIM11111="41711111111111
200 111111111111M11111111M111111111
o
"E"100
a) iii=M=11=rariMalrigVMMINIESI
N11111111=
l=nteAlii
80 laiMMEMEMMOMeat.PW=MMISIEM.Mai
o 60 111111111=ldfir"-AIIIIMIEHME1.2111C=1M111111
InimMiNammmunauniimirmilmuimmniii
o
40
30 IIMIIIMPAN11111121110111111111MIESNIEll
20 111.11110011.111111111111.111111
10 111111111111:11111111111111
11=MINNIM MMMINON
8
MO
=1011
1=MMINISI 1131=MMENIU
11:11MMIIIIMIN =.11
2 34 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
pH-corrected Mn n soil, mg/l (DTPA)

41 and 43). The correlations between plant Zn and soil Zn, irrespective of the extraction
method, are good and both methods give a similar general picture of the Zn status of
Hungarian soils (Figures 103 and 104).
It should be noted that when the DTPA extraction method was used more samples fall
in the two highest Zn Zones (IV and V) than when the soils were extracted with AAAc-
EDTA and the results corrected for pH, the latter method giving relatively more low Zn
values (Zones I and II). The differences, however, are not marked. At some locations
response to Zn fertilization can be expected. No extreme Zn values were recorded.
 137

Fig. 101. Regression of Mo content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium =0 353'
62 032 ±0 6
oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo Mt
=
4 122 021 ±025
(x), Hungary. 3 y.0 3 logx r204
r=017
2

.06

.03
.02

.01
Ill III

.01 .02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23

Mo in soil, mg/t (A0-0A)

Fig. 102. Regression of Mo content MN 1IM =11MWM,M

of pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-correct- 6
ed A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x), MEMIIIIMIELIEM11111FEEECIMEIEEMIll
Hungary. MN

iilonini
3 1111111105 Y O06

nommm
2

ilblrEilleM1111=11
I4IINII11111
.2

.1 11=1111D1111111111MI
E:1211=75'...°1==rin:1111
reirsiliii=rAihrid&MMMEION
MENIMINIMIMAIMIONIEN 11MIIMMENIII
mcmi
ma.
MBINOMINI NEE =1111/(1

.03
.02 Pill1011111111111111
.01 =.......20._=no..
1111111.101111.11111111
.006 .01 .02 .03 06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
pH-corrected MO in soil,mg/I (A0-0A)

5.3.4 Summary

The Hungarian soils included in this study vary widely in regard to texture, pH, and cation
exchange capacity and somewhat less in regard to organic matter content.
The P, Ca and N contents of soils and original plants are generally very high. Most of
the K and Mg contents of soils are below the international average but those of plants are
at an average level or above. The soil and plant contents of most macronutrients vary
138

20 H logc In e t Fig. 103. Regression of Zn content of

Zil '¡;:,.:.i. 6..td 2
7± =II
n3
7s
rc s
3

l
1 ; V..11
745
77 pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
.
able soil Zn (x), Hungary.
y.1.. 5 Ig x lo y 1 2t 3211og
+

'.
I .

r...5:1` r 0 3,
I

I
.7".
)

1
7.'
)

1\
)\ .

I
\
'...'' l_hiligli
/If

1
111
........
.
IILMWM2151111111MENIMILIMM.
r ailfilltElIMIIMENIIIIk
m
!

'
1

i
I EC \ 3E

1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .81 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100

2
Zn in soil,mg/ (DTPA)

200
Fig. 104. Regression of Zn content of
Zn
I

3 3±
te
i .

pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA

1 extractable soil Zn corrected for pH
100
..... o
'

.
5 .98
10 1
8

1111111
...,
-31 '
1111MMININI
(x), Hungary.
90
INII
11111I IIMMINN
80
70 1 IIIII MENIgn
. ,,. . .......
NIIII1 1111

'
11.1111E.
60
E
o.
50

id 1 1 0111
o

E.
o
30

20 LI p . 1 il
11 ,..,:*?'
r ..' .4% .: 1111111
,......
.I..... ,...
10
9
8 ...Hi
-- "pp
7
I.
6

.2
M EP a
.3 .4 .6 .8 1 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
2
II i Hi L V%
pH-corrected Zn in soi ,mg/t (AAAc-EDTA)

widely, partly because of generally high though varying N, P, K fertilizer applicatfon.

The micronutrient contents of Hungarian soils and plants are commonly at the normal
international level; B is slightly on the high side, but Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo and Zn are on the
low side. Compared to other micronutrients the variation ranges for B and Mn are wide:
both low and high B and Mn values were recorded.
 139

5.4 Italy

5.4.1 General
The most important agricultural areas in Italy are relatively well represented by the soil
and plant samples collected from thc country (Fig. 105). About half of the sampled soils

f
---- --i, r
I TA L Y
- , ' '

..___.-'1 _...
1
r,.
k
" 1- \ _5 4078,, .s.
as. /RE,:m, ,4067A
I -'i 140'79
....... 40704. '
4077-4065- -----'
1

3943
if (\
40
003
40406941

40 5405 9
4("95941061

4055
4068
4064
Al.i...4066
4081
9I
2
002 4076
062 04074 40
j) ,,,,,,A395O
I
4060
-1-- - 63942
1:7"

:075140:21-'11:11%-4.1 ENEZIA
82145041
.-.../ TORINO '952 402nt 4083°5° 4042
!
.s.--k--- 1ZN "03953 9 8 .0 6 041,052 A
At
",....

i.)
3954
395501
(394
3848
Olger
3941
3949
3944
j

3959 3960
13905 -
898
06 4053
4°84049376i
3884390907
: 48
4044
A388.7.4
BOLOGNblio3p97311,111 902
4°43.4080
.
,
i
\
1

GENOVA
3 09 9.
8, 3894
\

34
3919 -
38'8--$.1..
1

389 2 NO ".1
399, 9,5 3916 ',.-
399 3904
3912A1.3------18 \
,gas :8408ED 3914 308A5L54
NA

39t3 ° r 03882
.384906903911:1 3917
38900 392 30 ..+4--_,,___.,
I
AeRLIG L43983
0-3857
' --:-. "'-,
r .1 e

a
3993
3 858
03860
0 ',,
3859 -'1 660116
\ °"2

42. 0 / 1

--r- - - 7- -
0 ONK
-

6141150948SO 2.75. \
3870 3861
:
3871553864
' 3868
'

- -- NAPO
38 ''386
41,14021 931-3933 POT6NZA 1,72
4022 b° 3863
4.0
392139 4 4087
°
I

3923 3922 3873

,18!
3867
1

.20.

4.3/02
402; 1
4030
f 402-'43 4027
4032: 4!)2574026
A4GOL2A.

0 4033 ,Iit
CATeZARO

383 3880

LER 0

3389h-63-68.3 03986
0
3984
3qq,
--- 03 , 87 I
1

, 3g9t441838989 5 1
I
4013
0.......i.-4400,14

3999 4011 54015.

3997.. ,.4017
39 6_ w
3998
4016
020
, 4019

,I.

Fig. 105. Sampling sites in Italy (points = wheat fields, triangles = maize fields). The last four numerals of
each sample pair number (43854-44090) are given.
140

Italy Intermit !Oily Intermit Fig. 106. Frequency distributions of

n.189 3764 n= 189
30
R.
47 44
40
R. 7.14
3783
6.64 texture, pH, organic carbon content,
ns = 16 16 nn .65 1.12
min.= 19 9 min . 4.65 3.62 and cation exchange capacity in soils of
max.= 89 92 max = 7.82 8.56
3 25
30 Italy (columns). Curves show the inter-
25
national frequency of the same
20
characters.
5

20 30 40 50
TEXTURE INDEX
60 70 80 90
_aAkNOW0 pH (Cel C12)

Italy 47 Internat Italy Internal

n= 189 3779 n= 189 3777
R= 1.3 1.3 R. 26.9 27.3
1.2 no. 10.8 14.6
.1 min.. 9.4
max.= 5.7 39.1 max.. 74.9 99.9

25

1 2 16 32 60 2.8 25.6 2 8 8 16 32
ORGANIC C,% CEC, me/ 00g

were classified according to the FAO/Unesco classification system. The frequency distribu-
tion of these was: Fluvisols (33 %), Luvisols (20 %), Cambisols (18 %), Regosols (13 %),
Vertisols (13 %), Andosols (3 %) and Arenosols (1 %).
The mean and frequency distribution of texture (TI) of the soils studied correspond
closely to those of all the international samples (Fig. 106). The majority of soils have an
alkaline pH(CaC12) and their organic matter contents and cation exchange capacity values
are at or close to the international average. Electrical conductivity and CaCO3 equivalent
values in Italian soils vary greatly. and are generally higher than in soils of most other
countries (Appendixes 2-4).

5.4.2 Macronutrients

The average nitrogen contents of Italian wheat and maize soils and crops are clearly above
the respective international means (Figs 6 and 107), the ranges of variation are wide. In
part, the high contents and wide variation of plant N are obviously due to the generally
high, but varying, rates of nitrogen fertilizer applications (Appendix 5).
The phosphorus contents of the original Italian wheat and maize plants vary greatly but
on average are above the international levels (Figs 7 and 108). Wide variations in the P
contents of soils are also noticeable. For wheat soils the national mean is somewhat lower
than for maize soils. Phosphorus fertilizer applications to the sampled crops (42 ± 29 and
51 ± 44 kg P/ha, respectively) are among the highest recorded in this study (Appendix 5).
 141

Figs 107-111. Frequency distributions Italy Internet Italy Internat.

of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, n= 118
2=4.55
1765
4.27
n= 60
5=4.08
1958
3.14
calcium and magnesium in original ±5= 1.03
min =1.99
1.15
.60 30
os= .70
min.=2.11
.87
.88
max =7.22 7.45 6.51
wheat and maize samples and respective 25
m00.=5.73

soils (columns) of Italy. Curves show CL

>- 20
the international frequency of the same
1-1-1 15
characters. o
(1-: 10

1 2 3 4 5 6
N conten of Wheat5% N content of maize Ai

ItC11)/ Internat. Italy Internat.

6 n= 118 1765 n= 60 1958
2..142 .133 0= .178 .135
os=.057 .084 os= .141 .088
min...065 .009 min.= 096 .008
50
m08.=.422 1.023 ern:m..1.169 1.657
eV,
0.40
>-
o
Z 30
LL1

O
LLI 20
CC
U-
10

.005 .01 .02 0 .08 .16 .32 .64 1.28 .005 .01 .02 .04 .08 .16 .32 .64 1.28
Fig. 107. Nitrogen, Italy. N in wheat soils, % N 'n maize soils,%

Fig. 108. Phosphorus, Italy. Italy internat. Italy 41

internat.
n= 11E1 1765 n 61 n.1967
7, .42 .38 ..36 0. 33
is = .11 .12 ts ..08 ts. .10
min= .18 .05 30 min. 15 .05
max = .78 1.02 mox =.5a max . 1.04

25

20

5 6 7 .9
P content of wheat,% P con ent of maize,%
40

RC/ iy Internat It° ly Internat.

35 n 118 1765 n= 61 1967
5. 19.6 20.2 5= 32.8 22.5
*5= 170 24.7 *5= 23.1 33.0
min= 3.2 1.0 min. 2.8 0.1
max =116, 271.4 30 max =105.0 656.0

2.5 5 10 20 40 60 160 320 640 25 5 /0 CO 80 160 320 640

P in wheat soils, mg/I P in maize soils, mg/I

There are wide variations in the potassium contents of Italian plants and soils (Fig. 109)
and in the rates of application of potassium fertilizer to the sampled wheat and maize
crops (29 ± 31 and 80 ± 98 kg K/ha, respectively). In general, the K contents of Italian
plants are at the international average or slightly lower. The low K content of soils,
142
35
Italy Thternat
35
Italy Internet
Fig. 109. Potassium, Italy.
n' 118 1765 n. 61 1967
30 = 3.5 4.0 30 = 3.1 3.1
= 0.7 10 es = 1.0 1.0
mu, 2.1 09 rnm.= 0.8 0.6
non' 5.3 68 25 max.= 5.2 67

20

15

10

5 6 2 3 5 6

K content of wheat% K content of maize,%

Italy Internal Italy Internat.

n= 118 1765 n' 61 1967
30 6' 334 365 30 R. 187 330
es 279
= 283 es e 167 356
min.. 40 20 min.= 24 18
S' 25 max.= 1720 2097 25 5185 .1121 5598

25 50 1 0 20 400 80 1600 3200 6400 25 0 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400
K in wheat.soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/1

Italy Internot Italy Interne

1967
Fig. 110. Calcium, Italy.
n= 118 1765 35 n= 61
5 I= .69
I. .50 .43 .47
es= .21 .17 *s= .17 .20
23 30 rnm.= .18 .11 30 mm.. .33 .09
max=1.30 1.68 max.= 1.20 1.88

0,25 25

>-
L) 20 20

D 15 15

10

Ca content of wheat % Ca conten *of maize %

Italy Interne ta ly Internot

n. 118 1765 n= 61 1967
5 5= 6598 4671 35 ' I= 4847 3450
05= 4229 3076 01' 2698 2815
min.= 820 110 min.= 730 10
max.= 21930 21930 5101 .11130 17995
30 3

lE
S" 25

a.
20

100 200 400 866 1600 3 00 6400 12800 25600 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 64eu 12600
Ca in wheat soils mg/I Ca in maize soils, mg/I
 143

Fig. 111. Magnesium, Italy. 40

Italy Internat.
40
Italy interne.
35 n. 118 1764 35 n= 61 1967
9..140 .172 8,292 .251
05..081 .060 ee=.103 .119
23 30 .065 .044 30 min.= .145 .036
max.=.876 .948 max.=.711 1.125

CY./
25

20

15

10

5 .<

Mg content of wheot.% g content of maize,%

Italy Internet. Italy int,rflot.

5
n= 118 1764 n. 61 1967
8.341 489 R. 418 446
es= 306 437 es= 436 462
min.= 45 10 min.. 59 1
30 m00e1889 3298 max =2100 6490

23 25

25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 12.5 25 50 1 0 200 400 800 1600 9200 6400
Mg in wheat soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils, mg/I

especially maize soils, has been compensated for by heavy potassium fertilizer applications
(Appendix 5).
The average calcium contents of both the plants and the soils of Italy are among the
highest national averages recorded in this study (Figs 9 and 110), while those of magnesium
are at an average international level (Fig. 10). However, there is a difference between the
two crops (Fig. 111). The Mg contents of maize and maize soils, representing the northern
part of Italy (Fig. 105), are relatively much higher than the Mg contents of wheat and
associated soils. About half the samples of wheat and wheat soils come from the southern
part of the country including Sardinia and Sicilia, and usually have a lower Mg content
than those from northern Italy.

5.4.3 Micronutrients

Boron. The B situation of Italian soils and plants is normal. In both the "international B
fields" (Figs 22 and 25) Italy stands at the centre and has national mean B values near the
respective international averages. However, owing to the relatively wide variation of
Italian B values about eight percent of those ones show quite high B contents (Zones
IV and V, Figs 112 and 113). These are not restricted to any specific geographical area but
are scattered in various locations from Sicilia to Trieste. According to these data, defi-
ciency of B is not as common in Italy as in many other countries but response to B can be
expected at several locations (see also Section 2.7).
Copper. Italian soils are exceptionally rich in Cu. With the Philippines and Brazil, Italy
occupies one of the highest positions in the "international Cu fields" (Figs 27 and 29). The
144
100 /111111111111M 011111111111111111=1MINIMMIIIII1011111112
IV12.11111111111i1Ex51t441111MINEIIMMIIIIMIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIS
Fig. 112. Regression of B content of
80 liaMMEMMIMMENIMEMMEMIIMINIMI.11111I pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
IEDWI=EMEMMORMINNEMIIII/111
60 monimimmaTrummuummsnammuni "soluble soil B (x), Italy. For details of
50
40
- 0.82 ± o ZINIMES11111 =MEMO summarized international background
30
Mg 80+2 54Ik 11111111211 data, see Chapter 4.
a.
111111111111111111 11111111
iliprairmi
97 20

_c
10esiimk..=1=
8 smisumnmmwsmaswimerniomm....
'a
"E.
-9.)

o
o
m3
4 irnith
solni=enrsarimminmosmmine
6 Emis.wsmigmossitmarmimmummu
5
OWER
1111 111111111
Iwo 11111111i1
2 -Igr,
m
.2 3 .4 .5 .6 .810 2 3 4 56 8 10
B in soil, mg/I (Ho t w. sol.)

100 Fig. 113. Regression of B content of

80 pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
60
rt. 1 33
7±-s. ±201 (hot water soluble) soil B (x), Italy.
50 2±s=0 *04 Z±
40
=325* 34 0 5 Ox
.3o p 0 740 a.
15; 20
-c
10
8
4E
a)
6
5
o 4
3
co
2

DI

.08.1 .2 .3 .4.5.6 .8 1.0 2 34 56 8 10

C EC -corrected B in soil, mg/t (Hot w. sol.)

correlations between plant Cu and soil Cu are very good (Figs 114 and 115). About one-
third of Italian Cu values fall in the two highest Cu Zones (IV and V), and of these
two-thirds occur in Zone V. The majority of the highest (Zone V) Cu values were found in
Bologna, Modena, Firenze, Arezzo, Perugia and Ascoli Piceno Provinces and bordering
areas. Many of the high Cu soils were classified as Luvisols. Deficiency of Cu seems
unlikely in Italy, since no low Cu values were recorded among the Italian sample material
consisting of 170 sample pairs.
Iron. Against the international background the Fe content of Italian plants and soils is
normal (Figs 31 and 116). On average, the Fe contents of soils are slightly on the high side,
but those of plants remain close to the international average. Although over ten percent of
the Fe values fall within the two highest Fe zones none of these occupy any extreme
 145
22
Fig. 114. Regression of Cu content of 9It± lyo Internot.
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid 20 3538
ammonium acetate-EDTA extractable 04j 2 700 ± 257
R. 000 *7.05

a
1 6 15 2
soil Cu (x), Italy. 18
E iy= 9 4,1-3 g < Log y=3.62 0.909
80 0.664."
R-16
15;
ai14
.c
o 12

8 8
()5 1111111MIEM1111111111
Nib
4

2 11111:1111=11111111INEi
11111111111MMEL111111111
.2 .4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080
Cu in soil, mg/I (A AA c- EDT Al

Fig. 115. Regression of Cu content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on organic
carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.)
soil Cu (x), Italy.
22

20 `cii,

:°-
i iiuiiiiiui
111111=1111111 IN
I intern.,

18

16 (ui, 6 6 ° x I 1'117 eilligil MIR

a_
14
o
a)

IPIPPir
_c

,
12

o 10 1 \ I LLAI..
a)

o
o
C.)
8

6
4
limpolimill
2

o
Iralm1111.!!1.9
.2 .4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 60 100
Org.C-corrected soi CU,mg/t AAAc-EDTA)

positions. The analyses of Italian samples do not indicate any severe Fe deficiency.
Manganese. Because most Italian soils are alkaline, mean pH(CaC12) 7.1, the availability
of Mn to plants is low. The Italian mean values for plant and soil Mn contents are far
below the respective international averages and Italy occupies a low position in the interna-
tional scale (Figs 33, 37, 117 and 118). Correction of the DTPA extractable soil Mn values
for pH improves the plant Mn soil Mn correlation, depresses the soil Mn values and
brings the Italian regression line close to the international line. About 22 percent of the
Italian Mn values lie within the two lowest Mn Zones (I and II), more than half of them in
Zone I, and some are very low (Fig. 118). The majority of low (Zone I) Mn values occur in
the Po Valley, but soils of apparent Mn shortage are also found in the Salerno area, in
Sicilia and in Sardinia. No high Mn values were found in the Italian samples.
146
116. Regression of Fe contents
3 00
2 75
2 50 Fe irligni"Miii
BRIMIIIIMINVIIIIMIIIIII
1
Fig.
of pot-grown wheat (y) on acid
ammonium acetate-EDTA extractable
225
200 =fa 21111111111MMI11111
Ill i°' MilIIMIE °AM
NI
I
I
soil Fe (x), Italy.

1iiiiiiunuiiiinhiiI
1 75
E 1 50
.125 ORRIMIIME Mill
ci
o
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
swim Emu . Lumni o
100
90
I
MEW IIIIIIMELEIIIIII 1
-E.
a)
'E 70
80
MiliniMiliteniaili
o
o 60 Ingligi_pillealging 1
50 11110-0810111111111
I
40 Miiiaii i
..ii. IMO
30
10
MI 111111
20
1
40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/l (AAAc EDTA)

Molybdenum. The high soil pH has the opposite effect on Mo to that on Mn and renders
Mo readily available to plants. In the "international Mo fields" Italy stands fairly high
(Figs 15 and 20). The plant and soil Mo contents in Italy vary widely and the sample
material includes several high as well as a few relatively low Mo values (Figs 119 and 120).
Although pH correction substantially improves the Italian plantsoil Mo correlation, the
improvement is not as great as in many other countries and internationally where the
variations in soil pH values are wider than in Italy. The highest (Zone V) Mo values are
geographically widely distributed. Many of them are found in the same areas and sites as
the low Mn values (see also MoMn correlation in Fig. 46). In all cases the soils are
alkaline and their pH is above the Italian average. Mo deficiency is unlikely to occur in
Italy except in a few locations where the soils are exceptionally acid.
Zinc. The mean Zn contents of Italian wheats correspond closely to the mean for the
whole international material, as do the Italian mean values for soil Zn irrespective of the
extraction method used (Figs 41, 43, 121 and 122).
Ranges of variation in both the plant Zn and the soil Zn are wide, though most of the
Zn values are "normal". The frequency distribution of high Zn values in the Italian
material corresponds to that of the whole international material: about 5 percent of Italian
Zn values fall in each of the high Zn Zones, IV and V. Of the 17 high Zn sample pairs
falling in Zones V and IV in Fig. 122 (pH-corr. AAAc-EDTA), 16 occur in the same
zones when the DTPA method was used (Fig. 121). Many of the high Zn values originate
in the same areas where high Cu values are typical (see Copper, above) but a number of
samples from the upper Po Valley are also high in Zn. The low Zn soils were found mainly
in the southern part of the country, especially in Sicilia where almost all soils and plants
are low in Zn. Although the Zn content of most Italian soils seems to be medium to high,
shortage of Zn may often be found locally.
 147

Fig. 117. Regression of Mn content of 2000 Rat

pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
able soil Mn (x), Italy. 1 000 s 11,1111031111111
KVXMIGIEW.NIMXLIWESIMIUMI=UM
800
600
340000
Q.

1:1 200
11111111111 11
15 100 11\311111111111111111
80
60
c 40 IHNIsmomonsiimilemmismo
30 IIMINPM115111111111111111
20

10
8
2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80100 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

Fig. 118. Regression of Mn content 2000

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA Mn
extractable soil Mn corrected for pH
(x), Italy.
1000
800 NM
MN 11=1=MMIIIMI
MitiMEILEEIA011ELIMIXMIE=MMED
WEVENKINKUIELT=EIMPISIEWORtlilf===EMMIIIIII
Ipp-hI
600 NI
1§,
MINILTEMINIIIMIIMEIZINCIIIIMMIMIMEN1121
0_ 400
-r: 300
a.)
_c
200
o
100 411101LLLII* lhosiL,di
80
60 11IIDSIMEEPP=MEMIN1
40 IiIMEMBIESaitiMENEENIM
Ipporvi IMMUNE
30
20 Jai .
All:.
111
10
8 sommonnoin---min
mninnonsnmai.=nnmoss =WrIE
i
=MEM.I1
2 34 6 810 20 301.0 60 100 200 300 600
pH-corrected Mn in soit, mg/1 (DTPA)

5.4.4 Summary

The Italian soils studied vary greatly in texture and they usually have an alkaline pH,
medium content of organic matter and medium CEC. Compared with the whole interna-
tional range Italian soils and plants are high in N, moderately high in P while K is at or
slightly below the international average. For all the above macronutrients the ranges of
variation are wide. Generally high, but greatly varying rates of N P K fertilizers were
applied. On average, the Ca status of Italian plants and soils is high but that of Mg is only
at a medium level.
148

6 MMELAMNIM
ma.M1
.MOUIWINNE
II0 II JIMMIE
MOWN
lalini=
MUM =
IMEMMIIIIII
Fig. 119. Regression of Mo content
of pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium
millekrennamo3 ZERE11111111111M oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
3 IMENIORMI° INIIIIIIMI
2 milliiMitilinimM 2
(x), Italy.

.... 1111MI M=MIIIV

EIUM=AEZOMMErl
MinnumizMommi+
M211(11E=MMINEUI III
MEMINIZIMPIHM=
13 .3
M IIMPRIMOMIIIIIii
r---asmintNonni= 1
-=RIBIII M'EMIIIIE.
.2
o
o
Milli1111111
rtA ammini=ME:::::.""Pi
.06
1
linnallIIMMEMMOI m.
.03
.02
BI
.01
.01 .02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 3
Mo in soil, mg/ (Ao-CA)

mmamm::===-4---- IM Fig. 120. Regression of Mo content of

i . =mmuelirvirrii '.....
II
6
NI° sun ImmknoiiENIIIII
ournsucrocommilmancruammumni
=Eli
mi.
am pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
MENIIIIMEMMEMINIIIIMMIMIIIIIII
inill NE° 3 AllnigillEginignill
ME
i A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x), Italy.
3
r
2 II va 1111111511411111111

Ill'Elbi
III .EN§Iisi
111111B111111111011
m.applr*--J=.--r.
EMILIIMIIIII=1111M111d4=M:
3111M1111IUMNI 1111ETIMENIMMEILIIMMIIIMM
EMMIIMIIINIMIIIII IIIMIESME4S11111
EMI E EMOMEMPfiliklimm I
111111 MilielliIIIll M
.1
11111
=WI a .1 PPillit
-11-41114111
1111111M11
IIMMIMMINaral=MMIMMME11===n21111
mi._..mmmomoommm=mommom
..
hmm
mom
ritinimi
umgmMOMMOMUMIMMMIMMOMOMMI
IN MBIIIIICIMIIMMEMIII MMENNIII
MI
MENIAMIMEMOINIMEHIE ME
.03
.02

.01 0111111111
.006 .01 .02 .03 06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23
Ial
pH - corrected MO in soil, mg/I (Ao-CA)

Among the six micronutrients studied the B and Fe contents of soils and plants are
usually within the "normal" international range, but especially in the case of B both low
and relatively high values were recorded. Italian soils are exceptionally rich in Cu and Cu
deficiency seems very unlikely. However, a great number of samples show alarmingly high
contents of Cu. Owing to the high pH of most soils, high Mo and low Mn values are
typical in Italy. In many areas shortage of Mn is apparent. Zn contents vary greatly,
medium and high values being most common but response to Zn may be obtained locally.
 149

Fig. 121. Regression of Zn content 200

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Zn (x), Italy.

100
90
80
70
E 60
c` 50
o
40

30

t- 20

N
10
9
8
7
6

.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100

Zr1 in soil, mg/1 (DTPA)

Fig. 122. Regression of Zn content 20

.
Zn lp
1

of pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc- 3

II l.1....
III
y ;1 .9 1
EDTA extractable soil Zn corrected _ 44 5± 5
for pH (x), Italy. 10 )
= r=u.
=1O5r 1 07 log x ;
Vardlil
9
8
7
) =I
I
I
\ 'MI
111111MMIIIIII
in linilli 111111111

E55
6
Ill MOM
...(?). 4
Il MOM
o
1
o
t2
"E'
o
3

LIU ...*.
..

in 11"11111111
1111111

1
...... ......Ill ,01111
1110161
.....MIL , .......... Minal
MMINIIIILIMINIIIIIII
6

.2
'"" a
ME
.3 .4 .6 .8 1
Elliii
1
3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
2
II w NM
111171111

pH-corrected Zn in soil, mg/I (AAAc-EDTA)

150

5.5 Malta

5.5.1 General

The Maltese material consists of 25 paired wheat and soil samples originating from five
different areas: Rabat, Mosta, Zurrieq, Qormi and Zejtun. The wheat samples were all of
one variety ('Capelli').
The soils included in this study are medium textured with high pH, having a medium
organic matter content and a cation exchange capacity usually somewhat lower than the
international average (Fig. 123). The national mean electrical conductivity is among the
highest and that of CaCO3 equivalent is the highest in this study (Appendixes 2 and 4).
The ranges of variation of all the above soil properties are narrow.

Malta Internat, M it0

25
Internet
3783
Fig. 123. Frequency distributions of
n x 25 3764 nx
7= 43
nsx 9
44
16
40
9= 7.54
nsx. .05
6.64
1.12
texture, pH, organic carbon content,
min.= 32
max x 61 92
35 min.= 7.48
max = 7.64
3.62
8.56
and cation exchange capacity in soils
30 of Malta (columns). Curves show the
25 international frequency of the same
20
characters.
15

10

10 30 0 54 5u 70 00 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Co C12)

45
Malta 5, Internet Malta Interno) 6
40 n= 25 3779 n= 25 3777
= 1.3 1.3 = 22.2 27.3
x .3 1.2 ns = 4.4 14.6
"E 35 .1 min = 17.9 .2
max.= 2.1 39.1 max.= 29.8 99.9

0)30
25
o
Ly, 20

uj 15
CC

.2 . 16 3.2 6,4 12.8 25.6 32

ORGANIC C,% CEC, me/100g

5.5.2 Macronutrients

The total nitrogen contents of Maltese soils are at an average international level but those
of the original wheat are low (Fig. 124, Appendix 2, see also Fig. 6). All the wheat had
been fertilized with 60 kg N/ha which is slightly less than the average amount applied to
the wheat sampled elsewhere in this study (Appendix 5).
The average phosphorus content of the original Maltese wheat is the highest among the
national mean values and the P content of soils the second highest after Belgium (Fig. 125
and Appendix 2). All soils were fertilized with 26 kg P/ha. See also Fig. 7.
Potassium contents of both wheat and soils are at an average international level (Fig.
 151
40
Malta Internat. Malta Internat.
n 25 n=1765 n= 25 1765
35
R=3.07 4.27
Malta Internat. = 4.2 4.0
o= 25 n.1765 to= 0.8 1.0
ts= .75 1.15
8= .53 8= .38 mm.. 2.9 0.9
0 min.= 1.63 .60 =5..15 ts = .12
-QE')
o max.= 5.9 6.8
max.= 4.70 7.45 at 30 min.= .42 min.= .05
max.= .00 max= 1.02

o_ V 0-25
3- 3-
o C±) 20
15
LLI
2, 15
(2/
1.11

5 5

3 5 2 .8 .9 2 3 4 5 6 7

N content of wheat,°/0 P content of wheat% K content of wheat%

70 Malta Internat.
Malta Internat. n= 25 1765
Malta
5 8. 80.4 20.2 Internat.
n= 25 1765
60 R. .145 .133 es= 51.3 24.7 n= 25 1765
min.= 20.7 1.0 = 365 365
ts= .034 .084 max=171.8 271.4 ±6. 226 283
min.= .115 .009 min.= 186 20
max.= .212 1.023 max.= 789 2097
o
25

o-
7'- 20
O
D 15 15
o

iii.
10 10

P4
A
.005 01 .02 .04 .08 .16 .32 64 1.28 2.5 5 10 20 00 80 160 320 640 25 50 100 200 400 BOO 1600 3200 6400
N in wheat soils, % P in wheat soils, mg/I i< in wheat soils, mg/I

Fig. 124. Nitrogen, Malta. Fig. 125. Phosphorus, Malta. Fig. 126. Potassium, Malta.

40
Malta Internat. MCIII0 Internat. Figs 124-128. Frequency distribu-
n= 25 1765 n= 25 1764
35
8..49
=s= .13
.43
.17
35
7..102
is= .013
.172
.060
tions of nitrogen, phosphorus,
ú 30 min.= .31
max...84
.11
1.68
23 30 min.= .075
mox.= .126
.044
.948
potassium, calcium and magnesium
o_25 in original wheat samples and re-
>-
0 20 spective soils (columns) of Malta.
D 15
Curves show the international fre-
o quency of the same characters.

5 .2
Ca content of wheat,% Mg content of wheat %
40
Malta Internat.
Malta Internat.
n= 25 1765
35 8=6518 4671 5 n= 25 1764
is = 744 3076 .271 489
min.= 5640 110 Ls= 47 437
mox.= 8090 21930 min.= 207 10
30 max.= 335 3298

Ú 25 ú) 25

c" 20
3-
O o
W 15
o
u_

100 200 400 BOO 1600 3200 6400 12800 25600 5 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200
Ca in wheat soils, mg/I Mg in wheat soils, mg/I

Fig. 127. Calcium, Malta. Fig. 128. Magnesium, Malta.

152

126). High rates of potassium fertilizer (83 kg K/ha) were applied to all soils. See also Figs
8 and 11 and related text.
Calcium contents of Maltese wheat and soils are among the highest while magnesium
contents, especially those of wheat are among the lowest (Figs 127 and 128, Appendix 2).
See also Figs 9 and 10.

5.5.3 Micronutrients

Boron. The national mean values of B are among the highest (Figs 22 and 25) and a
considerable percentage of these samples fall in the two highest B Zones (IV and V, Figs
129 and 130). The variation of B, however, is narrow and no low or extremely high B

100
80 aL
__--.s
smismmonassi Fig. 129. Regression of B content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
60 gmh.woommuli MEMEMEn
50 33- =638 NIEMOOLEMIll soluble soil B .(x), Malta. For details
40
30
14±aMEEinin
IME11111 =Min of summarized international back-
ground data, see Chapter 4.
20 111111
O
.0
10 il__1111111111111
,,um
.6. 11-amim=iumaii
ME===111=1.1O=IMMININIO
15 8 IMMMEMPIIPMMIPEMIGi1111111
E' 6 mh.=mimunimiammlimmEsul
IINI

1111=MIN.P.ENIIMMII=MMENIII
5
4 NIMMINSMIiiiEMEMIni
o
3 11111111MMIIIII MEMO.'
2 E1111111
1111 'EMMA
.2 .3 .4.5.6 .810 2 3 456 8 10
B in soil, mg/I (Hot w. sol.)

100
80
n= 35
60 ±s=6 8 145 6 I
50 7-ts=121 01 0, 0

E
40
log y=06 01
0. 30 r-0784 02
1E; 20
a)
_c
10
8
a)5 6

4
o
3
2

Fig. 130. Regression of B content of

.08:1 .2 3 4 5 6 8 10
.3 .4.5.6 .8 1.0 2 pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
CEC-corrected Bin soil,mg/I (Hot w. sol) (hot water soluble) soil B (x), Malta.
 153

values were measured from Maltese soils or pot-grown wheat.

Copper. All Cu contents determined from Maltese plants and most soil Cu values are
above the international average (Figs 131 and 132), although no sample had an extremely
high Cu value.
Iron. Among the 29 countries studied, Malta has the lowest national mean values for
plant and soil Fe (Fig. 31). More than half of the Maltese samples are within the lowest Fe
Zone (I) and only one-third lie within the "normal" range (Fig. 133). On the basis of this
finding, although from a limited number of samples, it seems that the application of iron
in Malta would be beneficial for crops sensitive to iron deficiency.

Fig. 131. Regression of Cu content of 22

pot-grown wheat (y) on acid 20
ammonium acetate-EDTA extractable
soil Cu (x), Malta.

.612

88
a66
4

.4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080

Cu in soil, mg/l (AAAc- EDTA)

22 Cu
20
Nut
n=2b
i nb,nterno
n.3
5 7±s.7 0± 57
18 A
;±15
;;4

Ifilligilli
mommEsdal 11111111

IIIIIIIIMEMIENMPUI
IIIMINENIUMENIII
Fig. 132. Regression of Cu content of 2 11111111111111111111111171111111111111111111!
pot-grown wheat (y) on organic carbon-
corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.) soil
1111111111111MMIE
6 810
.2 .42 20
.6 .8 1.0 4 40 60 100
Cu (x), Malta. Org.C-corrected soi CU, mg/1 (AAAc-ED7A)
154
3 00 Fig. 133. Regression of Fe contents
2 75
2 50FeEiwommastitimiumi
"1:11119111111H9I of pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-
225 ammonium acetate-EDTA extractable
200 mimagoloostamiono
o
175 LINY iv, 1111111117Mliiiiii I soil Fe (x), Malta.

E 1 50
cL
.125
o
1 00 MOIR
mow_ 11111111
Elnii
Io
L
Ilini I
I
90
mmonin
80
M1111111 spipism
oo
70
60 won moon 1
u_
50 IIIPIN IIIIIII
40 iIIflUUIillhIUI
30
10 20
in
tent1k..
40 60 100 200
iiil i
m suoiliman
400 600 1
Fe in soil, mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)

Manganese. Eighty percent of the Maltese soil and plant samples is so low in Mn that
the samples fall in the lowest Mn Zone (Figs 33, 37, 134 and 135). The national mean
values for soil and plant Mn are far below those of any other country included in this
study. It seems that a response to manganese fertilization would frequently be obtained in
Malta, providing that the Mn status of other Maltese soils is not much better than that of
those studied here.
Molybdenum. In Malta where all the soils included in this study were alkaline,
pH(CaC12) 7.48-7.64, the availability of Mo to plants was high (Fig. 16) although the
extractability of Mo by the A0-0A extractant was low. The plant Mo values given in
Fig. 136 are therefore far above and soil Mo values far below the irrespective international
means. Correcting soil Mo values for pH raises these values to the international average
(Fig. 137). See also Figures 15 and 20. In spite of the high average Mo content of plants a
great majority of the Maltese Mo values are within the "normal" range, and since the
variations of both plant and soil Mo are narrow no extreme single Mo values were
recorded in the Maltese material.
Zinc. Contrary to the results obtained for Fe and Mn, the Zn contents of Maltese plants
and soils were very high. Such high national mean values for Zn were otherwise only
recorded for Belgium (Figs 41 and 43). Irrespective of the extraction method used, only
five out of the 25 Maltese Zn sample pairs are within the normal Zn range (Figs 138 and
139), 15 lie within Zone IV or on the low side of Zone V and five sample pairs lie ex-
tremely high in Zone V.
Fig. 134. Regression of Mn content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
able soil Mn (x), Malta.

E 400
2000

1000 NE
800 11

8: 300 h`
V
21 :
.1... rjrliriiiin .
ta
L '3531
Ilil
1 6 1.
MmliAlE5rionEMB104VMmea IIIIIIIIIII
malislf111
NERTIINIEENFINNEINEMNWIWElaretiNT:V1IMI
600 IIIIMPIR:TAMIMMMEMEIKIMIMENIMMI

iiiiiiiimilimiim
2 11111111111MIIIIIIIIIIMINI
155

"6 100
.d.
011111IMEIM=MMIIMMUMIKIIIMI
117.7.==
1111111111.11111511 I
gn ME=11MIRMIMMIIIIIMIMINI=MMEMENE110.
%,..,
-E. 6011111MMEMENIIPMEMMNIUM=M
oliNorammoonmew=immimossimmim
x! 4° IIIIIPPIPM1111111111111111
dillik A.
32°0 imaltuintmlimummil
10 ..........................
8liE111111110.1111111111
N.....,2211111.-mayoun...,
IIIM1MMINEMEIMMII011111MM111ENZi=
1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80100 200 300
Mn in soil. mg/I (DTPA)

Fig. 135. Regression of Mn content of 2000 Immiamos. =mimom. 11=mals.

pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract- Mn
able soil Mn corrected for pH (x), 1000 MN
IHNIL
MiNPIà1;INEM 11111111111111
IMAIFIN.N/FAIBM TIMamwsIiMNIMIlmmmil
W1.1:11MEN11111MMIMIMMENII
800 MI
=MINMENE 1=1=11=1=MMINII
600 n
Malta. ME
WEIMIMINEWII manIrmwriligemmemimimMiI
400
300
IINIMMEMITIONII
lIIh!UPiIII
in-
h. Agi

_c

o
200
101 '
.E" 100
80
11=1=MMEMmalmil
...111IMMMEN=1W1111=111
InmasEmmumir- IMMEMNIM0=1-MEME
MEMEMOIIMUIMIZINIM
0
60 iiiMLWElpiar IMMEIBUMMIMENI
40 .11
30
20 ka
10
1111111111L 11111111111111
MIUmmEms minmmo
1=1=MMEN
ON1MINIIMINZIMi11121=IMMENNE
NALMIMINI MIMMUJI
1 2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
pH- corrected Mn in soil, mg/1 lDTPA)

5.5.4 Summary
The soils of Malta included in this study usually have medium texture, organic matter
content and CEC. Their pH, electrical conductivity and CaCO3 equivalent values are high.
Many extremes of nutrient content were found. The P and Ca contents are at the highest
international level and Mg contents are at a low level. The mean Fe and Mn contents of
Maltese soils and plants are the lowest and those of Zn the highest recorded in this study.
156

M o MMINCIa
g101110811
manalEanaril
=MIMI Fig. 136. Regression of Mo content of
6 Emu.
1EMMMES1111111111tarMMIHII
mmumagis pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium
MEMPAITISIAMMICENCE0111111 oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
3
MEMNON 057
ga 11111111 (x), Malta.
2 MIESEfiliC Y -21111iiii
E
o_
CL
o
2
1
UUIIII1Ii!IIIIIII
MINIMMETAMISIMIMIMMOURI
ommommemamemun
.6 =1MINNIIIMMI=W151111
o
d) .2
0.
r/r1111171.11111111111111hL
.1
WM1111.1:1=======....
o
2
.06 Wil=manummany
MENIMM112111111111=MMI11111,
.03
.02

01
.01
111111111
Ewen=
.02 .03
ilesessipmNrmmwmommunr
.06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo in soil, mg/1 (A0-0A)

MiDi101MMI`g IMM.MMIN==...a,
MO ,.011MMO11
Mir
WOMIIIIMCM=IMMIN11
nzarammall
MMIMMIUM
6

3
2 IMMINIMPFFIREIRINIE=41lillsOY9:2211MANAMPI
E
0. 1

o EMINIMMEMP
.6
OrlIENWOMMIIIMANIMIONM-11
.2

11111.1.11r11111ilkitni
unansw.---mr,rmann====9 ,r4k
.06

.03
.02
Fig. 137. Regression of Mo content of
.01 11111111111.1'11
.006 .01 .02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x),
pH - corrected MO in soil, mg/l (,40-0A ) Malta.
 157

Fig. 138. Regression of Zn content 200 M ti In e

33'
t
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA 1;.3 77
o 9 5
extractable soil Zn (x), Malta. 1

321 log

100
90
80
70
g_ 60 111-0
50
o
40

"a 30

-g; 20
C.)

N
10
9
8
7
6
3L

.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .81 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100.

Zn in soil, mg /I (DTPA)

200 ID II Irte
Zn .... 3:5 3
353
133 6

on 26 5 2.1 38 .

y Oe 9510g - ,
) s $

100
90
Mill II ild
IIDA
80
70 IIIIIMMM
60
50
40 lop i'llilipial
dooll
30

20 I 1 o i Idol
li
1

h,
10
9
Ili,
Emil MM. 1k MIEN
Loom
Fig. 139. Regression of Zn content 8
7 MINI M Ill LIMIIIII
of pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-
EDTA extractable soil Zn corrected
6

.2 .3 .4
IIIINI 11111
3 4. 6 810
.6 .8 1
IRIIN
20 3040 60 100
2
for pH (x), Malta.
p11-corrected Zn in soi , mg/I (AAAc-EDTA)
158

5.6 New Zealand

5.6.1 General

In addition to samples collected from the North and South Islands of New Zealand (Fig.
140), eight maize-soil sample pairs (45401-08, not shown in the map) came from Tonga-
tabu, Tonga Islands, and two (45432, 45439) from Rarotonga, Cook Islands, and are
included in the sample material received from New Zealand. Out of 29 soils classified,
Fluvisols were the most common occurring at 8 sampling sites. Other soils were classified

Fig. 140. Sampling sites in New Zealand (points = wheat fields, triangles = maize fields).
 159

as Gleysols (5), Cambisols (4), Andosols (4), Regosols (3), Histosols (2), Luvisols (2) and
Phaeozem (1).
The textural distribution of the sampled soils is shown in Fig. 141. The soils from North
and South Island are usually medium to heavy textured whilst all Tonga soils are heavy,
the texture index ranging from 70 to 82. The soils received from New Zealand are all
somewhat acid. The national average pH is one of the lowest and the material includes a
Histosol sample (45428) with pH(CaC12) 3.62 which is the lowest pH of any examined in
this study. The latter soil failed to grow a plant sample in the pot experiment. The organic
matter contents of all New Zealand soils are above the international mean (Fig. 141). Due
in part to the two peat soils, the New Zealand mean (5.1 %) is higher than any other
national mean content of organic carbon, and because of the generally heavy texture and
high organic matter content of New Zealand soils their average cation exchange capacity is
higher than that of any other country. The heavy textured Tonga soils especially show a
high CEC (62-74 me/100 g). The electrical conductivity values are at an average interna-
tional level or below and, with an exception of one sample from Rarotonga, the CaCO3
equivalent values were at zero level.

5.6.2 Macronutrients

The national average for nitrogen contents in New Zealand soils and original maize were
the highest recorded in this study, and N contents of wheat among the highest (Appendixes
2 and 3). Furthermore, the highest single value for soil total N of this material was
measured from a New Zealand peat soil. The sampled wheat crops were fertilized with
relatively small amounts of nitrogen fertilizer (9 16 kg N/ha). The higher and more
varying rates applied to maize (55 ± 67 kg N/ha) are an apparent reason for the wider
variation of maize N than of wheat N contents (Fig. 142). For international comparison
see also Fig. 6.
Phosphorus contents of the original New Zealand wheat samples and associated soils
(Fig. 143) vary little around the international means. The P contents of maize correspond
to the international average but those of maize soils are higher. Both the P contents of
maize and of maize soils vary more than those of wheat and wheat soils. The lowest P
values in maize and maize soils were obtained from Tonga samples. Phosphorus fertilizer
applications to sampled wheat crops were at rates much lower (16 ± 7 kg P/ha) than those
applied to maize (30 ± 29 kg P/ha). In spite of this the uptake of P by maize in relation to
P in the soil was-rather low. A partial reason for this may be the high CEC of maize soils
(average CEC of maize soils is 60 and that of wheat soils 35 me/100 g, Appendixes 2 and 3)
making P less available to plants. See Fig. 14. The P situation of New Zealand in an
international context is seen in Fig. 7.
Potassium content of wheat and the exchangeable K in wheat soils are clearly on the low
side, but K contents of maize and maize soils are substantially on the high side compared
with respective distributions for the whole international spectrum (Fig. 144, Appendixes 2
and 3). There was also a considerable difference in rates of applied potassium fertilizer to
wheat and to maize crops (7 ± 12 and 44 ± 25 kg K/ha, respectively). All the highest soil
K values (>800 mg/1) were obtained from Tonga samples. As a whole (in terms of general
mean plant Ksoil K) New Zealand stands close to the centre of the "international K
field" (Fig. 8).
160

5 New Zealand Internat New Zealand interimt

Fig. 141. Frequency distributions of
n n 36
9=54
3764
44
0 n.
9=5.39
38 3783
6.64 texture, pH, organic carbon content,
ts. 15
min = 32
16
9 35
05= .58
min = 3.62
1.12
3.62 and cation exchange capacity in soils
max . 82 max it 6.77
92
30
8.56
of New Zealand (columns) Curves
25
show the international frequency of the
same characters.
20

15

10 i

0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca Cl?)

New Zealand Internat. 5 New Zealand internot

n= 38 3779 n= 38 3777
0. 5.1 1.3 9=50.9 27.3
os. 7.3 1.2 20.2 14.6
35 min.= 2.0 min.. 20.5 .2
max =39.1 39 max.= 99.9 99.9
30
Go

25
o
in 20

ui 15

.2 C .8 16 32 64 126 25,6 16 2

ORGANIC C,% GEC, me/100g

New Zealand Internat New Zealand internot

Figs 142-146. Frequency distributions
35
n.
9=4.68
14 1765
4.27
n.
0=3.68
24 1958
3.14
of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
I30
05= .59
min.= 3.78
1.15
.60 30
xs.
min. 1.71
.89 .87
.88
calcium and magnesium in original
25
max.= 5.51 7.45
25
ma.= 5.40 6.51
wheat and maize samples and re-
spective soils (columns) of New Zea-
>3- 20 20
land. Curves show the international
5
frequency of the same characters.
0

2 3 4 5 6 2 3

N content of wheat, % N content of maize,./0

70 70
New Zealand Internat. New Zealand Internat.
60 n= 14 1765 60 n= 24 1958
9.340 .133 9= .481 .135
xs=.139 .084 tu- .340 .088
min .221 .009 50
min.= .211 .008
Go
max =301 1.023 max.= 1.657 1.657

40

30

20

.005 01 .02 .04 .08 .6 32 64 128 .005 .01 .02 04 .08 o .32 .66 128
N in wheat soils, % N in maize soils,% Fig. 142. Nitrogen, New Zealand.

Calcium contents of both the original plant species are relatively low as are the exchange-
able Ca contents of wheat soils (Fig. 145). The relatively high Ca average for maize soils
(3215 mg Ca/1) is mainly due to the soils of Tonga and Rarotonga (3370-7120 mg/1).
Since the latter soils are heavy textured and have a high CEC, their high Ca contents are
not reflected as high Ca contents of maize. See Figs 12 and 14 and related text (Section
 161

Fig. 143. Phosphorus, New Zealand. New Zealand 50

Internat. New Zealand Internet
35 n. 14 n.1765 n= 24 1967
=.39 X= .38 R=.35 .33
*0..05 ±s. .12 *6..09 .10
min.=.32 min.= .05 min. .23 .05
max...46 max.= 1.02 mas= .51 1.04

25

20

2 3 4 s S
P content of wheat, % P content of maize.%
40 4
r New Zealand 5,0,1 Internet New Zealand int.rn.t
n= 14 4.1365 n. 24 1967
35 R = 243 = 20.2 5 4= 40.0 22.5
±S= 7.8 ±s= 24.7 = 33.1 33.0
min. 15.2 min= 1.0 min.= 4.8 0.1
max.= 41.6 max.=271.4 rnax.=.157.4 656.0

2.5 5 10 20 40 80 160 320 640 2.5 9 iO 20 40 80 160 320 6)0

P in wheat soils, mg/I P in maize soils, mg/I

Fig. 144. Potassium, New Zealand. 35

New Zealand /nternat New Zealand Internet
n= 14 1765 n= 24 1967
9=3.5 4.0 30 7= 3.5 3.1
±s=0.8 1.0 ,s= 0.8 1.0
min.= 2.5 0.9 min.= 2.1 0.6
max.=5.1 6.8 max.= 4.9 6.7

3 5 6 7
K content of wheat% K content of maize,%

3 New Zealand intemot New Zealand Internet

n= 14 1765 n= 24 1967
4.210 365 8= 500 330
es. 165 283 ±s= 317 356
min.= 68 20 min. 76 18
max.= 699 2097 max =1063 5598

>-
o
Ui
o
u-

25 50 1 0 200 44 630 1600 3202 6400 50 100 200 400 000 1600 3200 6400
K in wheat soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I

2.2.4). In general, New Zealand stands on the low side in the international comparison
(Fig. 9).
As in the case of calcium the magnesium contents of original wheat and maize are low
(Fig. 146). The same is true for exchangeable Mg contents of wheat soils and of maize soils
obtained from the two main islands of New Zealand.
 162
40
New Zealand Internat. New Zealand Internet Fig. 145. Calcium, New Zealand.
n = 14 n.1765 35 n. 24 n =1967
8.30 5. .43 R = .34 _ R .47
is ..13 is . .17 50.06 is = .20
o min.=.26 min, .11 30 min.=.24 min.= .09
max...67 51.5. 1.68 max.= .47 max.. 1.88
N.25 25

U 20 20

15

10

/.6
Ca content of wheat, % Co content of maize,%
40 New Zealand Internet. New Zealand Internet
n= 14 n. 1765 n. 24 1967
= 1916 8= 4671 35 R = 3215 3450
88. 753 85 = 3076 85 =2025 2815
min.= 1170 min.. 110 min .1070 10
max.= 3610 mox..21930 , max =7120 17995

00 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800 25600 50 100 200 400 BOO 1600 3200 6400 12800
Ca in wheat soils mg/I Co in maize soils, mg/I

40
[5,,3,1 New Zealand Internat.
4
New Zealand Internat. Fig. 146. Magnesium, New Zealand.
35 n= 14 1764 35 n. 24 1967
5..153 .172 R. .179 .251
08. 038 .060 55= .053 A19
min.5.109 .044 min.= .106 .036
o max...249 .948
30
max.= .291 1.125

25

20

15

/0

5 5
Mg content of wheat,% Mg content of maize,%
0 40
New Zealand Internet New Zealand internot
35 n. 14 1764 35 n= 24 1967
5.169 485 = 518 446
ts = 176
min.= 48
437 is. 395 462
10 min.= 41
30 max = 638 3298 max.= 1264 6490

13 25

20
3-
o
ILI 15

o
Ui
ix 10
LL.

25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 2.5 25 SO 100 200 403 888 1600 3200 6400
Mg in wheat soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils, mg/I

The high mean Mg value of maize soils (518 mg/1) is due to the high Mg contents of the
ten Tonga and Rarotonga samples which all exceed 650 mg/1 and are among the 13
samples making up the three right-hand side columns in Fig. 146. As in the case of Ca, the
uptake of Mg from these soils (heavy texture + high CEC) is relatively low, so explaining
the low Mg contents of maize. See Figs 12 and 14 and related text (Section 2.2.4). Interna-
tionally New Zealand's Mg status is similar to that of Ca (Fig. 10).
 163

Fig. 147. Regression of B content of 100 '. 117111M111=1M111O1111

Mes 1111111111111

pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water

soluble soil B (x), New Zealand. For
80
60
50
Nu=mriumn
VIWZWAL:Is 11012111111 rai4Eril
NMI
MI1111111111111111111111111MB
MIZEMIEMEIIIITIESMIIMEMMINuni
details of summarized international 40 -0'76± iMEIESEll 111111

background data, see Chapter 4. 30 IMMENO

ri 84 0 AIL CM
ID: 20
I111111
ti

'5810 =MM1111111Misems
v=musib eismmmun
.c

b.1111.10N21=1MMIIMIIIII
EMkIMPIIMMIP.21NNIMill
6
5
o4 OMMUI
3
HOMIPMEMMilii
oo
2
II uIIuII
1111 NE1111
1
.2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 10 2 3 4 56 8 10
B in soil, mg/l (Hot w. sol.)

Fig. 148. Regression of B content of 100 I In

pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected

801
n.3 33
(hot water soluble) soil B (x), New 60 V±s.5 126x 69
50 as.06 031 03 2
Zealand. 40
E .509+ 32x -2 Ox
o-30 r-007935 O
+

20

10
8
6
5
4
3
CD

la
.081 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10
CEC -corrected B in soil, mg/1 (Hot w. sol.)

5.6.3 Micronutrients

Boron. The B contents of soils and plants are at an average international level, the varia-
tions are narrow and almost all B values (Figs 147 and 148) are within the normal range
(Zone III). On the basis of these limited analytical data, response to B may be obtained
only occasionally with crops of high B requirement.
164
22
Fig. 149. Regression of Cu content of
20 pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x),
18
E New Zealand.
Q.

ti.14

o 12
77;10

88
C.) 6

.4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080

Cu in soil, mg/l (AAAc- EDTA)

Fig. 150. Regression of Cu content of

22 Cu
pot-grown wheat (y) on organic

E 16
20

18
New ea L
7±s=6
..
y.,4 23
r =081
d
:innim 1I1
Intern t.

tamirT0Y.;1111111111111MIWAI
min carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.)
soil Cu (x), New Zealand.

Q.
Q.

o
o
10

8
6
4
1111
IIIIIMIIIIPMEINIIII
1111111MIIIMMIIII
Ill"
2 I. 111811111MIllerill:
.2 .4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 60 100
Org.C-corrected soi CU,mg/l AAAc-EDTA)

Copper. In spite of the limited number of samples from New Zealand, the variations of
both the plant and soil Cu values are very wide (Figs 149 and 150). Only half of the
samples is within the normal Cu range, one-fourth is in the two lowest Zones (I and II),
indicating possible Cu shortage, and one-fourth is in the highest Zone pointing to a
surplus. All low Cu values come from the South and North Islands and the high values
from Tonga.
 165

Fig. 151. Regression of Fe contents of 300

275
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid 250
ammonium acetate-EDTA extractable 225 M164111111Vmwttirrunlimmum
soil Fe (x), New Zealand. 200
1 75 illi°1111111111111111
E 1 50
O-

11111111111111111
90
111111110111111111
-f4).
o
80
70 11.11IIIMILI11111
60
50 1114111COMINIIIII

40 sainfilieloom
30 1111111111111111111111
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)

Iron. The mean Fe contents of plants is only slightly above the international mean, but
the mean for soil Fe is the second highest (after Finland) in this study (Fig. 31). More than
half of the Fe determinations are within the two highest Fe Zones (Fig. 151). The highest
extractable soil Fe value was obtained from a peat (Histosol) soil, the three highest plant
Fe contents (> 100 ppm) from plants grown on Fluvisol soils and the three lowest (<34
ppm) from plants grown on Andosols (see also Fig. Fe in Appendix 7).
Manganese. Because of the generally low soil pH no very low plant or soil Mn values
were recorded in the New Zealand material (Figs 152 and 153). The mean values for both
the plant and soil Mn are above their respective international means, nevertheless the bulk
of the Mn values are within the normal Mn range (Zone III). Although some of the Mn
values are within Zones IV and V, there are none in the New Zealand material with
alarmingly high Mn contents.
Molybdenum. Owing to the low availability of Mo to plants in acid soils the Mo contents
of wheat grown in pots on New Zealand soils are low (Figs 154 and 155). The national
mean is the second lowest (after Brazil) among the 29 countries (Figs 15 and 20). The New
Zealand mean for A0-0A extractable soi/ Mo is only slightly below the international
mean (Fig. 154) but decreases to less than one-third of it when the soil Mo values were
corrected for pH (Fig. 155). The variations of plant and soil Mo values in the New Zealand
material are narrow and correlations between plant and soil Mo are not significant, even
though pH correction changes the direction of the regression from negative to positive.
More than one-third of the Mo determinations (Fig. 155) are within the two lowest Mo
Zones. Although this limited material does not include any extremely low Mo values, it is
possible that Mo deficiency problems might exist in New Zealand.
166

2000 Ne........
n= 3
....,....
91 1,,9101 Fig. 152. Regression of Mn content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
y±s 12 ET 1h,, 351 6 me
1000 MN
MIIMM11=MMEINI
ErMal %NMI:, NENlcUM WANIWINIMIMIIMENI able soil Mn (x), New Zealand.
800 il InTIEWMilliiiIPPEW:VrilFAMWAVIMOMI
minrimE=MiSliimmw=1
600
E 400
11.111111111111111
8: 300
-5 200
.c
111111111k
o 100 111E711
Nem.mm..T.E=----.....m.....2_rn..
80
11MlIMMEIMMIII211MIMMENIIkv
IIMM=IMIMENIIPMMENNIIII
IIMIMMINEIRS11=M1111
IIMMIUNIIIIMIIIMENIIIII
20 IMMIIIIHM1111111
10 1111111111011111111
8
HimmIIIIImmq1111111 !!
1 2 34 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80100 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/I DTPA)

2000 =mmnwIn Fig. 153. Regression of Mn content of

1000 MN
800 u.
u.
Mn
INEMMEMEM=
iiiMilidi
iMIMMPIMINIIIMMONIM21.MMININE
MOMCNIEEZZELla.b.LIMMEN 1=INNIMIll
MONNINin
Mil
1=IMMINIII
pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
able soil Mn corrected for pH (x), New
600 III INVEMEIBIMEMIECTIMILWANMOt o WM=1E1 Zealand.
IIMITWIliONIIIIIMIENNIWI X
E
400 111PIP" 11111111M1

ta: 300
200
o
100 11.11111111111111rW1111
orMeasos k. mom
MI. IsnMENI=mm-erammammomm==mw-au
+Ca,

80 =IMEMEEN1=iMin
60 111111MMMEIMMIIP=1MMIN111111111
uo
IiiMMIMMEMPIMMEEN.MIMMIIII
40
30
20 irrolommnnii
10
8
10111111E1111111 111111
mimos
=Emma.
CM:1111111 171M11111 IMMEMIN
2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
pH- corrected Mn in soil, mg/l iDTPA

Zinc. The mean values of both the plant and extractable soil Zn contents of New
Zealand are somewhat above the respective international values, irrespective of the extrac-
tion method used (Figs 156 and 157). The variations of both the plant Zn and soil Zn are
relatively wide and their mutual correlations are highly significant. Forty percent of the Zn
values fall within the two highest Zn Zones (IV and V), but in only one sample pair
(45427, Luvisol, Morringsville) are the Zn contents exceptionally high. Most of the other
high Zn values occur in Tonga and Rarotonga. The six Zn values within or close to
Zones I and II come from the South Island where deficiency of Zn should be suspected.
 167

Fig. 154. Regression of Mo content of ,M=OMMIN 11MIINION

Mo KLIVAI4L-4 NI21.5FOMEN
pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium 6 mosummoilionmE
CIMINO IMM=MIIMIN
MMMIlECHEIKEINICEEDMI
oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo F
(x), New Zealand. 3

2
11111241211
11111E111111
=MINNE=MMI
:31=177
IIIIflUiI
C
.2
o
o
o .1
Mill1111111111111k
IMIVAMMINEN1=MIMININ
=MMIIMENM=1=MIWVI
NINW=1MMENEOnMMEN-
///MMEMENIMIMEMIMMENN
.06

.03
11411
.02

ifi
.01
.01 .02 .03 .06 1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo in soil, mg/ (A0-0A)

Fig. 155. Regression of Mo content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-correct- 6
MS ..1
EMPOO!.IMNUOIMMEN
NIVO17/4.1.11.02 AMVIMMITOMMI
IIMEMIWIMME
=EMI
=MEN=

ed A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x), MINEIIIIMEMBEEEINIIIMITEME

0
3 -o
New Zealand.

iiiiiiiuiiiiiiiuiiiii
2

Wommlommmenismow
2 iII!IIlIIIIIIIUIIIIi
o
.1
ii!NIÌIIIP!iiiIIIIII
nonte=myeaslal
06

.03
.02
ir WM.
.01 IIIIIII
.006 .01 .02 .03 .06 .2 .3 23
.1 .6 1

pH-corrected MO in soil,mg/I (A0-0A)

5.6.4 Summary

The soils of New Zealand included in this study are usually medium to heavy textured,
severely to moderately acid, have a high organic matter content and high cation exchange
capacity. The P and K contents of wheat and wheat soils are generally low while those of
maize and maize soils are higher. The lowest P and K values occur in Tonga. The Ca and
Mg contents of plants and soils are low, those from Tonga and Rarotonga being excep-
tions.
168

200 Fig. 156. Regression of Zn content of

Zn pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
able soil Zn (x), New Zealand.
100
90
BO
70
g. 60
as 50

.c 40

"6 30

o 20
o

N
10
9
8
7
6
E BZ
.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .81 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
Zr1 in soil, mg/1 (DTPA)

200
r - landte n Fig. 157. Regression of Zn content
Zr
N-

i of pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-

EDTA extractable soil Zn corrected

Ill!
-_, 58 ?53 :

100
, e7810: 1,8: for pH (x), New Zealand.
90
80
70

E
a_
50
60
MI I1 1

1 111 I 11111

N
10
9
8
7
illiirr JOIN
ill.91NA MIME" 1.1.1
6

.2
MIL Ill
.3 .4 .6 .8 13 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
2
1,.
pH-corrected Zn in soi ,mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)

Among the micronutrients, high Fe, moderately high Mn, normal B and low Mo values
were typical. In the cases of Cu and Zn the contents varied widely between low and high
values. For both micronutrients the lowest values were obtained from samples originating
in both North and South Island and the highest came from Tonga and Rarotonga.
 169

6. Latin America

6.1 Argentina

6.1.1 General

The Argentinian samples were collected from two relatively small, but agriculturally
important, areas (Fig. 158). Almost all the soils were classified as Phaeozems.

62. 60
6430333 651 0799
0 793 6544 652 0 10 20 90 60 805,9
BELLVILLE 791e, '7971 796
798 SAN LORENZO
680,65:7 - CANADA of GOMEZ
7820 767,768 0765,, 766 6 "
07" 7840 7r 786 62'
I 44800 e66E662 7 663
_____74734 0 -47 6
I ea. 0 ROSARIO
077i /
677 CAS I LOA 33.
87'/ 674 679 00763
6-,, ,7720 .075 A 676. GUALEGUAV
7750
778
' 773. 7610 o
669 78,
0 i
1

.»7790 744.1. 529

7770 780 / 66 SAN NICOLAS/
*527
S40
670 526A
0 776 SOSA
5747: 503 r/
6715/ 5i4
575 I. 527s,
Jr:.12C 540 5,41545455A

525 04'0509, --,:&25-_

'
672 A/ ..,)
51, AA 5A4-- 674.0:35,39 SAN PEDRO
570 ,,, 554 A546
/ 20
572 ATZ/' 5514, ,',85,7 BARADoER

519' 5,8 ' StrseA;gr

514
512
/.559 '51% .--47;50'''
. 592 A 7 1. 0593

5e0565
6
5 f .:65'66 5e9 594
o 595
£5s0 2. 4AA5.

5 5' :3Z»05:5407
5600 56
2 T,,
0 561
4450IA
0548
::::575079 549
se: 552 .88.
86.2.
555
7. 7 0 CHACABUCO MERCEDES
o
sr 6

{ 44691- 44725 (wheat-soil)

So ro

44726-44738 ( maize-soil)

ARGENTINA

Fig. 158. Sampling sites in Argentina (points = wheat fields, triangles = maize fields). The last three
numerals of each sample pair number are given.
170

5 Argentina 1.,M,,a1 Internet Argentina Internet Fig. 159. Frequency distributions of

n= 210 " 3764 5= 210 3783
0
R=
-es=
43
5
44
16
40
0= 5.47
es. .31
6.64
1.12
texture, pH, organic carbon content,
min.=
1n05: 54
22 9
92
35 min.= 4.79
max 6. 6.96
3.62
8.56
and cation exchange capacity in soils
0 of Argentina (columns). Curves show
25 the international frequency of the same
20
characters.

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca C12)

Argentina 7- Internet Argentina Internet

n= 210 3779 5: 210 3777
= 1.9 1.3 =27.7 27.3
es = .7 1.2 es = 5.4 14.6
35 mm.= 17.0 .2
max.= 4.3 39.1 max = 45.3 99.9

25
o
w 20
CI
w 15

.2 4 .8 16 32 64 12.8 286 16 32
ORGANIC C,% CEC, me/100g

The soils sampled are medium textured and relatively acid (Fig. 159). Over 90 percent
have a texture index between 30 and 50 and pH(CaC12) between 5.0 and 6.0. On average,
the organic matter contents of the Argentinian soils are appreciably above the interna-
tional mean but their cation exchange capacities are at a "normal" level. For these soil
properties the ranges of variation are narrow. Low electrical conductivity and CaCO3
equivalent values as well as low sodium contents are typical for Argentinian soils
(Appendixes 2-4).

6.1.2 Macronutrients

Owing to the high proportion of organic matter in Argentinian soils, their average total
nitrogen content is one of the highest in this study (Figs 6, 160, Appendixes 2 and 3). In
spite of the low rates of nitrogen fertilizer applied to the sampled wheat and maize crops
(3 ± 14 and 6 ± 16 kg N/ha, respectively), the national averages for N contents of these
crops are exceeded by a few countries only.
The phosphorus contents of Argentinian soils and original indicator plants vary widely.
In general, they are at the average international level or slightly above (Figs 7 and 161). No
phosphorus fertilizer was applied to the sampled wheat crops and the rates applied to
maize were relatively low (6 ± 18 kg P/ha).
The contents of exchangeable potassium of all sampled Argentinian soils are higher than
the international average, the variation range is relatively narrow and the national mean
values for soils under wheat and maize (784 and 790 mg KA, Figs 162 and 8) are the
highest recorded in this study. Although no potassium fertilizer was applied. the average K
 171

Figs 160-164. Frequency distributions 4

Argentina Internat. Argentina Internat
of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, 35
n= 118
0 = 4.71
1765
4.27
35 n= 90
9= 3.81
1958
3.14

calcium and magnesium in original os= .88

min.= 2.78
1.15
.60 ,I,
es= .46
min.= 2.52
.87
.8800
li 3 7.45
wheat and maize samples and re- 25
max.= 6.42
25
max.= 4.95 6.51

spective soils (columns) of Argentina. a

>- 20
Curves show the international fre- c.)

5
quency of the same characters. CO

3 4 5 6 4 5 6

N content of wheat% N content of maize,%

7 70
Argentina Internat. Argentina Internat.
n= 119 1765 n= 90 1958
60 0= .199 .133 60 9= .207 .135
ei .066 .084 os= .074 .088
min.. .111 .009 min= .124 .008
max.= .425 1.023 nao.. .433 1.657

o
Z 30
co
W 20
Li-

.005 . .04 08 .16 32 64 1.28 005 .01 .02 .04 .08 16 .32 .64 1.28

Fig. 160. Nitrogen, Argentina. N in wheat soils, % N in maize soils,%

40
Argentina intemot. Argentina Internat.
35 n 118 1765 35 n= 90 1967
0= .42 .38 0 . .33 .33
os. .13 .12 os = .07 .10
min.= .17 .05 30 min.= .19 .05
30
non.. .80 1.02 moo.= .54 1.04

0-25
5-
(2) 20

8 15

8 .9

P content of wheat, % P content of maize,%

40
Argentina int.rnot. Argentina 1nternot.
n 118 1765 5 n= 90 n=1967
35 0. 22.5
5= 24.4 20.2 10= 23.7
os = 22.8 24.7 os= 16/ ts= 33.0
min.= 5.4 1.0 min.= .7 min.= 0.1
mox.= 2000 271.4 max.--105.4 mox,656.0

moI

rl
'
'L 4.4Air. hcineieoini_
40 320 640
2.5 5 10 20 40 BO 160 320 640 2.5 5 10 20 BO 160

Fig. 161. Phosphorus, Argentina. P in wheat soils, mg/l P in maize soils, mg/I

contents of wheat and maize are among the highest (Appendixes 2 and 3, Fig. 8). See also
footnote on page 173.
The contents of exchangeable calcium in Argentinian soils are below the international
average, as are the Ca contents of the original wheats (Fig. 163). The Ca contents of maize
clearly show a bimodal frequency distribution. Since there is no similar distribution con-
172

Argentina Internat. Argentina Internet Fig. 162. Potassium, Argentina.

n= 118 1765 n = 90 1967
R. 4.7 4.0 0 = 4.1 3.1
= 0.7 1.0 no. 0.5 1.0
min = 3.2 0.9 min. 2.9 06
max = 6.4 68 mas. 5.6 67

2 3 5 6 7

K content of maize,%

Argentina Internet Argentina Internet

n. 118 1765 n. 90 1967
30 R. 784 365 30 R. 790 330
198 283 os= 196 356
20 /
=

min = 420 min.= 479 18

25 max.= 1649 2097 max =1649 5598

20

25 50 100 200 40 BOO 1600 3200 6400 25 50 100 200 400 80 1600 3200 6400
K in wheat soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I

40
Argentina
n=118
Internat. Argentina Internat. Fig. 163. Calcium, Argentina.
35 n 90 1967
= .39 0= .60 .47
*s..08 ts = .29 .20
min.= .21 30 min.. .18 .09
max.= .59 mox.= 1.22 1.88

25

20

.8
Ca content of wheaf, Ca content of maize,%
166)
Argentina Inter not. Argentina interne.
n= 118 n= 1765 n. 90 1967
5 8= 1993 R= 4671 6=2090 3450
ta = 632 ts= 3076 85= 309 2815
min.= 1020 min= 110 min= 1100 10
max= 5480 max. 21930 m00=2990 17995
3

vC.

23 25

Ca.
20
>-
o
LLI 15

1.11
Q. 10
LL

00 200 400 800 1600 3 00 6400 12900 25600 50 100 200 400 BOO 1600 3200 6400 12800
Ca in wheat soils, mg/I Ca in maize soils, mg/I

cerning exchangeable Ca in maize soils and no lime applications to maize were reported,
this bimodality cannot be attributed to soils or liming. The only marked difference
between the maize samples falling into the lower Ca group (Ca <0.6 %) and the higher
group (Ca > 0.6 %) that could be detected from the available data was that the low Ca
maize samples were collected at later stages of growth. The age difference (41 and 54 days
 173

Fig. 164. Magnesium, Argentina. 4

Argentina Argentino Internat.
5 n= 117 1764 35 n= 90 1967
4=158 .172 R=. .242 .251
*5..032 .060 = .094 .119
mnin..096 044 30 min.= .117 .036
O max.=.244 .948 max.= .474 1.125

:53 25 25

(..) 20 20

1.1.1

o
Lu
15 15

cc 10 10
u-

5
Mg content of wheat, % Mg content of maize, %
40 40 1531

Argentina Internat. Argentina int,rne..or

3 ni= /17 n=1764 35 n= 90 19671
=296 0. 489 5.297 446
ts = 72 ts= 437 = 46
min.= 175 min.= 10 min.= 191
30 max.= 504 mox.=3298 max.= 537 6490

25

20
>Cne

25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 2.5 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600326
Mg in wheat soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils. mg/I

from planting) was 13 days on average. Although the Ca content of a plant may decrease
considerably in two weeks when growing vigorously, it is doubtful that it can explain the
whole difference between the two Ca content groups; for example, the data of Sippola et
al. (1978) show a decrease of about 30-35 percent in the Ca content of wheat during
much the same period of growth. See also Section 1.2.2. For the international standing of
Ca in Argentinian soils and plants see Fig. 9.
The magnesium contents of original Argentinian wheat and maize, as well as the ex-
changeable Mg of soils, are somewhat below the respective international averages (Fig.
164). Again there is very slight variation in the exchangeable Mg contents of maize soils
but the Mg contents of maize vary widely. The lower and the higher maize Mg groups
consist of almost the same maize samples as the respective low and high Ca groups, but
the difference is not as pronouncedo. For the international rating of Mg in Argentina see
Fig. 10.

I) Comparisons of N, P and K contents of maize between the two sample groups (with Ca contents <0.6 and > 0.6 %)
showed that there was a statistically significant difference in the K contents of maize (means of 3.85 and 4.45 %,
respectively) with no significant difference in the echangeable soil K. In the cases of N and P the comparisons were
obscured by differences in soil N and P contents and N and P fertilizers applied.
174
100 'flIIIIIMIIM1111111111MEM MIIIIMMIIIWIIM11 Fig. 165. Regression of B content of
1711111MINIMMIIIMMIIIMI=1MMEINI
80 ialMEMMINIEMEN11M_MINIn
MEWI.EMMEEMIIMMINI MInnon pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
60 MNIUM7611=MrE11111MINIM111111 soluble soil B (x), Argentina. For
50
40 MINI
-0 74 tO MEIMEIIII =minim details of summarized international
E 30 background data, see Chapter 4.
20 111E111111111 1111111
o
a)

'5 8
o iii 1111111111111
"E. 6 mos.=mmuurammausinumn
noulim=mmintreVianimmoommil
11111 =1Zaifealn
11111111wW111111 M11111111
2 11111 iIIIIII 1111111
1
11111 EMI
.2 .3 .4 .5.6 .810 2
.111111
3 4 56 810
B in soil, mg/I (Hot w. sol.)

100 I I " Fig. 166. Regression of B content of

801 pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
n= 8 558
60 -±-s=5 095 6 (hot water soluble) soil B (x), Ar-
50 T±s= 068 018 0 ± 2
40 gentina.
E y= 3 32. 8Ix = 85
30 r= 0 537* 0 2 **
Q.
*la:. 20

.08.1 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .81.0 2 3 4 56 810

CEC -corrected Bin soil, mg/l (Hot w.

6.1.3 Micronutrients

Boron. Because of the homogeneity of Argentinian soils the ranges of variation in B contents
of soils and plants are unusually narrow (Figs 165 and 166). The Argentinian national
mean values for both the plant and the soil B are close to their international means and no
extremely low or high B contents were recorded. See also Section 2.7.
 175
22
Fig. 167. Regression of Cu content of Ar!e t ra Inte na
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium 20 ne t 53:
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x), y* 309±1 7.00 2.
21 3'5 .00
Argentina.
1111121E1coulliENZIIIII

.6 12

I 10
1111IPPF
8

06 MEMEMI
4

2 ___....1111121111111=1k:
O.
111111EMPLEM111111
.2 .4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080
Cu in soil, mg/l (AAAc- EDTA)

Fig. 168. Regression of Cu content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on organic
carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.)
2

2 'clan"' !I IIN li
soil Cu (x), Argentina.
1
:\;-rs1:11111111 I;In's74.1111111111 Ilr
1
3m.g°3-Iniill 'r-N,1111111111 pi
' 111111 1111 EMI
1111 I IIMPAIII
ill! I 1111=11
) 11E111 I PM II
11111111111111=11
3

i1IÒII
1.111,5211
Ii!i
IMb-19
., 6810
IN 1111551111"
20 40 60
li
2 1. 6 810 100
Org.C-corrected soi CU,mg/l ( A A Ac-EDTA)

Copper. The Argentinian national mean values for plant Cu and soil Cu are the second
and the fifth lowest, respectively, recorded in this study (Figs 27 and 29). Of the 208 sample
pairs, only one plant Cu and one soil Cu value exceed the respective international mean
(Fig. 167). After correction for soil organic carbon content (Fig. 168) no soil Cu value
exceeds the international mean and the number of Cu values falling in Zones I and II is
more than doubled. Although no extremely low soil Cu values are recorded in this ma-
terial, the Cu status of Argentinian soils and especially that of plants is generally low. It is
possible that crops sensitive to Cu deficiency would respond to applied Cu.
176
3 00 Fig. 169. Regression of Fe contents
2 75
of pot-grown wheat (y) on acid
225 urBwriIulftR
2 50 maz.11M11111111=m1111111111111M11111
ammonium acetate-EDTA extractable
200 =111111131EUNIMEN111111111111 soil Fe (x), Argentina.
1 75
E 1 50
o_
9:125
o
100
90
80
70
o
o 60
50

40

30
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/I MAAc- EDTA)

Iron. As is the case for most other nutrients in the Argentinian material, the variation of
soil Fe is narrow. In general, the soil Fe values tend to be high, relative to international
levels while plant Fe contents are average (Figs 31 and 169). Despite a few plant samples
having quite low Fe contents, none of the Fe sample pairs is within the two lowest Fe
Zones. No extremely high Fe values were recorded, although 13 sample pairs fall within
the two highest Zones.
Manganese. The Mn situation in Argentina is very similar to that of Fe (Figs 169-171)
as are the locations of Argentina in the "international Mn and Fe fields" (Figs 31, 33 and
37).
Molybdenum. The discordance between generally low plant Mo and high A0-0A
extractable soil Mo contents (Fig. 172) can be largely eliminated by correcting the soil Mo
values for pH (Fig. 173). This also improves the plant Mo soil Mo correlation.
Argentina stands close to the centre of the "international Mo field" (Fig. 20). Despite the
relatively wide variation in plant Mo contents, no Mo values lie within the two lowest
Mo Zones and only a few fall in Zones IV and V (Fig. 173). A single sample pair (44653)
from Cordoba province yielded exceptionally high Mo contents.
Zinc. Generally, the Zn contents of Argentinian soils and plants are at an average inter-
national level (Figs 41 and 43). The mean values for plant Zn content are slightly below
and those for soil Zn a little above the respective international means (Figs 174 and 175).
Irrespective of the method used to extract Zn from soils, the correlations are high and both
methods give a very similar picture of the Zn levels in the country. No sample had a low
value (Zones I and II) but about ten percent of the samples fall in the high Zones (IV and
V). The Zn contents of some of these, mainly from the Gral Pueyrredon area, were
relatively high in both plant and soil. Zn deficiency in Argentina is possible but less likely
than in most other countries. See also Section 2.7.
 177

Fig. 170. Regression of Mn content of 2000

pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
able soil Mn (x), Argentina. 1000 MWA IVENIIMMCVMMCYAIIM=IMNIN
MMMEME011MAIMIIMM11
800 UI rravrairk-vrmsRIMIERaninraming
600 NI
iimmmumwmammommissu
400 111MINEIIIIIIIMMENE111111
300
200 liall01111111111=1111111=
100 11E111111111111MIN,
rirawarlmillearastuawai
=mmolmosompomme..,-elsebtimmam
80
60 11111111101MINIMIMMEMUNICINGINIMM
40 11111111111111.1111111=111111
IIIIIMIIMS0111=111111111111
30
20 ima-nommiloll
10
.VMMMMIK
1111111111111111111111
8 IIIIMMINNMEIIIMIliMMIESTOMMEE
MEMEMININIMM IMMUILIMMEN
23 4 6 8 10 20 301.0 60 80100 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/l DTPA)

Fig. 171. Regression of Mn content 2000

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA Mn 11111111-11111
extractable soil Mn for pH (x), Ar-
gentina.
1000
800
NM

---....i--'..I
maimoimmon=1.6mgimmwoo
INEIECIEhl!ffidillEELIM1.E.qM
Magatrillk0/21110.1WELEttlan
600 11=119MIMINIIIMEMEMEIMISBNI

tice 300
_c
IIUUIIIIIIuuIL
a 400 IMMIMMIN0111111111111
110.11111111111Olil
200
"6
100 I. 11.111111111111
garmunnum.....7-.3dgit
80 aomwfammwsziZiggemainn
=011.
P941111111
IMM111M1r,MI
'IMMEW111.1111
o unalmmmosiiimiramminiwIldniSin =011111111
o 60 11111MM=.MMEIMPIMMINNISIIIIMINI
40 I MMEINIIMENNIENIMININGIMIll
PN"
Mulit.
30
20

'annul.=
10
8 m..
111111111iIIIII
smosaswiewnenmmermievammom
mmsmosmom
Im=MMIrrn
11====.11
2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
pH - corrected Mn in soil, mg/1 (DTPA)

6.1.4. Summary
The Argentinian soil samples (mainly Phaeozems) were rather homogeneous with medium
texture, medium cation exchange capacity, low pH and high organic matter content. The
K contents of soils and plants are the highest and N contents among the highest in this
study. P contents are of an average international level. The Ca and Mg contents of soils
are on the low side but those of maize vary widely. Among the micronutrients only some
Cu and Zn contents are relatively low. No low values were recorded for B, Fe, Mn, or Mo.
178

111
nn IM=UNI
MI141111 MN
mmlmImINII
1:17411511MMINI Fig. 172. Regression of Mo content of
6 11101.11B11IMM1101 pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium

illiii
1MTIEREEIE=CESIECIII oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
21111120 112 Ill
3

2
Eillitito2 1 (x), Argentina.

immosrmgmnowour
MENINOMMInsmOr
MMEINIEMMEMIlrio"-
MMIEWLINY
UIIIIIShiI
.2 M11111111111111.811,
O
o
o 1
1171111111111111111\
w-3-=11:111=-Falral0==r-
INMENNI=MMIIIIMIIMEN
.06

.03
W1=IMMUIIMIIMMMINAIMEN
111
.02

.01
.01 .02 .03 .06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo in soil, mg/ (A 0- OA)

6
Mo
1nono
AIMIM=eml=1=
IIIITALLasimommaminsrart"..; iIIMMOMMIN
II
Fig. 173. Regression of Mo content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
0±
0 C" 6 11111=111111211111
A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x), Ar-
3 gentina.
2 1111111Yr o°1511111111BEilliiiiiil
O.
O.
o
1

.6
=MME1111
11111111111111111111111

IENNENmmosolwimaisill,
g
iiiiiiiiiiiiiii
ó .3 ENIIIIIMME11111111EMENIIIII
.2 unimmwoupsommum.
o
.1
1011"11111111rA11111111
AMININIMEMIIMIMMMENN
ME101112=1111 APIIMIIMIMMIMME
=MMENIIINMINEMIMMINE 11.111
06 ilillaPMERIUMM=EMi
IMIIIMAMEMONII =MUM
.03 IIIHi!LlI!AIII
.02

.01
.006 .01 .02 .03 06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
pH-corrected MO in soil,mg/I (AO- OA)

The great majority of values for these elements are within the normal international range
but, depending on the element and extraction method used, one to ten percent of the
values fall within Zones IV and V. This study suggests that, in the Argentinian areas
sampled, micronutrient deficiencies are less likely than in most other countries.
 179

Fig. 174. Regression of Zn content of 200 A

i IL' In e tt
pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract- 33
Zn 72., ? ny s1 3: 377
able soil Zn (x), Argentina. iii. = t. - a s 1,971 5
y=1 . 8 1 (n .y 1,23( 321 log t

"II
+C

r= 0.6s ' r 0 32 '"

100 I,
90
70
80 IIMM I
g_ 60
50
.2 40 \
\
.
30

20
\ . MI
o
.1. -4°1 .'
N
10 A :.:141111U
9
8 ."-
7
6

1
1
.
I
.3 .4 .6 .8 1 2
la
3 4 6 810
\ D\ 20 3040 60 100
se

Zn in soil, mg /I (DTPA)

200
Fig. 175. Regression of Zn content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA Zn 'e' -1 . .6
(3.t:"
13 1
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH 8_s- .8 8±;
(x), Argentina. 100
90
80 iiiiiilniiialMr.1.6
70
60
50
40 MINIMEllill
1111111110111 di
WIN
30 11111111M 11110/11
20 1111111PIPMI I
10
9
8
"g
Ilk
igIIIIIIMMII
P111111 ".X4
lik
k
7
6
Mt ill
11
.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
pH-corrected Zn in soi ,mg/1 (AAAc-EDTA)
180

6.2 Brazil

6.2.1 General

The Brazilian soil and original wheat samples for this study come from the southern part
of the country (Fig. 176). No maize fields were sampled. The majority (69 %) of the
sampled soils were classified as Ferralsols. Other soils were Nitosols (14 %), Luvisols (9 %)
and Acrisols (8 %).

60° 50° 40°

10°

BRAZIL

56* 48°

SAO PAULO
22°
22*
_
CORI-FIB
0,, 07 559 °
e.
)54.."' 5

525
0579

)" "" n'

F ORIANOPOL IS
26*
26°

30°
30*

100 100 300 400 500 Km

56° 52° 48°

Fig. 176. Sampling sites in Brazil. The last three numerals of each sample pair number are given.
 181

Fig. 177. Frequency distributions of Brazil Internet Brazil Internet.

texture, pH, organic carbon content, n. 71 3764 40
n. 71 3783
8. 67 44 8. 5.10 6.64
30 4s. .57
4s. 17 1.12
and cation exchange capacity in soils 6,
min.= 17
16
9 35 min, 3.97 3.62
max.. 88 92 max... 6.30 8.56
of Brazil (columns). Curves show the 0

international frequency of the same 20 25

characters.
20

LL

0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca C12)

Brazil Internet Brazil Internet

40
n6 71 3779 n. 71 3777
2.0 =27.1 27.3
.8 its= 8.5 14.6
1; 35 min = .6 nmmn = 6.4 .2
max 7 4.7 39.1 max 746.8 99.9

2 .4 .8 16
ORGANIC C.
3.2 6.4 178 25.6
IL
GEC, me/100g

Although some light textured soils are represented the majority of soils are very heavy
textured (Fig. 177). The national mean texture index is the highest recorded in this study
(Appendix 4). All Brazilian soils are severely or moderately acid, pH(CaC12) 3.97-6.30,
and a lower average soil pH occurs only in two African countries. The contents of soil
organic matter are high compared to most other countries. In spite of this and the heavy
texture of most soils, the cation exchange capacity values are not very high but usually at
an average international level.

6.2.2 Macronutrients

The total nitrogen contents of Brazilian soils are high, the applied rates of nitrogen
fertilizer low (19 ± 11 kg N/ha) and the N contents of wheat at an average international
level (Figs 178 and 6; Appendix 2).
In spite of a fairly low phosphorus content in Brazilian soils the P contents of original
wheats are at an average international level or even slightly above (Figs 179 and 7). The
sampled wheat crops were heavily fertilized with phosphorus (49 ± 30 kg P/ha) which
apparently increased the P contents of plants. The variations in the plant P, soil P and
applied fertilizer P are wide.
The potassium contents of Brazilian soils and wheats are similar to those of phosphorus:
low exchangeable soil K, fairly high plant K and relatively high K fertilization (33 ± 18 kg
K/ha), all varying widely (Fig. 180).
The calcium contents of wheats and the contents of exchangeable Ca in Brazilian soils
are low; the national mean values for both are among the lowest recorded in this study
(Figs 181 and 9; Appendix 2). Many of the sampled fields had been limed during recent
182
40 35
Brazil Internat. Brazil Internat.
n= 70 1765
40 n. 70 1765
35 BrOZ i I Internat. 30 0=4.4 4.0
6= 3.96 4.27
n. 70 = 1.2 1.0
1.15 3 1765
±s= .91 8..42 .38 min.. 1.5 0.9
tID min.. 2.10 .60 Z *5..12 .12 St 25 max.= 6.8 6.8
rnax.= 6.04 7.45 ?,3 30 min...23 .05
max. .75 1.02
5 66

a. 0.25 a
>- >-
(_) 2 20
/11 5

C3 Lit
LLI
CC

5 5

3 4 5 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 9 2 3 4 5 6

N content of wheat, % P content of wheat, % K content of wheat, %

40
70 Brazil Internat.
Brazil Internat.
n. 70 1765
35
n 71 /765 9=10.9 20.2 Brazil Internat.
60 0=.184 .133 is= 9.6 24.7 n . 70 1765
±s= .057 .084 min.. 2.4 1.0
max.= 74.2 1.4
30 R = 170 365
o Min.= .051 .009
-E.
ts = 111 283
a, 50 max.= .325 1.023 a, min.= 37 20
I.) 9 max, 632 2097
'(r)
Q. 40
20
>-
o
Z 30
U.1

oU.1 20
CC
L'-

2.5 5 10 20 40 BO 160 320 640 25 50 100 200 400 BOO 1600 3200 6400
.005 .0 .02 04 08 6 .32 .64 1.28

N in wheat soils, % P in wheat soils, mg/I K in wheat soils, mg/I

Fig. 178. Nitrogen, Brazil. Fig. 179. Phosphorus, Brazil. Fig. 180. Potassium, Brazil.

Brazil Internat.
40
Brazil Internat. Figs 178-182. Frequency distribu-
35 n. 70 1765 35 n. 70 1764
tions of nitrogen, phosphorus,
0..34 .43 /. .223 .172
2S. .11 .17 ts=. .056 .060
¡.13 30 non. .16 .11 23 30 mm.. .140
max...449
.044
.948
potassium, calcium and magnesium
mar. 66 1.68
:7)
k. 25
in original wheat samples and re-
>-
U 20
>-
0 20
spective soils (columns) of Brazil.
111
Curves show the international fre-
D 15 D 15
o o quency of the same characters.
(X 10 CL 10
U..

.8 5 .<

Co content of wheat, % Mg content of wheat, %

Brazil iniernot.
Brazil Internat.
n 70 1765
5 6.1004 4671 n. 70 1764
es. 782 3076 227 489
min. 180 110 i.e. 137 437
most 5730 21930 min.. 40 10
3 30 max.. 1031 3298

ú 25

'CB

20
7-
o
LiJ 15

o
cc 10
U_

100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800 25600 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200
Ca in wheat soils, mg/I Mg in wheat soils, mg/I

Fig. 181. Calcium, Brazil. Fig. 182. Magnesium, Brazil.

 183

years with small to moderate rates of application.

In spite of the low exchangeable magnesium contents of soils the Mg contents of wheat
were high (Figs 182 and 10). No information was obtained on possible magnesium ferti-
lization or on the quality (Mg content) of applied lime.

6.2.3 Micronutrients

Boron. On average the B contents of soils and plants are slightly low in the "international
B fields" (Figs 22 and 25). The ranges of variation for both the soil B and the plant B are
exceptionally narrow (Figs 183 and 184). The whole of the Brazilian sample material is

Fig. 183. Regression of B content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
soluble soil B (x), Brazil. For details of
summarized international background
data, see Chapter 4.

"5
a)5
o
o
MI
100
80
60
50
40
30
a.- 20
o

1
8
6
4
3
2

1
....
11115'
MINerwimmiseliammisomms
allIST41MMIMI6Tir-5671111milin
37WillainnilIMM
1111111111111111111111111111111111

INISNM=MMEINNIP

III
OMIEL1E1111
-= 0 63*

1111111

11111M111
11111111=Ulanill'iNIMIll
INHENI=MEIPANCYMM=MEMNII
IIi1ÏlIIMOWER
111MEITM:1111
111111111

.2 .3
msa
OM

.4.5.6 .810 2
MI

11=1111

Ill
3
1111

191,
456 810
B in soil, mg/l (Hot w. sol.)

100 _11 I _1111 L _L II I LA_L A

801B n=
60 -ts.4 8 089 694
50 71-s= 0 6 .0 2 03 7
40
E log y.0 5 .01 y= 85
o.. 30 r=0458 " 0 2

15; 20
.c
10
8
w 6
4
co
2

Fig. 184. Regression of B content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected .08:1 .2 .3 .4.5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10
(hot water soluble) soil B (x), Brazil. CEC -corrected B in soil, mg/i (Hot w.sou
184
22
Br z I Inte na Fig. 185. Regression of Cu content of
20 pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium

18 E CW11=11111111 acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x),

Brazil.
8:16 1111111NIZIP °6111111111111111!
o
Q ) 14 11111111111111111111111111111
,46 12
111111111111111111111111111/111
7110 1111111111111111115/11111
38
6 1111111111111M111111111111
4 1111111111111=11111111111111

.4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 606080

Cu in soil, mg/I (AAAC- EDTA)

Fig. 186. Regression of Cu content of

2 Cu i
pot-grown wheat (y) on organic
i
i1
) Bra I Intern.t
yr 1 ,;;.. carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.)

imp.
58=9 9±3 :30± 57 1 soil Cu (x), Brazil.
3 R+s=1 + ' 94
logy.' 08 0 .4 og logy= 587 05 g

5
r4.0 64 '' i r=0 7 1*" A1
4

2
k II I Al
3

5
1111 IRA I
11111111/1111.11M I
. . Plitib
5

t. iiniiiuuiiòmi
Milliiialli
.....__ Wit
2
1 -IiiimilI fi
3. .2 .4 .6 .8 10 2 L. 6 810 20 40 En 1n0
Org.C-corrected soi CU,mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)

within the "normal" B range (Zone III). There is not indication of B excess but at some
sites response to B, depending on the crop, could be obtained (see also Section 2.7).
Copper. In spite of the generally high organic matter contents and low pH of the soils
(see Figs 28 and 30) Brazil stands in the "international Cu fields" at the very highest level
on a par with the Philippines and Italy (Figs 27 and 29). This indicates high total Cu
contents in Brazilian soils. The Cu contents of plants as well as the contents of extractable
soil Cu vary largely. One half of the Cu values are within the normal Cu range and the
other half in the two highest Cu Zones (IV and V); some would therefore indicate at least
excess of Cu if not Cu toxicity (Figs 185 and 186). The distribution of the highest Brazilian
Cu values is not limited to any specific geographical area but they are relatively more
common in Luvisols than in other soils (see also Fig. Cu in Appendix 7).
 185

Fig. 187. Regression of Fe contents of 300

pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
275 rar:7111111111111WRIMISUIPIIIIII6
250 maz111111111111M=MINI1111111111111
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Fe (x), 225
Brazil. 200 log y

1 75
r 11111131211iiiiii11111.
E 1 50
cL

ilumgrinum
90
80 .......
mammon
....,..
i kunumn
milibmwmagurail

-i
Q)
70
o mmollempirgnews
60
50 penniiiiiiiiiimi
40 ri" IIII ..1111111111111
30
iriuti ,

10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000

Fe in soil, mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)

Iron. The Brazilian averages for the Fe contents of plants and soils are almost the same
as those for the whole international material (Fig. 187). Since the variations are relatively
small most of the Brazilian material is within the normal Fe range and there are no
extreme Fe values.
Manganese. The mean Mn contents of Brazilian soils and plants are about three times
as high as the respective general international means in this study (Fig. 188). Owing to
the low pH of Brazilian soils, correction of soil Mn values for pH not only improves
the plant Mn soil Mn correlation but also increases the difference between the
Brazilian and international mean values for soil Mn (Fig. 189). The Brazilian mean for
extractable soil Mn is the highest recorded in this study and the national mean for plant
Mn is exceeded only by three African countries (Figs 33 and 37). Although widely varying
plant and soil Mn values are included in the Brazilian material only one Mn sample pair
falls in the lowest Mn Zone. More than half the material is within Zones IV and V,
including many samples with extremely high Mn contents. The highest Mn values were
relatively more typical for Nitosols and plants grown on these than for other soils,
although many extremely high Mn contents were found in Ferralsols and associated
plants. Mn toxicity to soybean in Brazil was reported e.g. by Almeida and S'fredo (1979).
The risk of Mn toxicity could be reduced or even eliminated by raising the soil pH through
liming (see also Fig. 34).
Molybdenum. Unlike Mn, the Mo contents of Brazilian soils and plants are low (Figs
190 and 191). On average, the pot-grown wheat contains ten times as niuch MO as the
wheat grown on Brazilian soils (0.322 and 0.032 ppm, respectively) and the Brazilian mean
is the lowest among the 29 countries investigated (Figs 15 and 20). The apparently medium
high A0-0A extractable soil Mo values become much lower when corrected for pH, and
would be even lower if corrected for texture (Fig. 21). The effect of texture must therefore
186

2000 Fig. 188. Regression of Mn content of

n5E 3538 pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
1000 Mn Br zil 9±5 28 3
able soil Mn (x), Brazil.
800
MN
EN
EN
M.IMIMMINSMI
i.1%M /UMW MECLIVILM.101 =MME
IMIWZIEMITIMIENTZWIFLWAMMITICIE
MI

III
600
400
D
a. 300
III 11111

1
V
-c
200
3
o 100
80
IMENIMIIIINW
:1111111Wrildani
NIflINIIMENNIMMI.
g 60 1 .
o
VIMME=MIManiiiill.....

c 40
30
Ilarall1111
il
20

10
8
ifil
MI
IIIIME
NIMBilOIMILIMTOMMEM
IMMINNIMMUMKUIRMEN !!

2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 80100 200 300

Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

2000 Fig. 189. Regression of Mn content of

Mn NE1111.191/111 pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
1000 MINPiMMIMIPPO16EMENEMEM IMote able soil Mn corrected tor pH (x),
800 MN
600
NM 21M1=WIENIM
M. 6.1311ffirE11,1.7kIMMINEEIYAMINIEN
MMWEININCIERME=EIMITIEEIMMII. x
MIIM1=--1511
MOMMINIM
MOINIMMI21 Brazil.
E
a_
1111WEINEMilinlIMNiNELEIRMIIII =MEWS"
o. 400
,s
o 300
200 iiUIIIII
o
11111
a)
100
80 Nimouni-rimmonni Nomazemr,a.
=maunia
60 1111111MPLIii=MENNI
IiMMIMMEMPril=111MUI =MICINNI
M. -MENU
40 NriP"
30
20 61,
Ii
10
8 mmiImmossoNamimmEs
IMMEIMM-MiWanENNI momms
=MIF,111
MIIMMEMEN
2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
pH - corrected Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

be kept in mind when interpreting the Brazilian Mo data. Probably because of analytical
inaccuracy in determining very low and only slightly varying Mo contents, the correlation
between plant Mo and soil Mo for Brazilian material is not significant except when cor-
rected for both pH and texture (Table 8). Less than one-third of the Brazilian Mo values
are within the lower half of the normal range, and almost half lie in the lowest Mo Zones
(Fig. 191). Low Mo contents are perhaps more typical of the Ferralsols and associated
plants than of other Brazilian soils. To recapitulate, it is evident that the basic reason for
the low Mo contents of Brazilian wheat is the low plant availability of Mo due to two
typical characteristics of the Brazilian soils, namely the acidity and the heavy texture (see
Figs 16 and 19). The great majority of Brazilian wheats with the lowest Mo contents (0.02
 187

Fig. 190. Regression of Mo content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium 6
Mo
=8 53
037 32 ± 36
oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo ± 9 072 021 ± 27
(x), Brazil. 3 log y - 4 3 xy= 2o 4
r= 008 0 24
2
E
o_
a 1

11:1

2 .6

o .3

.2
-d
o
o .1

.06

.03
.02

n
.01
.01 .02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 2 3
Mo in soil, mg/t (,40-0A)

Fig. 191. Regression of Mo content

of pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-correct-
ed A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x),
6
Mo

IEN
i===111: i rrInzm =12
EZIERIMIZZatnalli
n=3537M11 9
± 5- 01163 o EMU
11

Brazil. 3

E
o-1
0. 1IMI=MMEMiirldr111111Wr
ME=MENIMMP
11111111111in
TM 1MI
NNW'
o
.6

"6 .3
61L
11111 1111- 11111111
.2
*C.
o
o
.1

.06

.03
.02
IIiI!iiÌiiiAhIIIIIIII
.01
.006 .01 .02 .03 06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
pH-corrected MO in soil,mg/t (A0-0A)

ppm or less) had grown on very heavy textured soils (TI > 70) usually accompanied by low
pH (< 5.0). Obviously, in the long run, raising the soil pH by liming would be the best
means of increasing the availability of Mo.
Zinc. The average Zn content of Brazil is high in the "international Zn fields" (Figs 41
and 43). The standard deviations of both plant Zn and soil Zn, however, are larger than in
188

200
I
Zn nt '
7-1 -'
7.1
7
yr a=:::6±16 9
r. C.6
I

'
In e
n33
ys 1.
"i
t

lo y 12 1 5321Iog
r O. 3 '
1 77
Fig. 192. Regression of Zn content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
able soil Zn (x), Brazil.
100
90
80
70
g. 60
°,-; 50
40

30 6L ii Ai
e"

4g, 20 k iimFiRlir
1 pp- :

I,
10
9
8
7
LA.1111..111111mm.
6
1111111111111111=1
.1 .6 .81 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
.2 .3 .4 2
1E

Zn in soil,mg/l (DTPA)

200 Fig. 193. Regression of Zn content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH
100
90
80 .r. 611:1Mitillird: 111 (x), Brazil.

hoimmigir
70
60

MINK
E 50
.40
cl
30 11
-6

4cq;
20 nomplet
lompop -
INI
o

NJ
10
9
8 IN
11I =MEMO 1=
MEL 11
MIIIIIILL
1
IMMENIIIIIMMIM
ak ni.
moollnimm
111MMUliik UM.
6 111111111fil MIIIIII=E
7

IMMINEFAMAIMINNW 11,4

.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100

2
pH-corrected Zn in soil, mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)

most other countries and irrespective of the method of extracting soil Zn the correlations
are good (Figs 192 and 193). A relatively high percentage (16-21 % depending on extrac-
tion method) of the Zn sample pairs are within the two highest Zn Zones and two of these
represent very high values. Although no sample was extremely low in Zn, a response to Zn
at several sites is possible (see also Section 2.7).
 189

6.2.4 Summary

Most of the Brazilian soils studied, mainly Ferralsols, have heavy texture, low pH, high
organic matter content and medium cation exchange capacity.
The macronutrient (P, K, Ca and Mg) content of soils is usually low but that of N high.
The P, K and N contents of original Brazilian wheat are at an average international level,
but whereas the Ca contents tend to be low, the Mg contents tend to be high. The sampled
crops were fertilized with P and K at high rates but with low rates of N.
The standing of micronutrients in Brazilian soils and plants varies considerably from
element to element. Only the contents of Fe are at the "normal" international level. The
content of B is somewhat low, that of Mo is very low while those of Cu and Mn are very
high. The contents of Zn vary widely between high and low.
190

6.3 Ecuador

6.3.1 General

The wheat and soil samples were collected from Cañar,Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura
and Pichincha Provinces. Maize soils were not sampled. Because of the small quantity of
soil in the samples received from Ecuador only a part of the analytical programme could
be carried out, and therefore only incomplete data can be presented.
The pH of soils vary greatly, from 4.7 to 7.7, the majority being on the acid side (Fig.
194). The organic matter contents are at an average international level and cation exchange
capacity somewhat below that. Very high electrical conductivity is typical for soils sampled
from Ecuador (Appendix 2).

Ecuador 6lol cuador 16185841

Fig. 194. Frequency distributions of
n r 15 3783
11r 6.22
r .62
6.64
1.12
40 6 r 13
Er 1.4 17
3779
1.3
pH, organic carbon content, and cation
run r 4.66 3.62 :sr 6 1
1.2
exchange capacity in soils of Ecuador
max.. 7.65 6.56 ma, 6
uncx r 1 3 39.,
(columns), Curves show the interna-
tional frequency of the same characters.

.8 16 31 41 20 256
pH (Ca C12 ORGANIC C,%

Ecuador 16183661
nr 11 3777
r 21.3 27.3
:sr 9.5 ' 4.6
6,6.. 9.7 .2
WI,. :2.1 999

15

CEC.6016/100g

6.3.2 Macronutrients

In spite of the relatively high total nitrogen contents of soils and some nitrogen fertilization
(44 ± 13 kg N/ha) the N contents of the original wheats are low by international standards
(Figs 195 and 6; Appendix 2). In spite of the small amount of material submitted, the
ranges of plant and soil N variation are quite wide. One wheat sample especially (No.
47356) differs from the others due to its high N content. This sample had grown on a soil
with the highest total N content recorded in any Ecuador soil, and had also been fertilized
 191
3
40
Ecuador Internat. Ecuador Internat
16 1765
no 15 1765
35
610
Ecuador Internat. 30 0= 4.3 4.0
0=3.47 4.27
n= 15 1765 is= 0.8 1.0
±-s. 1.03 1.15 35
04.43 .36 min.= 3.4 0.9
30 min.= 2.21 .60 xs =.06 .12 St 5 max = 6.0 6.6
max, 6.43 7.45 8 30 min.=.33
max.=.55
.05
1.02
jj 25
a 25
>-
c>..-.1 20 o
LLI
(- -1 15
015
0
CC
u_ 10

5 .2 .3 4 .5 .6 .7 .6 2 3 4 5 6
3 4

N content of wheat, % P content of wheat, % K content of wheat%

70 Ecuador Internat.
n= 15 1765 47
Ecuador Internat. R. 17.7 20.2 3
n= 16 1765 Is. 16.3 24.7 Ecuador Internat.
60 min.= 2.4 1.0
0..209 .133 no 15 1765
max.= 67.6 271.4 30 0= 280 365
-45..162 .084
-E min.=.049 .009 ±60 93 283
a, 50 min.= 134 20
0 max...747 1.023
5 max.= 472 2097
25
CD'
to
O_ 40
3- 3- 20
o
Z 30 111
D 15 5

C:2
o
111
L4.1 20 CC
IX u. 10
U_
10

2.5 5 10 20 40 BO 160 320 640 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400
.005 .01 .02 04 .08 .16 .32 .64 1.28
N in wheat soils, % P in wheat soils, mg/I K in wheat soils, mg/1

Fig. 195. Nitrogen, Ecuador. Fig. 196. Phosphorus, Ecuador. Fig. 197. Potassium, Ecuador.

4
Ecuador Internet
40
Ecuador Internat. Figs 195-199. Frequency distribu-
5 8.25
15 n=1765
0. .43 35 n
R..145
15 1764
.172
tions of nitrogen, phosphorus,
=.05 ±5 = .17 050.000
min.. 17
moe=.32
minx
max.= 1.613
.11
16, 30 min...096
max = .267
.060
.044
.948
potassium, calcium and magnesium
25
in original wheat samples and re-
spective soils (columns) of Ecuador.
o 20
ILI
V Curves show the international fre-
D 15
o quency of the same characters.
E 10

/.
.8 1.5 5 2

Ca content of wheat, % Mg content of wheat, %

40
Ecuador Internat.
Ecuador Internat.
15 n= 1765
0.1884 R. 4671 35 15 1764
35
or.. 3076 421 469
56=1082
min, 590 min.. 110 04= 287 437
max=21930 min.= 78 10
max.= 4110
3 30 mox..1038 3298

1S' 25 8 25

20 CL 20
>- >-
o o
LU 15 Lit 15

o o
LU
c, 10

100 200 400 boa ion 3200 6400 12800 25600 25 SO 100 200 400 BOO 1600 3200
Ca in wheat soils, mg/I Mg in wheat soils, mg/I

Fig. 198. Calcium, Ecuador. Fig. 199. Magnesium, Ecuador.

192

with the highest amount of N (60 kg N/ha) applied to the plants sampled from that
country.
The phosphorus and potassium contents of soils in Ecuador are slightly below, and the P
and K contents of wheats somewhat above the respective international means (Figs 7, 8,
196 and 197). The rates of phosphorus fertilizers (23 ± 8 kg P/ha) applied to the sampled
crops were higher than those in most other countries in this study but somewhat less
potassium fertilizers were used (13 ± 6 kg K/ha, Appendix 5).
The frequency distributions presented in Fig. 198 show that the occurrence of calcium in
the soils and wheat of Ecuador is low in an international context. In fact, the mean Ca
content of wheat in Ecuador is the lowest national mean obtained in this study (Appendix
2). The magnesium contents are slightly lower than average (Figs 199 and 10; Appendix 2).

6.3.3 Micronutrients

The small size of soil samples received from Ecuador precluded pot experiments, and the
value of having an indicator plant of one species and one variety in the international
context was lost (see Section 1.2). It is therefore attempted to give a general picture of the
micronutrient content of plants in Ecuador by comparing analytical data of the original
wheat samples with the respective data from other countries given in Appendix 2.
Boron. The B contents of the sampled soils and plants of Ecuador vary very little. All
plant B values are below and only one hot water extractable soil B value exceeds the
respective international means (6.56 ppm and 0.81 mg/1). The national mean for soil B
(0.42 mg/1) is the fifth lowest and that of plant B (2.33 ppm) the second lowest in the entire
study (Appendix 2). From these limited data, B deficiency seems likely in many locations
in Ecuador. Its deficiency for several crops and response to B fertilization have been re-
ported by Tollenar (1966) and Mestanza and Lainez (1970).
Copper. The Cu content of plants in Equador, based on the results of plant analyses,
seems to be generally low. However, although the national mean (7.7 ± 1.7 ppm) is the
seventh lowest (Appendix 2), the Ecuador material does not include any extremely low
values.
Manganese. Mn contents determined from the Ecuador wheats are, with one exception,
below the international average and the national mean (34.3 ± 18.8 ppm) is the very lowest
recorded for original wheats (Appendix 2). The uncorrected DTPA extractable soil Mn in
Ecuador soils varies from 1.2 to 76.7 mg/1 and the mean (24.1 mg/1) is only slightly below
the international mean. If these soil values were corrected (see Fig. 34 and related text) it
would lower the mean by about one-third and greatly reduce many of the single values. It
is possible that a response to Mn fertilizer would be pbtained especially in soils where the
soil pH is relatively high (e.g. sites 47353-54 in Imbabura and 47362-65 in Chimborazo).
Molybdenum. Although the average Mo content of original Ecuador wheats (0.40 ± 0.40
ppm) is far below the international mean (0.94 ± 1.03 ppm), the mean for the uncorrected
A0-0A extractable soil Mo (0.249 ± 0.232 mg/1) exceeds the respective international
mean (0.204 ± 0.209 mg/1, Appendix 2). Correcting the soil Mo values for pH would
largely eliminate this contradiction (see Fig. 16 and related text) by lowering the soil Mo
values. This limited material from Ecuador does not include any exceptionally high Mo
values, and although many I\4o values are low there is no indication of any severe Mo
deficiency.
 193

Zinc. The plant and soil Zn values determined from the Ecuador sample material are
usually at or somewhat below the average international level (Appendix 2). No extremes
were recorded.

6.3.4 Summary

Because of the limited material and incomplete analytical data only a vague picture of the
soil nutrient content in Ecuador can be deduced. Most of the sampled soils have pH
(CaCl2) below 7, a medium content of organic matter and low to medium cation exchange
capacity. The macronutrient contents of soils are internationally low to medium, N being
an exception. For micronutrients some very low values, especially of Mn and B, were
recorded but, in general, low to medium micronutrient contents are typical for soils
sampled from Ecuador.
194

6.4 Mexico

6.4.1 General

The geographical distribution of sampling sites in Mexico is given in Fig. 200, separately
for wheat and maize fields. The most important wheat and maize production areas were
quite well covered by sampling.
Out of the 214 soils classified, Xerosols (28 %) were the most common, followed by
Kastanozems (21 %), Yerrnosols (16 %) and Fluvisols (14 %). Both wheat and maize were
grown on these soils. The rest of the soils were used mainly for growing maize: Regosols
(5 %), Vertisols (4 %), Phaeozems (3 %), Andosols (3 %), Arenosols (2 %), Chernozems

10. 109.

-
4.. 4 64,3 5

\
46:26 ..,

.,... r ...,......:-

984030

46\ 98400
8 25, HERMOSILLO

.16.-7;S9.22
4840
4840
423405>Wk
48906 \
\
1

j
.

4 "''..,:g16 t
48407
983980
i,..
4 6
96'09 __, _76012
CHIHUAHUA° e 48397 0 .. \
4 0 9------flgT06 ',,,,..45139504 4-
16:03
9640 46401
,104 --.-11:, ....,\ 4eael
40383.1.4838
483940
e
46441 .. ',/ 098396 463135: t
.464 :11IZP".:99
46445 48394
*0412" ,s0, 05
46446 ' _.... 46448
,,,,,, 49450

48=
.415
.V
98916
, 4841
4' ...._.4.4113
4
48396 Q

49377
-

e9717.9% 43' V a a7,

983 4
983¡3
\
49499 , 0 CteLlgAN
TORREON
t
--,,j, 8313?4"
413390 1.10,6t

------------.._010,IRANGO

IC

05APNOW

COWIA .,_

MEr0
O.
16°
CRUZ

CHILPANCINGO

MEXICO
a.

Fig. 200 a. Sampling sites in Mexico (wheat fields).

100
 195

(1 %), Cambisols (1 %) and Ferralsols (1 %).

As illustrated in Fig. 201 the Mexican soils vary greatly in texture, from very coarse to
very fine. The great majority of soils are alkaline but some with quite low pH are included.
Most of the soils are low in organic matter and although soils with medium or high cation
exchange capacity dominate there are also some with very low CEC. Electrical conduc-
tivity and CaCO3 equivalent values vary greatly (Appendixes 2-4). Every sixth soil
contains more than 500 mg/1 of CH3COONH4 extractable sodium. These have pH(CaC12)
usually around 8, high electrical conductivity and high B content.
In general, a wide variety of soils, with extensively varying characteristics are repre-
sented in the Mexican material. Consequently, the nutrient contents of these soils differed
greatly.

46290"''
46295

46272

ORREON

LIRANG

TEPIC
o 46246'
o'gT51'

,,Its2A 46242 ,.;T 96185

46 0 :225
_t2,1°79

4610
.-/-94e4
cj 61

Fig. 200 b. Sampling sites in Mexico (maize fields).

196
35 exico tnternat Mexico Internet Fig. 201. Frequency distributions of
n=247 3764
7= 49 44
0
n
6.7.19
247 3783
6.64 texture, pH, organic carbon content,
0
rs. 17 16 .83 1.12
mtn, = 10 9 35 min = 4.10 3.62 and cation exchange capacity in soils of
max = 83 92 max = 8.25 8.56
30 Mexico (columns). Curves show the
25
international frequency of the same
>-
o 20
characters.
ui 15

o
Lk' 10

10

0 20 30 0 50 60 70 BO 90 6

TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca C12)

5 Mexico internal
n. 247 3777
= 32.0 27.3
30
xs. 14.6 14.6
min. .2 .2
max =80.3 99.9

16 3.2 6.4 12.8 256 16

ORGANIC C,% CEO, me/100g

Mexico Internat.
4
Mexico Internet Figs. 202-206. Frequency distributions
35 n= 100
7= 4.88
1765
4.27
35 n= 147
7= 2.86
1958
114 of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
xs. .87 ,s= .70 .87
30 min.. 2.28
1.15
.60 30 min.=1.40
max.= 4.67
.88
6.51
calcium and magnesium in original
max.= 6.46 7.45
25 wheat and maize samples and re-
>- 20
spective soils (columns) of Mexico.
1,1 15
Curves show the international fre-
o quency of the same characters.
LLI 10

.A A
2 3 4 5 6

N content of wheat% N content of maize,%

Mexico Internet Mexico Internat.

n= 100 1765 n. 147 1958
60 0..100 .133 .135
±5..029 .084 xs= .045 .088
.009 min.= .011 .008
max = .209 1.023 0 max...342 1.657

4,-
0. 40

.005 .01 .02 .04 .08 36 .32 64 1,213 .005 .01 .02 .04 .06 .16 .32 64 1.28

N in wheat soils, % N in maize soils % Fig. 202. Nitrogen, Mexico.

6.4.2 Macronutrients

The total nitrogen contents of Mexican soils are relatively low from the international view-
point (Fig. 202, Appendixes 2 and 3). The N contents of both wheat and maize vary
widely. This is apparently due to greatly varying rates of nitrogen fertilizer application
 197
.0 40
Fig. 203. Phosphorus, Mexico. Mexico Interftat. Mexico iqernat
8= 100 1765 35 1.147 1560
R. .38 .38 6,31 .33
ts. .17 .12 92.-OR
r31113..18 .05 30 7117 .7.13 .05
R,85. 1.02 1.02 mol .53 104

05 F7

6 .7 It 9

P content o wheat,./0 reoize,%

MaXiC.0 I 618=731.
SS ' 00 1765 Mexico 131521775
5. 147 20.2 n.147 1867
35 - 295 04.7 7=114 22.8
= 2.4 65.17.0 33.0
7185, 271.4 27.4 =8.8. 2-1 01
30 30 rnur .90.4 556.2
C

>- 20
0
DiS
Oli

ve.8
2.5 5 10 23 40 80 160 320 640 os 0 70 42 00 500 020 540
P in wheat soils, mg/t P in'maize soils, mg/I

(wheat: 122 ± 54 and maize: 40 ± 49 kg N/ha). The average rate of N applied to wheat is
one of the highest recorded in this study and seems to be the main reason for the high N
contents of wheat. For example, all wheat samples with a N content less than 3.6 percent
had received no N fertilizer at all while those with N 6.0 % were fertilized with 100 to
153 kg N/ha. While the N contents of wheat were high those of maize are low, and when
the plant N contents are pooled (Fig. 6) the Mexican average equalled the international
mean.
The phosphorus_content of Mexican wheat soils is relatively low while the P content of
wheat is at an 'average international level (Fig. 203). In both cases the range of variation is
wide. The P contents of maize and maize soils are at an average international level but also
vary widely. The sampled wheat crops were fertilized with phosphates at somewhat higher
ra tes than the maize (9 ± 13 and 4 ± 7 kg P/ha, respectively). For the international rating
of P in Mexico, see Fig. 7.
The national mean contents of potassium in wheat and wheat soils are among the
highest in this study (Fig. 204, Appendix 2). The mean K content of maize soils is also high
but that of maize itself is below the international average. Relatively wide variations were
typical of all K values. Practically no potassium fertilizer was applied to either of the
sampled crops. A good response to potassium fertilizer could only be expected at the
lowest soil and maize K levels. See also Fig. 8.
The content of exchangeable calcium in Mexican soils, especially in wheat soils, is high
(Fig. 205). In wheat the Ca content is, on average, at the normal international level but the
maize san-ipleg contain relatively little Ca. In all cases there are wide variations.
The magnesium content of Mexican soils is generally high but again with rather wide
198

Fig. 204. Potassium, Mexico.

-
35
Mexico Internat Mexico Intermit
n= 100 1765 n= 147 1967
30 0= 4.7 4.0 0 = 2.7 3.1
In. 0.7 1.0 no 0.7 1.0'
min. 2.9 0.9 min.= 1.0 0.6
Lo, 25"°° 6.3 6.8 25 max = 4.3 6.7

it'rt

u_

2 3 5 6 3 4

K content of wheat% K content of matze,%

Mexico Internat Mexico Internat

n= 100 1765 n. 147 1967
9= 693 365 = 548 330
0 Os= 318 283 os = 338 356
rran.= 168 20 min. 51 18
max =2019 2097 max = 1918 5598
o

'
25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 5400
K in wheat soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I

4
Mexico Internat. Mex ico Internat. Fig. 205. Calcium, Mexico.
n=100 /765 n= 147 1967
0..40 .43 0= .38 .47
09= .13 .17 as= .14 .20
fl min.= .23 :11 30 min.= .16 .09
max.= .91 1.68 max.= 1.02 1.88

0_25
>-
<_) 20
ai
15
o
E1o

o
z'T
Ca content of wheat,% Ca content of

Mexico Internat. Mexico Internat.

n= 100 1765 n= 147 1967
35 2= 7023 4671 35 0= 4363 3450
as= 3020 3076 os= 2519 2815
min= 1970 110 min.= 290 10
max.=19080 21930 max.= 14880 17995

o_

100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800 25600 50 100 200 400 BOO 1600 3200 6400 12807
Ca in wheat soils, mg/I Ca in maize soils, mg/I

variations (Fig. 206). The two indicator crops have almost equal mean Mg contents while
the wheat Mg content is above the respective international average and maize below that.
Some quite low Mg contents of maize are included. See also the position of Mexico in the
"international Mg field" (Fig. 10).
 199

Fig. 206. Magnesium, Mexico. 40

Mexico Internat.
40
Mexico internat.
35 n. 100 1764 35
n= 147 1967
9.185 .172 0=.186 .251
ts..037 .060 15=.051 .119
mine.118 .044 30 min.= .087 .036
max...307 .948 max.=.336 1.125

51-
0 20
1,1
D 15

CC 10

Mg content of wheat,% Mg content of maize, %

40 40

Mexico internat. Mexico Internet

35
ns 100 1764 n= 147 1967
R. 720 489 9= 651 446
±s= 376 437 ±s= 381 462
min = 151 10 min.= 25 1
3
11104, 1587 3298 5134.=1829 6490

25

15

A
_ ! Ardiviri
25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 12.5 26 50 100 200 40 80 100 3200 6400
Mg in wheat soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils, mg/I

6.4.3 Micronutrients

Boron. Owing to the heterogeneity of the Mexican soil material the B contents of soils and
plants vary greatly from one sample to another (Figs 207 and 208). High B values domi-
nate and in the "international B fields"- (Figs 22 and 25) Mexico stands high. The fre-
quency of high B values (points in Zones IV and V) is more than twice as high as in the
whole international material. There seem to be no distinct geographical areas of high B but
high values were recorded from several states including Hidalgo, Mexico and Tlaxcala in
the central part of the country, as well as Sonora, Sinaloa and Coahuila in the west and
north. High B contents were relatively more common for Regosols, Yermosols, Fluvisols
and Xerosols and plants growing in such soils than for other Mexican soils (see also Fig. B
in Appendix 7). Some of the high B values may be due to B contained in irrigation water.
Although only a few B sample pairs are within the two lowest B Zones and no extreme-
ly low B values were found, response to B fertilization may be obtained at several loca-
tions, especially if plants with a high B requirement are grown.
Copper. Mexico stands close to the centre of the "international Cu fields" (Figs 27 and
29). In only one sample pair (46225) are the Cu contents exceptionally high but low values
are more frequent, two of them (46249-50) being very low (Figs 209 and 210). Many of
the low Cu values came from the western states of Jalisco, Nayarit and Sinaloa, but low
values are also found in the central states. All four Arenosols included in the Mexican soil
material were low in Cu as were many Andosols, Regosols and Fluvisols.
Iron. Excluding Malta, where the number of samples was small, Mexico has the lowest
200
100
B 111,4"MienTaill=111=M11=11:
mommusson Fig. 207. Regression of B content of
80
60 onsiikargrznriummarain pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
soluble soil B (x), Mexico. For details
50
- -12° iMESEVE111111111111 111111111111111 of summarized international back-
40
30
ME OD +2.6 MENEM ME Bill ground data, see Chapter 4.
IEEE MEIN inecomi
a 20
o
iiiiiliiiiiiiiii
...,=.........................
..,.. .......,..........
.......................
...........,.............
smEMMILemsomM-20ffilminommiii
11111111111MWfillEAMMIIMIMINSIMIIII
IIIIHMIgetiliiiiii MEMUn
2 111111.1101111 Emma
1
11111
.2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2
IIÌii
3 4 5 6 8 10
B in soil, mg/l (i-iot w sol.)

100
E= .....170
.
m I1 r4 rm i. . 1 Fig. 208. Regression of B content of
80
B bwra . Bra pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
50 MIIMMEMBEZ
40
a30 IIIIIINEES MEN
E
1
60 IIMMINEEDICIEI
11191
INN
111611IP
(hot water soluble) soil B (x), Mexico.

0_
0111r ° 814 iiiiiiiiii Juil al
NE Illiltraill II
o
co 3
2
..lipMEEMIRMEMITHIP
r"
lip i ,...,
nid
.
IMEIMEIllenttaRRIIMMEMIIIII Ill IN

Elk101111
0 ' VA'1
EL., Ilbill:
INN hilil
081 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2
la HIM
3 4 5 6 8 10
CEC -corrected B in soil, mg/1 (Hot ..sol.)

national mean values for soil and plant Fe (Fig. 31). More than 25 % of the Fe values fall
in the lowest Fe Zone and almost half of the Mexican material falls in the two lowest
Zones (I and II, Fig. 211). Even the Fe values within Zone III are predominantly clustered
toward the lower boundary. It seems likely that in many places crops sensitive to Fe
deficiency would respond to iron fertilization. Soils low in Fe seem to be more common in
the northern states, Nuevo León, Coahuila, Chihuahua and Sonora than in the southern
parts of the country. Low Fe values were relatively more common in Yermosols and
Kastanozems, but also occurred in the Regosols, Xerosols and Fluvisols.
Manganese. Mexico is close to the centre of the "international Mn field" (Figs 33 and
 201

Fig. 209. Regression of Cu content of 22

pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium 20 m x' ' 'flten° i 111111111
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x), illtilli_11 37) EMI Ill
Mexico. E18
SL-16
11111111 neY NM III
114

11111 11111111
111111 Igor 1 Hi
3 8
En 11111111111111111111111
4 1111111E21111111111111111
111C11111=1111111 NWT
O
2
III, I111111111NM
C. 04A n i a
AMI III SZ l( )n / rl amain
Cu in soil, mg/l (AAAc- EDTA)

Fig. 210. Regression of Cu content

II
22
of pot-grown wheat (y) on organic
MLeiXIMII in nu II
carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.)
soil Cu (x), Mexico.
20
MIN Taal IIII
NI
18 4g

c9°Y5:3111111111°g°Y71.2' °

10
11111 1
ENE___11
IkNA l il
II
8
Insworrommo
6
L.

mslioni !wp i
timmillowrm
.4
iimunoANA
.6 .8 1.0 2 4 6 810 20 40 60 100
Org.C-corrected soi CU,mg/1 (AAAc-EDTA)

37). Although the bulk of Mexican material lies within the "normal" range for Mn (Figs
212 and 213) the variation is wide and with both high and more frequently, low values
being recorded. Over ten percent of the Mn values fall in the two lowest Mn Zones. The
lowest Mn contents were from alkaline soils and plants grown on alkaline soils except for
sample pairs No. 46157 and 46246 (co-ordinates in Fig. 212: plant Mn 45, soil Mn 3.6; and
plant Mn 33, soil Mn 0.9) where the soil pH(CaC12) values were 6.27 and 5.40, respectively.
These soils were exceptionally coarse textured, low in organic carbon and apparently low
in total Mn. The highest Mn Zones (IV and V) include samples only from sites with low
soil pH, usually below 5.0. The geographical distribution of low and high Mn sites is
202
3 00 Fig. 211. Regression of Fe contents

I
2 75
2 50 Fe 1"1111116.11"9111M161i1 of pot-grown wheat (y) on acid
NEMIIHIMIRMINIIIIII III ammonium acetate-EDTA extractable
=1113011111atialiv iiiiiiEll
225
200 soil Fe (x), Mexico.
1 75 LWElliiiiiiP5.111111iiiIMI
E 1 50 1t1 IIIIIIMII 111111 I
o_
RIMINI Ill IIIIII
1111
Ma
111111
Minn
IE
90
80 I IIIIIII I
1 Ulla 31111M1
70
60 =!II nill
_.01.11111
.Vgaraiiiiiiiii
,

50

40 MIVIIIIIIII -
NM 1

30 1 Iffili
MIMI El MIUUM1111
All I
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/I (AAAc- EDTA)

obscure. The low Mn values may be more typical of the soils of Baja California, Sonora
and Sinaloa and high Mn of the Mexico and Jalisco States.
Molybdenum. As in case of other nutrients the contents of Mo in Mexican soils and
plants vary considerably. As a whole, Mexico stands high in the "international Mo fields"
(Figs 15, 20 and 21). Because of widely varying pH and texture in Mexican soils the
relatively weak correlation between plant Mo and A0-0A extractable soil Mo is substan-
tially improved by correction for pH and texture (Figs 214 and 215; Table 8). Almost
without exception plants with low Mo content (<0.1 ppm) have been grown on soils with
low pH combined with either very fine or very coarse texture. Correspondingly, plants
with high Mo content (> 1.0 ppm) have grown on alkaline, medium textured soils (see also
Figs 16 and 19 and related text). The highest Mo values were recorded from Coahuila and
Sonora, often in samples from irrigated sites.
Zinc. Regarding average Zn contents of both soils and plants, Mexico stands close to
the centres of the "international Zn fields" (Figs 41 and 43) but samples vary widely in Zn
content between low and high (Figs 216 and 217). About six percent of the Zn values lie in
the two highest Zn Zones irrespective of the extraction method used, some of them rela-
tively far into Zone V. However, low Zn values are more common. Depending on extrac-
tion method, 8 (DTPA) to 17 (AAAc-EDTA, pH-corr.) percent of the Zn values fall
within the two lowest Zn Zones with a number of samples close to these. Although the
most extreme values are lacking, shortage of Zn is likely in many Mexican soils. Most of
the high Zn values were measured from the Hidalgo and Jalisco samples, while shortage of
Zn may be more common of Queretaro, Sonora and Sinaloa than elsewhere.
 203

Fig. 212. Regression of Mn content of 2000 =MMIOMMIL.n Ilmoiman

pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
able soil Mn (x), Mexico. 1000 EN MEMINIMMEN=11UMMIll
WL"V2/4.% WSWRIMMEWRY Eft% IIIMMIIMINI
800
NIIIMIIIHMINUMMIIMMIN1113111111=
600 noNoimmosinmommossimmimws
111

E 400 1111MINEIIIIIIIMINIMINI111==
gi 300
.5) 200 11=111111111111111111111ME
100 ..11111111110111111T41
""GE,
80 IIMMISSEMOLEimm5PmEalgarilmm&
g 60 nmmommorammormanumaisom
C)
c 40
30 IIIMMIPM111112111111111111111111=11
20

IiiIIIIIIIIUIIflllIRI
11111111MNIMMENNI
10 111111111111MINIMIMME11MIMMENII
8 IIIM1111111111111NliaM1110117MIMM11 MWM
N1"
2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 80100 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

2000

liallatill1E111111
Mn
800 iiim:Nalmiairmaratzazur=rearemi
1000

E
600 II==IMMLI:1:12E21311EIT122MS.LUMEJLILINM=IMIMMIN
IIMINNEMETIZIMIIINWEIVAM111111=1=151111Ind
400
o 300
1
flh1iîiIII
11111F1'
200
o
ol .

Q)
100
80
16 1.11.

1111MNIM=.111111.11KillFZUMENIMMkMr"7.
MIMMIIMMIWIEel'AMMEMMENEllMMMINEEN
11UNIMIECZEBEEIMMEMINI
---
IIW=IMICUal
o
C.) IImoreniseraiirmimmminuimmemum
60 11.1
ImmEscrairmorwamommulnmmmli
40
11111MMEENOVIIIIIIIHNI1111=11111110
30
20 ralushrommiammoili
Fig. 213. Regression of Mn content of 10
pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
8salMI=MEMMENnillIMMIMINMEN
szimmmtmamsmmos
NIMIMH=1=MINIMMEN
iMM=ImaraN
able soil Mn corrected for pH (x), 2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
Mexico. pH - corrected Mn in soil, mg/t (DTPAI
204

Mo sism UI
Fig. 214. Regression of Mo content of
6 11M11.153511111111M=MIIINeaf pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium
FATEILIMIEMI=MEN1191-
mmion 1E164 Emu 1- 9 oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
3
(x), Mexico.
Ian ilitaM1111
E
ca
Q-1

ó3
2

.6
r
11111,
arom
IMM
11111141111111
."'"EN"I MME:111
Esolimenrolimaim
1101.1en

4,Ú .2 immonim
.1 irommininn
W.:=1:11:111.===1111
WEMENIIIIMEIBINIIMMMIMMENI
.06

.03
.02

01
.01 .02 .03 .06 1
ll
.2 .3
Mo in soil, mg/
IIIII
.6 1 23
(.40-DA)

KA
1-1 0 g1=MES
iimiMMI. ==2:121:;
elreirlromalnlan .6=X
Wig
6
MEMIIIIMMI=EIMMINIT IMIIMMERII
1101111415 CEMENIKTIMmLEIMIMINEMMOIN
MM.
IIII I "9 0 Z11111111131312211111
3
2
Ill I n'58 Nii iiillatitiPillil . III
111

E
D.
Q. 1
11111M1111111,Pill
II
.E:1111====1111.E.V1.12111
o
.6 OPl
ILUMMISIM911=786111111=Eall
MMENIIMI N121111111Mil
BUM MIAMI -11119 el I
111111 ''IiIIIMINI
4ill
1111,E 11 1111101
WO
.06

.03
.1.
mrat.
I=
14 III
....11
IMIIIMM

ma.ial
1,111.-.1===09:16=rass
imommar=M1
.imi nioram.....ENom:
11111111101=111011111=m1111111
IIIIIIMMIMMIIIM
1=
m
.1111
.02 pod
MIINIIMERIIIIIIIU 1
Fig. 215. Regression of Mo content of
.01 101111-11,111.11111SEI
.02.03
.006 .01 23
- .06 .1 .2 .3 .6
pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x),
pH-corrected MO in soil, mg/l (A0-0A) Mexico.
 205

Fig. 216. Regression of Zn content of 200 NA: illin Iri:e t.

pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract- Zn i
' '; l'..5 -
r1=3 3
n: 119. r 11677

able soil Zn (x), Mexico. pi .-4 c5 IcH y 12: 132110g

r O. 3° °

100
90
80 ifiralogiirdi
rimm 11 ii
70
E 60

40
\ I MINIM. /111
..c

ó 30 Hill E FM%
a)
20
il mi
11111111M111
N
10
9
8
I
Arai.. - II 'M
.4111VAIMENCIIIIIMMI=IN MIN
IIPIWAI1INIIMINI0111111k
1AMINEMIIIIIIM EIIIIILWIL
i IM
7 1
6
I 1.1 IE 3r Di
.2 .3 .4 .6 .81 2 34 6 810 20 3040 60 100
Zn in soil, mg/ (DTPA)

20

n 1 1 11 1 II 1
MOW luirr4I I i
g Ewe El I
1

IIIIIIMIPAI
NMI

RIMPROM MI
1
. I 1r 111116111
111
Naito, mmulmmnommum II _
Fig. 217. Regression of Zn content of
V111111
MHO EIIIIIIVaingra
MAMIENM
pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH . .
Ind k a
. .
MO Madill
(x), Mexico. pH-corrected Zn in soi , mg/I (AAAc-EDTA)
206

6.4.4 Micronutrient contents of original plants with special reference to varieties

Since the original Mexican wheat material consists only of high yielding varieties, compari-
sons with local varieties are not possible. Variety data were obtained for 71 of the 147
maize samples supplied, of which 24 were classified as HYV. This group consisted of
varieties H 407, H 412, H 505 and H 517. The other variety group was more heterogen-
eous comprising seven different varieties. Since the tnajority (29 samples) of these were of a
local variety, 'Criollo', comparison in Table 24 is made between the HYV and 'Criollo'.
On average, the maize plants of the two variety groups were sampled at the same physio-
logical age. Differences between these variety groups were found in their uptake of several
micronutrients, but these were most marked for B, Mn and Zn.
Although the HYV maize plants were grown on soils lower in extractable B, Mn and Zn
than plants of cv. 'Criollo', their average B, Mn and Zn contents were considerably higher.

Table 24. Comparison of micronutrient contents between high yielding maize varieties and local variety
'Criollo', respective soils and wheat (cv. 'Apu') grown on the same soils in pots. Differences between the mean
contents of the two groups followed by the same index letters (aa) are not statistically significant. Letters
ab indicate significant differences at 5, ac at 1 and ad at 0.1 percent level.

Micro- Average Micronutrient Contents of:

nutrient original maize (ppm) resp. soils (mg/1)1) wheats grown on
HYV Criollo HYV Criollo same soils in pots
(n = 24) (n -=- 29) (n = 24) (n = 29) (n = 24) (n = 29)
Boron 17.9a 7.8d 0.87a 1.01a 7.2a 7.0e
Manganese 76a 62' 9a 66d 53a 150d
Zinc 41a 28a 0.6e 4.4d 14a 20b

I) CEC-corrected hot water sol. B; pH-corrected DTPA extr. Mn; DTPA extr. Zn.

When the different maize varieties were replaced with one variety of wheat, the pla-nt
and soil data for the three micronutrients were in relatively good accordance.
Although factors other than the genetic differences between the varieties, such as irriga-
tion practices, may have affected the above results obtained for original maize, it would
seem that much of the apparent contradiction between the results of plant and soil analy-
ses is due to plant variety and that the HYV maize plants are more efficient at absorbing
the micronutrients in question than the local variety, 'Criollo'. See also Section 1.2.4.

6.4.5 Summary

Great variations in general soil characteristics are typical of the Mexican soil material in
this study. These variations are also reflected in the macronutrient contents of soils and
plants.
With regard to micronutrients the concentration of Fe is exceptionally low from the
international point of view. Although Cu, Mn and Zn values are generally somewhat low
and those of B and Mo tend to be high, high Mn and Zn and low Mo and B contents were
frequently recorded. At many locations responses to Fe and Zn fertilization would seem
most likely.
 207

6.5 Peru

6.5.1 General

Most of the sampling sites in Peru (Fig. 218) are located in the agriculturally important
Sierra and Ceja Selva regions, where the annual rainfall varies from 200 to over 1000 mm.
In many cases the sampled fields were irrigated.

46966 -46H:9453

96456,_)

\
96537;46540
4S'

46545 -96550
96525 -asszs. bosze

4'...)L-."-'41:rs'524
46527, 46530

PE U

Fig. 218. Sampling sites in Peru (points = wheat fields, triangles -= maize fields).
208

Peru Internet Peru Internat. Fig. 219. Frequency distributions of

n= 70
0o36
3764
44
on.R.70
6.86
3783
6.64 texture, pH, organic carbon content,
30 ts = 14 es 1.12

ti'rm. = 69
min = 9
16

92
9' 35
.85
non = 4.00
max = 7.70
3.62
8.55
and cation exchange capacity in soils of
o 25
if)
30 Peru (columns). Curves show the inter-
20 25 national frequency of the same
>-
L.)
20
characters.
15

o 15
LU
CC 0

10 20 30 0 50 60 70 80 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca Cl2

45
Peru Internet Peru Internet
40
n= 70 3779 n= 79 3777
1.3 R = 25.9 27.)
to= .7 1.2 os. 10.6 14.5
C 35 min = .3 min =13.5 .2
max = 3.4 39.1 max .66.1 99.9
30

.2 .< . 16 32 6.0 12.8 25.6 16 32

ORGANIC C,% CEC, me/100g

The textural variation of Peruvian soils is wide (Fig. 219), with coarse soils dominating
though many soils with a high texture index are included. The majority of soils are alkaline
or moderately acid but the material encompasses a few samples with low pH as well. The
organic matter content, cation exchange capacity, electrical conductivity and CaCO3
equivalent values are at an average international level, with fairly wide variations (Fig. 219,
Appendixes 2-4).

6.5.2 Macronutrients

The mean contents of total nitrogen in Peruvian soils as well as N contents of maize are
somewhat above the respective international averages but N contents of original wheats
are low (Fig. 220). On average the N status is close to the international mean (Fig. 6). The
sampled wheats were fertilized with relatively low rates of nitrogen fertilizers (average
38 ± 35 kg/ha; international average 66 ± 61 kg N/ha, Appendix 5). Wheats with a N
content of less than 2.7 % N had not received any nitrogen fertilizers. The comparatively
higher N contents of maize may be due to more abundant applications of nitrogen ferti-
lizers (average 46 ± 58 kg N/ha; international average 27 ± 37 kg N/ha).
The phosphorus contents of maize and maize soils are at an average international level
but those of wheat and wheat soils are somewhat lower (Fig. 221). In general, tbe average
P content of Peruvian soils and crops corresponds closely to the average international level'
(Fig. 7). Only low to moderate rates of phosphates were applied to the sampled crops
 209
Figs 220-224. Frequency distributions 40
Peru p Internat. Peru internat
n. ri,1765 n. 59
of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, 5.2.54
13
R. 4.27 9. 3.24
1958
914
es= .62 Is. 1.15 Bs. .55 87
calcium and magnesium in original 20 min.. 1.84
max, 4.24
rnin.s
max.. 745
66 1.90 88
651
57 max, 5.33
wheat and maize samples and respect- r

ive soils (columns) of Peru. Curves

show the international frequency of
the same characters.

J 4 5 2 3 4 5
N content of whect,% N content of moize,%
70

Peru Internot PerU Internat

Ea ns 13 1765 n. 57 1358
Es .144 133 0.174 .135
8.5..056 .684 77..076 .088
min .064 .009 053 .008
50
nO max.-.285 1.023 mm4-.420 1.657

'ir]. 40 40

o>-Z 30 40
171

o
w 20
ce
u.
0

.0 .92 .04 .08 .16 . 405 .01 .02 .04 .08 .16 .32 1 8

Fig. 220. Nitrogen, Peru. N in wheat soils, % N in maize soils,%

Fig. 221. Phosphorus, Peru, <01-

I Perti Internet. Peru Inte,nat.
35 -. n. 13 1765 n 57 1567
6..30 .36 5..33 .33
As ...OS .12 As .05 .10
§ 30 .65 o .95
rnox s 49 ,i55: 1.02 max.- .51 1.94

25

20

15

2 .7 8
P con ent of wheat,°/0 P con ent of maize
r
Peru Internat. Per u I Iter not.
35 1765 n., 57 1567
it r 19 6 70.2 4= 20.9 27.5
As. 8.2 24.7 is. 15.8 33.0
min. 2.8 to min.= 2.4
max.. 27.4 271.4 30 ma8 70.8 656.0

5 IL 40 43 BO 150 320 640 2,5 S 10 29 40 BO 150 326 540

P in wheat soils. mg/I P in maize soils, mg/l

(maize: 8 ± 13 kg P/ha and wheat: 10 ± 13 kg P/ha). A quarter of the Peruvian sampled

wheat and maize crops had a P content of less than 0.25 percent. With only two excep-
tions, these crops had not been fertilized with phosphates.
The generally low contents of potassium in Peruvian soils is reflected in the K contents
210
Peru Internet Peru Internal'
Fig. 222 Potassium, Peru.
5= 13 1765 xi. 57 1967
30 0=2.9 4.0 30 0= 2.9 3.1
as=0.8 1.0 its= 1.3 1.0
min.=1.4 0.9 min.= 0.9 0.6
fo., 25 max.=4.3 6.8 25 max.= 4.7 6.7

20 20

15

10

2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3

K content of wheat% K content of maize,%

Peru Internat, Peru Internet,

n= 13 1765 n= 57 1967
R. 178 365 Os 231 330
30 as. 65 283 as= 144 356
min.= 78 20 mm. 56 18
max,. 273 2097 max.= 777 5598

o-
20

25 50 I0 200 400 800 1500 3200 5400 25 50 100 200 00 800 1500 200 5400
K in wheat soils. mg/I K in maize soils. mg/I

40
Peru
40
Peru Internot. Fig. 223. Calcium, Peru.
5 n. 13 1765 _n.0.57 .51
1967
.47
R. .33 .43
.12 .17 is= .20 .20
min = .16 .11 30_ .21 .09
30
max . .49 1.66 mox.= 1.02 1.138

0.25 25 -
-
C, 20 20

0 15 IS
ci
Ff 10

P 5
5

.8 1.6 .e 1.6

Ca content of wheat, % Cu content of maize,%

Peru Internet Peru Internot.

n. 13 1765 n. 57 1967
5 0= 4067 4671 35 7= 4556 3450
as. 2016 3076 as. 2491 2815
min= 1220 110 min.= 280 10
max. 6490 21930 max.= 10840 17995
3

?j 25

100 200 400 600 1600 3200 6400 12800 25600 0 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800
Co in wheat soils, mg/I Co in ma ze soils. mg/I

of plants, especially in the case of wheat (Fig. 222). Rates of applied potassium fertilizer
were relatively low (wheat: 12 ± 19 and maize: 9 ± 17 kg K/ha). All sampled crops with
low K content (< 2.4 %) were grown on low-K soils (< 200 mg/1) and/or received no
potassium fertilizer. See also Fig. 8.
 211

Fig. 224. Magnesium, Peru. Peru Internat. Peru Internat.

n= 13 1764 n= 57 1967
3
0..131 .172 0=241 .251
its = .045 .060 25..126 .119
30 min.= .085 .044 30 min.= .093 .036
max.= .194 .948 max.= .723 1.125
25

20

15
Ar
0

5 .2 .05
rd-, AA
Mg content of wheat, % Mg content of maize,%

Peru Internat. Peru Internat.

35 n= 13 1764
3 n= 57 1967
0=387 489 R= 324 446
15.265 437 es= 188 462
min..133 10 min.= 49 1
max=1073 3298 max, 909 6490

ú 25 25

25 50 100 200 400 B0 1600 3200 12.5 25 50 100 206 400 800 1500 3200 5400
Mg in wheat soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils. mg/I

The calcium and magnesium contents of maize and maize soils were at an average inter-
national level or slightly aboyé it, while wheat and wheat soils were somewhat lower in
these elements (Figs 223 and 224). Consequently, Peru lies close to the centres of the
"international Ca and Mg fields" (Figs 9 and 10).
212
10 INIMIWOMMIINIMMINIIIIIM 1111111111111110111011110 IIIIM II
:iel1=01111111111104iTildNIM II MO IIIIM=MIONINIIMMIIIMIEI Illillia Fig. 225. Regression of B content of
8 lEhiMIZIONMINIMilaInVI11.=MillianiiiM pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
EMWMt(WMMRNIIIIIIIIMII=MIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIII
6 MINIMERMIMINE2eZ 0111111111111111M11111 NM soluble soil B (x), Peru. For details
5
NEI -
"5 ±' ' MUNN IN EMU of summarized international back-
E3
4
11119111ERWEVII Opal ground data, see Chapter 4.
ci
9: 2 IIIII '.'° ANN 101111111
ci LIR

1111.1 II II
11
"
a,

"6
1
. ..m==rogiBv_aamrians:::
muirm....umormooMMIEMIL19
.

lummamommr....mihnummammi
solumplopmanimi lam
unomam unn .

motal 1
2
I 11111111 1111110
rim
_2
NMI
.4 .5.6 .810
.3 2 3
INN
56 81 o
B in soil, moil (Hot w. sol.)

100
nod 1-- .... 'm-mr7rmr1:1====ragrara" Fig. 226. Regression of B content of
80 D, wommlimminimummiamomonlommilm
Eirai.- Nirk.wInmammommEnallIIIIIIIIIIPAI pot-grown wheat (y) on CFC-corrected
60 munizires wrannommummumusim (hot water soluble) soil B (x), Peru.
50 IN -.± °6 namainisemipmplim
E
a_ 30 11111 .-4591 pliNIMIIIMpi11ed111111
0.
20 II `-°67' liiiii11=1111111111 III
a)
_c

10
44 I
h. ha
IslikNmainiato.r- 1
111111.4"ir III Ill
ci 8 ihvairmairamplimram E NIN
IM
a)
6
5 111.10F.IVZ411111NIM ilum.
ululi
o
4E'

Mil IO
mail
4
morMman
I
2 III lik IIIII
111,111
hi.21b.. Eril
3 456 8 10
.081 .2 .3 .4.5.6 .810 2
C EC -corrected B in soli, mgil (Hot sol.)

6.5.3 Micronutrients

Peru is usually located close to the centres of the "international micronutrient fields" (Figs
15, 20, 22, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33, 37,41 and 43). Although none of the boron values measured
in the sample material from Peru showed very low B contents (Figs 225 and 226), several
of them are low enough to indicate the possibility of B deficiency, if crops with high B
requirement are grown (see also Section 2.7). Excess of B seems unlikely.
 213
22
Fig. 227. Regression of Cu content of P ru Inte no
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium 20
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x), 111111i11111111111111
Peru. 18
E
8:16 11111117111111:1A11112111101111111
o
40
15. 12 11111111111111111.11111111
VI° 111§101111111111111111211111111
88 Iliii111111111111111rd111111111
(-) 6 11111111111111111E1111111111111111
4 11111111101MB11111111M11111111

2 11.11.31iiifilLI'111111111MM111111
11111111111111111MM111111111
.4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080
Cu in soil, mg/l (AAAc- EDTA

Fig. 228. Regression of Cu content of 2 CU i

pot-grown wheat (y) on organic Peru I Intern. t
carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.) 2D n.
y±s..7 3± . 01
soil Cu (x), Peru.
..., 11111
11 II
gill
r0= 568 k r=07 l''' i 111111
6

24 III
:
6
MIN i Mal
INIEntrigiliMillini
.g A
1111111

4 IIIIMEME11111E11111111
2 elliMal 1111 MR1111
0
1 .2
IIII
.4
MIERMIIIIMIEb
.6 810 6 810
2 ¿n sn 100
4 70
Org.C-corrected soi CU,mgil AAAc-EDTA)

For the copper, iron and manganese values recorded from the sample material, the
ranges of variation are relatively narrow (Figs 227-231), and only a few sample pairs fall
outside the "normal" range (Zone III), and seldom at extreme locations within Zones I or
V. Only at one site (No 46546 in Tarma) were very low Cu values measured and quite high
plant and soil Mn contents were recorded at three sites (46549, -528 and -565). Two of the
latter originated from Tarma in acid soils with pH(CaC12) 4.00 and 5.28 and one from
Paucartambo, soil pH 4.27.
214
3 00 Fig. 229. Regression of Fe contents of
2 75
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
2 50
225 acetate-EDTA extractable soil Fe (x),
200 MIIIMINZI11111121E11111111M1 Peru.

175
E 1 50
a_
97 1 25
o
.e
100
IIIIIIIIIMMIE1111111=1111
90
80 iiUUUIIIAiiIIIIIIP
70
o MM111111111111511111111111
60
a)
u_
50

40 Pa10111111111E11.1
30 111111111111111111
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/l (AAA c- EDTA

The contents of molybdenum were more variable (Figs 232 and 233). In addition to four
relatively high plant and soil Mo values, one especially low one was recorded. This orig-
inated from the same acid soil in Tarma (46549) as the highest Mn value. Also other low
Mo values were measured from samples of high Mn content.
Although none of the zinc values falls in the lowest Zn Zone, many of them show quite
low Zn contents of both soils and plants (Figs 234 and 235) indicating the possibility of Zn
shortage (see Section 2.7). The majority of Zn values are normal but in samples from a
couple of sites originating in San Lorenzo, Janja, quite high Zn contents were measured.

6.5.4 Summary

Most of the Peruvian soils are coarse textured, slightly alkaline, have medium organic
matter content and medium cation exchange capacity. The macronutrient situation is
variable, with low to medium contents dominating. For micronutrients normal values are
typical. However, the limited data give some indications of possible B, Mo and Zn
shortages. In a few samples Mn, Mo and Zn contents were high.
 215
,=.1=1, MOI=1. i MINO MP s ilmmiNt Ma= almi
Fig. 230. Regression of Mn content of 2000
pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
able soil Mn (x), Peru. 1000 1 i L311511/1111111.111
II=
1=g-IMMI,=====
91 8
ke^M'Flll"JAKWINEMIq1VXMRMI=MIMMS=n1M1
800 11 lTrIMP
I W11=11:17MWIM47.117171111111111=
IK
600 Il MIIMMISIMMIIIIMINIIIMIIIMIIII=
1 To

II =.1
iiImm enmmamoisimommi
111MMIRI1111=M
300 ommo
400
Q. IIIMMISIIIIIMIIIIME
MUNI 111.11111111MMI
am
200

100 11E11
:11Nrou 1111011111111M1
-,%1MIEKIEM2
Bi=P,'NCMWf:IMlIlfS
MEN
MaiMIPIIUCAMMENN0.6
MIIIIMIlalleall.11.1111 1.WW.
'60 60 III1=ME nrialliNIOTIAM1.19.111 111=M
11=111 MM
7411119121EIMIIII
c 40
30 IIMIMI liiiiMEMENiiiiii
20 III/21 111=111111111M111
10
8
liEll
. 111E11111111E11
Mi I101=1=MMEMIE
11111111011=MMEMI M
111 grnianagiTIMMENIEN
2 34 6810
NMliTaILIIMMIIM
MENI
20 30 40 60 80100
Mn in soil, mg/l
ii
.WMEN

200 300
(DTPA)

2000
Mn 111111111111111111111111111
1000 so mmjapsaggiumImmos....6.......mmmisimmor
magmenacEuia.wiarm:remmuremorimmare
800 =1MMEM11Wl=WEIMM11 1==1101111111
IrraliFiNER411EITIrriFUVIIgNiZTENIIMIMMII
E
600
Q.
400 11=MIIIMIIIIMME111111111/.11MMillIll
o_

o 300 limmommilmossmormpialum
200
o
100 1111111111111111111611111111
=MME1135MENTPM=MMEEM .UMEM
80
o 60 uimlommiimimmulinmail=mmil
11MMEMEDINIZIPMEIN11111111=k1=111
40
2 30
kr

20

Fig. 231. Regression of Mn content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
10
8 =1MIUMI
111=IMMIIIflrIMMENNI 1=1=M71111
able soil Mn corrected for pH (x), 2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
Peru. pH - corrected Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)
216
Fig. 232. Regression of Mo content of
6 pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium

, wow
IMMATINEIAGEMCIZE C 31
C 27 oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
3 y- 3 ".6 log (x), Peru.
2

m..1.-
III had
MMEENNE!1WM=MI
MENNIIMMEEMIDr.

C
.2
"C"
o
Ifl11100BRIMENN1111
CIMMIIMMENIMIMIMINIIMIT/S.
I
.1
11111/MIMMENMIM
trirmmuimmmi
.06 NO00111=1
191
.03
.02

I 11 III
.01
.01 .02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo in soil, mg/t (A0-0A)

e wmIn mummom mmma.

6
M 0 lildtbilEMIkarlalliGIME5111011
11116mminnin.3537 41011
MENIIIIMECIEEMEMIII=ESSEEE
MIIIIIIIR s - Ogg 0 VIIMILLTMEnallni
I
6
ii
MIMI

3 MI
2 1111111 21611111111111M11111.1i1 11
E
eia 1

--MEMO ..m.....
=......
Nommwsism
---.....----.....---
1111111.11111111M1111=11
........ .ancion- mi
i.
.c
.6
=MENNEN
MIIIIIMMIIIII
MENEM =IMMENIII shismilimm
ialumodn
M111111
IIIIIIMMIIIIIIIIII'AMMINIMMI
1111111=1111111iM11111111WI
MIMMENN
111101111111111111111101
11==MIIIIM111.2MIMMEII
2 .06 IMMINIMO.1MIMMENNE0MEMEN
MMUMENUMniiiMMEMMOI MEMEN
11111111M11WIMMENIIMMMI111
......,
kW=
NKM
Mt.
MIIMEWANOMEMUlli /Min MN
.03

Piiir liiiiiii
.02
I Fig. 233. Regression of Mo content of
.01 IIII
.006 .01 .02 .03 .06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23 pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
pH-corrected MO in soil,mg/l (40-0A) A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x), Peru.
 217

Fig. 234. Regression of Zn content of 200 t

pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract- Zn
able soil Zn (x), Peru.
y=18. 8
r. .7 .2
100
90
80
70
g_ 60
cL 50
o
.c0
4

20

10
9
8
7
6

.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100

Zr) in soil, mg /I (DTPA)

100 11111111111
90
80
70 LIENIMEMENIELIBSIN
muonlimmusuimmorann
60
E 50 monommolomMINI111111
2-
o

o
40
cl)
30 Komminizramili
20 11111111.1111111111111111
IIÍiO!!ijIIlÌiiIIIIllI
:7;

o
o

10 1
9
8 "AMER 1111MMENIIIIMMEMI
Fig. 235. Regression of Zn content of 7 MIMENIIIII IMEN11111=11111111111
pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA
6 16,
us a H 11
el k VA
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
(x), Peru. pH-corrected Zn in soi ,mg/l (AA Ac- EDTA)
 219

7. Far East

7.1 India

7.1.1 General

Soil and original wheat and maize samples received from India for this study came from
five States: Haryana (100 sample pairs), Punjab (70), Bihar (50), Delhi (45) and Madhya
Pradesh (30). The approximate sampling sites are given in Figure 236. Of the 160 soils

171NALA

9905 99100
58 45650

O 460S1-46095
45851-95965
95891-45900
95066-95890

Fig. 236. Sampling sites in India (points = wheat fields, triangles = maize fields). In Madhya Pradesh
area only the last three numerals of each sample pair number (45551-45580) are given.
220
45
India Internet India Internet Fig. 237. Frequency distributions of
n=295 3764 n= 295 3783
5= 34 44
40
0=7.55
es= .50
6.64
1.12
texture, pH, organic carbon content,
5s= 12 16
In. 15
non. 73
9
92
35 non =5.14
max, 8.55
3.62
8.56
and cation exchange capacity in soils of
30 India (columns). Curves show the inter-
20 25 national frequency of the same
20
characters.
15

10

0 20 30 0 SO 60 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca Cl21

45
India Internat. India Internat.
0
n= 294 3779 n= 294 3777
7= .5 1.3 = 16.6 27.3
es= .2 1.2 ±s= 13.3 14.6
't 35 non = .2 ,1
39.1
non = 5.1
max =76.5
.2
999
max = 1.3
30

Q.
25
o
uj 20

C5
Lyi 15

. 1.6 3.2 6.4 12.0 256

ORGANIC C.% CEC, me/100g

classified according to the system adopted by FAO, 55 were Cambisols located mostly in
the Punjab, 40 Fluvisols (Bihar and Delhi), 34 Luvisols (Bihar) and 28 Vertisols (Madhya
Pradesh). Three Haryana soils were classified as Kastanozems.
Texturally the Indian soils of this study are coarse (Fig. 237). The national mean texture
index is among the lowest (Appendixes 2-4). The soils of Madhya Pradesh, however,
differ distinctly from other Indian soils. All 30 of them are fine textured (TI = 49 - 73).
Equally fine textures (TI 49 and 54) were measured only in two other Indian soils, both
from Haryana.
Almost all Indian soils are alkaline, contain little organic matter and have low cation
exchange capacity. The national mean value for soil pH is one of the highest and those for
organic carbon content and CEC among the lowest in this study. With regard to CEC, the
Madhya Pradesh soils differ again from the others; all have a CEC of 30.0 me/100 g or
more and other Indian soils from 5.1 to 26.0 me/100 g. Electrical conductivity values of
Indian soils (Appendixes 2-4) vary considerably but are generally well below the interna-
tional average. With the exception of 25 soils from Bihar (45851-75) the CaCO3
equivalent values of Indian soils are relatively low. The sodium contents are usually of the
average international level.

7.1.2 Macronutrients
The Indian national mean values for total soil nitrogen in both wheat soils and maize soils
are the lowest recorded in this study (Appendixes 2-4, Fig. 6). The ranges of variation are
also exceptionally narrow (Fig. 238) and only in three Indian soil samples N values ex-
ceeding the international mean (0.133 %) were recorded. Unlike soil N, the N contents of
original wheat and maize samples vary widely but are usually low. In part, the wide varia-
tion is apparently due to largely varying rates of nitrogen fertilizer applications (wheat:
 221
40 40
Figs 238-242. Frequency distributions I ndia internot, India Internat.
n= 188 1765 n= 107 1958
of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, 0.331 4.27
1.15
5
5 = 2.62
os= .62
3.14
os= 1.51 .87
calcium and magnesium in original i 30 min.= .60
max.= 6.14
.60
7.45
30 min.= 1.57
max.= 4.34
.88
6.51
wheat and maize samples and respect- ',I3 25 25

ive soils (columns) of India. Curves 20 20

show the international frequency of W 15

the same characters. o
'kJ 10 10
U-

N content of wheat,%
3 4o 6 2

N content of maize,%
o4 5 6

70
Iridia Internat. India internot.
n= 188 1765 n= 107 1958
80 8.571 .133 60 R= .073 .135
ts=.021 .084 os= .017 .088
rojo.. .009 .009 min.= .042 .008
?), 50 max.= .142 1.023 50 max...128 1.657

o_40 40

C.)
Z 30 30
LU

20

10

.02 .0 08 .16 .31 1.28 .005 .01 .02 .04 .08 .16 .32 .64 1.28

Fig. 238. Nitrogen, India. N in wheat soils, °A N in maize soils,%

India internat. India internat.

35 n.100 1765 n = 107 1967
= .32 .38 = .31 .33
os = .13 .12 to = .07 .10
min.= .05 .05 mine .16 .05
max.= .61 1.02 max, .48 1.04
ai
25
>-
Z

P content of wheat, % P content of maize,%

o

India Internat. India internot.

35 n= 188 1765 n. 107 1967
R= 93 20.2 = 8.6 22.5
os= 8.1 247 05= 7.1 33.0
min.= 1.2 1.0 min.= 1.9 0.1
max.= 54.0 271.4 max.= 46.2 656.0

2.5 5 10 20 40 BO 160 320 640 25 5 10 20 40 80 160 320 640

Fig. 239. Phosphorus, India. P in wheat soils, mg/I P in maize soils, mg/I

75 ± 51 and maize: 106 ± 57 kg N/ha). In the case of wheat the effects of varieties might
seem to be very clear. Nine out of ten wheats with a N content less than 2.0 percent were
classified as local varieties, but the majority of wheats having a N content over 2.0 percent
are HYV wheats. For more details, see Section 7.1.4. In the case of maize the varietal
effects are less clear, the average N contents of HYV and other varieties were 2.92 % and
2.48 %, respectively.
Less than ten percent of Indian soils have a phosphorus content exceeding the interna-
tional mean (Fig. 239) and the Indian national mean values for soil P are among the very
222
35
rodio Internat
Ob
irodio ateraat.
Fig. 240. Potassium, India.
n=188 1769 n137 1957
30 9. 3.8 4.0 30 9. 23
Es, 1.3 1.0 ts. (Q OQ
Ima= 6.9 0.9 ram= 1.0 0
S 25 max= 6.2 6.8 25 X. 4.3 67
ctr,

C' 20 0
7-

u/ 15

C/
1.61

Lr_

3 8 3 6
K content of wheat,% K content of maize,%,

India Internat. Indio iniernot

rir 188 1765 n= 107 1987
9. 186 365 0. 126 333
95, 119 283 Es. 78 355
min =. 42 20 Ian. 41 13
mor 856 2097 max = 917 5593

25 50 103 23 400 040 1600 3260 4400 25 50 100 210 400 NU 1500 3240 6400
K '01 wheat soils, mg/I K in maize so.ls, rno

lowest (Appendixes 2-4, Fig. 7). There seems to be no distinct difference in the P contents
of soils from the five States. Although relatively heavy dressings of phosphates were
applied to the sampled Indian crops (wheat: 15 L.: 15 and maize: 18 ± 9 kg P/ha, Appendix
5) the P contents of both indicator plants (especially wheat) are low. There is no clear
difference in the P contents of maize between the two variety groups but in the case of
wheat it seems to be substantial. See Section 7.1.4.
The average potassium status of Indian soils is internationally low (Figs 240 and 8). Low
soil K values were most frequently measured from the samples of Biliar and Punjab but
were uncommon in the Madhya Pradesh soils. In general, the K contents of maize are low,
but those of wheat are at the average international level. In both crops, especially in
wheats, the variations of K contents are exceptionally wide. A part of this may be due to
varying applications of potagsium fertilizers to the sampled crops (wheat: 11 ± 20 and
maize: 9 ± 19 kg Kl ha). Another source of variation seems to lie in plant varieties. Again
the HYV wheats contain considerably more K than the local varieties (see Section 7.1.4).
In India, as in many other developing countries, attention should be paid to preventing
the present low potassium content of the soils falling any further. Especially when higher
yields are sought by using improved varieties and heavier applications of nitrogen, it must
be realized that (owing to the high K contents of crops) considerable amounts of K are
removed from soils. If the removed K is not replaced by fertilizer or manure, the K status
of soil is likely to become critically low in a relatively short period of time. This is more
obvious in areas where the soils are coarse textured with.insignificant K reserves.
In spite of the generally high soil pH, the exchangeable calcium contents of most Indian
soils remain at or below the international average (Figs 241 and 9). High Ca contents,
however, were recorded from almost all Madhya Pradesh soils which, different from other
Indian soils, had fine texture and high CEC (see Figs 12 and 14 in Section 2.2.4). On
average, the Ca contents of original Indian wheats are internatiorjally slightly on the low
 223
40
Fig. 241. Calcium, India. India Internat. India Internat.
n=188 1765 35 n. 107 1967
A= .36 .43 A..56 .47
*6..16 .17 as= .26 .20
min...11 .11 30 min.= .19 .09
max.= .93 1.68 mox..1.16 1.88

0.2 25

>-
6.3 20 20

1.1.1

15 15
co

10 0

airzyj;
.2 .4 .8 1.6

Ca content of wheat, % Ca content of maize,%

India Internat. India Internat.

n 188 1765 n. 107 1967
it= 3530 4671 .2660 3450
80 = 2795 3076 as 1221 2815
min.. 380 110 min.. 470 10
max.= 12040 21930 max.= 5330 17995

rïÌ
.4 4
100 200 400 BOO 1600 3200 6400 12 00 25600 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800
Ca in whea soils mg/I Ca in maize soils, mg/I

0 40
Fig. 242. Magnesium, India. India internoi India
n= 107
Internat.
1967
35 n= 188 1764 35
0..187 .172 = .313 .251
as = .072 .060 85=133 .119
8 30 min =052 .041. 30 min.= .057 .036
max.= .407 .948 m06....823 1.125
a 25 25

15

5 4

Mg content of wheat,% Mg content of maize,%

40

India Internat. India Internat.

3 n= 188 1764 35 n= 107 1967
R.= 448 489 8.269 446
5s= 383 437 as = 134 462
30
min.. 49 10 mm. 36 1

max, 3298 3298 max =600 6490

25 2

25 50 100 200 400 13 0 1600 3200 12.5 25 50 100 200 41,1 800 1600 3200 6400
Mg in wheat soils mg/I Mg in maize soils. mg/I

side but those of maize somewhat higher. For both crops the variations in Ca contents are
exceptionally wide. Part of it is obviously due to different ability of different plant varieties
to absorb Ca from soil (see Section 7.1.4).
In general the magnesium contents of Indian soils and plants are good but vary widely
from one site to another (Figs 242 and 10). The lowest exchangeable Mg contents were
224
10 rtIMIIMMIII11011111101111.11111111Ilarimmersimemarsar mama Fig. 243. Regression of B content of
8 B.,,,,,.. .i.,,,,,7 ill immarememumirmisiimusi
miammoommiimmimiummommmmumwmga
n= 8 IIINIMEEMNIMIMIIMIMI11==MINNEU pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
6 ; WM - 6 06NMENIEM1111====M111111111 soluble soil B (x), India. For details of
4
5
MIN =0 42 - MIZEIEIIII Mai summarized international background
3
;
i Iiiii: 40 + 6 3 IINTIRME11 Fill data, see Chapter 4.
9.- 2
o
Mil 8" RANI IIIIIIIIII
0.)
-c

"E5
1
1!II__II........A.......
,......,.................
4111P.1i111111
MIIIIIBRIMIRINIEWSIMI1111
.11111111 11111

EINOPUeeligliPANCIISMMIM1111111111111
1111111
MEMMIEMIginaillE MNEM
o filiniMag . 11111 iN Minn
CE1

11111 EIIIIIII I1Ih 111

lilt
1
14 III
. .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .810 2 3 4 56 81
B in soil, migil (Hot w. sol.)

100 Fig. 244. Regression of B content of

80 pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
n. 8 3
60 ±s. 6 6 2 75 69 . (hot water soluble) soil B (x), India.
50 2±s06 060 -± 2
40
a30 y3633 9x Y' 5
0. r= 0 828 '` 02

0810
G)56 " *. .
1
o
o 3
2

.08.1 .2 .3 .4.5.6 .81.0 2 34 56 810

CEC -corrected B in soil, mg /I (Hot w. soi.)

most frequently recorded from Bihar soils and the highest from Madhya Pradesh soils. For
effects of plant varieties see Section 7.1.4.

7.1.3 Micronutrients

Boron. The average B content of wheat grown in pots of Indian soils corresponds closely
to the international mean. Due to the generally low CEC of the soils, correction of soil B
values for CEC also brings the Indian average for soil B close to that of the whole inter-
national material (Figs 243, 244, 22 and 25). Because of wide variation, both high and low
B values occur. The frequency of high B values (Zones IV and V) is about 10 percent and
corresponds to that in the whole material, but low values (Zones I and II) are more than
 225
22
Fig. 245. Regression of Cu content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium 20 Elliii1111111113111111111111111111111111
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x), 50
IRON 11111
34 5 3E11111111111111111111
18
India. E
a-16 MEMO wEll313111111111111111N1
o
w 14 11111111111111111111111111111111111
.c
.612 11111111111111111111111111111H1
1:10 111111111111=111111111,111M1111111
8 8 AIIII11111111,111111=1111111111
6 41111111MINSIIIME11111111
4

01 .2 .4 .6 .81.0 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080

Cu in soil, mg/1 MAAc- EDTA)

Fig. 246. Regression of Cu content of 22 Cu

pot-grown wheat (y) on organic inch i Inter .t. '
carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.) 20
soil Cu (x), India. P INEMIIIII MIN
18 9is= °.*.

'Y282111E1 ogoY7 MN 1111/1

10
'I;
. 111111111111
..1111011111111111
111111rTiliiiiiM111111
111011111111ME111111
1111111=111111111 =IF
r
ftrinimi ' 14
oi .4 .6 .810 26 810 4 20 40 60 100
Org.C-corrected soi CU,rng/1 (AAAc-pTA)

twice as frequent. Although low B values occur in other States, most of these originate in
Bihar, where four-fifths of the plant and soil B values fall in Zones I and II. Even the
remaining Bihar B values are comparatively low. If soil B values 0.3-0.5 mg/1 are con-
sidered as a critical limit for B deficiency (see Section 2.7) almost half of Indian soils can
be suspected of various degrees, from hidden to severe, of B deficiency. According to the
present data, response to boron fertilization could be expected especially in Bihar and is
least likely in Delhi. The highest B values were recorded from the Punjab and Delhi but
only a few of them reach a critically high level. The above data are in relatively good
agreement with those presented by Kanwar and Randhawa (1974).
Copper. India's location in the "international Cu field" is central (Figs 27 and 29). Only
a few Cu sample pairs fall outside the "normal" Cu range (Figs 245 and 246) and only in
one sample pair (45828) from Haryana were extremely high Cu contents measured.
226
300 Fig. 247. Regression of Fe contents of
2 75
2 50 Fe IIIME
111111FER
NMI
MIIIII
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
225 IRS1 acetate-EDTA extractable soil Fe (x),
200 liel IiiiiiM NM India.
1 75 EfiBIR111111111119;i P 111111
E 1 50 0011111131111111111111
i%ilIIIIIIIiLIIIIIIH
MI
c): 1 25
o
100 IIIIIMIIIIIII
milIIIIIIII MI6111111
1,5 90
WNW IIIIIONNIENIMIN
-~c' 80
70 MEE i
M111111Er" -

o
60 MORIPMEMiliill
u_
50 trelignIMINIII
Millikr.. 11111

II Mr
40

111111
30 lillnill iiii MIIIIMAIIP
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/l MAAc- EDTAI

Iron. On average the Fe contents of Indian soils and plants correspond closely to the
international mean values for Fe (Figs 31 and 247). The variation, however, is wide and
ranges from low to high. About 12 percent of the Indian plant and soil sample pairs are
within the two lowest Fe Zones, mainly in Zone II. Even those in Zone I are not in
extreme positions. Judging by the present results, there is no severe Fe deficiency at sites
where the Indian samples were taken but at some locations plants, sensitive to Fe defi-
ciency, may respond to Fe fertilizer. Samples in the two highest Fe Zones represent about 15
percent of the Indian material. High Fe values were much more typical of Bihar than other
States, while most of the low Fe contents were found in samples from the Punjab, Haryana
and Delhi.
Manganese. As in other countries with alkaline soils the Mn status in India is very low
(Figs 33 and 37). Every seventh plant and soil sample pair falls in the lowest and every
fourth in the two lowest Mn Zones (I and II, Figs 248 and 249). The ranges of variation of
plant and soil Mn are exceptionally narrow and no high Mn values were found in the
Indian material. Low Mn values (Zones I and II) are most frequent in Bihar and Delhi,
quite common in the Punjab but rare in Haryana and Madhya Pradesh. Shortage of plant
available Mn is apparent in many Indian soils.
Molybdenum. Owing to the high pH of Indian soils Mo is usually readily available to
plants. The average Mo content of wheat grown in pots on Indian soils is higher than the
average for the whole international material in this study (Figs 250 and 251). The national
mean for ammonium oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo is the sixth lowest among the
29 countries (Fig. 15). Correction of A0-0A Mo values for soil pH improves the plant
Mo soil Mo correlation, raises the Indian mean above the international mean for soil
 227
Fig. 248. Regression of Mn content 2000 11=MIMMINMEMIEMil=1.011 ammil
Ind a
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA n 2

extractable soil Mn (x), India. 1000 Y S 1. 10111:1111111111111

800 KTPT.M.swvrIMP-muivirirdreuEimiimm

400
600 MN
iismommenmmesinims
1111711MiliNENIMWSIOMMICMIIIMIIIIMMI
111MINIMMIIIIMME11111M
8: 300
t; 200 111111111111111111111111M1
-6
oo
80
8 60 1111!MIMEMINIIIVrall=111121111
111=aliniaNCIMMUSEMENNON60
c
z
40
30 iimmennigamilsomumm
20

10
8
=11MMEMMI1
11111111111111111111111
Era
IIIIMMINNIMMEMBON IMMINIMEMEN
2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 00 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

Fig. 249. Regression of Mn content 2000

In
... .ommaim11 imMIIM.Vmve

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA Mn

extractable soil Mn corrected for pH 1000
n 25
IHIELINIIMI111111
mmilipliwypesim.weempowm..r..=ms
Mi-0E13Atiff.IMMENELIEEI,AVIM=MMIIN
(x), India. 800 ---MENIMMMI--INEMEM=1...111
WEUIL:1112111K101Etrilinall22.101EINIMMINEMI
600
400 pr-

uIIIi
41

300
200
9

100
80

Il
MIIII
111" MEGEM7.1111=1=MMEN
MaMMINIgaie=i9P:VINnEMENMMTE.
MniiiililiiMrinIMI=MMEMEN21MMUEEI
60 11ILWIIIMMEMIOWI
40
30
NENNI=1111111
11Ell IIMICtUArinl=MMINIONIMilMMENNII
ENSM1212151=MEMIIIIMIENIII
II=1 ffalliffilMMENIIIIIMMENIEN
111Ni. :MTINONIMI111111=11111111
III
20

10 IIPP- 11111111.1111111
=1111111111111111111 MMIEN
8
IN
8 M1111111/111111Wal=MMON
M1111111111111111111MMIEZIMMMII
=MMIITZE
=IMMQ.III
2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
pH - corrected Mn in soil, mg/I (DTPA)

Mo, and moves India from the sixth lowest to eleventh highest place in the "international
Mo field" (Fig. 20). In other words, the apparent Mo status of India is substantially
changed. The low Mo values in Zones I and II have almost disappeared and the number of
high values in Zones IV and V is increased. According to these results problems of Mo
deficiency in India are much less probable than those of excess. High Mo values occurred
most frequently in samples from the Punjab and Haryana. In some cases where excess of
Mo is combined with low Mn availability, it may be useful to apply manganese sulphate
alone or mixed with ammonium sulphate or sulphur to obtain more lasting effects through
lowering the soil pH.
Zinc. In the "international Zn fields" (Figs 41 and 43), India occupies one of the very
228
rmmimasits =122;1111
11.71M11111
Ihtfil Fig. 250. Regression of Mo content
6
Mo MIONNIM
INSIVEMMIMMIIIN
MMIMNISI of pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium
=1/1.11a2gEBEIZIMill10 oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
3 (x), India.
2 MEEDIRIBIa
.1111111111111
11OWN Torm=smi Mtimmom
=mma ximismiemmesumits
==1MMIHINIMINIZEWX1101
=MMEMENOPMPIMillMESIMIN
INIE1/11151.11PRIMII
MIIMMIKEIMIZEMENINI
MMON11111111111111.-
o
o AFIa=1211111====111.
/MIIMIIIIMIIIIMENNrair
INIEMMIIIINNINMMIMMEENNI
06 WMAIIIII1111511111111MMNIMMI
rilM11=1111111111111MIMIMMIMIN
.03 'I
.02

.01
.01 .02 .03 .06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo in soil, mg/t (A0-0A)

III
M o 011111.11q1
MEMIII1====ill:
NWIIII11 i 4=WINIIIIM NR1 =5,1
NM
Fig. 251. Regression of Mo content of
1111IMENNZIi=11111111111 NO
IMINI pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
6 IMMENNIIM=ENZEICEEEtiiMninIMMIMMIN
3 11 11111mmi'63 °L23111 11MEMIIMM1111111
1111111ndlik
" r =0.61 " figliiiiiilliiIP
A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x), India.
India.
2

E
1
111111MININk111111111/111
IMMINIMME11=maillIMMINMEX191..===
MMINEIN
=MME=1MMIENNIIINIEZIall. Magi rg =110111M
=MMENNENEMEMPUMIIPITMI=1M
-5
.c .6 MEMEMII MMEMEMMINVMMEMINEMMMiii.M.
MEMIIII MOINIIIIMMX121113111=1=
ó .3
.2 i1111=MI 111111151,11111111111111MMI
O
.1
MIIIIMME1111111111111
inz.zoi eradliur.....
EalliniimMillii=EMENI MMI
06
I9iingltMainallrillEMIÏIM1
.03
.02 INIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
.01 111111111111101111111111111
.006 .01 .02 .03 06 23 .1 .2 .3 .6 1

pH-corrected MO in soil, mg/1 (AO- OA)

lowest positions. Depending on the extraction method 18 (DTPA) to 28 (pH-corr.

AAAc-EDTA) percent of the Indian Zn values fall in the two lowest Zn Zones (Figs 252
and 253) and even most of the rest are comparatively low. The analyses frequently indicate
quite severe Zn deficiency. Only in one sample pair from Haryana (45828) were very high
Zn contents measured. The frequency of low Zn values is highest in Bihar, where almost
 229
Fig. 252. Regression of Zn content 200 INEZ

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA .77

extractable soil Zn (x), India. 5
321

100
90

40
T5 30

o 20

Ni

10
9 111111iirirMARINCIII=MMIMENIIII
111111MINEINEMIIIIMEMEHIIIIIMINON
8
7 primmolimplm=01.1mwm
6 imgremonnimMENIIIIIIMMOI
nffillIONVE11111=
1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
Zn in soil, mg/I (DTPA)

Fig. 253. Regression of Zn content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH
(x), India.
20

1
Zn
MM HiS
MENIMI
I
oulm.....5.
...um 1IMIIIIIM1110111
nou
1111111
rMINI
1011i opium
memo empina
I
1
,

11. III 111111

IMffiUtelillIIIMIIIMMINIIII

' 1 11111 mannwowilail

3 111111111 111111"01d11111
1111111 1111111P.di
2
..11"1 rock 1 IIIII
11111

1
amaioc4
1011111111111 _1 IIIII
_.....
ETWOOkinammumniimmounis IME11111 =111101111111.

WRINlliU MINA Willi

MENNINIERNIIMMNIILIMI1111.
1 NIin In 1 11
.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
2
pH-corrected Zn in soi , mg/I (AAAc-EDTA)

every second sample pair falls in the two lowest Zn Zones. Low Zn values occur also in
Haryana, the Punjab and Madhya Pradesh but in Delhi soils the Zn content seems to be
somewhat better. In general, Zn deficiency, acute or hidden, seems to be much more
common in India than in most other countries. Many investigators have reported the
response of various crops to Zn in India.
230

7.1.4 Nutrient contents of original Indian plants with reference to varieties and other factors

Since the differences in the nutrient contents between the high yielding varieties and local
Indian varieties were considerably more pronounced in the case of wheat than in maize,
the varietal differences among the original Indian wheats warrant discussion.
Of 188 wheats sampled from India, 82 could be classified with relatively high certainty
as HYV and 59 as local varieties. Neither group was homogeneous. With a few exceptions
the group of HYV wheats consisted of cultivars HD-1553, WG-357, 'Kalyansona', N 4 and
'Sonalika'. Most of local varieties were identified in the "Field information forms" plainly
as "Local".
The average macronutrient contents of the two variety 'groups are compared in Table 25
where the analytical data of respective soils and fertilizer application are also given. These
data indicate that the N, P, K, Ca and Mg contents of HYV wheats are 134, 109, 56, 49
and 68 percent higher than those of the local varieties, respectively. For all five macronu-
trients these differences are statistically highly significant. In the cases of N and P some of
the differences can be accounted for by the larger amounts of N and P fertilizers applied to
HYV wheats and, compared with the local varieties, the HYV wheats were grown on soils
somewhat richer in P.
The differences in B, Cu, Mn and Mo contents between the original HYV and local
wheats were significant without similar (significant) differences in the respective soil data
(Table 26). When wheat (cv. 'Apu') was grown in pots on the same soils the differences
became statistically non-significant.
According to the data in Tables 25 and 26 there seem to be considerable differences
between the two variety groups in their ability to absorb nutrients, especially K, Ca, Mg,
B, Cu, Mn and Mo from the soil. However, there are other factors accounting for these
differences. The estimated yields of HYV wheats were about 3000 kg/ha and those of local
varieties about 2400 kg/ha. On the other hand, the local varieties were sampled at con-
siderably later stages of growth; the difference was 26 days on average. These two
factors, as explained in Sections 2.5 and 1.2.2, affect the nutrient contents in opposite
directions but the effects of physiological age are likely to be much more pronounced. If
we could take into account both these factors, the differences between the nutrient
contents of the two variety groups would be much less.
On the basis of the above data and discussion the striking differences in the nutrient
contents of the two variety groups obviously are partly due to genetic varietal differences,
partly to fertilization (N and P), partly to soil nutrient content (P) and partly to differences
in yield level and physiological age of plants at sampling. Not enough is known of the
quantitative effects of these factors, obviously variable from one nutrient to another, to
draw distinct conclusions on their relative efficacy. However, these data give further
evidence of the fact that estimation of the nutrient status of soils founded on analyses of
heterogeneous plant material may lead to misleading conclusions.
 231

Table 25. Comparison of macronutrient contents of high yielding and local varieties of original Indian wheats,
respective soils and fertilizer applications. Differences between the mean contents of the two groups followed
by the same index letter are not statistically significant. Letters ab indicate significant differences at 5, ac
at 1, and ad at 0.1 percent level.

Nutrient Average Macronutrient Content Average N, P and K

Original wheat Wheat soils application
% N %, others mg/1 kg/ha
HYV Local HYV Local HYV Local
(n = 82) (n = 59) (n = 82) (n = 59) (n = 82) (n = 59)
Nitrogen 4.32a I.85d 0.071a 0.071a 100a 63a
Phosphorus 0.399a 0.191d 10.8a 7.6b 26a 6d
Potassium 4.60a 2.94d 177a 180a 11° 7a
Calcium 0.453a 0.305d 3820a 3883a
Magnesium 0.229a 0.136d 475a 451a

Table 26. Comparison of micronutrient contents of high yielding and local varieties of original Indian wheats,
respective soils and pot-grown wheats]) grown on the same soils. For index letters indicating statistical differ-
ences, see caption for Table 25.

Micro- Average Micronutrient Contents

nutrient Original wheat (ppm) Wheat soils2) (mg/1) Pot grown wheat
(ppm) grown on the
HYV Local HYV Local same soils
(n = 68) (n = 57) (n = 68) (n -= 57) (n = 68) (n = 57)
Boron 5.7a 3.4c 0.67a 0.49a 6.4a 54a
Copper 11.0a 6.0d 6.2a 5.7a 8.2a ma
Manganese 70a 44d 8.3a 9.7b 46a 48a
Molybdenum 1.38a 0.65d 0.190a 0.204a 0.37a 0.35a

0 Compared to Table 25 the number of samples is smaller; see Section 1.2.6.

2) Extraction methods used:
B: hot water + CEC correction Mn: DTPA -F pH correction
Cu: AAAc-EDTA org. C correction Mo: A0-0A + pH correction

7.1.5 Summary

The Indian soils, except the fine textured high CEC soils of Madhya Pradesh, are usually
coarse textured, alkaline, low in organic matter and have a low cation exchange capacity.
The soils are generally low in N, P and K, but have satisfactory contents of exchangeable
Ca and Mg.
The most probable microelement deficiency problems are those of Zn, B and Mn
occurring most likely in Bihar. Many soils of Haryana, Punjab and Madhya Pradesh are
also short of Zn and B and those of Delhi low in Mn. Some relatively high B values were
recorded in the Punjab and Delhi soils. Many soils of the Punjab and Haryana were low in
Fe and high in Mo. Low Fe values were found especially in Delhi and high values in Bihar
samples. Of the five States represented in this study, Bihar seems to have more and
Delhi and Madhya Pradesh fewer micronutrient problems than the other States.
232

7.2 Republic of Korea

7.2.1 General

The approximate sources of the Korean sample material taken from 50 wheat and 50
maize fields are given in Figure 254. Soils classified as Cambisols (37 %) were the most
common, followed by Acrisols (21), Gleysols (17) and Luvisols (12).
Most of the Korean soils are coarse textured (Figs. 255). Only 14 soils out of 100 had a
texture index of 50 or higher. With only a few exceptions the soils are acidic but the pH
varies very widely, from 4.1 to 7.5. A medium content of organic matter and low cation
exchange capacity are typical as are a low electric conductivity, low CaCO3 equivalent and
low sodium contents (Appendixes 2-4).

1T 2. In. 1

/ ,.....4
. 5 19
L.
il :" '2:3%4760
43478
4343G GANG REUNG
i
43439 .
q
SEOUL
0 ,,,,, e ...9,,°;"
4'4.4'4:4"
16
WEi JU
SA 3401-06
,,t,
'.( 35 '' °' 43403-00
43409,3

T:., 7. 43438 -3D

43484
43485

43457,34345%
a 043428-22 34510 43453 4,.
434. A ,,4,:'
.T419495
A 43456

DA? JEON

. Ili
. ..-.AI 3343441
344

Ocfr GU
433-34

43445 43449-50

SA
43446- 48
,
.
Atiltt .. ,.. 1P.

V 0,401

. .,._3100 PO
1 '`b -a:
--° O
% ' C,,..,'

TY.
T.3
le o "-Sot
0
0'k> <, -. REPUBLIC OF KOREA
0, o 4
o
..0 300 \,

.o
I

127° 123. 12.0.

Fig. 254. Sampling sites in the Republic of Korea (points = wheat fields, triangles = maize fields).
 233

Fig. 255. Frequency distributions of Korea Internat.

45
Korea Internat.
texture, pH, organic carbon content, 30
n=100
= 36
3764
44
40 n r.
0=560
100 3783
6.64
Ss. 11 16 es= .92 1.12
and cation exchange capacity in soils of min.= 18 9 35 min.= 4.10 3.62
rnax.. 56 92 max.= 7.50 8.56
Korea (columns). Curves show the 30

international frequency of the same 25

characters. 20

15

10

0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
TEXTURE INDEX

45
Korea Internat. Korea Internat.
n.100 3779 n 100 3777
4= 1.2 1.3 . 17.4 27.3
= .4 1.2 no = 4.7 14.6
-a' 35 .1 min.. 6.7 .2
max.= 2.6 39.1 max .36.0 99.9
30

>,_ 25
0

u_
0

2 .4 .8 1.6 3,2 6.4 12.8 256 e 16 32

ORGANIC C,% CEC, me/100g

Figs 256-260. Frequency distributions Korea Internat. Korea Internat.

of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, 3
3= 50
31= 5.27
1765
4.27
n=
7= 3,95
50 1958
114
ss. 1.07
calcium and magnesium in original min.= 2.99
max= 7.09
1.15
.60 30
=
min.= 2.90
.41 .87
.88
7.45 max.= 4.69 6.51
wheat and maize samples and respect-
ive soils (columns) of Korea. Curves
show the international frequency of
the same characters.

2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5
N content of wheat,% N content of maize,%

Korea Internet Korea Internat.

60 n= 50 1765 60 n= 50 1958
8=115 .133 0= .144 .135
1,5= 041 .084 ta. .043 .088
min.= .035 .009 min...041 .008
50
S' max.= .270 1.023 max.= .231 1.657

10

_47.48810 444
.005 .01 02 0 .08 36 .32 .54 028 .005 01 .02 .04 .08 .16 .32 Lc 1.28

Fig. 256. Nitrogen, Korea. N in wheat soils, % N in maize soits,%

7.2.2 Macronutrients

The contents of total nitrogen in Korean soils are at an average international level but in
both original indicator plants the N contents are high (Figs 6 and 256). The average N
content of Korean wheat (5.27 %) is the second highest (after Hungary) recorded in this
study, but the variation range is wide. Both sampled crops were fertilized with high, but
 234

Korea Internet. Korea Internat. Fig. 257. Phosphorus, Korea.

35 n= 50 1765 n= 50 1967
Z 5.43 .38 = .37 .33
.6..13 .12 38. .08 .10
8 30 min.=.20
max ..713
.05
1.02
0 min.= .21 .05
max.= .51 1.04

6 7 8 9
P content of wheat% P content of maize,%

Korea Internet Korea Internot.

n= 50 1765 n= 50 1967
5
R= 45.4 20.2 = 44.0 22.5
= 28.2 24.7 no = 32.2 33.0
min.a 6.7 1.0 min.= 5.0 0.1
30 nao =116.3 271.4 30 mox =140.0 656.0

2.5 5 10 20 40 BO 160 320 640 2.5 5 10 20 40 80 160 320 640

P in wheat soils, mg/I P in maize soils, mg/I

Korea Internat. Korea Internat. Fig. 258. Potassium, Korea.

= SO 1765 no 50 1967
30 8= 4.0 4.0 30 R = 3.4 3.1
85 0.7 1.0 o 0.8 1.0
min 2.2 0.9 min.= 1.9 0.6
8 25 max.= 5.8 6.8 25 max.= 5.3 6.7

>-
o
coUi

6 2 3 4 5

K content of wheat % K content of maize,%

Korea Internat. Korea Internat.

/0= 50 1765 n= 50 1967
6=131 365 0= 190 330
30 as= 48 283 0 f5 104 356
min.= 45 20 min, 52 18
max, 256 2097 mats.= 492 5598
25

[77)..

20
o
Ui 15

o
Loi
a
u_
10

25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 25 50 100 200 400 BOO 1600 3200 6400
K in wheat soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I

varying doses of nitrogen (wheat: 100 ± 25 and maize: 107 ± 31 kg N/ha, Appendix 5)
which is probably the reason for the high N contents of the crops.
On average, the phosphorus content of Korean soils is twice as high as the average for
the 30 countries of this study (Figs 7 and 257). The P contents of Korean wheat and maize
are also high. The crops were fertilized relatively generously with phosphate fertilizers
 235

Fig. 259. Calcium, Korea. Korea Internat. Korea interne.

35 n. 50 1765 n 50 1967
8.39 .43 9.44 .47
10..09 .17 *0,11 .20
30 min.= .24 .11 min.= .21 .09
max.= .59 1.68 max.= .78 1.813

10

.6 .4
Ca content of wheat, % Co content of maize.%
Korea Internat. Korea Internal
n= 50 n= 1765 = 50 1967
35 R=1068 x=4671 5 R = 1391 3450
ts = 312 xs=3076 ts = 831 2815
min. 400 min.= 110 min.= 300 ID
max= 2220 max=21930 max.= 4000 17995
30 3

"O'

':> 25

20

Ul 15

cc 10

100 200 41, BOO 1600 3200 6400 12800 25600 50 100 200 6400 12800
Ca in wheat soils, mg/I CO in maize soils, mg/I

40
Fig. 260. Magnesium, Korea. Korea Internat. Korea Internat.
n= 50 1764 n= 50 1967
35
8.184 .172 = .270 .251
as= .048 .060 as= .085 .119
min...108 .044 30 min.= .147 .036
max.= .314 .948 max.= .471 1.125
25

20

15

ID

Mg content of wheat.%
.2 5
raj/1h.
Mg content' at maize, %

Korea Internat Korea Internat.

rm 50 1764
35 n= 50 1967
R= 194 489 R= 262 446
as= 81 437 Xs= 266 462
30
min.= 48 18 min.= 42 1

max.= 357 3291 max = 1832 6490

25 50 100 200 400 000 1600 3200 12.5 25 50 100 200 400 BOO 1600 3200 6400
Mg in wheat soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils, mg/I

(wheat: 31 ± 7 and maize: 35 ± 14 kg P/ha).

Korean soils are low in exchangeable potassium (Figs 8 and 258) but the K content of
plants are at an average international level (wheat) or higher (maize). Obviously, this is
due to comparatively high potassium fertilization (wheat: 58 ± 10 and maize: 77 ± 80 kg
K/ha). See also Fig. 11 and related text in Section 2.2.4.
Korean soils are generally low in exchangeable calcium and magnesium (Figs 9, 10, 259
236

and 260) but the Ca and Mg contents of plants are at an average international level. More
than one-third of the soils included in this study were limed and on two-thirds farmyard
manure was applied during the past few years before sampling. These practices have
possibly affected the macronutrient contents of the sampled Korean crops. See also the
effect of texture and CEC on the uptake of Ca and Mg, Section 2.2.4.

7.2.3 Micronutrients

Boron. The average B status of Korea is slightly low in an international context (Figs 22
and 25). Despite many B values falling in the low B Zones only a few of these indicate

100 11111111 MOM =WOW WS MI 111MOM NM BIM

B710 tioliatz3 PAM C "iim 111111 IN NM
80 11111 IN IN 1111111111111ME
MEM=110111111111141111111 NM ill II MI NM
TE=ER151111111111111111MINIIIMINIENUI
60 minusarommrtealisammummismill
50
40 1 437+ 0011/11E211111111111111111MMINIti
1119,27 +4.0 ah, 1111111V111111111111111113111
30
0_
a." 20
o
_c

"6
10
8
JiI_111111.11111111
6
5 IMINIMMINCEINP7.4111
-(1)
4
MeiniMilegarginin
,mitaillit11111
co 3
2 11311111 Fig. 261. Regression of B content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
III soluble soil B (x), Korea. For details
.3 .4 .5.6 .8 1D 2 3 4 56 810 of summarized international back-
B in soil, mg/l (Hot w. sol.) ground data, see Chapter 4.

100
80
n.9
60 ±s.4 148 6. 4.
50 O35
40
E .323+3 5x
0.
.30 r. 0 771* 02
20

8
.a., 6
5
C
o 4
3
co
2

Fig. 262. Regression of B content of

.08.1 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
C EC - corrected B in soil, mg /l (Hot w. sol.) (hot water soluble) soil B (x), Korea.
 237

severe B deficiency (Figs 261 and 262). It is apparent that boron fertilization would be
beneficial on many low B soils, especially on crops with a high B requirement such as root
crops, legumes, fruits and vegetables. Response of rape to B has been reported, e.g. by
Hong (1972) on a soil with 0.15 ppm available B.
Copper. Korea's position in the "international Cu fields" is almost central (Figs 27 and
29). Normal Cu values dominate in the Korean material and only a few fall outside Zone
III, none of them showing extreme Cu contents (Fig. 263 and 264). The analytical data
from the present material indicate no serious deficiency or toxicity problems in Korea.

22

20 Alliiiiii1111112111111111111111111111
18 ri,11111111111111111111
E
1101; ECIESE:11211111111111N1
cc1:16

Q)14 0/1111111111111111111111111/111
o

12 NIIIIIIIMM111111111111111011111
110
38 '44111111111111111111111111111
6
4 iNIMS111111111113111111
Fig. 263. Regression of Cu content of 2
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x), 1111111111111111611111111111
0:1 .2 .4 .6 .8 10 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080
Korea. Cu in soil, mg/i (AAAc- EDTA)

2 I cilire
) ml III errs in illilliniiiiii
Y±s"601 Ill -2,-..= glIN1110 MIMI
l Ill bviiiiiiiill 111111111
II 1
, Ill
1111111 II.11114 111111 MIIIIIII
IIIIIM1111111

'
ime
111111
1111111 um
innummummmonium
. E10111111

noirorisi 11111111111111
Fig. 264. Regression of Cu content of OilindfflE111 III MIMI
pot-grown wheat (y) on organic
carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.)
MI
î .2
IIIIIINSIELMAIIIIIIIII
4 .6 B 10 6 8 in 20 ¿n An inn 2 L.

soil Cu (x), Korea. Org.C-corrected soi CU, mg/1 (AAAc-EDTA)

238
300 Fig. 265. Regression of Fe contents
2 75 ignearliriIMMINIET MII
2 50 Mi2 1111111111 MI of pot-grown wheat (y) on acid
225
200 = iffiNENHIMMTOMINIII
smanionimain
IN 09,13811"
ammonium acetate-EDTA extractable
soil Fe (x), Korea.
1 75

11i"
E 1 50
ci
c1-125
o
100
.6 90

o
80
70 iiiUP
01111111
M11111111111211111
60
u_
50 111111111111 1111*
40 Elliliiiiiiiii ' Ili
30 uhIiiiO
MIMI
' ... 11111
El MI111241P
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/I MAAcEDTA)

Iron. The situation of Fe in Korean soils and plants is very similar to that of Cu (Figs 31
and 265). Normal values dominate and in spite of a few within Zones I and V, none of
them is in an extreme position.
Manganese. Korea stands clearly on the high side in the "international Mn fields" (Figs
33 and 37). Owing to substantial pH variation in Korean soils (Fig. 255) the availability of
Mn to plants varies, and consequently, the variation range of Mn contents of plants is
exceptionally wide (Figs 266 and 267). Correction of DTPA extractable soil Mn values for
pH raises the plant Mn soil Mn correlation to a very high level (r = 0.935***) and more
than triples the standard deviation of soil Mn. Both extremely high and low Mn values are
included in the Korean material. The highest values come from geographically various
locations in the country from sites of low soil pH(CaC12), usually 4.1-5.0. Correspond-
ingly, the lowest Mn contents were measured in samples from sites where the soil pH was
close to 7. See also Figure 34. Evidently, correction of Mn anomalies in several locations
would be beneficial, in low Mn sites by using fertilizer containing Mn and in high Mn sites
by raising the soil pH through liming.
Molybdenum. The Mo status of Korean soils and plants appears normal (Figs 268 and
269). The varying soil pH affects its availability to plants and the variation range of Mo
contents of plants is relatively wide. Correction of A0-0A extractable soil Mo values for
pH widens their variation and improves the correlation. However, the material shows
neither low nor high extremes of Mo contents. In many cases low Mo contents are
combined with high Mn contents (e.g. sample pairs 43436, -461, -463, -495), the common
nominator being low soil pH.
Zinc. Only two countries, Belgium and Malta, exceed Korea in the "international Zn
 239

Fig. 266. Regression of Mn content 2000 Emommiumom.,,,tii.m.m.=alwesamnammom.

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Mn (x), Korea. 1000 iii0111111111111111
STWVVICEItIrklMEN=RZWZIRWM==IIMOMI
MMImms'Emermasawramemmm
IIMENIMM
800
ratariliammummislummeamummom
600
nNommunimmmmosinirmimi
E 400
o_ 300 11=M11111111INIMMIIIIIIMMINE
t 200 11=111111111M11111111111E1
'15
"c"
a)
100
80
................n.w.......
11E1111111111111111111111 Y
11'1:12:1111 .71TIMMIZEINN
timm=mmtumm.-.,.-ilimommozonams.
60
.4E0
ItsNmezza-lionsmimimmonommwm
40 IMMINIMIE01=5111111=111111111.1
IIMIIMPAWN11101111111111111MMS
30
20 manilowerillomil
10
8 NI
....
111
................ all=
ii111111111110.111111111111111
......................
IWNIMIllOialIMINITMINNEM
IMIMMIMINOMIMMEMIIMIIIMMENII
M71M
1 2 34 6 8 10 20 301.0 60 80100 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/I (DTPA)

Fig. 267. Regression of Mn content

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
2000 r,onem. mumps
.... ! =MAIM
extractable soil Mn corrected for pH
(x), Korea.
E
1000
800
600 NI
I:5-
.. ..:,...........:.........-111.0
Maa.-S.' titialifilimia&ilommweecmicamNIEN
MIIMIUWMIMMUMMEN=111111MINII
WEEMMt0331ILVEITIMIIIMITITWiirAMMIIIIIII
II1 ,MMINIIIIMILIMMIMMIIICMIMMIllnil
0- 400
300
200
o
"2100 111111111111111h1111111
u...=ram=1.....momm.
a)
80
60
mommi-woumonme=mnss
MINI/ÌIEIMMIIMINI11MICIONI
40
30 111111111MENIIIIIMIIEll
20 111111=11111111=11111111
10 1111111111111111111
mINEIMMERIIMMEINE IM=IIMMEN
8 1=1Fria
IM=MIELL.11
1 2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
pH- corrected Mn in soil, mg/1 (orPA)

fields" scale (Figs 41 and 43). In spite of large variations in Korean soil and plant Zn
contents there are only a few values which would indicate possible shortage of Zn (Figs
270 and 271). The Zn contents of about every fourth sample pair are so high that the
samples fall in the two highest Zn Zones. Some of these are so extreme as to include the
maximum plant Zn and soil Zn contents recorded for the entire international material
submitted in this study. Most of the high Zn sites occur in the Suweon area on soils
classified as Luvisols or Cambisols. According to the above results Zn deficiency is rare in
Korea but at certain locations problems due to Zn excess may arise.
240
711/11.2111111 Fig. 268. Regression of Mo content of
6
MISR
00111:4Aleil
pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium
mordalailMEEPRI
1121J10111
oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
3
395
(x), Korea.
Yo
2
E
Q.
111111111.1111111
asonmr--=M1111
uuuui
....uNammommi
Eimmnisummaiammin
MMOIELORPIMMESOirn-
itKIIIIIIA11111111116,
IIMIZI=KAMMIIK11111=IMMII
AMMIMICWMIMMENIMINIIMME=MMENNI,MWAL.
MWAEr.glMIMSMMIIMM==IMII'W V
.06MrWAIIIMMIUMBIIIMMIMMEMEINIIM
NIINWAMINERMINIIMMINiMMIMIIMI
OMMEMEMINEMOMMME
.03
ormmulmmomil
.02

11 III
.01
.01 .02 .03 .06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo in soil, mg/t (Ao-0A)

MMIMM111 Fig. 269. Regression of Mo content of

6
Mo MEACIMOIET:101aMEMEMBrainTril AMMINIMMINI
pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
n=90
A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x), Korea.
3
Rts=0.127±,.2 7 mc_ .11=7.
log y=-1.232 0.4:91o. h 09 Y - '9
r =0.623 ''
2

E
o. 1
'difinir==rimalsi=1mtaltinPr
MMEEMBI=M=INIGNIMII=IIMMONSI
`63

"8
.6

.3
UUuIIIUUIHIII
INEEMMENHOIMPAinni
.2
2
o
o
1
111.11111111111111111111
NIMMIMMOINO=.%=WAINIMINEMMIIMMMINIMME
INIIIMMEMOIAINIIMPIIIIMMENE11=1=MMINEMI
IIMMOIMOMMIIIMUSIMEIMMENI=1M/MBEN
MEMIENIIIIMINIMMITINIUMMENIIMIMIMMENNO
.06 MEWIlnin 112.19NEHOMIMIMMEMEMil
11/121111MMEMIONIIIIIMEMMINI11111
.03
Pir
.02

.01 IIUNMIN=MMI
IL. Ph. mwm
=11.Melli=1 I=
111

.006 .01 .02 .03 06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23

pH - corrected MO in soil, mg/t (A0-0A)

7.2.4 Summary

The sampled Korean soils are generally coarse in texture, severely to moderately acid,
medium in organic niatter content and low in cation exchange capacity.
From an international point of view the macronutrient status of Korean soils is relatively
low, with the exception of P. The level of macronutrient fertilizer application is relatively
high and in addition two-thirds of the soils had received FYM and one-third were limed.
 241
Fig. 270. Regression of Zn content of 200 In'en t
pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract- Zn 2.
o'33,
7ts 1
3:s1
! 77
able soil Zn (x), Korea. 25 91 7 5
r-C 34 og x Icqy .12 321 log
r.0 3

80
70
E 60
13- 50
o
40

30

o 20
o

N
lo
9
8
7
6
UI

1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100

Zn in soil,mg/1 (DTPA)

Fig. 271. Regression of Zn content of 200

Or e 3 Irte
pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA Zn 9C
s. 2 D.)
353
183
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH s 8 St
(x), Korea. 100
c y .1
1

90
80
70
60
E 50
40
o
30
o
'c7;
20

10
9
8
7
6

.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100

pH-corrected Zn in soi ,mg/1 (AAAc-EDTA)

Consequently, the macronutrient contents of plants were at an average international level

or above.
Of the micronutrients the levels of Cu, Fe and also Mo are quite normal. In case of B
low values dominate and Mn values vary from very low to very high. Low Zn values were
rare but some were extremely high. The most likely micronutrient problems in Korea are
those of Mn and B deficiency and Mn excess.
242

7.3 Nepal

7.3.1 General

The sample material received from Nepal represents the Narayani, Seti, Mahakali,
Gandaki, Bagmati, Lumbini, Bheri, Koshi, Mechi and Sagarmatha areas. A map
indicating the sampling sites is not available.
The great majority of Nepalese soil samples are texturally on the coarse side (Fig. 272).
Soil pH varies greatly but the extremes, very acid and very alkaline, are excluded. The
organic matter contents of soils as well as their cation exchange capacities are generally
low to medium with a relatively narrow range of variation. Values for electrical conduc-
tivity, CaCO3.equivalent and sodium content are low for the most part (Appendixes 2 and
4).

5 Nepal Internat.
45
Nepal Internat. Fig. 272. Frequency distributions of
n=50
R = 37
3764
44
n=
=
50
6.16
3783
6.64 texture, pH, organic carbon content,
30 1.12
ts = 9
min.:. 23
16
9 35
as= .91
min.= 4.50 3.62 and cation exchange capacity in soils
max.= 57v, 92 max.= 7.59 8.56
25
3
of Nepal (columns). Curves show the
20 25
international frequency of the same
2-
20
characters.
W 15
o
162 10

ir V

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca Clz)

Nepal Internat. Nepal Internat.

40
n. 50 3779 n= 50 3777
1.0
= 1.3 = 19.7 27.3
1.2 30 5.7 14.6
es= .4 =
35 min.= .4 min.= 9.5 .2
max.= 2.0 39.1 max.= 36.5 99.9
o
30

25

20

S 15

LL" 10

.2 4 .8 1.6 3.2 6.4 12.8 25.6 8 16 32

ORGANIC C,% CEC, me/100g

7.3.2 Macronutrients

The total contents of nitrogen in Nepalese soils and wheats are at an average international
level (Figs 6 and 273). For soils, the range of variation is narrow, but wide for the wheats.
The use of nitrogen fertilizer (68 ± 70 kg N/ha) corresponds to the average for wheats
sampled in this study but the rates varied frorn 0 to 370 kg N/ha, which partly explains the
greatly varying N contents of wheats. The ten HYV wheats included in the Nepalese
material had higher N contents (average 4.79 %) than other wheats (4.04 %) but they were
 243
40
Nepal Internat. Nepal Internat.
n= 50 nr 50 1765
1765 Nepal Internat. 30 0= 3.7 4.0
0=4.19 4.27 n. 50 1765 0.9
= 1.0
±-s =1.07 1.15 35 0..40 .38 min.= 2.2 0.9
t 30 min..2.24 .60 an ..11
min...22
.12
.05 Eli 25 max.= 6.5 6.8
O max.=6.34 7.45 30 max...76 1.02
25
0-25
(>3 20 2-
'23 20
LU 15
o 015
1-1 10
u_
5 X'

AA4 /:;:' ...411 A A z, .4 .4 A

2 3 6 3 .2 .3 .4 .5 2 3 4 5 6

N content of wheat,% P content of wheat,°/0 K content of wheat%

70 Nepal Internet.
Nepal Internat. 5 n. 50 1765 Nepal Internet
n= 50 1765
X. 21.6 20.2 n= 50 1765
60 as. 26.6 24.7 5= 80 365
0= .133 min.. 1.2 1.0
30 non.. 121.4 no. 48 283
±6= .042 .084 271.4
min.= 23 20
min.= .061 .009 max.= 323 2097
0./
O max.= .222 1.023 O

1-/

0.40
>-
o
Z 30
U.1

o
11.1 20
Q.

2.5 5 10 20 640 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400

005 .02 .04 .08 .16 .32 8
N in wheat soils, % P in wheat soils, mg/I K in wheat soils, mg/I

Fig. 273. Nitrogen, Nepal. Fig. 274. Phosphorus, Nepal. Fig. 275. P,otassium, Nepal.

Figs- 273-277. Frequency distributions of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium in
original wheat samples and respective soils (columns) of Nepal. Curves show the international frequency
of the same characters.

grown on soils higher in total N (average 0.160 and 1.109 %, respectively) and were
fertilized with larger dressings of N (average 122 and 54 kg N/ha, respectively).
With regard to phosphorus, the limited sample material from Nepal very closely matches
P conditions in the international material as a whole. The soil and plant P averages are
about equal to their respective international averages and the ranges of variation are
almost as wide as in the whole material (Figs 7 and 274). The phosphate fertilization level
is somewhat lower and the rates vary slightly less (15 ± 20 kg P/ha) than those for the
whole material (21 ± 27 kg P/ha).
The extremely low potassium contents of Nepalese soils (Figs 8 and 275) are also
reflected in the K -contents of original wheats, for which the national average is the sixth
lowest recorded in this study (Appendix 2). It seems that the moderate dressings of applied
potassium fertilizer (16 ± 20 kg K/ha) are sufficient to keep the K contents of plants from
dropping very low. Nevertheless, the Nepalese soils are almost without exception deficient
in K and a good response to potassium fertilization is likely.
The levels of exchangeable calcium and magnesium in Nepalese soils are generally low
but the Ca and Mg contents of wheats are at or above an average international level with
fairly wide variations (Figs 9, 10, 276 and 277). These contradictions may partly be due to
relatively high Ca and Mg uptake from coarse textured soils with a low CEC. See Fig. 272
and Section 2.2.4.
244

NEPAL Internat. Fig. 276. Calcium, Nepal.

n 50 1765
35
= .48 .43
Is .13 .17
.11
S' 30
max ..76 1.68

0.25
3-
L) 20
Ui
0 15
1.1.1

Ca.content of wheaf,%
NEPAL Interna).
50 1765
5 5.1766 4671
as. 1173 3076
min.. 220 110
max.. 4660 21930
0

'13-1) 25

'CT)

100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800 25600

Co in wheat soils, mg/I

Nepal Internet
35 n= 50 1764
0=106 .172
±s =.059 .060
23 30 min.= .109 .044
max...358 .948
o
o
>-
0 20
4-1

oL1.1
15

X 10

5 .2 .4

Mg content of wheat,%

Nepal Internat.
5 n= 50 1764
R. 205 489
±s=111 437
min.: 38 10
max.= 458 3298

25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200

Mg in wheat soils, mg/I Fig. 277. Magnesium, Nepal.
 245

7.3.3 Micronutrients

Because of a laboratory accident the micronutrient data of 15 samples of wheat grown in

pots of Nepalese soil were lost.
Boron. Nepal occupies the very lowest positions in the "international B fields" (Figs 22
and 25). About half of the Nepalese plant and soil samples are within the lowest B Zone
and only a third lie in the "normal" range (Zone III), and these are close to its lower limit
(Figs 278 and 279). On the basis of the above results, widespread B deficiency, acute or
hidden, is likely to exist in Nepal, limiting yields especially of those crops with high B
requirement.

Fig. 278. Regression of B content of 10

pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water 8
) D
L./
l'1101101MOMINI11011111.0011111111111111111111111111111111
warcriwii7,0summailwinememmosorinamo
u. .i':-t -
Isemasounemmenuammussimmisnwelin
soluble soil B (x), Nepal. For details of 6 Misigm,E1111111-miraremsimi
=M W
summarized international background 5
4
Ì
) i ilin- '019 i ,EMIZEINIIIIIIINE li rim
data, see Chapter 4.
E3 ) IIIIIIIIIIIMINIIIII 1E111
E MIWWII Now
1011
...,_ 'lod'
mil
LINalMMENIICOMPT11111=1/1MMINIIIMD
1 Sraink
r
a=1:2010.2'Zil=7/111::
11111111111IMMillimMILIMEMAINIIIIMMIln
iiuiiIuuui
1111111111tHIMEMIPME21111

ou
=13111111111111
=Email
ummenin
IiiiiN ll
iiipmirm. ii-"Nm

'Iliq iiii
hi Rh" .3 .4.5.6 .81.0 2
. 3 456 8o11h
B in soil, mg/I (Hof w. sot.)

100
80 B -mi. mom milmwarazazirazil
4.----mmon.
- 1=MIIINDIO HI MmINIMMIUMI
60 MIIIBITIN. ±Q96M *M., mumumainumum
50 NII )7-ts 0 2 00 .11, A MOM
40
ea.30
a.
Iiii 1 In
-.2 44
11111 r . 0.577 Kim
/OW
R
Nib
rl il
20
4111
10 hi 1111 I
08 smal-. .mmairal,w-A,
1 '6,1e-rulsraikm-
.
65 111110111/211111 11=
oc.) I MMIPMINF A Ill MI
-
P 'N M I II M IL I
co
2
U
EMI
Fig. 279. Regression of B content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
III1111M
MIN
.08.1 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2
dd
IIi,
3 4 56 8 10
(hot water soluble) soil B (x), Nepal. GEC-corrected B in soil, mg/t Not w.
246
22 Fig. 280. Regression of Cu content of
20 E1111111111111111111111111 pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x),
18
1111111111111W 111111111111111 Nepal.
E
8:1 6 111111211111:1:10u 1111101111111111
114 1111111111111111.111111
.6 12 1111111111111111111111111111111111
111111111111111111C1111
8 8
1111111111111M11111111(1111/111
7
6 11151111111MININIMMIIIII
4 111111111=1111111MM1111
2 11111111111MIIIIIIIMMIPI
11111111111111111:11106111111111
o:1 2 .4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080
Cu in soil, mg/I (AAAc- EDTA)

Fig. 281. Regression of Cu content of

2 Cu I pot-grown wheat (y) on organic carbon-
Nep. 1 corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.) soil
g x -61
Vernt 111 Cu (x), Nepal.

2:: 8 121111117115111 1111

6:

°
ii?g°Y51°111 r
poPtiolli
l
MINI
86 II IIIILMAC.
p/0111111.1111111
i immll1
_nriirl
IIIMMAI
II ..u..11.,_
pPr

4
2
o
1PENIMMIC Ill
2 L.
11111
6 810
1

911.111311111Ed
2111121".'
L. 6 810 20
1`'S1111
40 60 100
Org.C-corrected soi CU,mg/I (AAAc-EDTA)

Copper. The Cu contents of Nepalese soils seem to be quite satisfactory and Nepal
stands relatively high in the "international Cu fields" (Figs 27 and 29). One sample pair
falls in Zone II and only three in Zone V, the rest lie within the normal range (Figs 280
and 281). Since no extreme Cu contents were found in the sample material the present
results indicate no serious Cu problems in Nepal.
 247

Fig. 282. Regression of Fe contents of 300

pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium 275
250
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Fe (x), 225 157 1
Nepal. 200 4 C 1C9 (cg

1 75
g_150

-6 90
80
IA) 70
o
60
u_
50

40

30 \rz\
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/I (AAAc-EDTA)

Iron. The mean Fe content of wheat grown in pots of Nepalese soils corresponds to the
international mean but the mean for extractable soil Fe contents is exceeded by only two
countries, Finland and New Zealand (Figs 31 and 282). There is no correlation between
the plant Fe and soil Fe values. Although a few relatively high soil Fe values exist, the
availability of Fe to plants in these soils seems to be low. Since no low Fe values occur in
the sampled material, Fe deficiency is unlikely in Nepal.
Manganese. According to the analytical data presented in Figures 33, 37, 283 and 284,
no Mn deficiency or toxicity problems are to be expected in Nepal, provided that the
sample material is representative of the Nepalese soils.
Molybdenum. On average, the Nepalese plant and soil samples contain less than half as
much Mo as all samples in this study and Nepal's positions in the "international Mo
fields" are clearly low (Figs. 15, 20, 285 and 286). The availability of Mo to plants is highly
dependent on soil pH and this varies widely in Nepalese soils. After correction for soil pH
the plant Mosoil Mo correlation coefficient (r) is more than doubled. About one-third of
the Nepalese plantsoil Mo points are within the two lowest Mo Zones (I and II), some of
them at quite low positions. Mo deficiency is likely to occur in Nepal, most probably in the
soils of the Bagmati area but also elsewhere.
Zinc. Nepal occupies one of the low positions in the "international Zn fields" (Figs 41
and 43). The ranges of variation for both the plant and soil Zn contents are comparatively
narrow (Figs 287 and 288). Only one sample pair is within the two highest Zn Zones and
depending on the extraction method one (DTPA) or seven (pH-corr. AAAc-EDTA) lie in
Zone I. According to the latter method Zn deficiency could be more severe than the results
of the DTPA method indicate. Although the lowest plant and soil Zn contents are not as
low as in some other countries (see e.g. India, Iraq and Turkey), Zn deficiency should be
expected at many locations in Nepal. See also Section 2.7.
248
mminnmommme mmoolowmommu a ommossmmea.ro
2000 ai 1 1:at Fig. 283. Regression of Mn content
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
111 5
1000
80
Box=mgdmory mmixiimewmor.m.:::=2..=
1
extractable soil Mn (x), Nepal.
800 illInTINIPErcatrrurRM5raiairmslesessimmsoill
railiMMINIIIMOONIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIN
600 11111111111MMEMENIM .
1111MMIIMMIII=MIZEII111111111111111111P111
11IMMEMINROMIUMINEMIMIUM
E 400
a 300 umommIlmommillsomm
t5; 200 IIIII1111111111111111111111121
111111111111111111111
'6 100
80 .....,,-..... ....
i:=6.a.nalli==vain.-1E67,
....--
saimommtwallow.....mam in _.
gin ink:

mull nil
-do 60
ihman161.61111 1MILI
40
30 limmilsop
20 11,111=1111111112111111111111MINI

10 111111111111MIIIIIIM
In.IMM=BIOIPM=IPÌÌIIIIMIMIOW=1
:NIMMEMMitillMOMEMMIIMMII EN
INIIMOIM1
8 11111=111111111111111ialIllITiMME
III MINIIIIIIMMONSiZOINIMICUMEN
IIUMMI
=MI
2 34 6 810 20 30 40 60 80100 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/I (DTPA)

ugimmmwq 4,11.11MMV,MP my au I.1 mul,wRimerio raw. . mamma

2000 Fig. 284. Regression of Mn content
gr5 t 1 of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
1111111111111111101
11..., ....ra...r,e261..Hies,=.---ssiiiii extractable soil Mn corrected for pH
1000
800

III
.i..
I r ' ° 6' 6
ilI
.1 ii mosul
Ill
600 NIMMI y ini.,, N. kUMELV. . INNIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIII/11,111
LiaiRallilliiMpReal
loomsfl
(x), Nepal.
400
300 II 1 1111111=MIIIIIIIMMICUM Ill
200 I mom! IllimpillITICTIM
100
80
60
.........
ImalrammMINE. ...mmEn ..canvialra==610ma
onmiNnamemmilvammir-=mma mcsi6§1
minamin
WI
IIIIIIMIIIIMIllitIMIllnd!MMIN111111111=1
40 IIMIIMWiNdiMMIIIIINk nle
30 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIRMIr=11111
In
MEMEL
20

10
8 Li
III al
.......................
IL
llill................,..........
.. ....m.....,..11......1..
2 3 4 6 810 20 301.0 60 100 200 300 600
pH- corrected Mn in soil, mg/l (OTPA)

7.3.4 Summary

The soils of Nepal are relatively coarse textured, widely varying in pH, with low organic
matter content and low cation exchange capacity. Of the soil macronutrients the contents
of N and P are at an average international level but P contents vary widely. The Ca, Mg
and especially K contents of Nepalese soils are low. Micronutrient problems concerning
Cu, Fe, and Mn are unlikely. Although the Mo content of many Nepalese soils and plants
is rather low, the most evident micronutrient deficiencies in Nepal are those of B and Zn.
 249

Fig. 285. Regression of Mo content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium 6 IMEARMIL=Ira
ÚnggniiiMi
011111111111111
1111111111111111111i

oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo CATICEMIEZMIENE

° 251111
(x), Nepal. 3

2 ETINIM22'S
E
0.1 111111.1111111
isnis=emsaim
MENUMIMMUDNIMP
MMEllosawarmisoni
"
o
o
o
1AlaINIMEN11
.06i/NWIWROMIMMINIP=MMU11.1
ESMOINEIMIMMENNII

.03
.02

.01
.01
11111111111
.02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
MO in soil, mg/t (A0-0A)

Fig. 286. Regression of Mo content of milonalmiwo

=011U11111115MIIMINIMillilll
EN .M11 MaiMMIIIIIMolteisso INI_IMI11111.111

pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected Mo nig[4.1.111

IIMM=leniiiiMMMEMMiliailiiiiiiiMai
1WIMMINIC11=7:1=1111=111111111MMEMINIMMININO
6 MENNEIIIIIMM=MMNIIIIGEIKaYMMIMMIIIMINMIMIIIIII
./fflIM

A0-0A extractable soil Mo

Nepal.
(x),
3
MEN1111131:111111MBIENNIIIRIEMEEILEM11/111=M11111
MNIIIIIMISIME IIIIIIIIMMIZEIIIIII
6
IMN
MI
2 111111VgA°9ffliiiiiiiIIRENiiiiiiIIMMRS

E
o_
ca. 1 ---.....-
11E .... 6=m1§1111
II 11111111111111111.111
=1=121MENIPNI1111111111111
1=IMMEMENIMMOUP.11IMOIRMIIN
"C;
w .6
Menummmosnil rArmsnimmoA.
1111111111=MEMIllil m/MIIIIIMM11
"ca''
.3
.2 InomninrAminnomm
o
o 1111111111111111E11111111E111
nzasol _--mwzdonl===0:::::==sia
.1

2 .06 ME11111MIZSEINI=MIENNI IER

MIMMUI11111211PAIMMIMIllIMME01111=1M
I

IMENIIIIMAMI '4
.03 Ilr -
.02

.01
.006 .01 .02 .03 .06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23
pH - corrected MO in soil, mg/l (A0-0A1
250
PVIMIIMY11 mmmimm Nos Fig. 287. Regression of Zn content of
200 -1 I o 1

Zn t 77 pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-

1 I
:5321 log
able soil Zn (x), Nepal.
100
90
BO
70
g. 60
cL 50
o
.2 40

20

10
9
8
7
6

.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100

Zn in soil, mg/I (DTPA)

200 rs I te n
t" 3
13
± 1. 82

100
90
80
70
60
50
40

30

20

lo
89

7 Fig. 288. Regression of Zn content of

6
pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA
.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100 extractable soil Zn corrected for pH
pH-corrected Zn in soi , mg/i (AAAc-eorm (x), Nepal.
 251

7.4 Pakistan

7.4.1 General

The distribution of the 242 sampling sites in Pakistan (Fig. 289) covers relatively well the
most important agricultural areas of the country. Of the 131 soils classified according to
the FAO classification system, Yermosols (44 %) and Cambisols (36 %) are far more

e
,
0
I
50
1.----1
100 150
I
200 km
1

7,61- 7179' ',...

) z' \ 12, 1
re
7341-7350 ......_2j
.00951-8995., / F--.
70
) \ . 204\ e
\ 7270
0 (
5 )
W.Whyir.
..) B520 615N.
e51254

C.

I
j:° 6.9437

893
"41:13
435 726.1°
'6'5

B. ,,
I

150
7197
69 (.

'5'67'1046'
7195 _____3 .
196
.8-4
.

52. .,

6
- 183 95
716
7190
0927.
2a
B.15
9
9496
155

15,1
\....,. 9.29
LYAL LI PUe70, 17 a
8950 0 .7 .06

.' /
,_,.., 79:-i8..-21:::
7269 842
.57 ,.i 7"' 45
MI6 A " 25 7{57
',K.. 7 7
, 266
o 40. ,..-
U -. ----in:
7 ULT
ea
-' ' :::?
3 30.
30. , .71. 9 596
849
737

.0.64 71 ,i

ii
0
7 e %VI P U R
8977 .)/
6 es 9489 (.
0460
698
i
0890.
406

/,
e 9497
1 72

/- \ :816U KUR

,,
,
00020 MINI ----'-- if orzA
f
i- _ 0.
rxr r "?;,,,,

/P
29e ;
j

ze WS'' 7,.. _,

\\
I
,ii. e

HYDERABAD :' 8

,--.A
i
.,
OB 7300
7308 I .4
' 7310 \ DERADA

:=
0

2
./-
A4 ,2°
4°

20.
70'
PAKISTAN

Fig. 289. Sampling sites in Pakistan (points = wheat fields, triangles = maize fields). The last four numerals
of each sample pair number are given.
252

common than others: Fluvisols (9 %), Halosols (7 %), and Luvisols and Xerosols (2 %
each).
Most soils are coarse to medium textured and highly alkaline (Fig. 290). The national
average pH(CaC12) is higher than in any other of the countries studied and the standard
deviation is exceptionally narrow. Low organic matter content and low cation exchange
capacity are typical of Pakistani soils. The values for electrical conductivity and CaCO3
equivalent are relatively high (Appendixes 2-4). In many locations, especially in the
Multan area, the alkalinity and high electrical conductivity are combined by high Na
contents of soils.

35 Pakistan Internat. Pakistan Internat. Fig. 290. Frequency distributions of

n=242 3764
7= 40 44
rue. 242
s=7.77
3783
6.64 texture, pH, organic carbon content,
30
s= 8 16 s= .25 1.12
min.= 19
max.= 65 55
9
92
35 min.= 6.15
max.= 8.56
3.62
8.56
and cation exchange capacity in soils of
Pakistan (columns). Curves show the
international frequency of the same
characters.

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 5 6
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca CIO

45
Pakistan Internat. 35 Pakistan Internat.
40
n=242 3779 n= 242 3777
R.R .6 1.3 R= 16.5 27.3
Rs= .3 1.2 Rs= 4.9 14.6
35 min.= .2 min.= 7.5 .2
max.= 3.2 39.1 max.= 41.2 99.9
o
w30
25
U
LTJ 20

S 15
CC
IL 10

.2 .4 .8 1.6 3.2 6.4 12.8 25.6 8 16 32

ORGANIC C,% GEC, me/100g

7.4.2 Macronutrients

Because of the relatively high and greatly varying nitrogen fertilizer applications (wheat
58 ± 57 and maize 83 ± 90 kg N/ha), the nitrogen contents of original wheat and maize
vary widely but are generally at an average international level in spite of the exceptionally
low total content of soil N (Figs 6 and 291).
Pakistani soils, on average, are poorer in 0.5 M NaHCO3 extractable phosphorus than
soils of any other country, but the P contents of plants are only slightly below the interna-
tional means (Figs 7, 292 and Appendixes 2-4). Greatly varying but mostly only mode-
rate amounts of phosphates had been applied to the sampled crops (wheat, 9 ± 15 and
maize, 12 ± 29 kg P/ha, Appendix 5). The discrepancy between low soil P and relatively
high plant P contents may partly be due to the effects of CEC (Fig. 14, Section 2.2.4).
 253
Figs 291-295. Frequency distributions Pakistan Internet Pakistan Internet
n= 156
of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, 35
=4.56
1765
4.27
n=86
3.13
=
1958
3.14
es= .82 1.15 as= .76 .87
calcium and magnesium in original 30 nan= 2.19
max.= 6.25
.60
7.45
30 min.= 1.37
max.= 4.67
.88
6.51
wheat and maize samples and respective 25

soils (columns) of Pakistan. Curves ti 20

show the international frequency of the W 15
same characters. o

5 6 3 4 5 6
N content o heat, % N content of ma ze,%

Pakistan Internet_ Pakistan Internet

n = 156 1765 n. 86 1958
60 0..082 .133 60 =.077 .135
15=026 .084 as= .022 .088
min.= .033 .009 min.= .008 .008
mar.= .169 1.023 0 max.= .139 1.657

42.40

o
Z 30
o
W 20

10

.005 .01 .02 .04 .08 .16 .32 .28 .005 .0 .02 .04 .08 16 .32 .64 1.28

Fig. 291. Nitrogen, Pakistan. N in wheat soils, % N in maize soils,%

40 40
Fig. 292. Phosphorus, Pakistan. Pakistan Internat. Pakistan Internat.
n=156 1765
5 n= 86 n=1967
=.37 .38 8.31 8= .33
as= .10 .12 ts=.07 as= .10
min.= .12 .06 30 rnin.= .15 min. .05
max.= .72 1.02 max.=.52 mox.= 1.04

25

20

1 2 .3 .4 .5 .6 1 .8 .9
P content of wheat, % P content of maize,%
40 40
Pak istan interne Pakistan Internat.
35 n= 156 1765 5 n= 86 1967
= 7.1 20.2 8= 6.3 22.5
as = 6.9 24.7 as= 6.0 33.0
min.= 1.4 1.0 min. .8 0.1
max, 51.6 271.4 max.= 41.0 656.0

25

o2- 20
D 15
o
a_ 10

2.5 5 10 20 40 BO 160 320 640 2.5 5 10 20 40 80 160 320 640

P in wheat soils, mg/I P in maize soils, mg/I

The potassium contents of Pakistani soils are slightly low in the international scale (Figs
293 and 8). In spite of this and of the small rates of potassium application (Appendix 5)
the K contents of plants are generally high but vary widely from one sample to another.
Obviously the high rates of nitrogen application have accelerated the uptake of K from
soils (e.g. Rinne et al., 1974 a; Sillanpää, 1974). For example, maize plants containing more
254
35
Pakistan Intermit Pakistan Internat.
Fig. 293. Potassium, Pakistan.
n. 156 1765 n= 86 1967
8= 4.8 4.0 O Os 3.6 3.1
SSS 0.9 1.0 ±s= 1.0 1.0
min.= 2.2 0.9 min.= 1.5 0.6
max, 6.8 6.8 5 max.= 5.5 6.7

4 5 6 2 3

K content of wheat°/0 K content of maize,%

Pakistan Internal Pakistan internat

n = 156 1765 n= 86 1967
= 245 365 es 188 330
30 SSS 127 283 0 ±s= 98 356
min.= 55 20 min = 58 18
max = 945 2097 max.= 510 5598

20
>_

15
o
tu

25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 25 50 10a 200 400 BOO 1600 3200 6400
K in wheat soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I

Pakistan Internat.
40
Pakistan Internat. Fig. 294. Calcium, Pakistan.
5 n .156 1765 3 n= 06 1967
= .39 .43 X= .50 .47
01. .13 .17 05= .23 .20
min. .13 .11 30 min.= .22 .09
max.= .78 1.68 max, 1.62 1.88

25

20

10

w5r,
.8 .2 .8
Ca content of wheat, % Ca content of maize,%
494 40
Pakistan Internat. Pakistan internot.
n= 156 1765 n= 06 1967
35 1= 4516 4671 35 8= 4102 3450
ts = 770 3076 *5= 839 2815
min.. 1200 110 min.= 2230 10
max.= 7240 21930 max.= 7160 17995

2.14 25

ILI 15
o
1./J
ix 10
u_

100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800 25600 SO 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800
Ca in wheat soils, mg/I Ca in maize soils, mg/I

than 4.0 percent K had received 123 kg N/ha while plants with less than 3.0 percent K
were only fertilized with 44 kg N/ha on the average. Similarly, wheats with 5.5 percent K
or more had received 91 kg and wheats with less than 4.0 percent K only 51 kg N/ha on
the average.
 255

Fig. 295. Magnesium, Pakistan. 40

Pakistan intemot. Pakistan Internat.
35 ri= 156 1764 35 n= 86 1967
5= .189 .172 5.280 .251
55..044 .060 4s= .127 .119
u min.= .106 .044 30 min.= .124 .036
max.= .358 .948 max.= .652 1.125
25

>-
C_2 20 20

1.11
D 15 15

z33
1.1.1

10
u-

_A, addal
5

Mg content of wheat, % Mg content of maize, %

40

Pakistan Internat. Pakistan Internat.

35 n= 156 1764 35 n= 86 1967
9.362 489 0.292 44E
4s= 154 437 4s= 107
min.= 78 10 min.= 57 1

max.= 924 3298 max.= 615 6490

.

o 5

a 20
3-

pm7,, ex4e4', .4.41M

25 50 100 480 400 BOO 1600 3200 12.5 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3000 6400
Mg in wheat soils, mg/t Mg in maize soils, mg/t

The average calcium contents of Pakistani soils and plants correspond closely to the
international means (Fig. 9). In wheats and wheat soils the contents are slightly on the low
side, while in the case of maize they are on the high side (Fig. 294). Although the exchange-
able Ca contents of Pakistani soils vary only little, the variations in the plant Ca are wide.
In general, the magnesium situation in Pakistan is quite normal (Figs 10 and 295) and in
many respects is reminiscent of that of Ca. The variation of exchangeable Mg contents of
soils is rather narrow but wide in the case of plant Mg.

7.4.3 Micronutrients

Boron. In the "international B fields" (Figs 22 and 25) Pakistan is among the countries
occupying the highest positions. The correlations between plant B and soil B are very high
(Figs 296 and 297). Correction of soil B values for CEC increases the relative share of high
B values and moves Pakistan to the right in the "international B fields". About eleven
percent of the B values fall in each of the two highest B Zones (IV and V), many of them
in extreme positions (Fig. 297). Many of the highest B values are found in Multan but
there are also soils rich in B in Sind and elsewhere. Low B values were often recorded in
samples from unirrigated sites. If soil B values of 0.3-0.5 mg/1 are considered as critical
256
100 _
monatmotinammar-Tithommatommmismoss Fig. 296. Regression of B content of
80 isioassiNumiumcom=mMmas
gEREINIIIIENIENNEMII==M111111111N pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
mg.° se_ 86 E_Mminammowni
60
50
= 8.81
soluble soil B (x), Pakistan. For details
glica7713/1111
40
30 MIIM of summarized international back-
ground data, see Chapter 4.
Q: 20 0 iliN11111=11111111
O

10 INE111111M11111111
IIIIMIR1111MINKMORILIPIMMINIMMEN
"6 8 11111101IMMINIORMIERIMSMIIIIIMINIMEMO
6 111111111MliMMINNIMAildeMilli1111111M111111
5 IIIIIMIZIMMINTAMMIMUIMM=M1111111
4 IIIIIIIMINI,M111111 MEDIUM
co
2
3
uiniuinui EEL!
111111111111 1111111
.2 .3 .4.5.6 .81Q 2 3 4 56 810
B in soil, rag/I (Hot w. sol.)

100 Fig. 297. Regression of B content of

80
rt.= 7 358 pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
60 I 786 69 (hot water soluble) soil B (x), Pakistan.
50 2±-090 0,4 O. 0
40
E
a_ 30
y. 0 41. 36x
r= 0 886
r0 8
0. 2

'20 *1

_c

10
8
a)
6 1..1.1 .
5
4
co
3
2

III
.08:1 .3 .4 .5.6 .810
.2 2 3 4 5 6 8 10
C EC -corrected B in soil, mg/1 (Hot w sot.)

(Section 2.7), a number of Pakistani soils can be suspected of B deficiency.

Copper. Almost all the Cu values measured from the plant and soil samples are within
the normal Cu range (Zone III, Figs 298 and 299). The present analytical data indicate
neither Cu deficiency nor excess. Only one sample pair (48462) from Multan falls in Zone
V but even that is not in a very extreme position.
Iron. Against the international background the Fe situation in Pakistan is relatively
normal (Fig. 31). About ten percent of the Fe values are within the two lowest Fe Zones
(Fig. 300), mainly in Zone II. Such values as are in Zone I lie towards its upper boundary
and, at worst, indicate hidden Fe deficiency. Dry weather during the growing season may
 257

Fig. 298. Regression of Cu content of 22

pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
20 EISE11111111111111111011111
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x),
Pakistan. `7' ± 11111111Wi 111111111M11111
E18
8:16 1111111111111:11m CI 113E11111
46:14
11111111111111111MIIIN
.6 12
10 1111111111111111111111M21111
38 11111111111111111111EINUM1111111
6 1111111111019111111111111111
4 1111111111M911111111Ii1111
2

o
.2 .4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080
Cu in soil, mg/l (A A A c- EDTA

Fig. 299. Regression of Cu content of 22 'Cu

pot-grown wheat (y) on organic

. :. ,-
-o
carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.) 20
soil Cu (x), Pakistan. .-
Px,o.
-; =...;-.
18 ,

taY21111611=11161 ri

INIII ION
o
10

6
4
...i,.......g. .. .
IMISINIMMIll
......1 ,
2 IIPIF 11111 ,.,

.4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 "3--

40 60 100
Org.C-corrected soil CU,mg/l IAAAc-EDTA)

lead to oxidation of ferrous to ferric Fe due to excess soil aeration, and so decrease the
availability of Fe to plants and induce Fe deficiency (e.g. De Kock, 1955; Granick, 1958;
Mokady, 1961). Most of the lowest Fe values were measured from samples collected in the
Peshawar and Lyallpur Sheikhupura Lahore areas.
Manganese. With its highly alkaline soils Pakistan is among the countries of the lowest
Mn status (Figs 33 and 37). The variations in both plant and soil Mn contents are ex-
ceptionally small (Figs 301 and 302), and nearly all Mn values are concentrated in the
two lowest Mn Zones or close to the lower boundary of Zone III. There seems to be no
clear geographically distinguishable low Mn districts and soils of Mn shortage are scattered
258
3 00
1711FAMMIIMILMIWN MUIR II Fig. 300. Regression of Fe contents of
2 75
2 50
225 niMPOrwiliffirigni I
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Fe (x),

I
200 MlpflI11111111011111111I Pakistan,
,357,111111151111iiiiiiIMI
E 1 50
1 75
Ill 1111111E1111
r

I 111111
1
.125
a: 1111111111111111 111111
airs

1111111111111111111
.6
100
90 Limmummillumi
minumlemonaresuni
80
NIIIIIIIIIIMMIIMIll
o
C-)
70
60 MIMIll11111
50 Mgeolr- lilMiii
40 11111111 ' ' MIMI I
30 111E111
immintm
111
plimmitawmu
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/l fAAAc- EDTA)

all over the sampled areas. On the basis of these analytical data it seems likely that Mn
deficiency, acute or hidden, is relatively common in Pakistan.
Molybdenum. Unlike Mn, no low Mo contents were found in Pakistani plant samples.
The national average for pot-grown wheat Mo content was the highest among the 29
countries studied (Figs 15 and 20). Owing to ammonium oxalate-oxalic acid being an
inefficient extractant of Mo from alkaline soils, the national mean soil Mo content is lower
than the international average (Fig. 15). This contradiction is resolved by correcting the
soil Mo values for soil pH (Fig. 20), whereupon the national mean for soil Mo becomes
higher than that of any other country. Almost 40 percent of the Pakistani plantsoil Mo
values fall in the two highest Mo Zones, with more than half of these in Zone V (Figs 303
and 304). Geographically there are no distinct high Mo regions. The origins of high Mo
values were scattered all over the sampled area, being somewhat less frequent, however, in
Rawalpindi and Peshawar than elsewhere.
Zinc. With Turkey, India and Iraq, Pakistan belongs to the group of countries where
low Zn values are more common than elsewhere (Figs 41, 43, 305 and 306). The national
mean values of plant and soil Zn are similar to those of India but the variations in
Pakistani Zn values are smaller. Relatively fewer Zn values therefore fall in the low Zn
Zones and in less extreme positions than in the case of India. Nevertheless, the frequency
of low Zn values is internationally high and in numerous locations a response to Zn can be
expected. Only a few Pakistani samples showed an abundance of Zn. The low Zn values
were perhaps more typical for Sind, Multan and Peshawar than for other sampled areas.
 259
Fig. 301. Regression of Mn content 2000 mmwr 1Imummot ___
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Mn (x), Pakistan. 100011 1111111011111111.11
11=MMEMI=11
FirLEMMEMAIMENNWIMMeYll,=UMMIN1

iiiiiimii
rrnMiliEMENIMMMIKWIRVINITIMIEn
800 II
600 r rninziiammnmuvsh.-smwmmenmmm
...1 1Epp
k. 340000 i
1 200 LL
!o 1 00 11E1111111E111PM
..:IMCNE ALlillik
WilreMniMME=1
leINERM=MLIMIII
2 -a 11
C 80 :I IMIIM=MMEENICELMlatrillThilnE011
CD
-a. NI 11159MITEMIIMMMEMENI101MH
b U II =*.IIIVENIPIMMIMINIII1=M
111MMIIIIIMirilaMEMMIllM
2c 4°
30 IIIIMMIMBECHUINMEMIIIIIMME
20 91,,,1211111111111..1111111=111

10
8
hilliiiiMPIIIIII
H
INMI=MMIIIIII lii=
M
=1MilinfiliaMaaTiNNUMEN
=1MEMIRON=C2111MMINMEMOI
IffiTMMI

2 34 6 8 10 20 3040 60 80100 200 300

Mn in soil, mg/l IDTPA I

Fig. 302. Regression of Mn content 2000

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Mn corrected for pH 1000
800
Mn INUMMAIRMININ
mmromvp...=mumbi.m.m=mo
l---MH121nwEENI---1H
mmoakeiEHLRNEwinGEtntomonHimmim[m
(x), Pakistan. 600 WrRrINUMEilWITEEd.11**i 0.NEMçNUMINEH
11MONIIIEIMIEMIEZINOVIIMMMMMEMMI
400 I
300
_c
200
.4
o

cu
100
80
60
=11MiN=111
II
II
AIIII 6.
111=EITAINTrIMENNII'l'ECORI
mromitmernomlmmsemil
40 11 EmiermissnimmEmmmmne
30
20

10
8
11/111111111.1111111
nMIIIIINHESIMMTAMMEMEH .......
==Hff
NI M===111111H111LINOMMINEMEMI =MMINUAN
2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
pH - corrected Mn in soil, rng/i (DTPA)

7.4.4 Summary

The Pakistani soils are usually coarse to medium textured, low in organic matter and have
a low cation exchange capacity. The outstanding feature is their high alkalinity. Very low P
and N, relatively low K, medium Mg and Ca and high Na contents are typical of most
sampled Pakistani soils.
Out of the six micronutrients included in this study, only the contents of Cu and Fe are
usually within the normal international range. The contents of B vary widely, high values
being the most common, but in a number of soils shortage of B is apparent. Owing to the
high alkalinity of Pakistani soils, the availabilities to plants of Mn and Zn are low but that
of Mo is high. Consequently, shortages of Mn and Zn and an excess of Mo are typical of
many soils.
260
Fig. 303. Regression of Mo content
6 1112; ; Z17::::
111' 01111011111MINEMIMI of pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium
MMiMiii.iiigii*KaniEnntal oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
MEMIRM.98 lo - lititr! .
3

2
IMIENIIIMIIIIIIIII (x), Pakistan.
E
o. 1
.................
MIIIIIIISIIIIIII
-- ........
..norr,ammea
2 .6 --... NECIVINICOMMIN I
MMillitidEIMEIMI I
ó3 MMEPrilliMarinii I
.2
o
1111111111111111111111&
111MME11====11WI W&
= .....-
.1

...CM11:1110..=mwm.. g
.06 W
ir 19
=IMIREMPAI

.03
.02

III
.01
.01 .02 .03 .06 1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo in soil, mg/ (A0- OA

1IMM
ilikalran
MIIIII1111MMXIMMINIIMIIMO
magsparm=rn
6
Mo
n.237
82 1131111liftrIMMEEEISIIIIIMMINIE
3 55' ZENUIPC °
2 111111111C-MINIMINI111101
1111111111111111M11
MAIMMOMMOEilli111111=
=11MIMIN=1710NMPIIITilliPWAWINIIIMMINNIIII
MINEMENNIMMMEMIltaMall..aiIMM
=MMENNI IIIIIIIIIPIPMEN411!1MMEN
MEMENICilifranriiiniEMMIN
MEMENMEMIEMEniiiiMMIEME
Ululi ..11111MMINEINIOIMMEMI
.2

1 1111111T11.1111111imr
MIZIO11=2:1.111=="ZE:1111== ill
mommara IERMMENNI=n==
11111111116.
MIENNUI/11.
711=MMENNI=11MLI
4111111M111111111 11MIMMEIMIIIIMIE=ME
11111MT NONNI MINIIMENIIIIIMEN
.03
.02
Fig. 304. Regression of Mo content of
.01
.006 .01
1160111111MLI
.02 .03. 0623 . .2 .3 .6 1
pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x),
pH - corrected MO in soil, mg/t (A0-0A) Pakistan.
Fig. 305. Regression of Zn content
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Zn (x), Pakistan.
200

100
90
80
.....
Ill
Iiii
Zn

1111MMENIII
rsysou....
n= 3
3± =I
R± =

1
yr:h: 39
.

MIR
MM....11IMMEN1111111M1111111MII
MM IIIII
1:,
r: 3

D
.. ..

17:11
261

70
E 60
o_

o
50
.c°' 40
111111111111111,1
iiupiiiir
IMIIIIIMPRiel 1 111
"6 30
G)

4g. 20

N
10
9
11111Pillal
8
7 hdaiiiiiiii1111111Emid
6
111111111111111111111111MIli 3L
.2 .3 .4 .6 .81 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
Zn in soil,mg/l (DTPA)

20
1

, . 1 183

' : 1. k 8:' 8'

Emmiiiiiilligniiii
=Ell
on
1mow
11111=1 1
1
' 1 1111111=11111
111111
, liiiilii !MIMEO
111111 01111 II
1 Of II .,; ' IMIL 'L

1
0114''....'. .:161.
=2106.--; IlkIL
1001
Fig. 306. Regression of Zn content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH
'
.2 .3 .4
II 111 11111E11N
3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
.6 .8 1 2
(x), Pakistan. pH-corrected Zn in soil, mg/( (AAAc-EDTA)
262

7.5 Phi'Wles

7.5.1 General

The sampling sites of the 197 maize-soil sample pairs collected from the Republic of the
Philippines are well distributed over the most important agricultural areas of the country
(Fig. 307). The sampled soils were not classified into FAO soil units but according to the
FAO/Unesco Soil Map of the World (1976) the majority of Philippine soils consist of
kr, V

.51569-573
57'757'575
.' 61t6.4.RAO PH ILIPPI NE S
567-568

A. 63-565 ,

699 ,

59456 ,A, iArBONG

.
7°. A535-5911599-550
e
' 5 At59-555"5
691 e9e A tl 1

561 "5"
55°" '591-592
695 ,t, 597-548
.. Ital..
533
1

585-586A
517
,,t' 5° I
"45t-4:31Z;'
1

a
et

97 59 soz ,59
69 Or_60.14...a..
99
o IIP v
.o o o"°'6S
AC
'Attt..A. BOAC

691A

0 06

)
%0

,
,,,,6 - KAALOGA

It
. ,t ..
GA
V
AG1,0
Q^.. -619
t*-Ei
et 612
, 0s 522 '° t 5z'

607-60B 62e6e-'° Q' .

68
605
09

D .0
6,0 6p,ryc 11:68
, 686
t.t 0 ABA
se-es
6 7-678\ AA
675-676
I- f69-672
6 3-679
.DU GUE
99 652
-- 6 NIP
655
653-659
56

: 68 62g456:intler-"
OROOUt A ' . sse 1,1
2 64 A
6 9, G. A en
6. .1
f".
What.,
il eso AA . A626-628
82

\
"5'31631-632
633-636A

At'
6 '5°T" A't. 1 5502.1

1 0j5°049' 510

1
51 A 51
1
.0.i.
JOLn:::),,,:,,,,, tit

t t.-t t

o(0
, ,. a

Fig. 307. Sampling sites in the Philippines. The last three numerals of each sample pair number are given.
 263

Nitosols, Acrisols, Cambisols and Andosols. The textural variation of the soils is excep-
tionally wide (Fig. 308) covering the whole texture scale from very coarse (texture index
<20) to very fine (TI > 90). In the pH of soils the variation is also great and only the
most alkaline soils are not represented. The contents of soil organic matter are usually at a
medium level but the majority of soils have a relatively high cation exchange capacity. The
electrical conductivity and CaCO3 equivalent values and sodium contents of soils are
generally low (Appendixes 3 and 4).

35 Philippines intomot. Philippines Internet

n. 197 3764 40 n= 197 3783
30
R. 48 44 0= 5.99 6.64
±-5. 18 16 so= .81 1.12
min.= 17 9 35 min.= 4.23 3.62
max.= 91 92 max.= 7.56 8.56
S' 2
0

20 25

20

o 15
Lk' io F7A
u- 10

0 24 30 40 50 60 70 BO 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH (CC: C12)

45
Philippines Internat. 5 Philippines Internet
40 n.197 3779 nr. 197 3777
n. 1.2 1.3 A. 35.6 27.3
ts. .7 1.2 xs= 12.8 14.6
4E 35 min.= .3 .1 min.. 5.7 .2
rnax 39.1 max.. 67.2 99.9
30
Q8_
25
C.)

uj 20
Fig. 308. Frequency distributions of O 15
texture, pH, organic carbon content, U

LL 10
and cation exchange capacity in soils of
Philippines (columns). Curves show
the international frequency of the .2 .8 1.6 3.2 6.4 12.8 25.6 2 4 8 16 2 6

same characters. ORGANIC C.% CEC. me/100g

7.5.2 Macronutrients

The total nitrogen and NaHCO3 extractable phosphorus contents of Philippine soils are of
the average international level and the N and P contents of maize are slightly lower (Figs
6, 7, 309 and 310). In all cases variations are wide. The sampled crops were fertilized with
only small amounts of N and P fertilizers (8 ± 19 kg N/ha and 1 ± 4 kg P/ha).
Wide variation is also typical for the potassium contents of Philippine soils as well as for
the K content of maize but, in general, the K status is relatively low (Figs 8 and 311). The
international minimum soil K value (18 mg K/l) and the minimum maize K content
(0.6 %) were both found in samples collected in the Philippines. Only nominal amounts of
potassium fertilizers (1 ± 4 kg K/ha) were applied to the sampled maize crops. A good
response to potassium is likely at many locations in the Philippine Islands.
With regard to calcium and magnesium the Philippine maize and maize soils tend to be
high on an international scale, Ca contents only slightly so but the national mean Mg
contents are among the very highest (Figs 9, 10, 312 and 313). As for many other
properties of Philippine soils and plants, extensive variations are typical for Ca and Mg
contents.
264
3
40
Philippines Internat. Philippines Internat
n= 197 1958 n= 197 1967
35
.2.99 3.14
Philippines Internat. 30 7= 2.5 3.1
C n. 197 n.1967 so= 0.8 1.0
±s =. .51 .87 R. .29 6= .33 min.= 0.6 0.6
U 30 .88 "E.
os= .07 is= .10 max.. 4.4 6.7
?-1 25
max..4.50 6.51
(1.1
30 nin.=.16Ø min. .05
max, .60 f4 max.= 1.04
O_ 25 (1"./
0- 25
>-
0 20 4v >-
° 20
D 15
15
uJ
CY 0
lo
u_ u_

5 5

3 4 5 6 .2 .3 .4 .5 .5 .7 .8 2 3 4 5 6 7

N content of maize,% P content of maize,% K content of maize,%

70 Philippines intrnot.
Philippines internat. 35 n= 197 1967 35 Philippines Internat.
in 197 5= 18.5 22.5 n. 197 1967
60 1958 ts = 18.9 33.0 km 212 330
7..139 .135 min.. 1.5 0.1
30 no. 212 356
mox..138.6 656.0 4E.
-.E. ts= .063 .088 min.= 18 18
CD
min.- .039 .008 max.= 1997 5598
50 o
max.= .527 1.657
25

40
3- 0
6.3

W 30

1,11 20
u-
10

5
./1 :47 )%111.o...
80 160 320 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400
2.5 10 20 40 640
.005 01 02 .04 .08 .16 .32 64 1.28
N in maize soils,°/0 P in maize soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I

Fig. 309. Nitrogen, Philippines. Fig. 310. Phosphorus, Philippines. Fig. 311. Potassium, Philippines.

4
Philippines int..n.t. 40 Figs 309-313. Frequency distribu-
Philippines Internat.
35 n 197
= .52
1967
.47 5
n= 197 1967 tions of nitrogen, phosphorus,
en. .16 .20 R. .340 .251
0) min.. .22
moic=1.11
.09
1.88 ?-3)
no= .174
min.= .102
.119
.036
potassium, calcium and magne-
0.25
max.. 1.125 1.125 sium in original maize samples
151. 25

0 20
7- and respective soils (columns)
(±) 20
of Philippines. Curves show the
8 15
o 15
international frequency of the
E 10 Q- 10
u_
same characters.
5

.4
Ca content of maize,% Mg content of maize, %

Philippines Internat. 0

35
n=
7 = 3839
197 1967
3450
Philippines Internat.
te = 2752 2815 35 n= 197 1967
min.= 100 10 7= 811 446
mos..12800 17995 no= 877 462
30 min.= 36 1
30
"E"
max.=6490 6490

25 O
25

20
(_)

..,(4 ANN
50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800 12.5 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400
Co in maize soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils, mg/I

Fig. 312. Calcium, Philippines. Fig. 313. Magnesium, Philippines

 265

7.5.3 Micronutrients

Boron. Of the six micronutrients included in this study B deficiency appears the most
widespread in the Philippines. The national mean B contents of soils and plants are among
the lowest recorded in this study (Figs 22 and 25). Every second plantsoil sample pair
falls into the two lowest B Zones (Figs 314 and 315). This high frequency is exceeded only
by Nepal. The plantsoil B points falling in the normal B Zone (III) occur most frequently
toward the lower boundary of the zone. There seems to be no clear geographical distinc-
tion between the low and normal B areas, but soils of B shortage seem to be widely
distributed over the sampled areas.

100
80 ;fiutiminisilitaiv;211:1
miammEnsammommo
60 NI -43376=MM:in
50 0 28_0 MENE11111
40
30 rinffingirnani
9.- 20

=simixiir
-6
G)

10 Ill 11111M11111111
Immwm=mnimeimi
low
15 8
MINIESi11111111111111111
o 5 suanommeemrea mmummun
"C" 11111111WFMNII1II MI1111111
o
o
4
MEEM
Fig. 314. Regression of B content of
co 3
2 EN11111 INN
pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
soluble soil B (x), Philippines. For de-
tails of summarized international
Ill MINI
.2 .3 .4.5.6 .810 2
1111
3 4 56 810
background data, see Chapter 4. B in soil, mg/l (Hot w sol)

100
80
5.1 35 8
60 ±s.4 083 6 _
50 2±s=02 012 0 ±
40
E
CL 30
y.3 68+2 2x
r=0393 *
r0 2 8 55
*

.ö
-sr
2

Fig. 315. Regression of B content of I In

pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
(hot water soluble) soil B (x), Philip- .081 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 56 8 10
pines. C EC -corrected B in soil, mgil (Hot w.
266
22
P nte a Fig. 316. Regression of Cu content of

E
20
18 miaow rimollini
Ewe ocESCIIIMM111111
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x),
Philippines.
8:16
o
w14 11111111111 111111111111111/111
.c
15 12 111111111111
77,10 M1111111 111116%22111111
88 0111111 1121116111111111
7
(-) 6 11111111=11111111E11111
4

2
111111INIE9!!PRI11111
.810 810
.4 40 6080
.6 2 4 6 20
Cu in soil, mg/I (AAA c- EDTAI

Fig. 317. Regression of Cu content of

22 Cu
pot-grown wheat (y) on organic car-
bon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.)
20

18
u!1III 4.:7410110 iniu soil Cu (x), Philippines.

irog6=80saim meal"! To
o 111 1 1110111111
10

8
inipowomi igul
o
o
6 IMIII1111111111111111
4 IIIIMIIIIIIIIME111111
2 IIIIIIME1111111 MPIII:
,

ftralmann "4"
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 6 810
2 4 20 40 60 100
Org.C-corrected soi CU,mg/I (AAAc-EDTA)

Copper. Contrary to the occurrence of B, the soils of the Philippines are exceptionally
rich in Cu (Figs 316 and 317). With Brazil and Italy the Philippines occupy the highest
positions in the "international Cu fields" (Figs 27 and 29) and high Cu value (Zones IV
and V) were found more frequently in the Philippines than in any other country. Only a
couple of relatively low Cu values were measured in samples which came from Camarines
Norte (Bicol) but there are no indications of Cu shortage anywhere else in the country.
The highest Cu values were recorded in Ilocos samples, but high Cu conients were also
found in samples from Northern and Eastern Mindanao and occasionally elsewhere.
 267

Fig. 318. Regression of Fe contents 300

of pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammo-
275
250
Fe ' P?.3 int rna

nium acetate-EDTA extractable soil 225 PINFENNIMIMION1

Fe (x), Philippines. 200 1='±s ' 3.11111EIME
1 75 Etom2ViEliiiNgiiiiiii ° °"
E 1 50
ca.
.125 E 111 11
o
100 IN ME .

EMI Milli
mlRatag.iiiiiampi-
1111 11RESI
50 pp., 1 1

40
\
\
\ .
,
\ \
30
III \ rg\ V.
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/I (A AA c - EDTA)

Iron. The Philippine national average Fe content of plants is the highest and that of
AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Fe the fifth highest recorded in this study (Fig. 31). Every
third sample pair (Fig. 318) falls within the Fe Zones IV and V but none within, nor even
close to, the low Fe Zones (I and II). It seems therefore that the possibility of any response
to iron fertilization is minimal. Most of the high (Zone V) Fe values originate in Ilocos and
Central Luzon.
Manganese. Substantial variations in the plant and soil Mn contents were found in the
Philippine material (Figs 319 and 320). In general, high Mn values were more frequent and
the national averages are higher than those of most other countries (Figs 33 and 37). Only
one sample pair (43688 from Bohol) indicates possible Mn shortage but the relative fre-
quency of high Mn (Zones IV and V) values is almost double the international frequency.
Almost all of the highest (Zone V) Mn values were found in samples from Northern and
Eastern Mindanao.
Molybdenum. In the "international Mo fields" (Figs 15 and 20) the Philippines are
placed centrally, but as in the case of several other soil properties extensive variations in
both plant Mo and soil Mo contents are typical (Figs 321 and 322). The correlation
between plant Mo and A0-0A extractable soil Mo is substantially improved by pH-
correction owing to wide pH variations. The sites for both the high and the low Mo
contents are geographically scattered; high contents were associated with soils of relatively
high pH and the low contents with soils of low pH. At locations where Mo deficiency
might be suspected, raising the soil pH through liming may be a sufficient treatment to in-
crease the availability of Mo to a normal level.
Zinc. Generally high but widely varying Zn contents are typical of Philippine soils and
plants (Figs 323 and 324); from several locations abundant Zn contents were measured. In
 268
2000 Roweam=mml
Fig. 319. Regression of Mn content
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
1000 rawT-wvcwagginanilimmeme iimimml=
1==l-1NMM:1011111111101-111=Mr extractable soil Mn (x), Philippines.
800

E 400
600
IIMMMINEMInMsmoniu ==
1714:111511NIMIIhMILMREHI111111==

E-. 300
200 11=1111111111111111111.11PMEN
45 100
80
11111.111111NEIMMIN
1111r1/11=1111:11MEMMOI
111111MMININIM:i1M2MINEMMIYMMIMENn
.5 60 insmagilimmortirrammmonm=rammg
40
30 iimmPrissiumummuomma
20 imailniummounimus
lo Mal
8
Il
:171
IMME11.11MMIE
ININ=MMINN=1111MEME
MIMMENIIMINEMlialEMITOMMEMI.
EllillillE1111112:.°34:b9 I

NYWi=
1 2 34 6 8 10 20 30 40 6080100 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

=11-== um.
:Jim iiiimalimi
2000 .mommwo.
Fig. 320. Regression of Mn content of
Mn Nisigi,, pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA

E
1000
800
600 1.
I:
.. ......H...................n.
armarem=s.73.32:10mrimaln
WYPECIINVE EllFM1151EIEWIWIR:MINFAMMIIImpil
11=MENENIM" MIIIIMIMim IMMIIIMMPANIIIIMIIMI
3
extractable soil Mn corrected for pH
(x), Philippines.
a 400
300
1-;
cu
_c
200 molmommenlegoomin
o
C 100
80
60 bIONMEIPIIIMP"
uoc
111 MMEMIMP I INEL
40 11Pr-
30 . '11* 1,

20

10
8
111111111E1111111
IMMIMIIIMMMMIMME
NO1111IMMUNIIMMTA=MMEMBE
ummismimmonsos IhAIIIMMININ
Illhil
EMMMIMMEN
=mimas
INIINIM=1
1 2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
pH - corrected Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

two sample pairs (43684 from Cebo and 43686 from Bohol) the Zn contents were
particularly high. Other high Zn values were distributed in various sites from Southern
Mindanao to Ilocos. Unfortunately, the soils of eastern Mindoro where serious Zn defi-
ciency in rice has been reported (FAO, 1980 a) were not sampled for this study.
On the basis of the present analytical data, Zn deficiency is likely to occur in other parts
of the Philippines though not as severely nor to such an extensive degree as in many other
countries (e.g. Iraq, Turkey, India, Pakistan). See also Section 2.7.
 269
Fig. 321. Regression of Mo content of wilikumigragn
71eIVIIMMIIIIIIMINIIMIMINMEINE=M

pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium 6 =1MIERIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMMI111111

oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo 1METIMENIEEEMIZEMEINI
(x), Philippines. 3 y=
r . 0. 6 c
2

111111111111
iME11111E1111.
MIIIIMMIIIIIII
MMEMINIMIIIMIMIU MEMNIIII!"--
mmmulumplEMISIII
MIIIIIIIIumandllIBP.'
MMLIERMINENII
a,

o
o
.2

.06
1
riliiiiMilk
...
wAMIIIIIHMEETir=v- MIIIIIIIIIMONNIMMIIMMEM
WIM1611111111111111MINEN
mmE111111111111111111111111
.03 Monsporminuu
.02
11 1
01
.01 .02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo n soil, mg/l (A0-0A)

Fig. 322. Regression of Mo content of Mo 111=SEMpirilrr===11111

pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected 6 =MI 1=1MINSI
MEIIIMENIINGEIKEEDMIMMUIll
A0-0A extractable
Philippines.
soil Mo (x),
3
2
100Y.-
r=0.66

11111111111111111111111
gi
=MMEMSIMmwEENS1==Weii
MMEMENII1111IMMIMP ISLMIM11111
MEMMINMMIENUINEM
MINNEEMM=MEMMINIMP,211111111111
II P4/1
iniMI11:11
MEIN MIIIMERIERMINMNI

.1 111111Militill11.1111M
SWILIa'rir "1:21:1===1:11 EVM.
PORIMINIIIIM=
emernawrIallormwmmEnno
11111111MMEAIROMMU MEMIIIII
.03
.02

.01 rill1M1111111111
.006 .01 .02 .03 06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
pH - corrected MO in soil, mg/l (A0-0A)

7.5.4 Summary

Wide variations in most of the general soil properties as well as in the soil macronutrient
contents are typical of the Philippines.
Of the six micronutrients included in this study B deficiency seems to constitute the
most widespread micronutrient problem in the country. The level of Mo is effectively at a
normal international level while that of Fe, Mn, Zn, and especially of Cu, are interna-
tionally at the highest level. As locations where soils are low in Zn, response to Zn
application is likely.
270
20 1-4,........ ..... . .. Fig. 323. Regression of Zn content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-

10
9 ;
111,
inummwmosni 111 able soil Zn (x), Philippines.

111
7
6 )

5 111111111111111
4 )
inimmusenimmin
3 111111M11111M1 II

2 Milliffeal ll

1
prn lim
.ILIIMMIIIMIMENIIIM II_
UMMEN11111MMENIIIIIUNNIIII
111 1
.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .81 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
Zn in soil, mg/I (DTPA)

200
Zn ± 2:
'1-s
131
gi
Ai
100
90 eciAiw_ &i: iimismoino
11111ME 111111111111M1111/11
80
70
60
g_ 50

30
i
Inium_mplrilm
111111111111111

minimmitim$ i III
1111111

4ci;
20
11111014 Ili
10 1111111111111111111111
I =mosionTipl
9
8
7 Fig. 324. Regression of Zn content of
6
l i I VI II I pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA
.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100 extractable soil Zn corrected for pH
pH-corrected Zn in soi mg/I (AAAc-EDTA) (x), Philippines.
 271

7.6 Sri Lanka

7.6.1 General

Of the 21 soils collected from Sri Lanka, 13 were classified as Luvisols and 8 as Acrisols.
The latter soils occur south of the Puttalam-Batticaloa line and most of the Luvisols north
of the line (Fig. 325). With three exceptions the soils are coarser textured than the average
of soils in this study (Fig. 326). The range of variation in pH is wide but acid soils are

el at*

10 SRI LANKA
t4F5F9NA4

tlei
0 50 75
Q.)

VAVUNI VA
O 45953

TRINCOMALEE

OANURADHAPURA

45954

PUTTALAM A4 T 45952

BATTICALOA

45959

45962

AD L'A

COLOMBO
45955

AMBANTOLA

MATARA

el 111.

Fig. 325. Sampling sites in Sri Lanka.

272

more common. A medium organic matter content is typical but the cation exchange
capacity, electrical conductivity, CaCO3 equivalent value and sodium content are very low
(Fig. 326 and Appendixes 3 and 4).

Sri Lanka internat.

4
Sri Lanka imemat Fig. 326. Frequency distributions of
n.
30
n= 21
0=31
3764
44
co
21
6= 5.62
3783
6.64 texture, pH, organic carbon content,
os= 10 16 Os= .85 1.12
min.= 13
1100.5 55 92
35 1010 .5 4.38
max = 7.60
3.62
8.56
and cation exchange capacity in soils
36 of Sri Lanka (columns) Curves show
25
the international frequency of the
20
same characters.
15

ID

20 30 40 50 60 70 80
/111 rls7.4

TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca Cl2)

45
Sri Lanka 48 Internat. 35 Sri Lanka Internat.
40 n= 21 3779 ni= 21 3777
SS 1.2 1.3 7= 14.2 27.3

t
0
35 min.= .5
max.= 3.9
1.2

39.1
1
30 ts 4.3
min.= 6.8
max =24.6
14.6
.2
99.9
" 30
25
o
LU

o
LU

U- 10

.2 .4 .8 1.6 3.2 6.4 108 25.6 16 32

ORGANIC C, °!e CEC, me/100g

7.6.2 Macronutrients

The total nitrogen and NaHCO3 extractable phosphorus contents of soils and the N and P
contents of the sampled maize crops tend to be somewhat on the low side in the "inter-
national N and P fields" (Figs 6 and 7). The variation in the N 'contents of maize is
relatively wide (Fig. 327) which may partly be due to varying nitrogen fertilization
(24 ± 26 kg N/ha). The relatively low P contents of soils (Fig. 328) are partly compensated
for by phosphate applications (10 ± 9 kg P/ha). See also CEC in Fig. 326 and Fig. 14 in
Section 2.2.4 and related text.
Potassium applications to sampled maize crops (14 ± 12 kg K/ha, Appendix 5) are high
compared to most other developing countries and in spite of the low level of the native soil
K the K contents of maize are above the average international level (Figs 329 and 8). To
some extent this contradiction may also be due to the relatively higher uptake of K by
plants from acid than from neutral or alkaline soils. See Fig. 11 (Section 2.2.4) and related
text and Fig. 326.
Calcium and magnesium contents of Sri Lanka soils and maize are internationally fairly
low (Figs 330, 331, 9 and 10). In all cases the variations are wide. At some sites a response
to Mg could be expected. See also texture and CEC in Sri Lanka soils (Fig. 326) and Figs
12 and 14 and related text in Section 2.2.4.
 273

40
Sri Lanka Internat.
Sri Lanka Internat.
no 21 1967
35 n= 21 1958 Sri Lanka Internat. 30 = 3.5 3.1
0 = 2.82 3.11.
n. 21 1967 es= 0.8 1.0
a'0 ±s= .76
min.= 1.56
max.= 4.17
.87
.88
6.51
9. .32
as..10
min.../7
r .33
.10
.05
o
L) 25
min.= 2.0
max.= 4.8
0.6
6.7
nao.. .54 88f 1.04 o
a
(T)
a 20

0>-
W 15

w 10
cc 10 U_
U._

2 6 2 3 4 5 6 7

N content of maize, % P content of maize,% K content of maize,%

40
70 Sri Lanka internat
n. Sri Lanka Internat.
Sri Lanka Internat. 35
R. 14.0
21 1967
22.5
3
n= 21 1967
60 6= 21 1958 ±s. 12.3 33.0 0=141. 330
= .122 .135 min.= 2.2 0.1 es= 59 356
- 49 = .061 .088 30 non.- 48.4 656.0 mm.. 21 18
min.= .075 .008 max, 258 5598
U 50 1.657
max.= .363 25
a)
CL
CL 40
20

w 30 D 15 5

0
Wo LU

CC
LI 10
U_

2.5 5 10 20 40 BO 160 320 640 25 50 100 200 400 BOO 1600 3200 6400
.005 .01 .02 .04 .08 .16 .32 64 1.28
P in maize soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I
N in maize soils, %
Fig. 327. Nitrogen, Sri Lanka. Fig. 328. Phosphorus, Sri Lanka. Fig. 329. Potassium, Sri Lanka.

4' Sri Lanka Internat. 4

Figs 327-331. Frequency distribu-
= 21 1967 Sri Lanka Internat.
34 5'.41 .47 n= 21 1967 tions of nitrogen, phosphorus, po-
=.13 .20 2..231 .251
30
min.= .22
max.= .70
09
1.813
es=.098 .119 tassium, calcium and magnesium
33: min.=.106 .036

?Li_ 25
max...499 1.125 in original maize samples and re-
spective soils (columns) of Sri
0 20
Lanka. Curves show the inter-
coLU
15
national frequency of the same
LU
cc
u- o characters.

Ca content of maize.,% Mg content of maize,%

40
Sri Lanka Internat. 40
1967
R.
= 21
1159 3450 Sri Lanka Internat.
35 n.
es. 886 2815 35
21 1967
min.= 300 10 no 161 446
max.= 3700 17995 es= 136 462
min.= 35 1

max.= 574 6490

Affric
0 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800 2.5 25 50 100 00 400 600 1600 3200 6400
Ca in maize soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils, mg/I

Fig. 330. Calcium, Sri Lanka. Fig. 331. Magnesium, Sri Lanka.
 274
100 'NWIMIIIIIIIIIII IIMM NM IN Ell II 011MIIMENNIIIIIIMIIIIIMII MIN III IBM 0
Fig. 332. Regression of B content of
80 .1iiii=1MOIM1Einiumes
11A111111120111111111411111111111111111111111111111111111111111M

lE RIMMINEMIIM11=IIMINIMMIIII pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water

60 MMITIMMITWATETIIIIIIIMME111111 soluble soil B (x), Sri Lanka. For de-
50 MI- - 0 32+ MIZEINIIIII
40 MIMUM tails of summarized international back-
MI!: 58 + 1 0 ground data,. see Chapter 4.
30
97 20

..c

"5
1
8
IIMISSOMM=1MMINIMM,
II 11111111111111
INNIIM M11
imimiess=immin 1111
1

6 eamme=mmomem.wimmen
M111111=11EMPLIIIIN=M11111111
5
4 11111111EIMMEN11/1 =MIMI
IIIIIIMM1111111 INME1111
co 3
2 Ell E1111111
14111 1111111i1
ifi
.3 .4 .5.6 .810 2 3 456 8 10
B in soil, mg/l (Hot w.

100 N1 1 L / t - 1 - Fig. 333. Regression of B content of

80 pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
3 8
60 n=1
-±s= 3 1 078 694 (hot water soluble) soil B (x), Sri
50 2±s04 024 0, 0
40 Lanka.
E
0.
.30 y=355+ 76
r= 0 236 s
=
02
85

20
a)

10
8
65

4
3
co
2

.08.1 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10

CEC -corrected B in soil, mg/l (Hot w. sol.)

7.6.3 Micronutrients

Boron. A low B level is typical of soils and plants of Sri Lanka (Figs 332, 333, 22 and 25).
Almost all B points are within the low B range (Zones I and II) or in the lower position of
Zone III. No extreme values, however, were recorded. The sites of the lowest B values are
in the more northern parts of t,he country.
 275
Fig. 334. Regression of Cu content of 22
nter not
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium 20
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x),
Sri Lanka. 18
751±
± N7 E 3

E
816 Illintli=011.9. 2 1131111111111
o
cy 14 1111111111111M1111111111M
.6 12 1111111111MM 1111111111111111
11111111111111 1111,111111111
111111111111111 ILIM11111111
1111111111111=2,111111111111111
4 1111111111111111211111111111111
2 1111111111111\011111111011%
1111111111111MISEENNIIIIIii
.4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080
Cu in soil, mg/I (A A A c - EDTA)

Fig. 335. Regression of Cu content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on organic carbon- 2 2Cu '

corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.) soil 2)

Sri L
n.48
nit intern t
n=35 8 I
Cu (x), Sri Lanka. 2!s:7 i
iti
1'±'1 7 2t..s: 7. 5 0± 57 Al
1

E 1
3 rc 3 illgiax I I' 5)1II ailig 1 min
1
o
1 i 1 11111 1110111111111
ill, 1 INININIIIIII
o

o
o
1

!
I --Ipuraimaing
uuuuiiiiiiiiiiiii 110
: 11111111811111111111111111111
. _similimmulini immilli
)
1 .2
1 mogul810 imish
in.6 .810 a) Art Inn
.4 2 4 6 2f1
Org.C-corrected soil CU,mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)

Copper and Iron. Both Cu and Fe values determined from Sri Lanka soils and plants
correspond to the average international level (Figs 27, 29 and 31). No extreme (Zone I or
V) values were recorded for either of these elements (Figs 334, 335 and 336).
Manganese. Only Zambia, Brazil and Malawi have national mean Mn contents at levels
as high as those of Sri Lanka (Figs 33 and 37). In samples from three locations (45962, -67
and -71) exceptionally high Mn contents were measured (Figs 337 and 338), all having acid
276
3 00 Fig. 336. Regression of Fe contents of
2 75 IMMIN111111011MUSIMIMMINII pot-grown wheat (y) acid ammonium
2 50
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Fe (x),
225
Sri Lanka.
200
1 75 IM
E 1 50
.!-: 125
o
-; 100
90 111111111111
80
70 mommlnimmalmr-
60 Mminimismaind
o
o
IIIIIM11111111
rintimpi
wow
50

40

30
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/1 (AAAc-EDTA)

soils with pH(CaC12) 5 or below. The possible Mn toxicity could be corrected by liming.
Molybdenum. The results of plant Mo analyses and A0-0A extractable soil Mo are
contradictory and lead to a non-significant negative correlation (r =-- 0.161 n.s., Fig.
339). Furthermore, the average Mo contents of Sri Lanka plants are about half the inter-
national average, but the A0-0A extractable soil Mo contents correspond to the inter-
national mean. When the effect of soil pH on A0-0A extraction is taken into account
the correlation is improved to 0.650**, and at the same time the mean of soil Mo is
reduced to half the international mean (Fig. 340).
In the "international Mo field" (Fig. 20) Sri Lanka is clearly on the low side but even
so, only one Mo point falls in Zone II, the others being within the normal range (Fig. 340).
Zinc. Irrespective of the soil extraction method used for Zn, the limited number of
samples from Sri Lanka indicates a relatively high Zn level in soils and plants (Figs 41 and
43). However, with the exception of the very high Zn contents measured in one sample
pair from Kalutara, the Zn contents are mainly within the "normal" Zn range (Figs 341
and 342).

7.6.4 Summary

Considering the limited soil sample material of Sri Lanka, it may be concluded that typical
soils are of relatively coarse texture, varying pH (mainly rather acid), of medium organic
matter content and a low cation exchange capacity. The contents of macronutrients (N, P,
K, Ca, Mg) are internationally fairly low. Of the six micronutrients, normal values were
measured for Cu, Fe, Mo and Zn, but low B and high Mn levels were recorded.
 277
Fig. 337. Regression of Mn content 2000
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Mn (x), Sri Lanka. 1000
800
600
NM
MI
111UNIIMBIfdl
.VX-rWVIIM^11:111tIMMctilfEWOIMIIIMMIIMIMB!../MMI
IIITEIIKEIRRiPg1401PZEIIM474111711111111MIPINIM=M

400
300 11M1111111111=IMMEIIIMMI
200

100 IN.11111111E111111111111
KIIMI=IMMIMML110 11
80 WI1111=MMININIINNIMIA'=11111
POIIIIIMMIMMIN=MMOBP/MEMENNOM
60 11.11111.11.11MMIIIIMPME- MMMEMINII MM.
IIIMMIIIROMIMMEM11111M
40
30 Imommtioniumwounlim
20 111111111111111111111111=
10 IIMPMMUMMIIIIIIIMMEIESMIOMINEM
1111111111111,11MIIIMI
11111111111
8 HEMINNII=MBEIMMIIN
El
AMAIMMEN N1
2 34 6810 20 30 40 6080100 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/l IDTPAI

Fig. 338. Regression of Mn content 2000

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Mn corrected for pH
(x), Sri Lanka.
1000 P.
800
Mn
osams-roulion
E
600
CL 400

"6
a)
300
200
o
00 I.
80
1911116
1111111 .111111011111
AMMIMIMMMIMENMIMIEr:
li.=1MMENNErMil=11MMENNIMMIMMEE:
iiim.mminm-=mmilCommINKUI
o 60 ni
IIinl

40 llIMII11111111=M=IMENIIIIMEIMMI
2 30
20 111111111111111.1111
10 II
8 ms immommuma-mordanrje. ==.9-
2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
pH-corrected Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)
278

rzsmsmrson
momilitis
ommimmosimi
1111011Milsmelin
Fig. 339. Regression of Mo content of
6
MMEIMMINI
1MR1113311INIIIMMMIMINUI
MINMENHIMMI pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium
EMMIIMISTMEE=M171111I oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
3
IIMMICEMEIREMILIZEN1111 (x), Sri Lanka.
2
IMMIENNIEW, 22111111

111111111111111111
1IMNIMMMIIM11.11111111
C
.2 MIN1111111111111111111
o
o .1

06
A11=NES
411NOMII=1=M11411
4=1111=MEMMEI
wirAMmMENI1MnENNI nEINNOM

.03
.02
I
.01
.01 .02 .03 .06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo in soil, mg/t (A0-0A)

NI o IMMEETNOMMEIHNIINIr1771
6
Illyn;s18.0.1.110 ilitst3s5= 07322 O. Mil
3

IMM=/'
r = 0.650
2

NIMME611.MM
iniuRy.'00°1r17.1 7uuiiuii
M =IMIMEMEN

.2 11111= 11111 Milli

.1
1111. IIIMIMPUMME11/.:41.
11167VM,./PANNEIrirml
MIINEM

.03
.02 Ilialt111111111111...111
Fig. 340. Regression of Mo content of
.01
pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
.006 .01 .02 .03 06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23 A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x),
pH-corrected MO in soil,mg/l (A0-0A) Sri Lanka.
 279
Fig. 341. Regression of Zn content of 200
pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract- Zn
able soil Zn (x), Sri Lanka.
100
90
80
70
E 60
Q5
40

30

o 20
o
C
Ni

10
9
8
7
6
III
.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
Zn in soil,mg/I IDTPA)

200

100
90
111
, ".
simumsaaammimmiwzaiiv
111111111
e* mossoni.
80
70
60
g_ 50
411111m1.110111
IMMI1111111111111111111MIMIMIll

40
o
30 1111111111111111UMOMIll
o
20
o
4111111M110111111111
o

Fig. 342. Regression of Zn content of

10
9
8
11111111ME1011
7
pot-grown wheat (y) AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH
(x), Sri Lanka.
6
EON .11111.11111
34
.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 6 810 20 3040 60 100
pH-corrected Zh in soi ,mg/1 AAAc-EDTA)
280

7.7 Thailand

7.7.1 General

The sample material received from Thailand consists of maize and respective soil samples
only since wheat is not an important crop in this country. According to the geographical
distribution of sampling sites, illustrated in Fig. 343, the central parts of the country are

. 1

' 20.

N........ .-,,...

!
.)
k
i
cl"...
', HR.

G X.1
\
798-803

3808-810
,

s
.1

--1 os
4.1=111111ii,3 o os
¡- 4377°9- 7
63780
'i 63818- 8,4 ' 4378,060,

,..» .70, -704 CE,

IMON PAICXADIANI

N.11 0 A I gA7,4,,,.
' 2,

'., 1 4353_
er .

'
`s. 45761 ,43764 ',..f
\ 4 3784-797
ANGKOK
-o
l'
ii

t 1

S.-
?
I\ Ao.oils
\
t

o
;ay :6

,
I

o ' i'
...
Ili

I 8
A

THAILAND
,

Fig. 343. Sampling sites in Thailand.

H° Ma.
" w.
lo
 281

those best represented. Of the 150 soils sampled, 33 were classified as Rendzinas, 25 as
Acrisols and 21 as Vertisols.
The majority of Thai soils are fine textured, though many medium and a few coarse
textured soils are included in the sample material (Fig. 344). The range of variation in soil
pH is relatively wide but very extreme pH values are not represented and alkaline or
slightly acid soils are most typical. Owing to the relatively high organic matter content and
heavy texture, the national average cation exchange capacity of Thai soils is among the
highest recorded in this study (Appendixes 3 and 4). The average electrical conductivity
and sodium content are somewhat below the respective averages for all the international
material. CaCO3 equivalent values for the majority of soils are low but a few quite high
values were recorded.

Fig. 344. Frequency distributions of 35 Thailand Internat. Thailand Internat.

n.150 n= 150
texture, pH, organic carbon content, 30
R. 56
3764
44
40
=6.80
3783
6.64
ts x 14 16 = .80 1.12
and cation exchange capacity in soils of min.=
max.= 85
12 9
92
35 min.= 4.50
max.= 7.70
3.62
8.56
Thailand (columns). Curves show the 2)8

international frequency of the same

characters.

10 20
r,4
30 40 50 be 70 80 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH {Ca C12)

Thailand Internat. Thailand Internal

40
n.150 3779 n. 150 3777
7. 1.6 1.3 = 41.8 27.3
0
es= .5 1.2 ts =17.0 14.6
min.= .7 .1 min, 11.8 .2
max.= 3.7 39.1 max.= 82.8 99.9

IT, 3

y 25
o
ill 20

o
U- 10

.2 .4 .8 1.6 3.2 6 12.8 256 16 32

ORGANIC CA CEC, me/100g

7.7.2 Macronutrients

According to the information received from the sample collectors, no chemical fertilizers
were applied to the sampled crops. On average, the total nitrogen contents of Thai soils
and maize are slightly above their respective international averages (Figs 345 and 6).
On average, the phosphorus and potassium contents of both the Thai soils and maize are
a little low by international standards but vary substantially from one sample to another
(Figs 7, 8, 346 and 347). At many locations a good response to applications of both P and
K should be expected.
The average calcium and magnesium contents of maize grown in Thailand are low
compared to most other countries (Appendix 3, Figs 348 and 349) despite the relatively
medium to high exchangeable Mg and high Ca levels found in Thai soils. The variations in
values of both these elements are relatively wide. To obtain a general picture of the Ca and
282
40
Thailand Internat. Thailand Internet
40 n 150 1967
35 n= 150 1958 Thailand interne.
0=3.27 3.14 30 S. 3.0 3.1
n=150 n.1967 ss = 0.6 1.0
±s= .52 .87 35
R..29 = .33 min.= 1.3 0.6
min.= 1.52 .88 C
o30 no= .07 s= .10 g25 max.= 4.8 6.7
max.= 4.63 6.51 4.23 min, .14 min.= .05
max...47 max, 1.04 ai
CT) 25 ai
a- a 25 20
3-
3-
20
al 15
os o
iy 10
a.
LL

_
3 4 5 6 .2 .3 .6 .7 .8 .9 2 3 4 5 6 7

N content of maize, % P content of maize,% K content of maize,%

40
Thailand Internat.
Thailand Internat. n= 150 1957 3
Thailand Internat.
7= 11.6 22.5 n= 150
60 n= 150 1958 ns= 18.8 33.0
1967
0= .157 .135 min, 0.1 0.1
0.216 330
.... is= .047 .088 max..165.2 656.0 xs= 131 356
c .008
0
min.= 40 18
ai min...076 max.= 849 r 5598
max...380 1.657
25

6 20

1.11
15
o
10

,ix1 A A .01 .//1". xiie

.01 .02 .04 08 .16 .32 2.5 5 10 20 40 BO 160 320 640 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400

N in maize soils, % P in maize soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I

Fig. 345. Nitrogen, Thailand. Fig. 346. Phosphorus, Thailand. Fig. 347. Potassium, Thailand.

40
Thailand ini,not.
Thailand Internat
Figs 345-349. Frequency distribu-
35 ..150 1967
n= 150 1967 tions of nitrogen, phosphorus, po-
7= .32 .47
es = .10 .20 "E. 7..182 .251
8 30 min.= .16
max, .64
.09
1.88 0 30 min.= .081
.119
.036
tassium, calcium and magnesium
g. 25 g. 35
max.= .424 1.125
in original maize samples and re-
0 20
>- spective soils (columns) of Thai-
° 20
land. Curves show the interna-
o 15 15

0. tional frequency of the same

u_
io Cro
LL
10
characters.
5

.2 1.6 5

Co content of maize,% Mg content of maize, %

Thailand Interne
n. 150 1967 Thailand Internat.
35 7= 6444 3450
Ls = 4244 2815 n. 150 1967
min, 600 10 S. 440 446
max.. 15390 17995 Ls. 305 462
min.. 39 1

max,1762 6490

50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800 12.5 25 SO 100 200 400 BOO 1600 3200 6400
CO in maize soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils, mg/I

Fig. 348. Calcium, Thailand. Fig. 349. Magnesium, Thailand.

 283

Mg status of Thai plants and soils, see also Figs 9 and 10. The heavy texture and high CEC
of the Thai soils (Fig. 344) may have contributed to the low uptake of Ca and Mg by
plants. See Figs 12 and 14 and related text in Section 2.2.4.

7.7.3 Micronutrients

Boron. In the "international B fields" Thailand features among the low-B countries (Figs
22 and 25). Unlike most other nutrients the B contents of Thai soils and of the respective
pot-grown wheats vary within narrow limits. Almost all plant and soil B values are lower
than their respective international means. The correction of hot water extractable soil B
values for CEC not only improves the plant Bsoil B correlation but also moves many of
the samples from the "normal" range (Zone III) into the low B Zones (I and II, Figs 350
loo
ao B
n+150
60 s=407_ 82 8
50 s=042± 07 7
40
=404+0 x = 63+ 7
E 30 =0 013ns 4

9:20
o
.c
10
ó8
t 6

4
o
co53
Fig. 350. Regression of B content of 2
pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
soluble soil B (x), Thailand. For details Ill
1
of summarized international back- .1 .2 .3 .4.5.6 .810 2 3 456 8 10
ground data, see Chapter 4. B in soil, mg/I (Hot w. sol.)

100
80
n-10 5
60 Vis. 08
50 5c-±s =0 3 +014 3 72

E
40
log y=0 5+ lo x +5 50x
o_ 30
I

0. r-0223 ++
20

08 10

C65
41)

t. 4.
o 4
o
co 3

Fig. 351. Regression of B content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected .08.1 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 56 8 10
(hot water soluble) soil B (x), Thailand. CEC - corrected B in soil, mg /l (Hot w. sol.)
284
22 Fig. 352. Regression of Cu content of
20 pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x),
21111111'67311111111111111
amoccuansumillim Thailand.

111111111111111111111111111111111E
z- 12

E,10
I1111111111111111111111111611111
1111111111E1111111111122111111
8
1111111111111MIIIIIIIMI1111111
z 6 11111111111111111MINE111111111
4 11111110111MIMUNI111111111111111
2
111111111111111111MILIMIM
ol .2 .4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 60 80
Cu in soil, mg/l (A AA c - EDTA)

Cu
Fig. 353. Regression of Cu content of
22
pot-grown wheat (y) on organic
20
Tha nd 111111111111111111111111111111 carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.)
8
6_1
11111 y s 4111114111111E11111111 soil Cu (x), Thailand.
09
YIjII .17158161111111111
11111111111111M1111411111
mulmommormanpil
impommilmowano
8
1111111111111IMAIK 11111111111
6 1111111111111111111411M11111111
11111111111541111111MENIIIIII
2 1111111:111-11111111111111111141111
111i111111110111112111311kikill
.4 .6810 2 4 6810 20 40 60 100
Org.C-corrected sot CU, mg/t (AAAc-EDTA)

and 351). In only a few countries is the relative frequency of low B (Zones I and II) values
higher than that in Thailand. On the basis of these analytical results B deficiency, acute or
latent, seems to be more likely in Thailand than in most other countries.
Copper. The national average Cu contents of Thai soils and plants correspond closely to
the international mean values and Thailand is located at the centres of the "international
Cu fields" (Figs 27 and 29). Over 90 percent of the sample pairs are within the normal Cu
range (Zone III) but there are a few rather high as well as low values (Figs 352 and 353).
According to the present data, Cu deficiency does not seem to be common, but shortage of
Cu may be a factor limiting normal crop growth in some localities.
 285
Fig. 354. Regression of Fe contents of 300
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Fe (x),
275
250 FEJIIIIIIIIM111111111
225
Thailand.
200 y
175
E_ 1 50

.125
o
iiiiniiuiiiuiniiii
ktIli1111111111111111111111111

t 100 1111111111M1111P1111111
17, 90
80 INOWN111111111111110511111111111
-'11 70
u 60 1111111111EME11111111111111
50

40 1111111111111111111111M1

30 IIIAiiIIUIIIiiuiiI
10 20 40 60 100 200 400600 1000 2000
00
Fe in soil, ,mg/1 AAc- EDTA)

Iron. The analytical data on Fe given in Figs 354 and 31 show that, in general, the Thai
soils and plants correspond to the normal international levels and distributions for Fe.
Although a few sample pairs are within the two low Zones (I and II) their locations do not
indicate any severe Fe deficiency.
Manganese. Thailand stands at the centres of the "international Mn fields" and its
national mean values for plant and soil Mn deviate only slightly from the mean values of
all the international material (Figs 33 and 37). The ranges of variation for both the plant
and soil Mn are comparatively narrow with no low (Zones I and II) values among the Thai
samples. Most of the high values are relatively close to the normal range (Figs 355 and
356). Only in one sample pair (43823) were exceptionally high Mn contents measured.
These originated from a site in Pakchong with a heavy textured acid soil, TI 81, pH(CaC12)
4.5. Low pH is also typical of other Thai soils where high Mn contents were recorded.
Molybdenum. The Thai national means for plant and soil Mo correspond well to those
of the whole international material (Figs 15 and 20), although some relatively low and high
Mo values were found among the samples (Figs 357 and 358). The present analytical data
give no indication of any severe Mo problems in Thailand.
Zinc. The Thai national mean values for plant and soil Zn are close to the international
means (Figs 41 and 43), as are those of other micronutrients included in this study (B is an
exception). In spite of the wide variations in both plant and soil Zn contents, the Thai
samples do not occupy very extreme positions in the international scale (Figs 359 and 360).
Low Zn values seem to be more typical for Sara Buri and Nakornsawan than the other
areas sampled. There, and elsewhere in the country, a good response to Zn fertilization is
likely. See also Section 2.7.
 286
2000
mn
7,---r........irloomi
IL Fig. 355. Regression of Mn content
I
Tn.,ht

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA

1000
800
0===.2zawn.......,parawan===
7±s11 ,.:
11
extractable soil Mn (x), Thailand.
600 gonwrioNWirmitirrguramwarligrazirmameein
11=1111111111MAIMIIIIIM

400 1111111=MMINE1111=111111MINCEI1111111111111111111
cS: 300IINION.MMMENNUIMINKIiiiiiMiiiial
IM=M111101111111 liffilhillillall
110 200 911111111111111111 INIONIEN
100
80
11E1 IN Ellere
0 60 1,14
40 IMMINIMEIBM INIMMIIIIMIIMMEll
i P.50111111111111
30 IIIMMIENIIIMIMINIPPMS=1111111111111 li
20 1111112 INíO UIHIIUI
10
e
..1.1 11
...................
...... .5.6
............................................
2 34 6 8 10 20 30/.0 60 80100 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

2000 ..msum mamsames Fig. 356. Regression of Mn content

T o la
15 of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
±7
1000 1
extractable soil Mn corrected for pH
800
N
47
(x), Thailand,
E
600- '9FINIMIN
111161 ka1.4B
a. 400 1111111111111111=11111

6. 300
.c
200
o
100
a) 80
60
40
2 30
20

10

2 34 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 '600

pH - corrected Mn in soil, mg/I (DrFA)

7.7.4 Summary

Most of the Thai soils are heavy to medium textured, alkaline or slightly acid, relatively
high in organic matter and have a high cation exchange capacity. Compared to data
obtained from other countries the average Ca content of Thai soils is quite high, N and Mg
are at the average international levels and P and K somewhat below. Most of the micro-
nutrient contents (Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo) analysed from the Thai samples represent normal
values. At some locations a deficiency of Cu is likely. The most likely micronutrient
problem in Thailand is that of B and Zn deficiency.
 287

Fig. 357. Regression of Mo content 7/11WRIMINFIEN=11MME

nIPIIIMEN
of pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium 6 111111=E1111
oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo MMN`
(x), Thailand. 3
2 MIMESIS. AIM 11 <

1111111111
MMMMUIIIMMESEFMNIEMI
monommommir
C
.2
O
o
o .1 1101111111111111
Aállomosomodniymmm
worAmoni==mgm=lvaik.
.06 MMI111111111UNINIM
WA=11104111=1=IMINEMIIIII
.03
.02
11
.01
.01 .02 .03 .06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo in soil, mg/ (A0-0A)

EN
EN M.111M=M11111111
o IIMIIMINI11111MIMI
6 mEnsolacimmommulusimaimummil
3 MMA . 0 MEDIUM "1:1221311E11111
2 1111111°90Y67011112111hZolitilliiiiil

..............
IIIIIII
MI=MMIUMERII 112=11tIMMINEINII
=IMMIN1MILIMICIIIII IMMIMMEMP!RW
=MMEMME=MMEN1.=.11115111MV
wommmmossiummempapsfat
milommwounumisordeolum

irimoitterionni
imomm-m.,........=ms
mommramimirealww=1Humm
IMIMMIMO.1Pr.,111MM11111O11111MMIMEMINIBI
INIMMEMINIW.40MMEMENI1MMEMMI
1.....1114r7" 1111111111====MIll
.03
.02
Fig. 358. Regression of Mo content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected .01

A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x), Thai- .006 .01 .02 .03 06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23

pH-corrected MO in soil,mg/I (.40-0A)
land.
288

200 BM =IIMIMMIO IIIMMINIMMUM

Fig. 359. Regression of Zn content
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Zn (x), Thailand.
100 :11
90
80
IIIIMMIN11111=1111MIIIII INN/
70
E 60
cl 50 111111111111IMMIIIIEM
40 misenuommelm
48 30 iiiamomobinti I
20 11111111111111111111 I
o
N
10

8
11111191111
MI AAR k
ligrArmium=11111111i..
7 lummEOLNE11111IMMIIIII=ILIIIIMA
6 1111111111M111111=1M111111ZEMINII
IMEINIVE111111M x
.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
Zrt in soil, mg/t (DTPA)

200

I
100
90
80
70
60
onomdiarta
magoperi
E
0.
50

wpm I
40
o
30
o
20
o

10

nommingiti
9
8
7 Fig. 360. Regression of Zn content of
6
pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA
.2 .3 .4 .6 .81 2 36 6 810 20 3040 60 100 extractable soil Zn corrected for pH
pH-corrected Zn in soil, mg/1 (AAAc-EDTA) (x), Thailand.
 289

8. Near East
8.1 Egypt

8.1.1 Genera/

The Egyptian sample material consists of 200 plant-soil sample pairs, half of which (100)
were collected from wheat fields and half from maize fields. The locations of sampling
sites illustrated in Fig. 361 show that the most important agricultural areas of the country,
52. 33. 30. 33°

..267
214 ---
_.,-.-"
2227
2 _----- 4
PORT 9,9,, ',¡' 2% P097 sely
eALEXANDR 228 ._,._,......1tr, AL6S3.7,,A.. 4
252 6 201 .202
31.
. 1732HU G m.2990R2
200x
,7.0411410V 4,94 V94 9
226A
,.
19,6
1
34A 227. 22
235* 226. 1,3
t sale. .IL 19
194A "
161
..32G
321.
7
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54 za *563

2
24 O ? 67'2. 4° L1A
33
334-
336
747

.6
7 282 L AM

236. 24725
.-M.4
24;7-7-A I9G 1152
. 3 4.
338
4, 1.1
.2
2 i

174* CAIRO SU 2 331 CAIRO

30 30.
!IA 24

2,54*

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.. ..-i72. 4"..-- 25.5
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,A 17
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156.11 BENI SURF'
29 29
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.I .3
26I 0

262 \\ ..., I

160A

159. 264..
265
MA . 66.
28 I-
26 a
I
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266.
i

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269*
155,, AS UT 27
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27
174. I- .1149----
1614

SOHAS'P, $17543.

464 A

25. NAG 8 MAO NAG 14 1911401 26

LU OR 1.1809

25. ARAB REPUB IC ,

19 V
6

OF EGYPT
(Nile district)
a la MI 26 a 120 va 26949

33W 94VAN
24.

30. Sr 50. 31. 32.

Fig. 361. Sampling sites in the Egypt (maize fields on the left and wheat fields on the right). The last three
numerals of each sample pair number (45151-45350) are given.
290

the Nile valley and delta, are well covered. Almost all (197) the sampled soils were
classified as Fluvisols; the remaining three soils as Xerosols.
The range of textural variation of the soils is very wide but the great majority is fine
textured (Fig. 362). About 85 percent have a texture index exceeding the international
average of soils in this study. Unlike texture, the variation of soil pH(CaC12) is very
limited, from 7.4 to 8.2 only, and the national mean (7.74) is one of the highest recorded
in this study. The organic matter contents correspond to the average international level
and vary within relatively narrow limits The national mean cation exchange capacity is
one of the highest among the 30 countries studied, and in only a few soils were low CEC
values recor.ded. The values of CaCO3 equivalent are usually at the average international
level but those of electrical conductivity are very high and the average sodium contents
are higher than in any other country (Appendixes 2-4).

45
35 Egypt Internat, Egypt Internat. 7 Fig. 362. Frequency distributions of
5=200 3764 n= 200 3783
40
30
7= 58
5,5= 14
44
16
= 7.74
= .14
6.64
1.12
texture', pH, organic carbon content,
min..
max.= 67
15 9
92
3 min.= 7.38
max.= 8.20
3.62
8.56
and cation exchange capacity in soils of
25
30 Egypt (columns). Curves show the
20 25 international frequency of the same
20 characters.
/5
5
/0
5. 4
4.
r fr
Air 4.55.74 .4 , /I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca CIO

45
Egypt Internat. Egypt Internat.
40 n = 200 3779 n = 200 3777
7= 1.2 1.3 0=43.1 27.3
58 = .3 1.2 ±5=10.5 14.6
"E 35 .1 min.= 5.9 .2
max.= 1.8 39.1 max.=58.5 99.9
o
30
[1.
25

w 20
o
Lu 15
co
U_

.2 .4 .8 1.6 3.2 6.4 12.8 25.6 8 /6 32

ORGANIC C,% CEC, me/100g

8.1.2 Macronutrients

The nitrogen contents of original Egyptian plants as well as the total N contents of soils
are of average international level (Figs 6 and 363). The variations, especially of soil N, are
narrow. Nitrogen fertilizers were applied at high rates to both sampled crops (wheat 129 ±
31 and maize 161 ± 39 kg N/ha).
The phosphorus contents of both plants as well as the NaHCO3 extractable P contents of
the respective soils tend to be slightly on the low side in the context of the whole
international material in this study (Figs 7 and 364). The P values vary relatively more
 291
Figs 363-367. Frequency distributions Egypt Internat. Egypt Internat.
of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, n= 100
7. 4.31
1765
4.27
35
n= 100
0=3.02
o,o, 1958
3,14
es= .58 1.15 es = .45
calcium and magnesium in original min.= 2.81
max.= 5.76
.60
7.45
30 min.= 1.72
max.= 3.83
.87
.88
6.51
wheat and maize samples and respect- 25

ive soils (columns) of Egypt. Curves 20

show the international frequency of

the same characters.
10

4 5 6 3 4 5 6
N content of wheat.% N content of maize../0

Egypt Internat. Eg ypt Internet

n= 100 1765 n= 100 1958
60 2.132 .133 60 5= .117 .135
Os =.030 .084 os= .028 .088
min.=.061 .009 min. .044 .008
max.=.221 1.023 50 max.= .208 1.657

005 0 02 .0 .08 16 2 .64 1.28 .005 .01 .02 .04

/
.08 16 .32 LL 728
Fig. 363. Nitrogen, Egypt. N in wheat soils, °/. N in maize soils,%

Fig. 364. Phosphorus, Egypt. Egypt Internat.

35 n=100 n=1765
8= .36 4= .38
rE as.= .07 Is= .12
LS' 30 min. .05
mox.= .58 max.= 1.02
0-25
>-
U
z 20
Lt1

015
L11

10

P content of wheat,% P content of maize,%

40

Egypt Internat. Egypt Internat.

5 5. 100 1765 35 n= 100 1967
R. 78.7 20.2 R. 75.8 22.5
as= 13.8 24.7 as = 13.4 33.0
min.= 4.2 1.0 min.= 3.4 0.1
30 max.= 85.8 271.4 30 max=101.1 656.0

25

a.
>-20
o
L11
D 15
o
io

2.5 5 10 20 40 60 160 320 640 2.5 5 10 20 40 80 160 320 640

P in wheat soils, mg/I P in maize soils, mg/I

than those of N but no extremes were measured. The dressings of P applied in fertilizers
were small (wheat: 9 ± 7 and maize: 2 ± 6 kg P/ha).
The average CH3COONH4 exchangeable potassium contents of Egyptian wheat and
maize soils are about twice as high as the respective international averages (Fig. 365). Only
in a few other countries were such high soil K contents recorded (Fig. 8). Although no
potassium fertilizers were applied to ihe sampled wheat and maize crops, their K
292

EgYPt Internat Egypt Internal Fig. 365. Potassium, Egypt.

n = 103 1762 n.109 1967
/ 4.0 4.0 39 - 0: 3.3 2 3
05/. 0.5 1.6 to / 0.5
nIls./ 3.0 0.9 06
MO% r. 5.8 6.8 25 non -4,8 67

15

15

10

5 7

K content of wheat,% K content of mciize,%

Egypt 1nternat, 0 Egypt Intemot.

5= 10C, 1765 n. 106 1967
7. 722 265 / 630 33C
tor 308 283 sc. 306 356
rnio, 228 20 82 18
1085. 2597 1297 5000.. 2325 5598

25 50 190 220 60 8U 1600 3200 5400 SO 100 250 190 85 600 3200 6400
K 'in wheat soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I

co
Egypt Inte,flet Fig. 366. Calcium, Egypt.
35 1,106 ns 1567
35

.06
n .47
.23
8s=
'13 30 30 = .12 min.. .93
ma., .53 rnox 1.08

tal. 25

20 22

n 15

tsE

Co content of wheat% Ca content of maize,%

0 0
Egypt ,nternot. Egypt nth-not
n 100 1765 / 100 1907
9.7063 4671 6.8348 3450
60. 1319 3070 985 285
min.. 1640 110 5115..3452 10
30 mox./ 9920 21930 max .8998 17995

40:1 75

0.

LO.

10 00 400 890 1600 3200 6400 12000 25500 50 102 200 400 837 1600 3200 6402 12820
Ca in wheat soils mg/I Co in maize soils, mg/,

contents correspond well to the average international level.

The soils of Egypt are generally calcareous. Their average exchangeable calcium content
is higher than that of most other countries but the Ca contents of both plants are slightly
lower than the respective international averages (Figs 9 and 366).
 293

Fig. 367. Magnesium, Egypt. 40

Egypt Interne-, Egypt 151.0301
35 n= 100 17E4 35 r, too 1957
0..184 ir" .172 14,253 .251
-.. . 1:7,031 .060 te=.071 .179
4.93 36 min -.139 .044 030
max.= .280 .946 08,691 1.37$
2G 25

>-
0-) 20 20

411

o 11,

CC 10
1-14

51-

05
Mg con ent of wheat.% Mg content ot maize,%
M
Egypt Internat. Egypt intvnai
n= 190 1734 n. 103 1507
2=1580 489 2=1206 046
tar 525 437 f-5, 372 462
min.= 395 10 min.= 303
max.= 2946 3296 max =1996 1,090

443 2

>-
0
'5

25 50 100 200 400 000 1504 9200 12.5 25 50 100 260 000 90 1400 3200 5400
Mg in wheat soils. mg/I Mg in maize soils. mg/I

In the case of magnesium the situation is similar to Ca. The average contents of plants
are only slightly above the respective international mean values although the national
averages for exchangeable soil Mg are higher than in any other country (Figs 10 and 367).
Obviously, the generally heavy texture and high CEC of Egyptian soils (Fig. 362) have
lowered the uptake of Ca and Mg by plants in relation to the exchangeable Ca and Mg of
the soils. See Figs 12*and 14 and related text in Section 2.2.4.
294

8.1.3 Micronutrients

Boron. The B levels of Egyptian soils and pot-grown plants seem quite normal. In the
"international B fields" (Figs 22 and 25) Egypt stands near their centres. There were no
values indicating severe B deficiency but some were so low as to suggest at least the
possibility of hidden 13 deficiency (Figs 368 and 369). Although many Egyptian samples
showed an abundance of B, none of the B values was extraordinarily high. According to

100
80 B
_____...
IliiiIMINIMMINIII11111111
n =1 8 '
60 EMEMEMMETMEMIMI ItEREMMUMMIEMMI NIMMEIMIIII
50
MU "0.53 ± O; DEREIIII MINI
30 IllirlindifIntillIMIN
Hoc + 2.44x INIA
a_
Kum
"E)
G)
-c
20

10 ...
illimplim
il,..................d..........
..riiiimm.....p.r.s.-1.1..ma....
immirmmoiromp. -.Alkummomias
6 NossommNinotlitaraimmilimmumeil
"E"
5 111MIEIIIIIIMPIMilliEN=IZMIIIIIIII
4 MINI NiplEraramiiiiiMENIMUI
1111111111.11.4111111 illilim1111111
m3
111 101111111 Pil
2

111111
MI 1
Fig. 368. Regression of B content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
soluble soil B (x), Egypt. For details
.2 .3 .4.5.6 .810 2 3 456 8 10 of summarized international back-
B in soit, mg/l /Hot w. sot/ ground data, see Chapter 4.

50
40
100
80
60
loritiMmairra
IMIOMMagnilill
97-"triail
1
I la
mligrall

E Ill IMMIE EME- Rohm

a_
o.
30
-6: 20
(a)
i II_ A0111111
11111 ' °"'
_c
Pill
08 ..............=Erairm
111111.111111111
Illat..miromi-,YdmirquipmEm
6
..111.-wm .traiSUMMINE1111111 Ili MI
5 NIMMIMMOYAIOSIMIGMEMITIOUN
o 4
111111M1M01111111 IE PM
2 NM MNIIIIIII Ilk 1111E1
11111
.08.1 .2
EMI Ilk
.3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2
DI 1118
I.
3 4 56 8 10
Fig. 369. Regression of B content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
CEC -corrected Bin soil, mg/1 (Hot w sot) (hot water soluble) soil B (x), Egypt.
 295

Elseewi and Emalky (1979) much of the water soluble B in Egyptian soils comes from
Nile water used for irrigation. They also considered the B contents of soils sufficient but
incidences of toxicity unlikely.
Copper. Relatively high Cu contents are typical of Egyptian soils and plants (Figs 27,
29, 370 and 371), and about 30 % of the Cu values are within the two highest Cu Zones
(IV and V) indicating an abundance but not likely toxicity of Cu. Deficiency of Cu seems
unlikely in Egypt.
Iron. According to the present analytical data (Figs 31 and 372) no severe Fe problems
are to be expected in Egypt.

22
Elli1/1111 '1111111 MI
E
20
18 WE! 1111111,1111:e
togx
15g1111111
allilli olI
ELI 11111 111111111 PI
1111 11111 II 11111111/11
111E111111 II BM
88 11111111111 U IIIiIIU
l
866 11101111M 11111111L111
4 11111111Walli IIIIIII
Fig. 370. Regression of Cu content of 2 IliellitillM II II Min:
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x),
Egypt.
o III ir
111111111SIMPILL
/Co An
IN
. .
i, 4
Cu in soil, mg/l
-In IA anon
(A AA c - EDTA

22 I CU
Egy Inter t
20
18 fir11:7V ; 1
log y.0 03
1 1
0 301 io2 ,
i'i'-' 8,0, Fi.
log y.11587 O. 5E 1.9
11
.

Fr
r=0 575' ' r.0 7 1`"
16
a_
t's' 1

10
I L
.1110e'l>4111
o
o EIN Inighlom
II opimmimmozoin
Fig. 371. Regression of Cu content of Immigi ,
umil
....... ii.
Noll,
N -.
pot-grown wheat (y) on organic
carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.) al .4 .6 810 2 4 6 810 20 40 60 100
soil Cu (x), Egypt. Org.C-corrected soi CU,mg/i (AAAc-EDTA)
296
300 Fig. 372. Regression of Fe contents
275 IMINIEM11111111IIMMISIMMINIS of pot-grown wheat (y) on acid
2 50 manIIIMI11111111111111111111111111111111211
225 IMINERIIMISIMM111111111111111 ammonium acetate-EDTA extractable
200 soil Fe (x), Egypt.
1 75
E 1 50
Q-
.125
o
iiiuuiiiiiióiiiiinhiii
1 00 10111111111111111111
90 maILIMINUMMI61111111=1111
80
c 70
8
60 INIIIIIIMMON111111111
50

40

30 11111111111111111111
10 20 40 60 100 200 400600 IWO 2000
Fe in soil, rng/l AAc- EDTA)

Manganese. Unlike most other nutrients the level of available Mn in Egypt is low
(Figs 33, 37, 373 and 374), which is a natural consequence of the high alkalinity of soils.
For the same reason the ranges of variation in plant and soil Mn contents are ex-
ceptionally narrow. All plant Mn contents, as well as pH-corrected DTPA extractable soil
Mn contents, are below the respective international means and about 20 % of the sample
pairs fall in the two lowest Mn Zones (I and II). Problems due to the small amount of
available Mn may arise at several locations.
Molybdenum. The high level and limited variation of plant and soil Mo contents
in the Egyptian sample material are due to the high pH of Egyptian soils. The apparent
contradiction between high Mo contents of plants and low A0-0A extractable soil Mo
contents (Fig. 375) is eliminated by pH-correction (Fig. 376). In spite of the generally
high Mo level only a couple of plant-soil sample pairs fall in the highest Mo Zone (V). On
the basis of these data Mo problems in Egypt are unlikely.
Zinc. Whichever extraction method is used for determining soil Zn contents, the
Egyptian Zn levels are very similar. The national mean values for plant and soil Zn are
internationally somewhat low (Figs 41 and 43), the variation ranges are relatively narrow
and, therefore, only few Zn values fall outside the normal Zn range (Zone III; Figs 377
and 378). Many of the plant Zn contents, however, are unusually low and indicate
lower Zn availability than do the soil analyses. At these sites response to Zn may be
obtained. See also Section 2.7 where the critical limits for Zn are discussed.
 297
MII=SIMMEMoulmen. mo.now vlowymol ed....ra.*/,
Fig. 373. Regression of Mn content 2000
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Mn (x), Egypt. 1000 1111111111
_,111MIIIMIR:r=i1=
800 12=8.41MITIMIM7ITMr
600
IIIuIIILUIIuIU I.

=poll
MIMIIIIIMIMENIQUINI11.111
aE 360000
N.

g 200

-6 100
80
fin4.1110160.,"
-?" 60 111111111111111111117111111.11IMUMMig
1 MIN ImummerrasTamimmunilusim
60 11111111111111111111ROMIZMAMMMIIIIMMIIME
xc 30
20 111111101111111111=11111111=111
111111111111=111111111
10 NA.MMEM11.1401101.0111110MEN1111111&MMMINEIMMI
8 MN MIMEOS RIM MIMPWE CIINIPIMINIMMIIIENIMMMI111
11111000111111111.111=1111114111UNNOMMERNISTIAMMli
11111=111111101111111111111.111110

2 34 6810 20 30 40 60 80100 200 300

Mn in soil. mg/l OTP.41

Fig. 374. Regression of Mn content 2000

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Mn corrected for pH
(x), Egypt.
1000 gi
800
Iiii17111M
.. El*Cal M5 116 *)1C121=1
t 1
Iii11111111
.1==sizig:
E 600 II
a.
a- 400 k7s212-IfimmowSiZigigidi
"ti 300 1I immminumommann. 1111 1

Il
o
G)
200

100
80
60
1.---16,...,-1------lw-mium.,--,-m-
Il
I

- rdow------aummirannsi nik
EMI

IIIMMIENE
I

UI

fl EpiApam=mw

I
40 111 W -
a 30 11 antiv,.. II
20 kiila - .. N

10
8
gill FiraE=91
n=0 rdsdra=kma I
il.mnui isanniZZIFILemeslumemomedSal
2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
pH- corrected MI1 in soil, mg/I (DTPA)

8.1.4 Summary

Typical Egyptian soils are fine textured, highly alkaline, have a medium organic matter
content and high cation exchange capacity. The macronutrient content of soils is
generally good. The national average of P is slightly below the international P mean, but
K, Ca, and Mg contents of Egyptian soils are higher than in most other countries.
Micronutrient problems concerning Cu, Fe and Mo are unlikely but occasionally
responses to B, Mn and Zn can be expected.
298

Fig. 375. Regression of Mo content of

6 pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium
. . 1.. III
77 .32 ± am 3 oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
Ill
. 1

3 (x), Egypt.
2
:5. kilik :
E
1 IIIIIEI
CONIIE1.116W.
oo_
....urremovmmasm
a)
moniororg:massim
MINIIIPOOMIN11-_-

Igloo.
IMMORINIEMMKE
111111111111E
o
o .1

.06
IIMM
imaymegims olo
MIMMEEMBII
.9
.03
.02

I II El
.01
.01 .02 .03 .06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo in soil, mg/l (,40-0A)

6
Mo somimm=mmin
IIMMIIliMMAIIIIMI117111717111=1=M1111
MENNEIIIIINIMMMS11111311131=1111
3
NEM= 03.noinconstom
2 111111Y, °°1:11,6111111111:ffidiliiiil
E
1111111.1111111111541111111
wiminms=mi nteamom.R.
1
nimusannowmokenuiaminmr
==1111==1WAR1501111:11
MIMMEMEIMMIMMEMENIMlittg5rd.101MI
.5
.c
.6 Immossolmmmonolmmairolitramsi
MONIIIIMMEMMENNIIIIMINIFAMIEM11
.3

77, .2 11111111/1/0111110MINIIIIIM.
"E.
o
o
o
momml=milmn=nns
.1 11=11MMENLME PIMMEINE=11=MMINNIII
2 .06 =MIMENI0.1LIIMSIMMENNOI
=MMINZIIIMIETIMMEIMMEIN111EN

.03
.02

Fig. 376. Regression of Mo content of

.01
.006 .01 .02 .03 06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23 pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
pH -corrected MO in soil,mg/1 (A0-0A) A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x), Egypt.
 299

Fig. 377. Regression of Zn content of 200

pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
able soil Zn (x), Egypt.
Izn NEE 77
5
321Iag <

E 60
o
100
90
80
70

50
I mom
mommor-
40

30

o
20 1111111111E
N
10
9
8
7
1511111
6
lu EL

.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100

Zn in soil, mg /I (DTPA)

20
.t
Zn En:93 13te3 n
13 1

I
.7c±31t2 6
y= .C-3 '73/ to
at

ill iii 1
L108
u.
S / .

rI

I
k
111111 1
r

1 liii
110,11 ,
,. I
.111111rii-
1

Fig. 378. Regression of Zn content of

,
,
---
-11PA...111ILII
.........,.
11
pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA
,
H. WI I
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH
(x), Egypt. pH-corrected Zn in soil, mg/1 (AAAc-EDTA)
300

8.2 Iraq

8.2.1 General

The sample material from Iraq consists of 150 plantsoil sample pairs, of which 119
were collected from wheat fields and 31 from maize fields. The sampling sites are
illustrated in Fig. 379 and cover the agriculturally important areas of the country. The
Western Desert and Jazirah regions are excluded. One-third of the sampled crops had
been grown under rainfed conditions in the northern part of the country where the
annual precipitation usually exceeds 400 mm, two-thirds were irrigated and came mainly
from the Mesopotamian plain.
The Iraqi soils were classified as follows: Halosols (all Solonchaks, 45 soils),
Xerosols (35), Fluvisols (31), Vertisols (30) and Lithos°ls (8). Most soils are fine to

' 4134
!
I
4
/50a 555. '!.45;:67 90
i
522
48 571 k...,
r 40..55 4:: 59: \ .
', 56 5'2 52 .6.0,_____'
\ 552. 55
526 .528 401.. 5:6
568 4.2 506,1 o t
556.
0
KIRKt.,
--. SULTAIMANITA
55. 5, S)
.98
500
592* i
580
,, I, 5 587. ,....) I

596 (s
494
.91 I

. 5 ..
.581

.5
46 .4
54*

.555
166:518,0 '

tiA0.5A" 584 \
RAMAN t, 2 BAGHDAD

0 RUTBA 1.512
, 5244

606 A 455
46 . 45IB u 5 'II .
46 542 I
4
i I

It 470 .6, 501 5A, ±....___I

4 a? 42 O6 --A&RA \ ) -

.2476 549 540.

23,524.42 i
i
56
545 0548 S8 i I

7. 542 i I

.ADDASIRD'A 5'
I-IN. .535 I
6 -. 53:

IRAQ i
i .

...
NEVTRAL 20

0 AO or, 120 ma no Ft.

o .21.
an

Fig. 379. Sampling sites in Iraq. The last three numerals of each sample pair number are given (dots = wheat
fields, triangles = maize fields).
 301

medium textured and all are alkaline; the national average pH is one of the highest
(Fig. 380). The organic matter contents are low and the cation exchange capacity is at the
average international level. The national mean value for electrical conductivity is the
highest and those for CaCO3 equivalent and sodium content the second highest recorded
for countries participating in this study (Appendix 4).

Iraq Internat. Iraq Internat.

Fig. 380. Frequency distributions of
n=150
A= 51
3764
44
11= 150
A= 7.72
3783
6.64
texture, pH, organic carbon content,
30 Asr. 10
min.= 18
16
9
As= .16
min.= 7.22
1.12
3.62
and cation exchange capacity in soils
max.= 74 92 max.= 8.55 8.56
of Iraq (columns). Curves show the
international frequency of the same
characters.

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca C12)

Iraq Internat. Iraq inte,not

40 n=150 3779 n= 150 3777
k= .8 1.3 A= 26.2 27.3
As= .3 1.2 Is= 7.1 14.6
"E" 35 min.= 11.0 .2
max.= 1.8 39.1 max.= 43.8 99.9
". 2

O6
25

w 20
7
o
LU 15
CA
U-
0

.2 .4 .8 1.6 3.2 6.4 12.8 25.6 16 32

ORGANIC C.% CEC, me/100g

8.2.2 Macronutrients

The total nitrogen contents of Iraqi soils are quite low (Figs 6 and 381). Low N contents
are typical of Iraqi wheats but for maize the national mean equals the international
mean. This may be due to nitrogen fertilization; the sampled wheats had only received
5 ± 9 kg N/ha while the maize crops were fertilized with 27 ± 24 kg N/ha.
The national average phosphorus contents of both plants and soils are among the lowest
of this study (Figs 7 and 382). Wheat crops were fertilized with only nominal amounts of
phosphates (2 ± 4 kg P/ha) but maize received somewhat more (10 ± 10 kg P/ha). A
good response to phosphorus fertilizers could be expected at most locations examined,
provided there are no other soil factors limiting the crop growth.
The potassium contents of Iraqi soils as well as the K contents of both indicator plants
seem to correspond to the average international level (Figs 8 and 383). Potassium
fertilizers were applied only occasionally (wheat 1 ± 3 and maize 0 ± 1 kg K/ha).
Both the exchangeable calcium and magnesium contents of Iraqi soils are high but
the Ca and Mg contents of plants con-espond more or less to the average international
level (Figs 9, 10, 384 and 385).
302
Iraq internat. Iraq Intermit Figs 381-385. Frequency distributions
8= 119 1765
4.27
35 n=
9=3.14
31 1958
3.14 of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
ns= .79 Is= .40 .87
30 min.= 1.90
1.15
.80 min.. 2.50 .88 calcium and magnesium in original
max.= 5.16 7,45 max.= 4.12 6.51
wheat and maize samples and' respect-
6- 20 ive soils (columns) of Iraq. Curves
ELI 15
show the international frequency of the
o
Ui
same characters.
0
CC

2 3 4 5 2 3

N content of wheat, % N con ent of maize.%

Iraq Interno) Iraq Internat.

n = 119 1765 nt 31 1958
60 7,097 .133 9=087 .135
= .035 .084 16..032 .088
.009 min...041 .008
rnax.= .239 1.023 50 max.= .197 1.657

.005 .01 02 .04 .08 .16 .32 64 1.28 .005 01 .02 .04 .08 16 .32 .64 1.28

N in wheat soils. % N in maize soils,% Fig. 381. Nitrogen, Iraq.

40
Iraq internat. Iraq Internat. Fig. 382. Phosphorus, Iraq.
35 n. 119 1765 35
II= 31 n =1967
= .30 .38 R..28 R. .33
ts . .08 .12 ts = .06 ss. .10
3 min.. .17 .05 0 min.= .17 min.= .05
max.= .52 1.02 max = .41 max.= 1.04

a-25 25
>-
(2-) 20 20

E 0

.8 .9 .2 .3 .< .5 .6 .7 .8 9

P content of wheat, % P content of maize,%

Iraq Internat. Iraq Internat.
n. 119 1765 n. 31 1967
35 R. 8.3 20.2 5 = 7.5 22.5
Is= 10.2 26.7 ts = 4.6 33.0
min.. 1.2 1.0 0.1
max, 69.7 271.4 max.= 20.9 656.0
30
C

?;._3 25

>- 20

11J
n 15
o
u_ 10

25 5 10 20 40 80 160 320 640 2.5 5 10 20 40 80 160 320 640

P in wheat soils, mg/I P in maize soils. mg/I

Of the 119 wheat samples, 88 were classified as HYV ('Mexipak') and 30 as local
varieties. This last group consisted of varieties 'Sabir Biek' (11 samples), unclassified,
marked 'Local' (9), 'Harama' (2), 'Moseele' (2), 'Bakra Toe' (1), 'Rashboal' (1) and four
samples called 'Italian'. The contents of all macronutrients in the HYV wheat were some-
what higher than of the local varieties. However, this comparison is of limited value
because in most cases the HYV had either grown on soils richer in macronutrients or had
 303

Fig. 383. Potassium, Iraq. Iraq Internat. Iraq Internat.

n=119 1765 rm 31 1967
30 R= 3.5 4.0 30 R = 3.5 3.1
As= 0.6 1.0 As= 0.4 1.0
' min = 1.8 0.9 min.= 2.3 0.6
(,13 25 max.= 4.8 6.8 25 max.= 4.5 6.7

a 20
>-
o
W 15

ix 10
U-

1 2 3 2 3 4 5 6

K content of wheat,°/0 K content of maize,°/0

Iraq Internat. Iraq Internat.

n= 119 1765 ns 31 1967
Os 341 365 R = 304 330
30 Ss= 141 283 As= 126 356
min.= 130 20 min.= 120 18
max.=1028 2097 max.= 645 5598
25

>. 20

25 50 120 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 25 50 100 200 400 BOO 1600 3200 6400
K in wheat soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I

40 40
Fig. 384. Calcium, Iraq. Iraq
n =119
Internat. Iraq
n = 31
Internat.
1967
35 1765 5
8= .37 .43 7.48 .47
.E. *s = 09 .17 35 ,08 .20
S, 2, min.= .19 .11 30 min.=.34 .09
mas.. .78 1.68 mox...65 1.138

k25 25

020 20

D 15

(X 10
u

Ca content of wheaf, % Ca content of maize,%

'71
Iraq Internat. Iraq lnternot.
n. 119 1765 n 31 1967
2= 7315 4671 5 0.6456 3450
37 = 1608 3076 As = 2851 2815
min. 4400 110 min = 4200 10
max.= 15431 21930 max =17995 17995

100 200 400 000 7600 3200 6400 12800 25600 50 100 200 400 600 1600 3200 6400 12800
Ca in wheat soils, mg/I Ca in maize soils, mg/I

received more macronutrient fertilizers than the local varieties. Furthermore, the majority
of local varieties were grown under rainfed conditions and the majority of HYV under
irrigated conditions, rendering the comparison between the variety groups still less
justified. See Section 8.2.4.
304

Iraq internat
40
Iraq Internat.
Fig. 385. Magnesium, Iraq.
35 n= 119 1764
35 n= 31 1967
x= 162 172 ==.291 .251
C os= 045 060 ss=.089 .119
30 min. 075 044 30 min.=.160 .036
max.= 272 948 max.=.483 1.125
25

20

.05
Mg content of wheat.% Mg content of maize, %
0 0
Iraq Internat. Iraq Internat
35
n= 119 1764 n= 31 1967
8= 678 489 X= 688 446
ts= 334 437 xs= 245 462
30
rein, 190 10 min.= 237
max,1555 3298 max.=1272 6490

25 25

fr
)-a 20
o
U.1 15

CS
Ul

4V/
CC 10

r,r A\_
25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 12.5 25 SO 100 200 <00 800 1600 3200 6400
Mg in wheat soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils. mg/I
 305

8.2.3 Micronutrients

Boron. The national mean B contents of Iraqi soils and pot-grown wheat were considerably
higher than those for any other country (Figs 22, 25, 386 and 387). A third of the plant-
soil sample pairs falls in the highest B Zone (V) and half in Zones IV and V. The ranges
of variation of both plant and soil B contents are exceptionally wide with some values
falling in the two low-B Zones. The latter do not indicate any serious B deficiency but it is
apparent that a response to B could be obtained at several locations in Northern Iraq.
(See also Section 2.7). B toxicity could become a problem at several locations in Iraq if
crops sensitive to excess B are grown. This would be most likely in the Mesopotamian

100
80 B..
litelemisaGJwilsompuilmmummommenum
sihsammumemlisingiummaimuattra
PILIMIMMTIMMIIIKIMINIIIMINIIIMMINThill
60 MEITTINIMAINIMPW111111111111=111111111111Mmill
50
40 INIZEICTIEMEE191111111111111O IMMIlld
E 30 nigniiMENNiii Align
a.
20 mew Nopumnipmgm
15
10
8
iiiiinliiliglii
Wag
liii
"Firmilhrmaslim
NumnmNolowommas
'romrWarilignramesumumwain
immoimwmawasawmummonmen
niMinnffirmiirepigialMMIIMIE111111111
munamapprAimmummomun
Fig. 386. Regression of B content of 2 Eon
IlliiM.WIGOWNIIMINEIIIMIIIi
Ilii SIMI
pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
soluble soil B (x), Iraq. For details
of summarized international back-
11 Minn . .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2
IE 11111
3 4 56 8 10
ground data, see Chapter 4. B in soil, mg/I (Hot w. sot.)

100
80
B"iiIIIMIll
60 MIIIII
1111111MINE

Namiumins
71121:11112.0.E01
50 iiill-- L'4ZIEREENNO
MinallmIllall111MMIInnIMINM.MrAl
MO MIliiIKAIR
11101461M
40 grin
E
a 30 IIIIIMMEEMIVI lindrEilli
riamm
id
idde 111 Adil IN
oripAsvamisani
mutuRarAMISAVIMM...1`.11.11..
imumnawswracianimamom 111111111111
MINN IIIIIII
111111111111M011012111111111.

CO
mmummenummorqui
2 0111111111111
Fig. 387, Regression of B content of 1111111 11E11 1116. drillik
ih. !
pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected .081 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10
(hot water soluble) soil B (x), Iraq. CEC -corrected B in soil, mg/I (Hof w.
306
22
Irq Inte na. Fig. 388. Regression of Cu content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
2° 11111161MINEs Illi111111111 acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x),
18
E
Eno :Isom Iraq.

4
-,a,-'116 11111111111111MIIIIHIMIllt
.612 111111111111=1111111111111%1
-1-10 11111111111111111115111
C
8
111111111IN1!d11111
06 11111111111NIS1111111
4 111111111011MBOIHIMMIll
2

.4 .6 .8 10 2 4 6810 20 40 6080
Cu in soil, mg/l (AAA c - EDTA)

Fig. 389. Regression of Cu content of

22 Cu
pot-grown wheat (y) on organic carbon-
1

20
Iraq intern.t I corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.) soil
18 Iiss:8 '2;:.'6( INE 57 I I Ai Cu (x), Iraq.

E
O.
16 mY4.0 Iiiiiill ',°*-i Wallin 11/1
14
cs

12

1111 1111111
"6
10

..,i. ........i
.... ,
8 ,
....
.. ,..,
,,,,,,.....
o
o ,
6
4

o
2 ... _..,..,,
.4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 60 100
Org.C-corrected soi CU,mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)

plains where the soils are very rich in B and where the irrigation waters apparently contain
B. See Section 8.2.4.
Copper. The locations of Iraq are relatively close to the centres of the "international
Cu fields" (Figs 27 and 29). The variation of soil Cu contents is exceptionally narrow and
with a single exception') the samples are within the normal Cu range (Zone III, Figs
388 and 389). Response to Cu in Iraq is unlikely at the sites examined.

I) The extremely high Cu corttent of pot-grown wheat in this sample (47541) may be due to contamination. Neither the soil
Cu value nor the Cu content of the respective original wheat indicated excess Cu. The Fe and Mn contents of this sample
were also exceptionally high.
 307

Fig. 390. Regression of Fe contents of 300

275 IMIN11111111111111/111 11111.11111
250 Eno IN11111111111111
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium 11
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Fe (x), DINE11111111Rill 11111 1
Iraq.
225
200 WIR-11111111111;111 11111 I
IIII`rcgoEll
175
E 1 50 ILvuuiiiuiiuuiiiiii
o.
1 25
o
100 1
simm Imo. .- Ilk
.,
. 11111 1
90
E 80 MEW 1111111 %IIUIIIIP
MINIMUM:ill IIIIMill
3)*
o
70
M111111101111k '11111 I
60
50 OWEN 11111 I
40 MI1011111 ..- '1111 I
30 Ill
MIMI El
Ill 11111M1111
I
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1030 2000
Fe in soil, mg/1 (AAAc-EDTA)

Iron. According to the data presented in Figs 31 and 390, problems with Fe are unlikely
in Iraq unless the soil oxidation-reduction conditions are such as to limit its availability.
These conditions are more likely to develop in the northern parts of the country where
crops are grown under rainfed conditions, and where increased oxidation potential may
lead to the oxidation of Fe from ferrous to ferric forms so decreasing the Fe availability to
plants. See also Section 8.2.4.
Manganese. Because of the generally high and only slightly varying pH of Iraqi soils
the Mn contents of both plants and soils are low and their ranges of variation
exceptionally narrow (Figs 33, 37, 391 and 392). Although a few samples fall in the low-
Mn Zones (I and II) these do not indicate any severe degree of Mn deficiency. However,
a response to Mn could be obtained at several locations especially at sites where soil
moisture conditions are unfavourable for Mn uptake by plants. See also Section 8.2.4.
Molybdenum. Unlike Mn the contents of Mo vary widely in spite of a uniformly high
soil pH (Figs 393 and 394). In general, high values dominate and in the "international Mo
fields" Iraq is among the high-Mo countries (Figs 15 and 20). Although the national plant
Mosoil Mo correlation is not greatly affected by pH correction, the location of the
whole Iraqi Mo data on the regression graphs is more consistent with those of other
countries when the A0-0A extractable soil Mo values are corrected for soil pH. See also
Section 8.2.4.
Zinc. Irrespective of the extraction method used for determining soil Zn, the positions
of Iraq are the lowest in the "international Zn fields" (Figs 41 and 43) and both soil
methods give good correlations with the results of plant Zn analyses (Figs 395 and 396).
Still, the DTPA extractable soil Zn values are relatively lower than those extracted with
AAAc-EDTA. In other words, more than half of the plant ZnDTPA Zn points are
308

2000 391. Regression of Mn content

I
Fig.

1000
800
INN:ligni
____1=111_1111 11
IITE731WWWilIPArTIPMEMIFINWMI 7404Mr
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Mn (x), Iraq.
600IIMMENNE11MINEMili
400 11INEMIIIIMEMINI011111IN
o_ 300
15, 200 IlL1111111111=111111111MPI
o
-C*00
1
11011111111111111111M1
nimmargengramorni=
'4.1=MIWNIC1.11:1011MMEMEN=11.
80
60 11 10.1111.0.11.1.11111
111111111111EMENCIUMMIIIIIIII111M
40
30 11111111111PININIMMINI11111
20 11=21111111.11.0111111
10
8 OS
IM=MINE
011111111111E1111111
11M=MMIIMOMIONWOMMINEN
=marnia=aliTimmEMI
011 MAIMMINE *7.
2 34 6 810 20 30 40 60 80100 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

2000 aMn
momemamm ammEn.

ER101111111111
441mma Fig. 392 Regression of Mn content
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
1000 mum=
=. mplioN=vem.rwmar iimmiummai
EvaaLviiiimmrami.a.immissmNumoii. extractable soil Mn corrected for pH
800 NE
SI =INIMMMMMOMMINEIIMM=MMil

iiiiiiiiiiuniiiini
600 MINEIHMIIVIS/MWEIRIIIIMEM miiirmimommer (x), Iraq.
400
300
200 MM. inomminueNiin
100
8=1.,mmistss eadrommINIIN=Markvál
111111
80 musam ino MELIA
60 immomMalotionwrimemomwomugum
iiMMitaiiMilniIMEMEnnMSIN
40 1111MOMPRICIIMM11111111110=MIMElli
IIIIIMRMINIIM111111=111110
30
20 owrisinummilomimmi
pp-
lo Ilk MMEMAII
MMINIMMINO
OBMMNIMMIMML111111MIUMME IIMMENIN
INE=MIIMJE
2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
pH-corrected Mn in soilimg/i (DTPA)

within the two lowest Zn Zones while in case of AAAc-EDTA there is a strong
concentration of samples in the lower side of Zone III. As pointed out in Section 2.3.7.2
(Table 18 and related text), the DTPA extractable soil Zn is generally better correlated
with plant Zn in areas with alkaline soils and pH-corrected AAAc-EDTA Zn in areas
where acid soils predominate. Therefore, it would seem that in the case of Iraq the DTPA
extraction method gives a better estimate of the soil Zn status (Fig. 395) than does the
AAAc-EDTA method. See also Section 2.7. According to these analytical data Zn
deficiency seems more common in Iraq than in any other country studied. The lowest
values were measured from samples originating from widely scattered areas, and no
distinct low-Zn areas could be distinguished. See also Section 8,2.4.
 309

Fig. 393. Regression of Mo content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium
oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
6 n. l
min --sizzumannum.....---rara
,,, i....-0.......
111111IMMIMMin
CE
..
-?,.. .1210111111MEEmmagi
7-''° 2 ifiallENZIONIII
(x), Iraq. 3

2 : 5 7 ;-111 - -111filii
E
2/". 1
0111111111
wwwwwwwwwaraummwitie_l_
cl
,6
iliNier -- .5411-imairi
MISIEIWW.'4LiMMEMMIRIM,..
ErIENIIIIiii
-

Pi ,;,__.i I \ hip
AO S 11

o
o .1
....A-Wismia
Pr" "
:=1:1111::
... . .
iiinui
.06

.03
.02

.01
Cr

MMI
I
/Liar
.
mmaniinualm
mimriaimignusmin
MI 1111iiO1:1111ff
IANNMII I
II
le mri

I III
iM 1 u
23

i
01 .02 .03 .06 .2 .3 .6
Mo in soll, mg/ (.40-0A)

Fig. 394. Regression of Mo content of Immikliiiill' p=1111

pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected n .....voni
AO-OA extractable soil Mo (x),
6

me
EN n150 MEMO In . 53
y±0.s. 62 0. 96 ±t,.0 22 0.-6
5 t s .0. 6/..t 0.276
in 0 210 T 0. I
Iraq. 3
2 IN '
y=1.186 .89, I
1-.0.817 .
ans
.. r°00Y.6 .67

E 4.
a 1 =mu
IIIIIIII//MMIIIIII 1111111111111111111111110
431: ......uwiarli
ONHOMENONE MIII 1111=10114111.,_ 1.1WIWIPP.5 11116411Mun
-5 .6 MENEMMINIMMI= ii=r--4"Urgaralailralai
IMO= anntlir AIMENEMEIMIll
o .3 III Ell Ir AI 111111714111
.2
o OP .
.1 MOM mil OM .
==1111 1=m,
111111M1111111111
.06 11111111111111111MIllrating
IIIINEUMWMIMINIIIIIiiii
MN=
jIUU IIII
11=
111
I PREMIER
.03
.02
smog al
.01
I .006 .01
f
.02 .03
IMIP
IMIONIMINIM
.06 . .2 .3 .6
MUM
1 23
Ja

pH - corrected MO in soil.mg/I (40-oA)

8.2.4 Nutrient status of soils and plants of Iraq with special reference to irrigation

Successive civilizations have lived in the Mesopotamian riverplains for approximately

6000 years. They founded their existence on irrigated agriculture, and consequently,
irrigation practices have greatly influenced the soil formation. At present almost the whole
plain is covered by a layer of irrigation deposits of usnally several metres in thickness
(Delver, 1960). About two-thirds of the samples in this study originate from the
Mesopotamian plains and represent irrigated agriculture while one-third were collected
from Northern Iraq where the crops were grown under rainfed conditions. The analytical
310

200 1 glE Fig. 395. Regression of Zn content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
able soil Zn (x), Iraq.
r2
100
90 11111MIElliall I 111111111111VP2
80
70
E 60 urrimfrimardniqui
MINN NMI 111101 MAM
97 50
o NUM MIIMMilliiir/Iill
En ilinia mu
40

S" 30 E l 111

o 20
IN iiliiriiIIIME 11111

N
10
9
8
111111111111111
.... ..iammumg ii=mumena
pg alivinommiesi no
II
7
du ..11111 NI min= iiiIin=
6
nu EELmom min
.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1
1 EIT
2 3 1, 6 810 20 3040 60 100
Zr1 in soil,mg/ (DTPA)

200 Fig. 396. Regression of Zn content of

Ir g \ I t n
n 50 \ 3 pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA
yt.
1.
it \ 13
8 .t
1
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH
'\

100
091.2. 1 x
' \' r.1 8; o ,f (x), Iraq.
90
80
MI
70 Ill
560
\
, 'ME III 1

60
i
\i
50
40 E \
Ill
,
i
I

30 \ 14., Iiir,
20
\

i
\\
..:;,e \
.;11. 1

10
9 I
8
7 I \A 1 !
6
I1\ 111 V
.2 3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
pH-corrected Zn in soil,mg/I (AAAc-EDTA)

data on the soils and wheato of these two groups are given for comparison in Table 27.
When comparing the data it should be borne in mind that although the irrigation
methods practised since ancient times and their consequences may be the most likely
cause for the differences between the soil and plant properties given in Table 27, the
samples under comparison are from different geographical areas and this may account for

1) Maize crops and respective soils are omitted from the comparison because the original maize crops, with one exception,
were all irrigated.
 311

Table 27. Comparison of analytical data from non-irrigated and irrigated soils of Iraq and respective plantso.
Statistical differences (t-values) between the groups are given at 5*, 1** and 0.1*" percent significance levels.

Characteristics Non-irrigated Irrigated

(n =44) (n 75) (t)
pH(CaC12) 7.55 ± 0.08 7.77 ± 0.11 11.98***
Texture index 54 ± 11 50 ± 10 2.19*
Organic C, % 0.97 ± 0.33 0.77 ± 0.27 3.43**
CEC, me/100 g 30.9 ± 8.3 24.5 ± 5.6 4.54***

. 10-4 S
El. conductivity, 1.7 ± 0.9 12.2 ± 10.9 8.27***

CaCO3 equivalent, % 23.8 ± 8.3 26.0 ± 4.9 1.55 n.s.

Na in soil, mg/1 21 ± 64 510 ± 465 8.97***
N in orig. wheat, % 2.91 ± 0.59 3.67 ± 0.76 6.06***
N in soil, % 0.104 ± 0.034 0.093 ± 0.036 1.76 n.s.

P in orig. wheat, % 0.269 ± 0.062 0.317 ± 0.087 359***

P in soil, mg/I 6.1 ± 3.7 9.6 ± 12.4 2.25*

K in orig. wheat, % 3.20 ± 0.52 3.65 ± 0.60 4.34***

K in soil, mg/1 430 ± 117 288 ± 127 6.19***

Ca in orig. wheat, % 0.383 ± 0.092 0.370 ± 0.095 0.77 n.s.

Ca in soil, mg/1 7929 ± 1447 6955 ± 1597 3.41**

Mg in orig. wheat, % 0.124 ± 0.025 0.185 ± 0.038 12.70***

Mg in soil, mg/1 375 ± 107 856 ± 260 12.95***

B in orig. wheat, ppm 3.64 ± 2.84 18.32 ± 16.00 7.74***

B in pot wheat, ppm 4.23 ± 1.34 17.07 ± 13.83 7.98***
B in soil, mg/1 0.45 ± 0.37 1.89 ± 1.68 7.10***

Cu in orig. wheat, ppm 7.31 ± 2.81 10.95 ± 15.05 2.03*

Cu in pot wheat, ppm 7.02 ± 1.02 10.18 ± 2.14 10.85***
Cu in soil, mg/I 4.97 ± 0.85 5.86 ± 1.26 4.49***

Fe in pot wheat, ppm 53.3 ± 7.0 74.7 ± 18.2 9.09***

Fe in soil, mg/I 64.0 ± 17.7 137.3 ± 32.7 15.84***

Mn in orig. wheat, ppm 57.4 ± 17.8 99.7 ± 42.5 7.57***

Mn in pot wheat, ppm 69.5 ± 17.7 70.3 ± 25.8 0.21 n.s.
Mn in soil, mg/1 6.8 ± 1.5 6.0 ± 1.8 2.09*

Mo in orig. wheat, ppm 0.28 ± 0.23 1.72 ± 0.85 13.85***

Mo in pot wheat, ppm 0.12 ± 0.08 0.72 ± 0.26 18.59***
Mo in soil, mg/1 0.096 ± 0.049 0.370 ± 0.280 8.28***

Zn in orig. wheat, ppm 21.2 ± 4.6 21.1 ± 6.5 0.07 n.s.

Zn in pot wheat, ppm 10.8 ± 1.8 12.0 ± 3.5 2.39*
Zn in soil, mg/I 0.28 ± 0.11 0.28 ± 0.40 0.00 n.s.

I) For extraction and analytical methods, see Section 1.3.

B: hot water extraction + CEC correction
Cu: AAAc-EDTA org. C correction
Fe: AAAc-EDTA
Mn: DTPA + pH correction
Mo: A0-0A + pH correction
Zn: DTPA
312

the differences. Since the effects of irrigation depend on the quality of the irrigation water
in relation to soil properties, and as no analytical data of the water used at different
sampling sites are available, too far-reaching conclusions on these effects cannot be
justified. However, the very large differences in the contents of such highly soluble
elements as Na and B would suggest that much of the extractable Na and B in the irrigated
soils is due to accumulation of these elements brought to the soils by irrigation water. The
same may be true for Mo and Fe; e.g. Fireman and Kraus (1965) found Mo in irrigation
waters. Irrigation seems to have practically no effect on Zn levels, and for Cu the quanti-
tative differences are relatively small. There are only small and statistically non-significant
differences between the Mn contents of wheat grown in pots of formerly irrigated and
rainfed soils, though the original irrigated wheats contained significantly more Mn than
did the rainfed wheats. It would seem that in irrigated soils the moisture (redox) conditions
are more favourable to Mn absorption by plants than in the drier field conditions in the
rainfed areas. This difference does not appear in the Mn contents of pot-grown wheat
since all pots were maintained under similar soil moisture conditions.
El-Dujaili and Ismail (1971) measured 2.6 me Ca and 2.2 me Mg per litre of Tigris River
water at Aziziya. If these concentrations are typical of the water used for irrigating the
present crops, it it possible that the irrigation water leached Ca from the soil which is high
in Ca and contributed Mg to the soil which is low in Mg. For N, P and K the comparison
may be obscured to some degree by fertilizer application, even though the amounts applied
were generally small. According to the field information data, the average N, P and K
applications to irrigated wheat were 8, 3 and 1 kg/ha and to non-irrigated wheat 2, 1 and
0 kg/ha, respectively. On the debit side the higher yields obtained frorn irrigated fields
would remove more nutrients from the irrigated than from the non-irrigated soils. This
applies especially to K which crops extract from soils in considerable quantities. It is
apparent that the accumulation of elements such as Na and Mg in the irrigated soils
contributes to the higher electrical conductivity and pH of these soils.
The above results indicate in a general way some of the differences between the irrigated
and non-irrigated soils. Further studies, including detailed data on the quality of
irrigation water and ground water at various locations, are needed to obtain a more
comprehensive picture of the behaviour of different nutrients and other elements and of
their leaching-accumulation characteristics.

8.2.5 Summary

Most of the Iraqi soils sampled for this study are medium to fine textured, highly alkaline,
low in organic matter and have a medium cation exchange capacity. Very high electrical
conductivity, CaCO3 equivalent, and sodium content are typical, especially for the soils
of the Mesopotamian plains.
In general, the P and N contents of soils are low, the K contents correspond to the
average international level and the Ca and Mg contents are high. The most likely problems
to arise with micronutrients would be due to deficiency of Zn but those due to both
shortage and excess of B can also be expected. High Mo and low Mn are typical for Iraqi
soils but most of the Cu and Fe values are within the "normal" range. There are distinct
differences concerning most nutrients and other soil properties between the northern parts
of the country, where the crops are grown under rainfed conditions, and the Meso-
potamian plain where irrigated agriculture has been practised since ancient times.
 313

8.3 Lebanon

8.3.1 General

The geographical sources of the Lebanese maize-soil sample material is shown in Fig.
397. The soils are medium to fine textured and alkaline with relatively low organic matter
content and high cation exchange capacity (Fig. 398). The high CaCO3 equivalents
and electrical conductivities and relatively low sodium contents are typical of most
Lebanese soils sampled (Appendixes 3 and 4).

40. ao

1 -,

i
.L.A . 45465 .../
° 05466

TITIPOLI

4 059 61118BEK

45455
95456

BEYROUT
6
BAt604
4 454
ZAV , 4 2 05461,,--- .... ,....!

: gágP i
546f ;5'!9'.

SOT El6 DNE

4 .9 ',..

O
95460
45461
/)
.........,''
RAC VITA ')
)

ARJAYOUN ....

.
f
:
i
- L E BANON
ii

r;

o a 12 Is 22 24_ 24 24 as 42 24.

39.50' 90'50'

Fig. 397. Sampling sites in Lebanon.

314

5 Lebanon internat. ebanon Internat. Fig. 398. Frequency distributions of

n. 16 3764 n.
30
0.60 44
40 16
R. 7.44
3783
6.64 texture, pH, organic carbon content,
-4s. 13 16 4-sr. .29 1.12
min.= 38
max.= 84 92
35 min.= 6.95 3.12 and cation exchange capacity in soils of
max.. 7.75 8.56

tr,
25
Lebanon (columns). Curves show the
20 international frequency of the same
>-
C) characters.
w /5
co

0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca C12)

Lebanon Internet 35 Lebanon Internet

40 n. 16 3779 ' n = 16 3777
R. .9 1.3 =38.3 27.3
4-5= .3 1.2 I's= 9.4 14.6
":S. 35 min.. .4 .1 min.= 23.8 .2
mox.= 1.3 39.1 max.. 61.9 99.9

'I,30
25

LTJ 20

¿Du 15
cr
LL 10

2 .4 .8 1.6 3.2 12.8 25.6 8 16

44A.
ORGANIC C,% CEC, me/100g

8.3.2 Macronutrients

The total nitrogen contents of soils are low. However, owing to the relatively high rates of
applied nitrogen fertilizers (53 ± 99 kg N/ha), the mean N contents of maize are slightly
above the international average (Figs 6 and 399). The wide variation in N contents of
maize may be attributable to varying fertilizer rates.
The phosphorus contents of soils and maize are relatively high (Figs 7 and 400). The
potassium contents also slightly exceed the respective international means (Figs 8 and
401). The sampled crops had received relatively heavy dressings of phosphates (33 ± 54
kg P/ha) but no potassium.
The national mean for the exchangeable calcium content of Lebanese soils is the
second highest (after Syria) in this study but the average Ca content of maize exceeds only
slightly the respective international mean (Fig. 402). The mean exchangeable magnesium
content of Lebanese soils exceeds the international mean but the mean Mg content of
maize is lower on the international scale (Fig. 403). These results may be due to the
relatively low uptake of Ca and Mg by plants from soils of heavy texture and high CEC
which characterize most Lebanese soils. See Figs 12 and 14 and related text in Section
2.2.4.
 315

" Lebanon Internat.

40
Lebanon
n. 16
Internat.
1967
35
n 16 1958 Lebanon Internat. 30 0.3.3 3.1
9=3.43 3.14 n. 16 1967 4E.
is = 0.5 1.0
is = .73 87 35
5..36 .33 a, min.= 2.2 0.6
min.= 1.83 .88 ts..06 .10 25 max.= 4.2 6.7
Max.= 4.69 6.51 0 30 mm.. .29 .05
non,, .43 1.04
s_ 2 0.
>-02
U
1- .1 15
0
X 10
Q. U_
u_

2 3 4 6 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 3 4 5 6

N content of maize, % P content of maize,% K content of maize,%

70 Lebanon Internat.
Lebanon Internat. n. 16 1967 3 Lebanon Internat.
n. 16 1958 R. 42.5 22.5 n= 16 1967
60 9,097 .135 tss. 31.0 33.0 13= 354 330
no .023 .088 min.. 5.3 0.1 is= 234 356
max..104.6 656.0
min. =.061 .008 min . 101 18
a) max .1070 5598
(.0 50 max.=.137 1.657
25

Q.
40
>-

20
u-

2 5 10 20 40 80 160 320 640 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400
.005 .0 .02 .04 .08 .16 .32 64 1.28
P in maize soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I
N in maize soils,%
Fig. 399. Nitrogen, Lebanon. Fig. 400. Phosphorus, Lebanon. Fig. 401. Potassium, Lebanon.

40
Lebanon internat. 40
Lebanon Internat.
Figs 399-403. Frequency distribu-
35 n
9..50
16 1967
.47
n.
8=.219
16 n= 1967
R. .251
tions of nitrogen, phosphorus, po-
es =15 .20
S.' 30 min...22
707..85
.09
1.88 Ú 30
ts..075
min.=.143
no. .119
min. .036
tassium, calcium and magnesium
'eg 25 25
max.=.406 max..1.125 in original maize samples and re-
>- spective soils (columns) of Leba-
(2) 20 (2) 20
ILI non. Curves show the interna-
o
Ui
15
tional frequency of the same
LL
co 10
IL characters.
5

05
Co content of maize,V0 Mg content of maize,%
50
Lebanon Internat. 40
n. 16 1967 Lebanon Internat.
35 R. 7789 3450
n= 16 1967
es. 1919 2815 35
min.= 5000 10 6= 545 446
max..11950 17995 no. 412 462
min.= 177 1

max.=1553 6490

800 1600 3200 6400 12800 12.5 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400
50 100 200 400
Ca in maize soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils, mg/I

Fig. 402. Calcium, Lebanon. Fig. 403. Magnesium, Lebanon.

316

8.3.3 Micronutrients

Judging from the limited number of samples the micronutrient levels in Lebanon seem to
be quite satisfactory. In the "international micronutrient fields" the position of Lebanon is
relatively close to their centres, often slightly lower (Section 2.3: Figs 15, 20, 22, 25, 27, 29,
31, 33, 37, 41 and 43). Since the ranges of variation are usually narrow the points

100 MI Minimum
80 E...:0.1111.1111111MattilriiTiAlliOMM1=1=INIMp_ne
11111111=111M1111=111111insw MIN
60 INIMEMIMMIPX011111MIMII1111111
50 um
.0 54_ O. MILESELEIIIII IN111111111
40
30
.82 o.5 11031191 MI=
Q: 20 111111111111111111111 11111111

o 11111
111101111111.11111111
IIIMMU1111=111113.11.
MIIMMIMM111.411110111MIMINMMIMIIM
13 8 INEMinh.W.MINMENEPOIMEMOMENaiilinni
inisn mENEmPionminlimmis
1111111111M1111111=IMI
1111110111111 MENHIR
m 3
2 11111 Ileum Noma Fig. 404. Regression of B content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
11111111 111111 soluble soil B (x), Lebanon. For details
.4.56.810
.810 2 3 456 810 of summarized international back-
B in soil, mg/I (Hot w. sol.) ground data, see Chapter 4.

100
80
n= 5 -
60 7.ts= 065
50 7±s=0 4 +0 H ,7

E
40
y.5 77+1 710
.30 r0 255 s
x
8 *

20

10
8
6
5
4
o
03
3
V
2

Fig. 405. Regression of B content of

.08:1 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2 34 56 8 10 pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
C EC -corrected B in soil, mg/1 (Hot W. 601 ) (hot water soluble) soil B (x), Lebanon.
 317

indicating micronutrient values for single plantsoil sample pairs are usually within
the "normal" range (Zone III in Figures 404 to 414). Even the few Fe, Mn and Mo
values outside Zone III are not in any extreme positions. However, at some locations
response to B and Zn may be obtained (see Section 2.7). On the basis of these limited
analytical data, micronutrient problems in Lebanon seem less likely than in most other
countries involved in this study.

22
20 ZliiiiiiIIIIES11111111111111111111111
18 11111MMI1 11111111.11111111111111
E
a-16 11111111MITI'R6111:111S1111111111111
o 11111111111111111111111111111111
.ca) 14
.6 12 11111111111M11111111111111111111111
V,10
8c
8 111511111111111111111111=111111111
6
4 tommuumilimminim
2
Fig. 406. Regression of Cu content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium simmummishiab..Aimmulb
2 .6 .810 2 6 810 20 406060
.4 4
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x), Cu in soil, mg/I (A AA c- EDTA)
Lebanon.

2 '

I)
) nrei6 n .35 80* 57
7.s=
51±5.7 7±1 e .
1111111
1
, "1.1
-i(7)9. §)*11111 inisiv NE
Nil 11111
' 1111
'
3
Ell
IEEE
:IN
1.1111111111111
1111111

11PNUiiiflillI
Fig. 407. Regression of Cu content of
' UP91111 111113
pot-grown wheat (y) on organic
carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.) 31 .4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 60 100
soil Cu (x), Lebanon. Org.C-corrected soi CU,mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)
318
3 00 Fig. 408. Regression of Fe contents of
2 75
2 50 iirffinlaw"mm pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
225
200
1 75
Eingratinli 0)%
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Fe (x),
Lebanon.

E 1 50

.125
o
100
is 90
t" 80
70
11111111
o
60

50

40

30 1111
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)

8.3.4 Summary

With exception of relatively low total N contents the macronutrient status of sampled
Lebanese soils is generally good. Fewer problems concerning micronutrients could be
expected than in most other countries.
 319

11 11=1
409. Regression of Mn content 2000 IMMEMM.V87 =1110O
Fig.
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Mn (x), Lebanon. 1000 MN ECM VA
111111.7111111111111
EIMIMMENtLq/lanXK fAIN=IMINII=4
800 111117FIEEKEWIRgIMIEWMWEEMILMWITrin=1
ream,.....mumiiimmimumumm
K 400
600 II

o_ 300 IL
nimiimmillumm
.4.:
a, 200 ll
.c
MIIIIIIIMMIIMILVISI
3
"is
C
inn =MIMMEMM.161.,:L'E 01116
80 :1...,kozninEmmr...romini==7.
,,
1111h.

G)
PIIMMMIRIMMENII=IM%IiiMMENNIMMIN

iispoommui
co 80
o
11MMED111%%1=MMENNI=M=M
c
"
5
_ 30
MI
IIIMIN IIIIRIIIIIIIMMI
2°
10
8 ;;
Il
IminniM111.
111111111110111111111111
=11MMEBialM3ISTOMMIIIIMWM=
MEMEMOBIUVIIIIIMMOIK1=
2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80100 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/i ( DTPA)

2000
Mn
1000 11111M161011111111
NIMMIMPFIMUMMMMIMM.,6UMIIM11IMIIN
MadelglIMAZELELTlekMMIN011MINIMMIN
800 11=WINENNOIIMIIMMMONN
MCITEIRMIDIMIWPMERDX4i [EnTilMINEMMEMI
E
600 IIEigTHiliNUME=WSTRIMMINMEMMINEMPM
o. pp-
0- 400
1; 300
200 1.
o
Ó
G)
100
80
..----..................
............................
11.11111111111111111111111111
..................n...............,..
Il11 IMUMBEliliiIMINMENIIIIM=IMEN1111
60 =MMINErraMEMMMINIMMEWI
40 1Pg''9
11 1 4

2 30
K

20

Fig. 410. Regression of Mn content 10

8 EN
11111111M111111111111111
moimmosommmmwommo
1=MINIMMIEiiiiIIMMMEMEN
immulmos
MMIMMIM
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA MI
El 1=1MIln Maal=MINIMO =MMUIN
extractable soil Mn corrected for pH 2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
(x), Lebanon. pH- corrected Mn in soil, mg/I (DTPA)
320
=mommtm =1....
10111P11111111111111=111111111111MISIIIIIMI Fig. 411. Regression of Mo content
Mo Lq/..110.4111111111111Mbliffilik161111111111I
MIIIM1111111=111111111111111M111111 111 of pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium
6 EMMEIMMIIIIIIIMMINIMIIN
EMMFAMIIIIEEIMEEEIMEIMIII11111M oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
3

2 =EMIR= ° MM.= (x), Lebanon.

E
O.
.1111111.11111111.11
11111MMIEl
MMENM=1 lgal=
'a-
o
1

nn.1WW=ME
.6 EN rar=11111.
ENIwilimmiimmuNMEN
MMENIIIIMESINIIIII=1111
1111M1111111111111111111!=

o .3
C
.2 MENIONIM1111110111
o
o
o .1 EMI" =MMEMIMILM=
.06 WAINIMINEMIMMI
MIIIMEIMME91
.03
.02

01
I Li la
.01 .02 .03 .06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo in soil, mg/ (A0-0A)

..
6
Mo ..mom
Emmun I
EN:11111==2:1111
mmsoutunrracrilwommman
MIIIIIIIIMMIIIIMIMI
MIUMEI:MIMMIIMIll
--
=.11
EMI
MI
onny:
Minin illurammaromun
=16

owl mama= nal MI

3
2 III II y=0.093.0.9
111111C31111iiiiil
E
......
0.1 11111110779". polomman
I...... ........_._
o
o .6
-c
imali illiiitall=11
.3
imi milmammi
g
o
o
.2

imr\ Gronnow
Emilwapiii=in a
.1
o

lipmendimmilm "
.06

.03
INNI IMEI 11911MM. 111

blind"
.02
Fig. 412. Regression of Mo content of
.01 MO .006 .01 .02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
II pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x), Le-
pH-corrected MO in soil, mg/l (A0-0A) banon.
 321

Fig. 413. Regression of Zn content 200

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA 77
extractable soil Zn (x), Lebanon. 5
3211og

100
90
80
70
g_ 60
o.
50

_t) 40

20

N
10
9
8
7
6
Ill FL
.1 .2 .3 4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
Zn in soil.mg/1 (DTPA)

200

100 ,
MINIMEMIllMIIM-TaJillIMIIMIE1111111&1111
111111111
90
80 IEENIIIIMIMINION1111=111111111111511111
70 MIIIII11111111=111M111511111
60 IIIIIMMWEIVIIIIII1111111112111111111
g. 50
2.:-L 40
11.111111111.1111111111110111111111
o
30 111111111111111111101111111fil
11101101pRionno
10
9
11111111111liliii
IMMIIIIIIMENNI `MINIM
......1!IIM11111111111.M111111111
8
7
EIMMIIIIIMIMEN11111=1=111111111111
Fig. 414. Regression of Zn content of
6
pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH
MINIM IIIIIMEINIMENEENEE
.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
(x), Lebanon. pH-corrected Zn in soi mg/1 (AAAc-EDTA)
322

8.4 Syria

8.4.1 General

The original Syrian sample material consisting of 20 wheat-soil and 18 maize-soil sample
pairs was collecfed from seven out of 11 Syrian Provinces: Latakia (11), Aleppo (7),
Hama (7), Deir-ez-Zor (7), Derá (2), Homs (2) and Raqqa (2). The geographical
distribution of sampling sites is illustrated in Fig. 415. Of the sampled soils, 15 were
classified as Fluvisols and 12 as Luvisols.
The Syrian soils vary widely in texture but the majority are fine textured (Fig. 416).
Very high pH, medium organic matter content and a high cation exchange capacity are
typical. The national average for CaCO3 equivalent is one of the highest recorded in this
study. Electrical conductivity values are relatively high but the sodium contents correspond
to the average international level (Appendixes 2-4).

,41)

, 1

w.,-AELs,40AuRs0/,.
-.,
.95729
a
.044
810 .X4
°AMINE 08728

EV07714
J a
45727

. -- ....
\
40717 ,

OIVICOVR

AT °Li. ' ° Étir12110AN E

40
08735
'
a a
. 45 19 '

- - MITINF r-- "

1,1111.08
4°
tr
7 . 48725
1:172'48706 4
'84%704
703
4573 0°°
1

48 4872.1 A"
I

!
PALesIVRE 48720.

Kft?4.,"7" I

04,rEINE a

:50.0,0,
1

D.4`8"- \

°AMA

l, ONVRA

o
1-N.tir°7.
ET:8702
508610A SYRIA
----
7 00.014
SAWA°

e 10 0,44. .0_0, 471 4 . o 4000

00.

Fig. 415. Sampling sites in Syria (dots -= wheat fields, triangles = maize fields).
 323

8.4.2 Macronutrients

The total nitrogen contents of the sampled Syrian soils as well as the N contents of the
original wheat and maize are at the average international level or slightly below it (Figs 6
and 417). The sampled crops, especially maize, were fertilized with high, but widely
varying dressings of nitrogen (wheat: 52 ± 59 and maize 117 ± 87 kg N/ha) which may
have extended the range of variation for the N contents of plants.
5
Syria Internat. Syria Internat. sq
n = 38 3764 40 n= 38 3783
30
0.54 44 g= 7.59 6.64
06416 16 Rs= .20 1.12
min. = 18 35 min.= 6.90 3.62
ma, = 82 92 max.= 7.92 8.56
'S 25
30

20 25
>-
o
20
w 15
o 15
LeL2 0
LL 10

90

pH (Ca C12)

5
Syria Internat. Syria Internat.
40 n= 38 3779 n= 38 3777
31= 1.2 1.3 0=38.4 27.3
Os= 1.0 ,===, 1.2 ±s = 13.0 14.6
-E. 35 min. .3 ' .1 min.= 9.3 .2
non. 5.6 , 39.1 000. 74.3 99.9
Ú
,,b_ 30

25
o
uj 20
Fig. 416. Frequency distributions of o
texture, pH, organic carbon content, W r, 94

and cation exchange capacity in soils of 0

Syria (columns). Curves show the

international frequency of the same .2 .4 .8 1.6 3.2 6.4 12.8 25.6 2
characters. ORGANIC C,% CEC, me/100g

Figs 417-421. Frequency distributions Syria Internat. Syria Interne

n 20 1765 n, 18 n=1958
of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, 0, 4.14
±s= .76
4.27
1.15
35
0=2.98
05= .83 ±s ,
0. 3.14
.87
calcium and magnesium in original min, 2.82
max.= 5.55
.60
7.45
30
max.= 4.22
min.=
L.. max.= 6.51
.88

wheat and maize samples and respect- 25

ive soils (columns) of Syria. Curves 20

show the international frequency of 15

the same characters. 10

5 6 2 5 6
N content of wheat,% N content ot maize,%

Syria Internal' Syria 1nternat

n= 20 1765 60 n= 18 1958
0= .121 .133 0.134 .135
no. .078 .084 06 .101 .088
non,. .040 .009 11110.=.023 .008
max...379 1.023 max.= .480 1.657

.005 .01 02 . 8 16 32 .64 1.28 .005 .01 02 .04 .08 .16 _32 63 108
Fig. 417. Nitrogen, Syria. N in wheat soils, % N in maize soils,%
 324
4 40
Syria Internat. Syria Internot. Fig. 418. Phosphorus, Syria.
n. 20 1765 n= 16 1967
35 5..38 .30 35 5=28 .33
4.C.. 9s..09 .12 to= .07 .10
min.= .24 .05 minx .20 .05
re' , 30 max...56 1.02 30 rnax.=.42 1.04
t0.25 25
3-
rt"' 20 20

8 15

EC_ 10

,e
P content of wheat% P content. of maize.%

Syria Internat. Syria Mternot

n= 20 1765 n. 18 1967
35 5= 19.5 20.2 n=16.6 22.5
24.6 24.7 to =19.1 33.0
min = 2.0 1.0 min.= 4.4 0.1
max =111.9 271.4 rnax..82.0 656.0

25

>- 20
CD

D 15
LU
CC
u_ 10

2.5 5 10 20 40 80 160 320 640 2.5 5 0 20 40 BO 160 320 540

P in wheat soils, mg/I P in maize soils, mg/I

Syria Internat. Syria Internat.

Fig. 419. Potassium, Syria.
n o 20 1765 n= 18 1967
30 004.0 4.0 0 5= 3.7 3.1

t8 25
neo 0.7
min..= 3.0
max.= 5.6
1.0
0.9
6.8 25
tO. 1.1
min.= 2.2
8106 .0 5.3
1.0
0.6
6.7

a 20
3-
o
Lu 15

o
ix 10
U_

5 6 2 3 5 6
K content of wheat% K content of maize:a/0

Syria Internat. Syria Internat

no 20 1765 n. 18 1967
60 465 365 5= 419 330
so 226 283 55 = 249 356
min, 566 20 min.. 136 18
max o 965 2097 max = 887 5598

25 50 100 200 400 BOO 1600 3200 6400 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400
K in wheat soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I

The NaHCO3 extractable phosphorus contents of Syrian soils as well as the P contents
of plants are, on average, at the normal international level while varying substantially
from one sample to another (Figs 7 and 418). Only moderate amounts of phosphates were
applied to the sampled crops (wheat: 7 ± 11 and maize 7 ± 12 kg P/ha).
The mean exchangeable potassium contents of soils and K contents of plants are at the
average international level but the ranges of variation are quite wide (Figs 8 and 419). No
 325
40
Fig. 420. Calcium, Syria. Syria Internat. Syria Internat.
n. 20 1765 35 n= 18 1967
3..41 .43 =.60 .47
-.6 ts../0 .71 xs../5 .20
23 30 min...22 .11 0 min.= .28 .09
max.=.62 1.68 max...85 1.68
4-,
Cs 25 25

7-
20 20

a 15 15

E 10

1.6
Ca content of wheat,% Ca content of maize

Syria Internat Syria Internat.

n= 20 1765 n= 18 /967
. 9159 4671 5 0. 7618 3450
±3 3391 3076 X3= 2763 2815
min.= 4900 110 min. 3310 10
max = 17700 21930 max./6910 17995
30

100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800 25600 SO 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800
Ca in wheat soils, mg/I Co in maize soils, mg/I

Fig. 421. Magnesium, Syria. 40

Syria Internat. Syria Internat.
n= 20 1764 n= 18 1967
4.162 .172 0..263 .251
Z 15= .051 .060 Xs=3399 .119
Ú min.= .109 .044 30 min...159 .036
max.= .315 .948 max...476 1.125
a-,
25

20

Mg content of maize,%
40 40
Syria Internat Syria Internat.
n= 20 1764 35 n= 18 1967
7= 911 489 0=1006 445
Xs= 586 437 no= 510 462
30
non. 108 10 30
min.= 268
max .2620 3298 non .2359 6490 1

ú 25 25

20 70

LU 15

OX 10
U_

25 50 100 200 40 BOO 1600 3200 25 25 50 100 200 40 800 1600 0200 6400
Mg in wheat soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils, mg/I

potassium fertilizers were applied. The national mean values for exchangeable calcium and
magnesium in Syrian soils are among the very highest recorded in this study, but the
average Ca and Mg contents of both original indicator plants correspond to their respect-
ive international mean values (Figs 9, 10, 420 and 421). See also texture and CEC of
Syrian soils (Fig. 416) and the effect of these soil characteristics on the relationship be-
tween Ca and Mg in soils and plants (Figs 12 and 14, Section 2.2.4).
326

8.4.3 Micronutrients

Boron. On average the Syrian soils and plants contain somewhat more B than usually
found in the soils and plants of this material (Figs 22 and 25). Although the B content of
soils and plants varies considerably from one sample to another (Figs 422 and 423) and
several high (Zones IV and V) plantsoil B values were measured, these are still much
lower than those found in neighbouring Iraq. The differences in the B contents of soils and

10 IN:IMMINIIIMENVEIIIM MIRE 1MIIMMINIIIIIIII

8 VIL4LeWIMIGIPUBIRMIIIM
IMM.IiMIENE MI=MIMINI
6 EMEIMMEMMEIIIMI
IMELEMEMMILMIIII
MIIIMIll
MEMMEIMMIIII
=MENEM
5
4
0..108 ±
9
immassu
+242MMEEMI
mu
E3
98 1E111
C-
20I. MIME Alin 1111111
o
(a)

1
Iffill=MailliarPMOMmiummail
'Mall
EMI' 11111
MMIwIEN11!'.
liMh=MINCIMPPAIMIlhiCkIII=MEMINEN
Ell I=IMEMPEITIMIMME1111111
111=111111-11121AMMEM=MEMII
11=MTBNIiill MENIIIIIII
co
o
o
3 Imiwoo Eno merlon
2 II El111111
1 AI 1111143 li!I. Fig. 422. Regression of B content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
1
NI Ill soluble soil B (x), Syria. For details
. .2 .3 .4.5.6 .810 2 3 1.56 1111 of summarized international back-
B in soil, mg/l (Hot W. sol.) ground data, see Chapter 4.

100 111101111IMIUIIIMIE
KVAliiIMMEMNIMIMMITil
=I= MINIM
MIME
80- Me=1MMENIEN NM NM
60 IZEEIN MI
I=MINHEIDN EMI
IIIMICEIEEMME300.3:=MEMMEININ
50
40 E MIEN. iii72 Mg an
E
CL 30 1121EINENII 5500 MEEPAVIII
II r'0715- Illiiii 1=1111
ilMraml 1111011
==1:11 114.
Me=1MMErgilelii
11.111M=MMERNIVAIMPSEM
1111
MN
ME
sio=1miNnaiiiM
olmmamouracom m iii1
11MMENCIIIII , 11111111
IIMENNIN11111 MMEIIIII
2 HM111111111 MMINI
I
08.1 .2
11111
.4.5.6 .810
.3 2
in
3
MN
456 810
Fig. 423. Regression of B content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
C EC -corrected B in soil, mg/I (Hot w. sol.) (hot water soluble) soil B (x), Syria.
 327

plants between the irrigated and non-irrigated sites are smaller than those found in Iraq.
The present limited data from Syria do not indicate any serious problems due to
shortage of B but at some locations a response to applied B may be obtained (see also
Section 2.7).
Copper. Syria's position in the "international Cu fields" (Figs 27 and 29) is central.
Since only a couple of sample pairs fall outside the normal Cu range (Figs 424 and 425)
no problems concerning this micronutrient are to be expected in the areas sampled in
Syria.

22
S Inte na
20
18
5°3°811411111111111
E
8:16 E111111111/111M11111111111
**É;
w 14 1E11111111 111111d1111111111
.c
15 12
11111111111 1111111111111111/E1
1,10 11111111111 11111Elik1211111
88 11111111111 1111111PAN1111111
05 1111111111111111/11/111101111111
4 1111111111111M211111111L1111111
Fig. 424. Regression of Cu content of 2
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x),
111111111111611l!i111111111111111
.6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080
Syria. Cu in soil, mg/l (AAA c EDTA)

2C i
Sri 1 intern

3 ; AMIDE -Y72-4 11111111 IIINI

twaS1118111 mi 111111

) IBEM
ll ...i.,,,,
,,,, 11111
Fig. 425. Regression of Cu content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on organic
!.;,,.......,.....
_......,.....,,..,,,
carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.)
soil Cu (x), Syria. Org.C-corrected soi CU,mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)
328
300 Fig. 426. Regression of Fe content
275
2 50 inzEMILWARIMEI of pot-grown wheat (y) on acid
ammonium acetate-EDTA extractable
225
200 soil Fe (x), Syria.
1 75 =:111111111THERININIII
E 150
o_
125
o
100
o 90
80
70
o
60
50

40

30
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/l (4AAc-EDTA)

Iron. The Fe values measured from pot-grown wheat samples grown on Syrian soils
vary from 46 to 95 ppm and approach the international mean closely (Figs 31 and 426).
The AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Fe values are below the international mean. On the
basis of these limited data Fe deficiency should not be expected to be common in
Syria. However, it has been reported in the deciduous orchards of the Damascus Ghouta
and in certain areas along the eastern fringe of the Anti-Lebanon mountains (Loizides,
1967).
Manganese. Low Mn availability is typical for countries with alkaline soils and Syria
is no exception (Figs 33 and 37). Almost all the Syrian plant and soil Mn values are lower
than the international means and about 25 percent of the sample pairs fall in the two
lowest Mn Zones (I and II, Figs 427 and 428). Low Mn availability may be a factor
limiting the normal growth of crops in Syria although extremely low Mn contents were
measured in only one sample pair.
Molybdenum. Despite the high pH of Syrian soils the average Mo content of pot-grown
wheat grown on these soils only slightly exceeds the international mean (Figs 15, 20, 429
and 430). The low soil Mo values (mean 0.119 mg/I) given in Fig. 429 (due to low
extractability of Mo by A0-0A in alkaline soils) is doubled (mean 0.235 mg/1) by
correction for pH (Fig. 430) and the apparent contradiction between the analytical results
of plant and soil analyses is resolved. The corrected data indicate no Mo deficiency in
Syria, rather, both the plant and soil Mo values are seen to be normal or somewhat high.
Zinc. Both the methods used for extracting Zn from soils give similar estimates of Zn
levels in Syria (Figs 41, 43, 431 and 432). High Zn contents were recorded for a few
locations only, the majority of values are quite low, a few falling in the two lowest Zn
Zones. Although none of the values indicates a very severe Zn deficiency it is possible that
a favourable response to Zn fertilization would be obtained at several locations.
 329

Fig. 427. Regression of Mn content 2000 =WEIIM 11.1110.001111,111.111.017Maera1.10

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA

extractable soil Mn (x), Syria. 1000 MII
ill 111:1111111111111
IIMIMMMIIIIMIIII01111
:CS.-IMI la 11CM/111.XLII M.A.'S 00=1 WM.
IMMIll IMENIA
800 BS
=ME
MU
11=6VIAmmilanirrtwiiireirkArreimi
ANIMMIMTIMMAMEM111111111
600 UNEMINEMOIM=MMLINIIIIIMMIMMig
=1...1111.=IMMEReilliMailli
11=11. IIIIIMMPHIIMMII
11
E 400
300
HEM111111=mounimem
.c

o 100

o
200

80
60
...
1111I
IniM
................
111111111111:411
IIIIIIIMMINIL IIIMEMINSEM11MPP.MIIMIIIMPN
piniiIIMMIMMIgninMMIEM
iiIMMIES - leeTiliallIMMEMIIIIMMIER
40
30 11111..1 -gliummullummis
20 UWE IIIMINI111111111111
10
=1
In
.............
MI .11111\311111111111
IMII11IMMINIMMIN
NMI

2 34
_
MEN117111S7VMMENNO
IMIMMIILMMIRMIIME in r=im
6810 20 30 40 60 80= 200 300
awm=

Mn in soil, mg/l (m-PA)

Fig. 428. Regression of Mn content 2000 111=1MMINtiOMMID =IMAM NMI

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA Mn
extractable soil Mn corrected for pH 1000 mMIMPORWOREME11==7704PMNIMMEMMININIMMisalli RUMP
800 MEIMMEMEM0=M=WIINIMENIIMMIMMINiiErielia
(x), Syria. BB
600 111111114MIMMIIIMIS1=111411IMINIIM11111111.111n11
E
o_400 illMEMIUMMEILEMEADMIUMpirilliii
o 300
200 Imolommosnippownw
o
100 11\111111111M1111111011111111
raa
80 III101InEMENE 11PlitidIMIMBMMMOOKIii
NIMMIIMMEMONEMMI11=kENEMMi nni
o 60
40
30
20 upsehmimsionimmlop
10
8
inlinmalponumMIMMINIMINI 113MMEMINI IN1.111
2 3 4 6 810 20 301,0 60 100 200 300 600
pH-corrected Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

8.4.4 Summary

Most of the Syrian soils are medium to fine textured and have medium organic matter
contents. The other essential features are their high alkalinity, high cation exchange
capacity, high CaCO3 equivalent and relatively high electrical conductivity. High Ca and
Mg and medium N, P and K contents are typical of most sampled Syrian soils.
Most of the micronutrient values measured from Syrian sample material are within
the "normal" international range. Due to the high soil alkalinity the availabilities of Mn
and Zn to plants are low, and the most likely micronutrient problems in Syria are
shortages of these elements. At some locations a response to B fertilization may be
obtained
330

AMIN.
N Nionl Fig. 429. Regression of Mo content of

it
Mo
6 pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium
3

2 Ewa toga
oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
(x), Syria.
E

_c4.,
1

.6
ImmilMEMmorns
MIIMMENI71=Q11111
11MEMMIrMEMEN
4--
o .3 M=111111/%1M1111
E111111111111111.11
LIMNII OM
141ZUMMEM=1MINEMI
2MMME=MIIME
IAWAMMMIMIMEMIMMIMMMIk
ve

.06 MMWAIIMIONEENIIMMEMMIN
WMINIMONNIIIIMIMI
rMMOIMENIIIM
.03
.02

01
III
.01 .02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo in soil, mg/l (A0-0A)

EMP
I MSIMM
BliiWISMI1111
1 MNIMENZIMMEI MIEMBEN
6 mnnunsitommumnomiumummmilim
IMIMEEINEEKEEMIIIIMMEMBEHMEMI
3

°-
2

1 16111216
-5 .6
MAIREIPEI
ohummuloollot
nommumm.
=M1111111Wd=
.03
.02 1111111111111111
.01 momkomm
.006 .01 .02 .03 06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
Fig. 430. Regression of Mo content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
pH - corrected MO in soil, mg/l (A0-0A) A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x), Syria.
 331

Fig. 431. Regression of Zn content of 200

pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract- 77
5
able soil Zn (x), Syria. 321 tog

100
90
80
70
E 60
°- 50
o
40

"6 30

o 20

N
10
9
8
7
6
lU rz
.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 3040 60 100
Zfl in soil, mg /l (DTPA)

200
ra Irte n.
=3f 3
z .6 133
s ±4 84.

8 C.51
100
90
80
70
60
E 50
40
o
30
"a

20
o

NJ
10
9
8
7
Fig. 432. Regression of Zn content of 6
pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA III
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
2
(x), Syria. pH-corrected Zn in soil, mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)
332

8.5 Turkey

8.5.1 General

The sampling sites of the 250 wheatsoil and 50 maizesoil sample pairs collected
from Turkey, are well distributed over the agriculturally important areas of the country
(Fig. 433). Five out of the seven natural regions (Black Sea, Marmara, Aegean, Central

-----t

\
1
--

.,..i .
i
' E
..; G7 ' aE
.. \ t I r-
...,
_...--'
.... ___
__I----4;----- --T
. \ .
0.

,; 14 __.------F---- _a__
. .

\ i

! `..
2 I i

1 d t
1E 1 !

i,..: g 1E i.!
IV .,

4
E .,

4. r)
., 1 ¡E** I

lo 0' 't
I..,,i . z F.. :-T- R ..
H-744 ' ------ tl't 'Ve" 0-, 1i
l'N-----/
' ì
L../
'...el
. g!
' If

,
'i

\
--1-- I
-0
*----*-1* ''
/
. T. i

...; I

IV. r
1

C
1 t1 ,--
R".

_,..

0 E5' 5 - :,

1 . /-r-
.1

---
,,
_
- 1 .el,
Il
IL 1_ ,,, [?I ' ",A
I

Fig. 433. Sampling sites in Turkey.

--------__
i
I_ The last three numerals of each sample
1
pair number are given (dots = wheat
k fields, triangles = maize fields).
 333

Anatolia and Eastern Anatolia) are represented and these constitute about four-fifths
of Turkey's arable land area. Of the total Turkish plantsoil sample material, 87 percent
had been collected from non-irrigated and 13 percent from irrigated sites. About two-
thirds of the sampled soils were classified by FAO/Unesco soil units: Fluvisols (81 soils),
Luvisols (62), Kastanozems (17), Vertisols (16), Lithos°is (12), Rhegosols (2), and
Xerosols (2).
The sampled soils vary extensively in texture from TI 17 to 85 (Fig. 434). Highly
alkaline soils, pH(CaC12) > 7.5, predominate but some neutral and a few relatively acid soils
are included. The organic matter contents of soils are usually rather low but their cation
exchange capacity tends to be high compared to the international distributions of these
properties in the whole material of this study. Relatively low 'electrical conductivity values
and sodium contents are typical of most Turkish soils but the values for CaCO3
equivalent are usually quite high (Appendixes 2-4).

Fig. 434. Frequency distributions of Turkey nternat Turkey Internat.

n. 303 3764 n. 300 3783
texture, pH, organic carbon content, R. L9 44 R. 7.40
os. .57
6.54
0
os. 13 19 1.12
and cation exchange capacity in soils min..
non.
17
92
9 35 min.. 5.20
'nao.. 8.55
3.62
8.55
of Turkey (columns). Curves show 25 0

the international frequency of the 25

same characters. 20
15
15

JO

10 20 30 0 59 0 70 80 93
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca C12)

Turkey In1e1nat 5 Turkey Internal

n= 300 7779 n. 300 3777
R.
os.
91
4
1,3
12
0. 31.5
13.s
27.3
14 6
min.. 2 .1 min.. 7.7 .2
max.= 78 39.1 max - 54.2 999
30

25 20

w 20
15
o
w 15

.2 . 1.6 3.2 15

ORGANIC C,% GEC, me/100g

8.5.2 Macronutrients

The total nitrogen contents of Turkish soils are low compared to most other countries
(Figs 6 and 435). The N contents of the original Turkish wheat are also internationally
rather low but those of maize tend to be high. In both cases the N contents vary
substantially. The sampled maize crops were fertilized with nitrogen (61 ± 50 kg N/ha) at
double the rate applied to the wheats (34 ± 30 kg N/ha). The relatively higher N contents
of maize as well as the wide variations in the N contents of both crops may partly be
due to fertilization.
The NaHCO3 extractable phosphorus contents of Turkish soils, especially of wheat
grown soils, are internationally somewhat low (Figs 7 and 436). Although moderate
 334
40 40
Turkey Internet
3765
Turkey internat. Figs 435-439. Frequency distributions
nn 249 n= 50 1959
35
5= 4.12
es. .78
4.27
1.15
5

-re=
3.28
.63
3.14 of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
30
30r111,1..
min.. 1.92
6.73
.50
7.45
min '.59
max.= 4.56 551
173 calcium and magnesium in original
k25
25 wheat and maize samples and respect-
9- 23 20 ive soils (columns) of Turkey. Curves
13-1 15
show the international frequency of the
a same characters.
Ic'cj
U_

N con ent cl wheat.%

AiL
N content of maize,%
73
Turkey Internet TUr Key internat.
6 r- 249 1755 0 n. 50 1950
12= .994 ,133 = .1'9
t se .034 .084 05..047 .088
min.= .021 .039 min - .047 noc
io
max = 788 1 923 max -,270 1.657

12

.91 .32 .04 6 .19 .3 22 .000 .41 02 .0/. e E .32 6 t29

N in wheat soils, % N in maize soils,% Fig. 435. Nitrogen, Turkey.

40
Turkey internat. Turkey Internat. Fig. 436. Phosphorus, Turkey.
n . 249 1755
3 I 50 1907
= .3@ R ..30 33
48 .09 .12 es = .06 10
830 min.= .14 .05 , Till, . '17 05
ml,.- .57 6;. 1.02 1880.. .45 02 3,00
o
0.25
-z 20
L)
ej
15
U.I
CC
10

.3 5 .6
P content of wheat.% P conlent of rnaize../o3
.6

Le
Turkey Internet, Turkey Internat.
35 n. 249 1765 5 n 50 1967
11-= 10.9 20.2 I= 17.5 22.5
es= 7.9 24.7 14.4 33.0
min. 1.0 1.3 min.. 3.0 0.1
man.=139.6 271.4 37 mae. 73.2 655.0

2.5 5 20 40 80 100 320 540 2 0 20

P in wheat soils, mg/I P 71 maize soils, mg/I

dressings of phosphates were applied (wheat: 18 ± 13 and maize: 6 ± 11 kg P/ha) the

average P contents of both plants remain below the respective international means.
The level of exchangeable potassium in Turkish wheat soils is almost double that of
maize soils (Fig. 437) but, on average, the K contents of Turkish soils correspond closely
to the respective international mean for soil K (Fig. 8). Practically no potassium fertilizers
were applied, and the national mean K contents of both indicator crops remain rather
 335

Fig. 437. Potassium, Turkey. 35

Turkey Internat,
3
Turkey Internat.
n = 249 1765 n= 50 1967
30 8=3.3 4.0 30 0 = 2.7 3.1
26= 0.6 1.0 S= 0.8 1.0
.-C-' min.= 1.8 0.9 min.= 1.0 0.6
8 25 max.= 5.4 6.8 25 max, 4.2 6.7

5 6 2 3 4 5 6

K content of wheat.% K content of maize,%

Tu r key Internat. Turkey Internet

n= 249 1765 n,, 50 1967
7= 411 365 7= 214 330
0 ts= 210 283 0s= 115 356
min.= 58 20 min.= 46 18
max.= 1338 2097 max.= 556 5598
25

25
..
50
.a9/21
100 200
41
400 800
/ 1600 3200 6400 25 50 100 200 400 BOO 3200 6400

K in wheat soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/t

Fig. 438. Calcium, Turkey. 4

Turkey 8a8880t. Turkey 'Ioteroot.
n=249 1765 35 n= 50 1967
3
7= .57 .43 6, .57 .47
35= .22 .17 es = .14 .20
S' 30 min.= .21 30 min...33 .09
max.=1.68 1.68 max.= .90 1.88
(71
122 25

7-
t.) 20

D 15
o
Lai
Ffr 10

.2 .8

Ca content of wheat, °A Co content of maize,%

40
Turkey interoot. Turkey internat.
n= 249 1765 n= 50 1967
et
5 3. 6408 4671 35 X. 5411 3450
es= 2140 3076 3s. 2282 2815
min.= 660 110 minx 1290 10
max.= 13160 21930 max.= 10375 17995
30

?..1) 25

/A.
100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800 25600 so loo 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800
Ca in wheat soils, mg/I Co in maize soils, mg/I

low internationally. Apart from the lack of potassium fertilization, the low K content of
wheats may be due to the effect of soil pH which was considerably higher in wheat soils
than in maize soils (means 7.52 and 6.79, respectively, Appendixes 2 and 3). For the
effect of pH on the plant K-soil K relationships see Fig. 11 and related text in Section
2.2.4.
336

On average, the calcium contents of Turkish soils and plants are high and the average
magnesium contents correspond closely to the respective international means (Figs 9, 10,
438 and 439).

Turkey Internat.
40
Turkey Internet Fig. 439. Magnesium, Turkey.
n= 249 1764 35 n= 50 1967
0..174 .172 6= .290 .251
es= .069 .060 es =.131 .119
min.= .067 .044 3 min.= .134 .036
max.x .948 .948 max.= .614 1.125
25

20

15

.05 2 .05
Mg content of wheat, % Mg content of maize, %

Turkey Internat. Turkey Internat.

5 n= 249 1764 35 n= 50 1967
5= 495 489 0= 469 446
es= 305 437 es= 363 462
min.= 70 10 rem.= 95 1

max.= 1755 3298 max= 1742 6490

25

20
7-

LL 15
o
LU
10
u.

25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 12.5 25 50 /00 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400
Mg in wheat soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils, mg/I

8.5.3 Micronutrients

Boron. Wide variations in B contents are typical of Turkish soils and plants (Figs 440 and
441) but high B values dominate and in the "international B fields" Turkey clearly
stands high (Figs 22 and 25). In spite of the variation, 84 percent of the plantsoil B
values are within the "normal" B range (Zone III, Fig. 441) and only two percent of these
fall in the two low B Zones, one percent in each. The lowest B values occur in the Black
Sea, the Aegean and the Marmara regions. The majority of the high (Zones V and IV) B
values are found in Central Anatolia. The highest B values were measured in sample pair
No 46673 which came from Ankara Province in an irrigated field with highly calcareous
soil, pfl(CaC12) 7.9. Although the effect of irrigation is not as marked as, for example, in
Iraq, it is apparent that in many cases the practice of irrigation is partly responsible for
the high B values found in Turkish plants and soils. The relative frequency of high
 337
Fig. 440. Regression of B content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water 80tbd n=298 3
soluble soil B (x), Turkey. For de- 60
50- -46 59 50
-*r_s=110±1 07 5
tails of summarized international back- 40
ground data, see Chapter 4. 3074+440
r 851".
.=

4
63

20
CD

10
"6 8
6
5
4
o
03
2

BI
1
.1 .2 .3 .4.5.6 .81.0 2 3 456 8 10
B in soil. mail (Hot W. so!.)

Fig. 441. Regression of B content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
(hot water soluble) soil B (x),
Turkey.
50
40
608
100
8Oß ±-sx6 9 -±5 50
7±s=0 9 090
5
694
030
E
o_ 30 .126-1-5 3x
r. 0 905 *
r02 8

is 20
a)

10
8 . .

.
4
3

.08:1 .2 .3 .4.5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10

C EC - corrected B in soil, mg /I (Hot w sol

(Zone V) B values is about three times as high for irrigated as for non-irrigated sites, while
none of the sample pairs from irrigated sites fall in the two lowest B Zones (I and II). See
also Section 8.2.4.
Judging from these analytical data, B deficiency occurs in Turkey but is not widespread.
The analysed B values are usually "normal", but at several locations attention should be
paid to possible disorders due to an excess of available B caused either by naturally high
B contents of soils or induced by high-B irrigation waters. See also Section 2.7.
338
22
Tu k nter no Fig. 442. Regression of Cu content of
20 n 8 3538
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
Y±
48±
c
780r2 7 acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x),
18 Turkey.
Q.16 11111171t111ElitilrE1111
o 1111111111111MIIIIIMMIllr
111111111IMIIIIMI
.6 12

o 8
J
10
aliordno
06 111111111111MOMME11111
4 111111M1111111111E1111
2 1111Enifillain 111111111D1
o
.2 .4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080
Cu in soil, mg/I (.4AAc- EDTA)

22

20

18
, %INN
Cu

ryi::
s
. y
i

i m.
-9-53-i nsiii noll
Fig. 443. Regression of Cu content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on organic carbon-
corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.) soil
Cu (x), Turkey.

E 16 Y=307E1111111 rogoliiiiiill 1111111

o.

11111111 1111111111111
o
10

8
...., mum :...,r4.
6 IIIIIMIKENINE1111111
111111kalkillIME1111111
4

2 111111011101111 MIN
.;allImilll '''
,

O
.2 .4 .6 .810 2 46 810 40 60 100
20
Org.C-corrected soi CU,mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)

Copper. The Turkish national averages of plant and soil Cu contents correspond closely
to the international respective mean values in this study (Figs 27, 29, 442 and 443).
Relatively small variations in Turkish plant and soil Cu values are typical, and no
extremely low or high Cu contents were recorded. The present analytical data suggest that
problems due to shortage or excess of Cu are unlikely in Turkey.
 339

Fig. 444. Regression of Fe contents of

pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
300
275
250
fmNimessim
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Fe (x), 225 riorionommulipms
Turkey. 200 \ "iiiiiiiiiilLINOMMIN1101111
`"'' ? 'illiklMiliiiiiiiIIIIII
175
E 1 50
Q.
Ilia \

MLIIIIIIIMG
IIKII111111111111111
111111
- 125
c 100 Mil111111111111111
1-5
=Xi
t 80 MIA
90
11111 011111=1
MINI= plINSWII
MiliiiiiigNiegaililli
111010M11111111111 I
ardigiiiiIIIIiII.I
50

E
40

30 liopromil
MINI
..,111111 III 'AMIN
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil. mg/1 MAAc- EDTA)

Iron. Compared to most other countries the Fe content of Turkish soils and plants is
low (Figs 31 and 444). More than 20 percent of the Fe values fall in the two low-Fe
Zones (I and II), and some of these show distinctly low plant and soil Fe contents. It seems
likely that in many places crops sensitive to Fe deficiency would respond to iron
fertilization. Almost 90 percent of the low (Zone I) Fe values occur in Central Anatolia
and half of these are in the Province of Konya.
Manganese. Turkey's placing in the "international Mn fields" tends to be low (Figs 33
and 37). However, in spite of the generally low Mn content, only about two percent of the
Turkish samples fall in the lowest Mn Zone (I), and none of these indicates any severe
shortage of available Mn (Figs 445 and 446).
Molybdenum. The two Mo graphs (Figs 447 and 448) give dissimilar pictures of the
Mo status in Turkey. This is because A0-0A is unable to extract Mo from alkaline soils
in quantities related to its availability to plants (see Section 2.3.2.2), so distorting the
relationship between soil and plant Mo. After pH correction the soil Mo data are in better
conformity with the plant data and only a few sample pairs indicate shortage of available
Mo. Several relatively high, but not extreme, Mo values were recorded from the samples.
No distinct geographical division between low and high Mo areas could be drawn but, for
example, of the 62 pot-grown wheats with Mo content <0.1 ppm only two were grown
on soils originating in irrigated sites. See also Section 8.2.4.
Zinc. The standing of Zn in Turkey is one (if the very lowest recorded in this study
(Figs 41 and 43). Irrespective of the method used for extracting Zn from the soils, the
great majority of extractable Zn contents of soils and plants are below the respective
international means. About 35 percent of the sample pairs fall in the two lowest Zn
Zones (Figs 449 and 450) and only a few in the high Zn zones. Low (Zones I and II) Zn
values were recorded most frequently in samples which came from Central and Eastern
Anatolia where alrnost every sample pair gave such low figures. About 20 percent of
samples from the Black Sea, Marmara and Aegean Regions fell in the low Zn zones.
it appears, therefore, that Zn deficiency occurs cornmonly in Turkey.
340
JIMEMINLAIIIMi IMINICEMMEIN,
Fig. 445. Regression of Mn content
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
800 11
600 II
11111ISIIIM1
1111111.11111111N1
LVM,01,C31,4t1VMENIWf/ESECal.1111111MII1111=1
MilaMinTirn=r7MiWieVird4rmilogN=1
extractable soil Mn (x), Turkey.

E 400
St 300 1111111111111111111111111
;km.
15 200 11111111=11111111 MIE1
11111111111111111111:41,
,3 , 80 =MCMIIIIIIMIPUIMMISIMMEZIMIMLIEMIMII
UNIMINIMMIMISIMISMICTOMIergEMNI.11111aTilEMI
MENIMMINMENINSPECaMianglat...iiii1MMIMINK
5 6° iiiiiiiiiniMWrr.iidli;VVWSINCHZkininiii
40 mimmimmalimaggrumigniulinmq
0." I

:Alibi
1111MM 11111111111
11111 1EaNIMMINInli1=1
11111IIMIMIMMIlialMIOSTAMIMMEIISVA
1 2 34 6 810 20 30 40 6080100 200300
Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

2000 =121MONI IMMIIMIMMININE Fig. 446. Regression of Mn content

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
1000 1911111111111111
.....Encraml.nangur -mLnin extractable soil Mn corrected for pH
800 E F.......".....mcw.m..m.....
MIIMIIIIIIIIII MEIZEPAgtIgacnIc IMMINO118
(x), Turkey.
E
600 III
400
300
rEIMINEFOIliral 1
nwwinagaummmoztommumwmpri
.c
200

100
80
111111101001.1
.......,..,...........,..
............................11.1,_,...... 1

11111=1- EJEISPIITIIIIMIMIIIIMIMMIIIIIIII

ir i
60
o 11=ga'arcitANASIMUIIMMISIMMIIMMEENII
IIMIMIWIEMPNEMIlmsomimmui
2
40
30 111=MatIll MEW illi ir
20

lo
,a . .........
..III
2
.... .....
MIMIIIIII=101111Naill=11MMENZE
IIMMEM=L1111111EZALMMERNMI
3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100
111
MMEIN
==MMIN
MIMMIMAI
200 300 600
pH - corrected Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

8.5.4 Summary

The Turkish soils vary greatly in texture. Most of the soils are alkaline and low in organic
matter but have a relatively high cation exchange capacity. Compared to other countries
participating in this study the N and P contents of the soils are usually low, while those
of K and Mg are at a medium level and Ca contents are high.
The most evident micronutrient disorders in Turkey are those due to deficiency of Zn.
The level of Fe is also low as is that of Mn. Low B values were recorded occasionally. In
general, the B and Mo values are "normal" but some of them are very high. Problems due
to shortage or excess of Cu are unlikely.
Fig. 447. Regression of Mo content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium
oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
(x), Turkey.
6

2
M-
o
111111MIIIIIIIIIMI=1111111111111
monswaumaima gillm
=MERIN=
111111116111111111111
....M.M.1 1111111111,4111
==WEINMMISIMMZITAIIIII:MilM=
341

.6 IMMEMMUOMMEMENNIMMUIallIMEN

.3

.2 11111111011111111111111MMI
AISIIICOMMIUM1=mN
MVPINIMMEMINIIMIMMIM=MEMENIMPILIII
ONWM/11=1001.11111MEMMEMETEMENISIIMI
)6 MIMMIIMMININIIIMIII=11110111 MI11111M
/111111111111111111111

)3
)2

)1
.01 .02 .03 .06 .
I Lit,
.2 .3
IIIIIIL23
.6 1

Mo in soil, mg/l ta 0-0A)

M o IIMMUNMel.....TrAT:t= immENNImslii==
INI111111111=11111
IIM=MIMUM111111111111
6 MII1111111MELIMIM1LII n . 3 37 111111111111MININ
0. ammo= sum
MENIIIINICEMILISMINNIIL- ± s - 0 322
3
IIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIRCEILIEIIIIII Il
1111111 -20%6a 111111Effilliiiiil 111/1

.. IIMIIMM.qmWMIMmuror.
2

Q.
Q.
111111
1 11111E11111111/1111
IMI=MOI=MMINISM1172111MMEMEI,11==
MEMNIIMI=MMEINZEIIMMIIMMIZO*5111;1111=
MUMBIBI=MMIMMEMENIONIMMIMIWOMM=MMEMEM
.6 NEIME111MENNIIIMMIMIINIVAINSINIMMINNI

1
MOINNIIMMMINIMEINEMMEINFA2M11MIIME
IIVA' '
3 .3
2
ilik
IN
I Ill ,ll
o
.1
1111111.
.... RPM' 1111111101
.. -Ail
ord.g......111=EMMEMW6S .-
f
h" 11.L.N

2 .06 :::=E-Zannia==MMIUUMEIMG:
mmullmormommirmommulmmr
..
.03
.02
Fig. 448. Regression of Mo content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected .01 d , i, 0i \ .
A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x), .006 .01 .02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
pH - corrected MO in soil, mg/I (A0-011)
Turkey.
342

200 IMMIMMEIN Fig. 449. Regression of Zn content of

It
pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
able soil Zn (x), Turkey.
MI
577
321 log

100
90
80
IIflE011111111 II
u_
70

iiauiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiir
E 60
a 50
o
40

20 mosolommon
10
9
11111111111111111111
8 IIIIMM119111111111MMENIIIII=111
7
6
Ill 3E
.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
Zn in soil, mg/ (DTPA)

-I I ten.
33
i±'- o 3 1

x ,
o
1=03

r" ' iiiM ii1111

iiil U12
iiii
'0
MN In
50
111111 lul sum
50
1 Il li IIIIII
30 1 WM iii
20 k 111111

10
9
I go......0iii11111
MIER , II UM
8
7 -min -'...:
MI8111 ' . i IL.:::: Fig. 450. Regression of Zn content of
6

.2
1111113 4 IIIIIIIMIE
.3 .4 .6 .8 1 20 3040 60 100
2 6 8 10
pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH
pH-corrected Zn in soil,mg/I (AAAc-EDTA) (x), Turkey.
 343

Africa

9.1 Ethiopia
9.1.1 General
Soil and original wheat and maize samples received for this study from Ethiopia came
from Shoa (40 sample pairs), Sidamo (32), Arussi (27), Wollega (16), Harar (5), Gamu-
Gofa (4) and Kaffa (3). These provinces represent about half on the arable land of the
country. The approximate sampling sites are given in Fig. 451.
.
.
.

i
ETHIOPIA
1

0 25 50 100 350 200 250,on

1=6,...1=oremers.==1*
i
16
.-- i
i 1

A554W,I,
I
POOSOAT

ASSARA

il
ANSUM

ri----- k

ii

6ONSAR

1I

IDErE L.. ..

0689tolAPPHOS
1

.
k.....
46928
47054 -9706J 13186047470,3_,02, .,....,

470421 97046-47053 46972-46982 0

HAP.
47043 - 97047,4, ,2 ADDIS ABAB

97100 '6932-9
695 , 46921- 46927
96916-96919

47078;271:133..-14=-46971'
68PE
97028-970 2

47035-97037
r.,_,40iD
1--J
figig::7T'
96929 , 46931
r(7
97061- 47077
970 8-97099
.8889

GOPPAHEI.

47094-47097

881,0

blE,SELL1

-
....

, .....-....

56 3 .10

Fig. 451. Sampling sites in Ethiopia (dots = wheat fields, triangles = maife fields).
344

The range of textural variation of Ethiopian soils is very wide, although heavy
textured soils predominate (Fig. 452). The national mean texture index (62) is exceeded
only by that of Brazil (Appendix 4). The pH values vary widely, from 4.1 to 7.7 , but most
of the soils show moderate to strong acidity. Due to the relatively high organic matter
contents and heavy textures the cation exchange capacities of Ethiopian soils are very high
(see also Fig. 3, h and m). The electrical conductivity and CaCO3 equivalent values and
sodium contents are generally low (Appendixes 2-4).

5 Ethiopia intemot.
45
Ethiopia Internat. Fig. 452. Frequency distributions of
n.126
4. 62
3764
44
40
n= 127
7.$$ 5.74
3783
6.64 texture, pH, organic carbon content,
30 en.16 ts . .87 1.12
min.= 20
16
9 35 min.. 4.10 3.62 and cation exchange capadity in soils of
max.= 92 92 eran.. 7.65 8.56
o Ethiopia (columns). Curves show the
international frequency of the same
characters.

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 ,90 5 6
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca C12)

45
Ethiopia internat 35 Ethiopia Internat.
40
n=127 3779 n $. 127 3777
2.1 1.3 = 48.2 27.3

t8
=
In. .9 1.2 .45 .13.8 14.6
35 min.= .8 .1 min.= 16.2 .2
max.= 4.0 39.1 max.. 79.0 99.9
43 30

25
0
11.1
20

tC3

.2 .4 .8 1.6 3.2 6.4 148 25.6 2 4 8 16 32

ORGANIC C,% CEC, me/100g

9.1.2 Macronutrients

In assessing the macronutrient contents of the original wheat crops it must be borne in
mind that the Ethiopian wheats were sampled at rather late stages of growth (mainly
between 54 and 62 days after planting). See Section 1.2.2. The analytical results of
Ethiopian wheats therefore show lower macronutrient contents than they would have done
if sampled about three weeks earlier as was done in the case of maize. This may also ex-
plain some of the contradictions between the results of soil and original wheat analyses.
The mean total nitrogen contents of Ethiopian soils are somewhat higher than the
respective averages for the whole international data of this study (Figs 453 and 6). The
average N contents of maize also exceeds the international average but that of wheat is
lower. Relatively light dressings of nitrogen fertilizer were applied to the sampled wheat
and maize crops, 11 ± 10 and 7 ± 11 kg/N ha, respectively (Appendix 5).
From an international point of view the phosphorus contents of both soils and plants
are somewhat low but the potassium contents are relatively high (Figs 454, 455, 7 and 8).
Perhaps arising out of previous experience of fertilization, the sampled wheat and maize
crops were given moderate amounts of phosphorus (10 ± 10 and 5 ± 7 kg P/ha, re-
 345

Figs 453-457. Frequency distributions Ethiopia sotomot. Ethiopia Internat.

of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, 35
n=
0=3.05
3.05
54 1765
4.27
35
n=
= 3.90
71 1958
3.14
calcium and magnesium in original 30
-Ss=
min.= 1.94
.77 1.15
.60 0
06=
min.= 1.59
.67 .67
.88
42 max.= 5.43 7.45 max.= 6.51 6.51
wheat and maize samples and respect- c-c, 25 25

ive soils (columns) of Ethiopia. Curves 7.- 20 20

show the international frequency of 4.2)

Z
the same characters.
u_
01,
5
Pori
ar/
5 6 2 4 5 6
N content of wheat% N content of maize,%
70 70
Ethiopia Internal Ethiopia Internat.
60 n= 54 1765 60 n= 71 1958
0= .176 .133 7=200 .135
= .093 .084 145=.068 .088
min.= .056 .009 min.= .064 .008
50
14105= 360 1.023 max.= .394 1.657

55

20

005 .01 02 .04 08 .16 .32 55 1.28 .005 .01 .02 .0 08 16 32 .65 1.28
Fig. 453. Nitrogen, Ethiopia. N in heat soils, % N in maize soils,%

Fig. 454. Phosphorus, Ethiopia. Ethiopia Internat. Ethiopia Internet.

5 n= 54 8765 n= 71 1967
6.31 .38 1.30 .33
*se .08 .12 Ss= .12 .10
min.= .23 .05 rain.= .13 .05
max.= .56 1.02 max...81 1.04

S. 25
>-
<2) 20
13.1

S 15

C'

P con ent of maize.%

Ethiopia Internat. Ethiopia Internet

n= 58 1765 5 1967
n= 71
= 10.0 20.2 R. 18.7 22.5
os' 9.6 24.7 OS= 43.0 33.0
min.= 3.0 1.0 min= 1.2 0.1
mox.= 57.8 271.4 max=311.0 656.0

..4A15444 A
2.5 10 5 20 50 BO 160 320 640 75 5 10 M 40 80 160 320 550
P in wheat soils, mg/l P in maize soils, mg/I

spectively), but no potassium (Appendix 5). For example, Gertsch (1972), when
reporting the results of several hundred fertilizer trials, stated that a response to K was
found only occasionally in Ethiopia and to a lesser extent than to P and N.
The calcium and magnesium contents of maize and respective soils are lightly low on the
international scale (Figs 456 and 457) and in spite of the relatively high Ca and Mg
346
35
Ethiopia Interned Ethi010.10 Internat. Fig. 455. Potassium, Ethiopia.
n 54 1765 n= 71 1967
30 2= 3.8 4.0 30 9=3.6 3.1
s= 0.8 1.0 ±s= 0.8 1.0
min.= 2.6 0.9 min.= 2.8 0.6
13 25 max.= 6.4 6.8 max.= 5.2 6.7

a 20

2
ILI 15

co
10
IL easeel°

4 5 6 2 3 4 5

K content of wheat% K content of maize,%

Ethiopia Internat. Ethiopia Internat.

n, 54 1765 n= 71 1967
= 740 365 = 549 330
±s = 260 283 ±s= 390 356
min.= 127 20 min.= 87
max.= 1336 2097 max.= 2077 5598
o
[1.

(.2

25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 25 50 100 200 400 BOO 1600 3200 6400
K in wheat soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I

Ethiopia
n= 54
Internat.
1765
Ethiopia Internat. Fig. 456. Calcium, Ethiopia.
n = 71 1967
=.31 .43 =.40 .47
*8 =08 .17
es =.11 .20
rnin.=.16 .11
30 18111...19 .09
8101= 55 168 max.=.71 1.88

2 .4 1.6 .e
Co content of wheat. °A Ca content of maize,%

Ethiopia Internet Ethiopia Internat.

n= 54 1765 n= 71 1967
5 = 5662 4671 35 8=2292 3450
es = 3261 3076 ±s=1608 2815
min.= 1250 110 min.= 510 10
mime 11550 21930 max.= 7660 17995

,
100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800 25600 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3 00 6400,32800
Co in wheat soils, mg/I Co in maize soi s, mg/I

contents of wheat soils the contents of these elements are low in wheats. This contradiction
may be due to the advanced maturity of the wheats when sampled, as pointed out
earlier. Other factors which also may be responsible for the strong contradiction between
low Ca and Mg contents of Ethiopian wheats and high exchangeable Ca and Mg contents
 347
Fig. 457. Magnesium, Ethiopia. 40
Ethiopia Internat. Ethiopia intemoi,
35 n= 54 1764 35 n. 71 1967
0,108 .172 R=i .210 .251
7.6= .017 .060 6.5..069 .119
min.= .075 .044 3 min.= .074 036
max.= .162 .948 max.= .449 1.125
25

20

15

10

05 5 .2
Mg content of wheat,% Mg content of maize,%
40 40
Ethiopia intemcit
Ethiopia Internat.
n= 71 1967
n= 54 1764
35
0= 718
5 0. 417 446
489 ns. 295 462
06= 394 437
min.= 87
min.= 189 10
ma.= 1753
max.= 1432 3298 30 6490

/
25 50 100 200 400
, AL
800 1600 3200 12.5 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400
Mg in wheat soils, mg/l Mg in maize soils, mg/I

of wheat soils may be soil texture and CEC. The relative availability of Ca and Mg to
plants in heavy textured soils with high CEC is low. See Figs 12 and 14 and related text in
Section 2.2.4. In the case of Ethiopian wheat soils the average texture index was 68
and CEC 56.7 me/100 g which were the highest national means for wheat soils recorded in
this study (Appendix 2). These two soil factors affect less the uptake of Ca and Mg by
maize since maize soils are somewhat coarser textured (aver. TI 56) and have a lower CEC
(aver. 41.5 me/100 g). For a general assessment of Ca and Mg status in Ethiopia against
the international background, see Figs 9 and 10.
The majority of the Ethiopian plant samples consisted of local varieties (43 local and 11
HYV wheats; 53 local and 18 HYV maize samples). Differences in Ca contents between
the two variety groups were obscure but the HYV of both crops show higher average Mg
contents than the local varieties in spite of the change-around in the exchangeable Mg
contents of the respective soils:

HYV Local HYV Local

(n -= 11) (43) (18) (53)
Wheat, Mg % 0.116 0.106 Maize 0.243 0.199
Soil, mg Mg/1 393 809 Soil 360 436

The above differences between the two variety groups are statistically significant at the 5
percent level in Mg contents of both plants, at the 0.1 percent level in wheat soils but
non-significant in maize soils. See also Section 9.1.4.
348

9.1.3 Micronutrients

Boron. The average B contents of Ethiopian soils and pot-grown wheat are lower than the
respective international averages (Figs 458 and 459) and consequently, Ethiopia stands
somewhat low in the "international B fields" (Figs 22 and 25, Section 2.3.3). The ranges of
variation in B contents compared to many other countries are relatively narrow, and in
spite of the generally low B level no extremely low values were recorded. According to
these data no severe deficiency of B exists in Ethiopia but at several locations a response
to B should be expected.

100
80
n=15 3
60 s=476± 2 i8
50 s=054 t 0 07 7
40
02 + 13 x = 63
E 30 338 4

20
o
10
'5 8
"E. 6
5
o 4 , .

co 3
2 Fig. 458. Regression of B content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
soluble soil B (x), Ethiopia. For details
1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .8 10 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 of summarized international back-
B in soil, mg/I (Hot w. sol.) ground data, see Chapter 4.

100
80
n=1
60 ±s= -1092 6, 9 4
50 T±s=04 01
40
E
.30 =377+ 31x
r =0 418
y=
02
5

-8 20

C6
W5
o 4
C.)

co
3
2

III
Fig. 459. Regression of B content of
.081 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
CEC -corrected B in soil, mg /l (Hot w. sou (hot water soluble) soil B (x), Ethiopia.
 349

Copper. In the "international Cu fields" (Figs 27 and 29, Section 2.3.4) Ethiopia is
among the low-Cu countries. Contrary to B, the Cu contents vary greatly and very low
plant and soil Cu contents (including the minima of the whole international material) were
measured (Figs 460 and 461). Of the whole Ethiopian sample material, 21 percent of the
sample pairs fall in the lowest Cu Zone (I) and 6 percent in Zone II (Fig. 461). Most of
the low (Zone I) Cu values occur in Sidamo Province, where two-thirds of the sample pairs
show very low contents, and most of the remainder occur in Zone II. Although a few
low Cu values were also recorded in samples from the neighbouring Provinces of Shoa,
Gamu-Gofa and Arussi, the Cu levels of soils in these and other provinces seem to be

22

20 P 1111.1.11111111111111
18 hill11111111111111111111111
E
R-16 111111171111111:11m01111111111111
T-3
w14
-c
111111111M11111111111111
111111111111111111111111Will
111111111111111111121111
8 1111111111111111111111M1111111

Fig. 460. Regression of Cu content of 2 JEMIR11211211111111111111%

pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x), .2 .4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 60 80
Ethiopia. Cu in soil, mg/I AAc EDTA)

' °AIM" =7,11111

)11111111111 Y s 7,....,, 11111611
Y's ' ' gill logAliiia
M 111111 IN AEI

I
) r

'
iINI
'1101
?

LI II- r1
11111
11111A=1111111

Fig. 461. Regression of Cu content of 1111114111111111 1

pot-grown wheat (y) on organic 211
carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.) ;:rd'Ilialiirilbi:1:10 .6 .8 10
Org.C-corrected soil Cu, mg/l
226 60 100
4
40
soil Cu (x), Ethiopia. (AAAc-EDTA)
350
3 00 Fig. 462. Regression of Fe contents of
2 75
2 50 amMILIMEIIIIIIIMMOB pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
225 acetate-EDTA extractable soil Fe (x),
200 Ethiopia.
1 75 113111111111123111i111111111
E 1 50
o_
ct 1 25
o
iiiuiiiuiiiiiuiuiuii
a)
100 1011111111111111111111
11-, 90 MIIIII111111=111611111111M111
80 MIIME111111=1.111111111MI
11111111111111111111111111M111
o0
u
7
60
50

40 111111111111111111111M1

30
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)

within the normal range. No values showing a possible excess of Cu were recorded. These
analytical data point to the presence of Cu deficiency in Ethiopia, especially in the Sidamo
area, and a response to Cu fertilization in several locations is very probable.
Iron. On average, the Fe contents of wheat grown in pots on Ethiopian soils correspond
closely to those of the international material as a whole, but the extractable Fe contents
of soils are somewhat higher (Figs 462 and 31). Normal (Zone III) values dominate and in
spite of a few samples within Zones II, IV and V, these are insufficient as an indication
of Fe problems in Ethiopia.
Manganese. Ethiopia stands clearly on the high side in the "international Mn fields"
(Figs 33 and 37) and in spite of a relatively wide variation of Mn contents (Figs 463 and
464) no low (Zone I or II) values were recorded. Instead, a substantial percentage of
Ethiopian samples are found in the high Mn Zones, IV and V. Most of the highest (Zone
V) Mn values were measured from samples which came from Sidamo Province but
occasionally some were obtained from the samples from other provinces. All sites where
excess Mn was recorded had acid soils, the pH(CaC12) was usually below 5.0, and there-
fore, by raising the soil pH through liming the availability of Mn could be reduced and the
possibility of its toxic effects eliminated.
Molybdenum. In Ethiopia the problems associated with Mo differ from those of most
other countries because typical Ethiopian soils are exceptionally heavy textured and
usually acid. In such soils the availability of Mo to plants is low although soil analyses may
show relatively high Mo values (Fig. 16). This explains why many Ethiopian low plant Mo
contents are combined with moderately high A0-0A extractable soil Mo values (Fig.
465). This contradiction is partly overcome when the soil Mo values are corrected for pH
(Fig. 466). Since the correction for texture (see Section 2.3.2.2) is not applied to the
Ethiopian Mo data, the effect of texture must be taken into account when interpreting the
 351
Fig. 463. Regression of Mn content
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Mn (x), Ethiopia.
2000

1000
800
600
MI
am
10.
DCWM:114"=11plstqUol
IMNMMiNIMEN=munms
rasimaimmoufsiammimmam
1==imiNME
IM:173147Mlinii1RW.Vir //1 MgII
iimmmImmeolinsmmimani
E 400
ca" 300 11=11111111111=111=1111111
2 00

1 00 11111111111114111116
MMIMMCi Minedig11
ts.
::=Enwmagni=rewrzancINL
80
60
o nwimmowesilimminimminniimmm.
40
30
20 imminiammouno
10 ea 1111111111111111111111
1.111=11=.11
1N1=MIIMM=1MME
8 1=MMINEENiaMIOSTIMMEINIM
2 3 1, 6 810 20 30/.0 6080100 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/t (DTPA)

Fig. 464. Regression of Mn content 2000

E
m.......51alm=
19 ...i..........
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA Mn
extractable soil Mn corrected for pH 1000 411111111111111111
WINOPIRPOII,=7UM.WIURIIIMM1
800 PIMMINlia&WO1EENIM.2VIELIWAtenININ011MIMIWICIMEn;
(x), Ethiopia. =MENNEINWonINNIMMMIIIIMUMM
600 11114MBEMEMEREIMMKTErnMSIONMEMEINENIMIIINSI
1111=- Minall1111NiNnilian 11INIIMMINKII
400
300 IN rmw111111h111111111
200

1111
...-
h.... 111111111111111111111111111
100
80 ........,..s...........,-..
mipsms-ammmo.-ism;=mon
NERMIMr..4MIMIMIEWINMENIMUME.al
MERNIMIIMIMMIMMIMM=EISIIII
60 NiMMIZIMI,
1111111111M., NIMPRIMININIIIIIMIMIIIIMMILIINIM
40 II MM `11PROMEMIIIIIII11111111MNIMMIIMIL
30 iiMpr, IgniiMMEMIOMMINÌNER
20

10
8 11
161 11111111111111
. ....N6........ =NNW.
M=MIIMM
MEIMMIIMMILIMMINMENO
MN musemmasvaumn Immoloso
1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100 200 300 600
pH- corrected Mn in soil, mg/1 (DTPA)

Mo results sample by sample. See also Figs 15, 20, 21 and Table 8 in Section 2.3.2.
Low Mo values are rather more common in Sidamo than in other provinces but are
also found in Shoa, Wollega and Arussi, usually in sites with soils of low pH and of heavy
texture. Many of the highest Mo values were analysed in Sidamo samples from sites where
the soils were less acid or alkaline. The highest plant Mo content (9.79 ppm) and the
highest A0-0A extractable soil Mo content (uncorrected 3.6 and pH-corrected 4.8 mg/1)
in the whole international material were both obtained from a Sidamo sample pair
(47079). In this case Mo toxicity should be suspected. On several sites low Mo values
are combined with high Mn values. The application of lime would increase the availability
352
Fig. 465. Regression of Mo content
6
M o INIMMINNINESMIMOMMENEU of pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium
MMIURNIE1111111111MMEMMIIIIIIIIIIHI1
=k1-21.1FaIMEINIZEEEIEEMIIIIIMI oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
3
mmigammat ammo= (x), Ethiopia.
2 oliNiall-221311111.1
11101110111r
IIIIIMMESIERFM
MIIIIMMIIIIP
==101111
MEMMinMlegainliMi
mminumarimausum
't .2
o
o
111111111111111111
1AM010INMIIMMEIMMI
AINICWROMMENFM1111VRIMEM 'MUM.
111MMININNEliMINION
IMOM11=1IMMENIMIMIIIIMIENNO
L.1=M.
WMMNIONIIIIIMINNIIIIIIIIIMM

"i
.06
I' MMEMENIMBMINNEFEM
.03 IMMIMMINIFILIMMIIIIIIME
.02

.01
.01 .02 .03 .06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo in soil, mg/ f AO- OA I

6
Mo
.125
==E:1111==
iiirdonmsammeenintrrcri 1=1111
1MMMEMAnIN!=M
IIMMINHINILIIIMMIIN
=I
MIIII EMMIAN
0111=I4111
Fig. 466. Regression of Mo content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
=°. 73= EZEINIIIIMICIEEMELE A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x),
3 .'71111111111211GILIE11111111111111111 Ethiopia.
2

IIIIIIii'IIi!iiI
0=.2.05i=MMEIM
741
ME MI 11119,21i11111IMM
EMEENEWANiiiiiMIENN
2
8C

.1
1111111111111111hal
Lclamon...1==2:1111=ME:
06 WMENTANMElliiii==ni
.03 .41111Newrograin
.02 01,11111,4

.01 11,411111.111
.006 .01 23
.02 .03 06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1

pH-corrected MO in soil,mg/I (AO- OA

of the former and decrease that of the latter, and would be the recommended treatment. .

Zinc. The Ethiopian national mean values for plant and soil Zn are high compared to
those of most other countries (Figs 41 and 43). The variation, however, is wide and both
high and relatively low Zn contents are found. Independent of the soil extraction method
the plant-soil correlations are good (Figs 467 and 468). According to both methods
every third sample pair falls in the high Zn Zones (IV and V), a few of them showing very
 353

Fig. 467. Regression of Zn content 200

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA 177
extractable soil Zn (x), Ethiopia. 5
321 og

100 1111111
nimmimmommisrmolmolimummou
E 60
90
80
70 IUlIIIIUkLUIlIIIUullIIIP
11111MINIIIIII=MMINIIIIMINIMIN111111

a 50 1111111111111111111111111111E1111
o
_E 40

30 1111M11111111111111111K11111111111

111111111111111111111111111111

10 1111111011111111111111
MENU
9
8
7 131111MINLIMIIIIIIMMENUIIIMILIM1111111
6
iiiimminumwmunawnsounuiuiiuiuuiìîuiiixuuu
.2 .3 .4 .6 .81 2 3 4 6.810 20 3040 60 100
Z11 in soil, mg/1 (DTPA)

Fig. 468. Regression of Zn content of 200

pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH
(x), Ethiopia.
100
90
80
1. 1 NMI!
MEN milarmenni
MUMINNIIIII
I
70
60
E 50
o
40
lim 1011111101
o

o
30

20 IN iploN11111
10
9
8
11110101P11
1...miL morm.asam
7
6 munowninliommmum.
momonummonommusui
.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
pH-corrected Zn in soil, mg/l (AAAc-sorA)

high Zn contents. When Zn contents are low, the DTPA method reveals a slightly better
Zn content of soils than does the AAAc-EDTA extraction. Neither of them indicates
severe Zn deficiency but at many locations a hidden shortage of Zn is likely. The lowest
Zn contents mainly come from Harar and Wollega and the majority of high Zn values
from Sidamo.
354

9.1.4 Micronutrient contents of original plants with special reference to varieties

The most obvious varietal differences in the micronutrient contents of original indicator
plants were those between the Mn and Zn contents of the HYV and local maize plants.
The HYV maize (varieties H 512, H 611, H 613, H 632, Composite II and KCB, n = 18)
showed higher average Mn and Zn contents that the local varieties (n = 53) although
they were grown on soils poorer in these elements.

Mn Zn
HYV Local HYV Local
Maize, ppm 90 75 52 43
Soil, mg/10 98 132 2.7 5.6

0 pH-corr. DTPA extr. Mn, DTPA extr. Zn

When one wheat cultivar ('Apu') was grown on the above soils in pots, the average Mn
and Zn contents were as follows:

Mn Zn
Wheat ('Apu'), ppm 154 161 22 29
Soil, mg/10 98 132 2.7 5.6

0 pH-corr. DTPA extr. Mn, DTPA extr. Zn

The latter Mn and Zn contents are more compatible with the results of soil analyses than
those obtained by analyzing the original plants of different varieties.
The above differences between the two groups did not quite reach statistical
significance at the 5 percent level, except in the case of soil Zn. However, since the
differences in the original maize Mn and Zn contents were diametrically opposed to
these in the respective soils, it would seem possible that there are some genetic differences
between the two variety groups and that the HYV maize plants are the more efficient in
absorbing the above micronutrients from the soil.
This above example hopes to draw attention to one of the difficulties investigators
face when interpreting results of plant analyses obtained from materials consisting of
several varieties.

9.1.5 Summary

Typical Ethiopian soils included in this study are fine to medium textured, and show
moderate to strong acidity. They are relatively high in organic matter and have a high
cation exchange capacity. Compared to the international general means, the mean N and
especially K contents of Ethiopian soils are high, P contents are somewhat low, and Ca
and Mg contents are at the international average.
The micronutrient content of Ethiopian soils and plants varies considerably depending
on the element. Of the six micronutrients studied, the one most likely to be deficient is Cu,
but responses to B and Zn can also be expected at several locations. The contents of Fe
are usually at the normal international level but many high Mn values were recorded. The
Mo and Zn contents typically vary widely and range between relatively low and high.
 355

9.2 Ghana

9.2.1 General

The Ghana sample material consists of 93 maize and related soil samples and was collected
from geographically limited but agriculturally quite important areas, namely the Central
and the Ashanti regions. All the sampled crops were grown under rainfed conditions.
Of the sampled soils 46 were classified as Nitosols, 39 Ferralsols, 5 Gleysols, 2 Lithosols
and 1 Vertisol.
In Ghana coarse textured soils predominate (Fig. 469) and only a few have a medium
texture. The national average texture index (TI = 30) is one of the lowest among the 30
countries investigated (Appendixes 3 and 4). Strong to moderate acidity, low cation
exchange capacity, low electrical conductivity, low CaCO3 equivalent and low sodium
content are typical for Ghana soils.
45
Ghana Internat. Ghana rmemot, Fig. 469. Frequency distributions of
n= 94 3764 8. 94 3783

±5= 9
= 30 44
16
40
= 5.85
ts= .66
6.64
1.12
texture, pH, organic carbon content,
min.= 13
max.= 55
9
92
35 min.= 4.35
max.= 7.05
3.62
8.56
and cation exchange capacity in soils of
0 Ghana (columns) Curves show the
25 international frequency of the same
20
characters.
15

10 20 30 cu 50 60 70 80 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca Cl2)

45
Ghana Internat. Ghana Internet
n= 94 3779 n= 94 3777
0
0= 1.3 /.3 5=14.7 27.3
±s= .5 1.2 rs= 6.0 11..6
35 min = .6 .1 min.= 4.9 .2
max.= 2.7 5 39.1 max =41.2 99.9
o
a., 30

25
C>
w 20
w 15

rer3.4 is Zs e: //YAM
2 .8 1.6 3.2 6.4 12.13 25.6
ORGANIC C,% CEC, me/100g

9.2.2 Macronutrients

The total nitrogen contents of soils are at the average international level (Figs 6 and 470).
In spite of relatively high rates of nitrogen fertilizers (48 ± 40 kg N/ha) applied to the
sampled crops, the average N content of maize remains below the international
mean.
The NaHCO3 extractable phosphorus and CH3COONH4 exchangeable potassium
contents of Ghana soils are very low compared to most other countries (Figs 7, 8, 471 and
472). The applied dressings of phosphate and potassium fertilizers (11 ± 11 kg P/ha and
14 ± 12 kg K/ha), although not high, were about double the average P and K applications
356
40 3
Ghana r Internat Ghana Internat.
n= 93 n=1958 n= 93 1967
35 Ghana Internet 30 5= 3.1
5=2.80 x. 3.14 3.1
±s= .41 ts= .87 35 n= 93 1967 no= 0.5 1.0
30
R..32 .33 a, min.= 1.9 0.6
min.= 1.58 nun.= .88 ±5= .07 .10 5 max.= 4.4 6.7
max.= 3.84 max.= 6.51 0 30 min.= .17 .05
max.= .51 1.04
a 25
Qt°

0,75 20
>- 3-
0_2 20 4.3
20
LLI LLI 15

o
15
o
LU ce 10
cc 10

5
5

4 A .4 .47.,
2 3 6 9 6

N content of maize, % P content of maize,% K content of maize,%

4
70
Ghana Internat.
Ghana Internat. n. 93 1967 Ghana I n elrgn6a7t
n= 93 = 8.2 22.5
1958
*5 .10.1 33.0 n= 93
7=.132 .135 min.. 18 0.1 R 1729 330
-Zs = .056 .088 30 max.= 95.8 656.0 no. 356
min. =.053 .008 min.= 34 18
max.= .333 1.657 o a, max.= 321 m 5598
25 ,96
0./
o- f'
3- 20

15
o ' 7
LCf. 10

.005 01 .02 .04 .08 .16 .32 64 1.28

i1i1ø4
2.5 5 10 20 40
09m

80 160 320 640 25 50 100 200 400 800 600 3200 6400
N in maize soils, % P in maize soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I

Fig. 470. Nitrogen, Ghana. Fig. 471. Phosphorus, Ghana. Fig. 472. Potassium, Ghana.

Ghana Internat. Figs 470-474. Frequency distribu-

n= 93 n. 1967 Ghana Internat.
35
9..33 R. .47 n= 93 1967 tions of nitrogen, phosphorus, po-
*5..06 35. .20 R=203 .251
8 30 min.../6
max...50
min.. .09
max . 1.88 U 30
6s=.043
min.=.119
.119
.036
tassium, calcium and magnesium
2t_ 25 CT,
max.=.316 1.125 in original maize samples and re-
0_ 25
>-
0 20 >- spective soils (columns) of Ghana.
0 20
11.1
Curves show the international
15
frequency of the same characters.
Cr 10
L.L.

,4eXee.-
.4 .2
Co content of maize,% Mg content of maize, %

Ghana Internat 40
n. 93 1967
Ghana Internat.
5 R. 1145 3450
n. 520 2815 3 n= 93 1967
71 10 R. 215 446
max.. 3150 17995 ±s= 183 462
30 min.= 72 1

max.= 1455 6490

0 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12900 12.5 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400
Ca in ma ze soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils, mg/I

Fig. 473. Calcium, Ghana. Fig. 474. Magnesium, Ghana.

 357

to maize crops in this study. These may have contributed to raise the P and K contents
of the Ghana maize to the respective average international levels. Also the uptake by
plants of K from acid soils and that of P from soils of low CEC is high in relation to the
contents of these nutrients in soils. See Figs 14 and 11 and related texts. The exchange-
able calcium and magnesium contents of Ghana soils and the Ca and Mg contents of
maize are lower than in most other countries (Figs 9, 10, 473 and 474).

9.2.3 Micronutrients

Boron. The B contents of Ghana soils, and of wheat grown in pots on these soils, vary
within quite narrow limits (Figs 475 and 476). The national B averages correspond

loo
80B
60 =602 00
50 =057± 07
40
64 + 06x = 6
E 30 162 n s 04
20

.c
10
"a 8
6
5
o4
3

Fig. 475. Regression of B content of 2

pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
soluble soil B (x), Ghana. For details
1
of summarized international back- .1 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10
ground data, see Chapter 4. B in soil, mg/I (Hot w. sol.)

100
80
n. _3
60 ±09
50 9±s07 02 7+
40
E log y.07 +0 x
Q-30 r0208 8 a
Q.

la
Fig. 476. Regression of B content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected .08.1 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10
(hot water soluble) soil B (x), Ghana. CEC -corrected Bin soil, mg/I (Hot w. So()
358
22 Fig. 477. Regression of Cu content of
Gaa I nte not.

20 n 353
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
4
1
84 ±
94
1

12
4 700
6.
2.5
7.0
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x),
18
E
8:16 11 a00 smimmuni Ghana.

161.14
.c
.6 12 1111111111111111111111
I10
88 111111111111111=11111M1111111
7
06 11111111111111111=11=11111
4

.2 .4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 60 80
Cu in soil, mg/l (AAAc- EDTA)

Fig. 478. Regression of Cu content of

22 Cu i
pot-grown wheat (y) on organic
, Gha s 1 Intern t
carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.)
2 -, n ,.
y±s.4 j3..7:7i3r1g.±, u
soil Cu (x), Ghana.
1
3 P-s.11 a1
y =392 91Io x Irogoy; isx 0 5.1,1g i
A411
1 5 r -°74 1
1 42 1110
1

1 3
11111111111
8
111111111111111111111
6

nontiiimmanill
4

2 11111141FIRMIIIIIII
1
gning.
MIMI
Ill
01 7 L. 6 810 2 4 6 810 20 141
40 60 100
Org.C-corrected soi CU,mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)

closely to respective international mean values and in the "international B fields" Ghana
stands at the centre (Figs 22 and 25). Since practically all B values are "normal" and fall
in B Zone III, these limited analytical data do not indicate any severe B disorders in
Ghana.
Copper. Most plant and soil Cu contents measured from Ghana sample material are
lower than the respective mean values in the whole international data of this study, and
Ghana occupies one of the lowest positions in the "international Cu fields" (Figs 477,
478, 27 and 29). Only about half of the plant-soil Cu values are "normal" so falling in Cu
Zone III, and the other half is distributed evenly in the two low Cu Zones. In general,
Cu deficiency, acute or hidden, seems to be more likely in Ghana than in most other
countries.
 359
Fig. 479. Regression of Fe contents 300
2m
of pot-grown wheat (y) on acid 250 1122111111:1111111
ammonium acetate-EDTA extractable
soil Fe (x), Ghana.
225
200
175
Enitraliiii
augh;,,3
1

E 1 50
o_
1111111111U11111
o_
- 1 25 1 111111111M111111111 1
o

15 Er%
100
90
111111111ME11111
111. milip II
t 80
to 70 iiiimilli iMij1111=1
o 60 Iliniin 11111A16111111
50 1
111118111111111111111
Miiiiiiiiii Min i
40

30
10 20
EEO
simsnummeommui4wfx
40 60 100 200
i
400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/l (AAAc- EDTA)

Iron. The Fe data presented in Figs 31 and 479 do not indicate any disorders due to this
micronutrient in Ghana.
Manganese. The variation range of the plant Mn contents is relatively wide (from 45 to
601 ppm) and clearly due to the varying pH in Ghana soils, but the values for DTPA ex-
tractable Mn vary only from 14 to 138 mg/I (Figs 469 and 480). Correction of DTPA
Mn values for pH more than doubles the variation range and improves the plant Mnsoil
Mn correlation (Fig. 481).
Ghana stands above many other countries in the "international Mn fields" (Figs 33 and
37). Nine percent of the plant-soil sample pairs fall in the highest Mn Zone (V)
and 12 percent in Zone IV, all representing acid soils, pH(CaC12) < 6.0, and most of
these come from Ashanti. No low Mn values were recorded from the sample material of
Ghana. See also Mo in the next paragraph.
Molybdenum. Owing to the generally low pH of Ghana soils, the availability of Mo
to plants is low and the national average for plant Mo content is less than one-third of the
international mean and is one of the lowest among the countries investigated (Figs 482,
483, 15 and 20). The correlation between plant Mo and A0-0A extractable soil Mo
contents is non-significant but becomes highly significant when the effect of pH is taken
into account by pH-correction.
More than one-third of the Ghana plantsoil Mo points fall in the two lowest Mo Zones
(I and II). The low Mo values were most frequently found in samples coming from the acid
soils of the Ashanti region and were often combined with high Mn values. Since low pH
seems to be the main reason for the low availability of Mo, as well as for the high
availability of Mn, the first logical approach to correct both possible disorders would be
360

2000 Fig. 480. Regression of Mn content

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
1 000 1/11311131111101111
mmni.....=musummisammum
.(3:MWYlo-ZWVA,1VIWZMC,DMINIMMIIMIOS=101M extractable soil Mn (x), Ghana.
800 I. nwifesimnsumr:mnip-mirtrmiratasffillial=
IIMIMIMMEMOIMI.- 11111111=1111111
600 111MIIMMENIIIMMRIMM1121111=1M
E 400 ii.==IMMIMMIMMERIME=MMIE
8: 300
-'06, 200 IM11111 IM111111111111111
.c

100 111111111111.11111111
rosmorma._-___Ers.cm Y
inionrumml=zuwwarliwuramsea
80
LIMER
11111111111111MIIIWEBOIMP111161111MMEIMI
'do 60 iiliniailiMUMMOPMMENNOMMIIM
40 1110111MIERVANIIMMINIENIIIIIM
2 30
20

Iill111111111111111111111
10 ilidMMIROMMISINNIMIIMMIE111
7111/1111111111111 IMO imm
8 IIIIIMNINIIMME=MME111111i71111,01iTiMMEM
111111111111111111111MOM1111LIIIIIIIMMIMMEMMI =ZEN
1 2 34 6810 20 30 40 6080= 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/I (DTP.4)

2000 =MMEINI1 71.11111 .1.011111POIMMIMMIIIIMR

Fig. 481. Regression of Mn content
a
Mn 93
s. 111ME1111111111111* of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
1000 WPOMMIWONRIO,_ SIMONS_ ININMVIMM111111.1. extractable soil Mn corrected for pH
800 (x), Ghana.
600 BB mainmixtimxuarlivaziniuminumitin
E IIMMOT zonnwmasonsiumuramancis
0- 400 II MIIIIM=IMM111111111%111111.0111111
ts' 300 IMMEM
cD

; 200 1111=111111111111M111111111111
o
100
80
OIUIIIIIU!1hUiIIII1
60 11111111. MEMMOMMIAM=MENEMENFM=Mini
IIIMIMM=M1111111=MM111
fj
40 IiiiiMEN=NAMMEMMMIN
30
20

10
8
OiiiiiiiIiIIIIIIIIIIiÌÏiii
1=1 NIMMEN
MINIENIiMM771.1=IMMEENI
MINIOnlalMMEINI =NIMMWEVI
1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100 200 300 600
pH- co r rected Mn in soil, mg/I (DTPA)

to raise the soil pH through liming

Zinc. The mean Zn contents of Ghana soils and plants are somewhat on the low side in
the "international Zn fields" (Figs 41 and 43). Comparison of the results obtained by the
two extraction methods (Figs 484 and 485) shows, however, that DTPA extraction
yields a generally somewheat higher soil Zn level than does the AAAc-EDTA extraction
with pH correction. In both cases the correlations with the results of plant analyses are
very good.
The lowest plantsoil Zn values, almost without exception, were measured from samples
which came from the Ashanti region. The present analytical data do not indicate very
severe Zn deficiency but response to Zn may be obtained at several locations. See also
Section 2.7.
 361
Fig. 482. Regression of Mo content of MILINC-="m122111
(Mari IMMINN
:
pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium 6 IM1W
MOMTVIi
-aims NM
oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo Immaya 3-97 0.32,mg.
orrasommtimmuu
(x), Ghana. 3
2 SEE
act 1 111111111111111
MIIMVVVESVMiMsnavs
a, .6 MMENOMMMEMMONEVin

"- 3 mmonumeamili
.2 ilt11111101111111111L
o
o .1 WAIMM.NMIIMMINNOIONIINIMMIMM ,
SWA:=E11111:=MES:1111'
wwImummunonmmommuna
.06
111/111111111111 =MINIM
.03 111
.02

II\
01
.01 .02 .03 .06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo in soil, mg/ (A0-0A)

Fig. 483. Regression of Mo content of MalagrinrnaZZ::::

M o mom ND ut =1111MRSIIIIIIIITIFIZT1 VIIMMINIMII011
=MI--
111=MI
pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected 6 .93
'V MMIUMMI ININ
L. 0=3MMIlnliMMIliMnill
A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x), 3 ' .0211111111EIMIBBEEZIMINNUISII
Ghana. 3
s
°.1
0. 42± 02 illINFIZINONIIIIIMIMMI
y=0,013
2 :.;1 111111110111111111M11111

=Morns
=NIEMEN
--.................---
111111111111_,1111
===:iMmuMgmmiaiimEmisi
EHMENIIIIMMENMINEMINE411111MMINI
MOM= MMENIIIIIIIIMMIIIMMIIIIIIIIMINNIMMIN
MINENIIIMMINIIIPAIMIIIMINIMME
,MinniliMiNEEM

111111imiter
=MOIRE
MINIIIMMIN11E/AINIMINIIN
1=MIWIND UPIIVIMINVNIVIM
mipmel
171MEMILIM=6=MIS
MO=NEVIIMM
MIUMVIMMORVMMIVIMI MiMMENIUMEmmimli
=IMMEMINIAIMIMMEUMMIMMINIMMI
.03
.02 ounimminommummoul
1111111111111111111111111111111111
.01 MPIWOmMint 11111011 =MINIM MNIMB
.006 .01 .02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 2 3
pH- corrected MO in soil, mg/I (A0-0A)

9.2.4 Summary

Coarse texture, low pH, medium organic matter content and low CEC are typical of most
Ghana soils. With the exception of total N contents which are medium, the soils are
generally poor in macronutrients. The most likely disorders due to micronutrients are
those of Cu and Zn deficiency. Shortage of available Mo and excessively available Mn
may cause problems with acid soils. Occasional responses to B are possible but
disorders due to Fe are unlikely.
362

200 Fig. 484. Regression of Zn content of

Zn 5
pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
321Iog
able soil Zn (x), Ghana.
100
90
80
70
E 60
cl 50
.c w 40

"6 30

o 20

N
10
9
8
7
6

.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .81 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100

Zn in soil, mg/I (DTPA)

200

100 1111111111111
90
80

III
70
60
1 11

Iirimme
E 50
2: 40
o

o
30 MI ION
20
o

NJ
4 PIIIIILI
1
hill
10
9
a
7
6
Ill E Fig. 485. Regression of Zn content of
pot-grown wheat (y) .on AAAc-EDTA
.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 23 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100 extractable soil Zn corrected for pH
pH-corrected Zn in soi .mg/1 (AAAc-EDTA) (x), Ghana.
 363

9.3 Malawi

9.3.1 General
The sample material collected from Malawi consists of 100 maize-soil sample pairs. The
sampling sites, shown in Fig. 486, are well distributed over the country.
The majority of soils are coarse textured and acid, have a medium organic matter
content and a low cation exchange capacity (Fig. 487). Low CaCO3 equivalent, low
sodium content and medium electrical conductivity are typical of most Malawi soils
(Appendixes 3 and 4).
33° 39° 35° 36°

9 11

Vs.

k 48530

48528
1148531-53 10°
10°

'NA 48533
r
48534
I%
\
.'.
/
.....,
48446 t 8193.
7
r 1.121128[1

1) A 8527 r-'`'`.
%. 498526 1

90523 98528 i
i AA 48524 i
12
i 4 7
i
/ 2°
a
(1 46522
i
\ ....... 913521 1

..
... .9..../ 1
1 ...

i
NKOTA
13.
4856 074;1. 3°
; aoseiAt.10: I
i
i 96592 -543 A 5A5V.:5" i*
./. 99999 ;:gig;9, 554 a a 485713
e 48538-591 48572
-,,----1
.1/4 4:556-560 485 6A 4'3" 78
985 557 91,,, ,
19° LILONGWE 19
1344/V-9563
483164 - Se 4 56T-539
48570,
\
13573-.175
\
\ 4.6.41:2949.959,0 48551 48567-598
ANT-600
.''....9 9999 -....'
1i. \ 1
411595-566
46593-594
A 48591-5 2
48 2 -603

\ 98589,90
A 4858T-re
148604-6
42glitg,
i
r
48610-611 /1.1
15°

ZOMBA
0
4D601
1 i
98618-619i
A ,
5 44p822
/ aLANTYRE "9-68(SIG-t17'
16°
( 43612-613 I
16°
\
i

MAL AWI \
\
1

. s. \ i\
IT° .; i 17.

L. 53. 36°
Fig. 486. Sampling sites in Malawi.
364
35 Malawi interne. Malawi Internat. Fig. 487. Frequency distributions of
n .100 3764 nx 109
0. 35
ts 10
44
16
40
6.5.36
3753
texture, pH, organic carbon content,
tali .51 1.12
min, 15
max.... 51 92
9
ma4,6.80
3.62
5.56
and cation exchange capacity in soils
of Malawi (columns). Curves show
5
the international frequency of the
same characters.

10

10 29 40 50 GO 70 BO

TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca C121

45
Malawi Internat. 3' Malawi Internet
40 n r 100 3779 ne 103 3777
7=1.3 1.3 0417.7 27.3
.6 844 8.3 14.6
min,. 5.9 .2
max,. 3 3 max.-41.1 99.9
lg. 30

25 20
ci
6 20

s 15
LL 10

.2 6 1.6 3.2 64 12.0 25.5 4 8 16 64

ORGANIC C,% CEC, me/100g

9.3.2 Macronutrients

The average nitrogen contents of soils is slightly lower than the mean for the whole
international soil material in this study (Figs 488 and 6). The N contents of maize remain
at a relatively low level in spite of the large nitrogen dressings applied to the sampled
maize crops (81 ± 63 kg N/ha). The wide variation in plant N contents is obviously due to
nitrogen fertilization. All 15 maize plants with a N content of 3.6 percent or higher (upper
graph in Fig. 488) had been fertilized with more than 100 kg N/ha. On the other hand,
the 15 plants with the lowest N contents (< 1.7 %) had received no nitrogen fertilizer.
With a few exceptions the phosphorus status of Malawi soils is good (Figs 7 and 489).
The P contents of maize are usually at the normal international level but the national
mean is higher because of a few plants with exceptionally high P contents. The latter plants
(P % > 0.65) were grown on soils rich in P (> 74 mg P/1) and (with one exception)
received large amounts of phosphate (> 20 kg P/ha). On average, the sampled Malawi
maize crops had received 17 ± 14 kg P/ha.
The average potassium contents of soils and plants are slightly below the respective
international means (Figs 8 and 490). Varying quantities of potassium (11 ± 26 kg K/ha)
were applied to the sampled maize crops. None of the plants with a K content of less than
2.0 percent had been fertilized with potassium. The plants with the highest K contents
(> 4.0 %) had either received large amounts of potassium (>45 kg K/ha) or their K
uptake was accelerated by large dressings of nitrogen fertilizers (Rinne et al., 1974 a).
The exchangeable calcium and magnesium contents of Malawi soils and the Mg
contents of maize are somewhat /ow in an international context but the Ca contents
of maize correspond to the international average (Figs 9, 10, 491 and 492).
 365

35
Malawi Internat
Malawi internat. n= 100 1967
35 n= 100 1958 Malawi Internat. 30 R. 2.9 3.1
9=2.72 3.14 n 100 1967 os. 1.0 1.0
35 0.6
Os= .80 .87 R. .39 .33 min.= 1.0
ca3 30 min.= 1.18 .88 ts .15 .10 O 25 max.. 5.1 6.7
max.= 4.32 6.51 if 30 min.. .21 .05
max.. .93 1.04
k 25 O.
20
f1- 25
'a-2

t) 20 o
(-3 20 W 15
o
cr 10
U_

.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 8 7
3 4 5 6
P content of maize,V0
N con ent of maize,V0
70 Malawi Internat
Malawi Internat. n. 100 1967 Malawi Internat.
R. 39.4 22.5 n= 100 1967
60
n= 100 1958 *s. 26.3 33.0 a. 227 330
R.= .115 .135 min.. 2.6 0.1 86= 143 356
is= .041 .088 nao.. 113.4 656.0 min.= 38 18
U5 min.= .039 .008 max.= 693 5598
max.= .257 1.657 5
a,
40

o
LuZ 30

o
W 20
CC
u-
,
10

./PP, A.14 440,- 600 3200 6400

2.5 5 10 20 40 BO 160 320 640 25 50 100 200 400 800
.005 .0 02 .04 .06 .16 .32 .64 1.28
P in maize soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/l
N in maize soils,V0

Fig. 488. Nitrogen, Malawi. Fig. 489. Phosphorus, Malawi. Fig. 490. Potassium, Malawi.

40 Figs 488-492. Frequency distribu-

Malawi internat.
Malawi
35 n100
0.48
1967
.47
n. 100
Internat.
1967
tions of nitrogen, phosphorus,
6..215
Zi 30
BBB .14
min...18
.20
.09 ts..078
.251
.119 potassium, calcium and magne-
max, 64 .036
1.88
max...595 1.125 sium in original maize samples
at 25

2-
and respective soils (columns) of
0 20 Malawi. Curves show the interna-
20
rjr
o
D /5
o tional frequency of the same
U.1
cc
u_ u_
10
2' 4 characters.
5

P.,
.2 1.6 5 .2

Ca content of maize % Mg content ot maize,°/.

Malawi Internat. 40

n 100 1967 Malawi Internat.

35 6.1534 3450 n. 100 1967
tn. 8139 2815 R. 222 446
min.. 200 10
no. 156 462
max .3836 17995
non. 17 1

max.. 769 6490

12.5 25 SO 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400

50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800
Co in maize soils, mg/l Mg in maize soils, mg/I

Fig. 491. Calcium, Malawi. Fig. 492. Magnesium, Malawi.

366

9.3.3 Micronutrients

Boron. Almost all B values determined from Malawi samples are lower than the respect-
ive international mean B values and the country stands very low in the "international
B fields" (Figs 493, 494, 22 and 25). The relative frequency of low (Zones I and II) B
levels is higher than in most other countries and consequently, deficiency of B can be
suspected at several locations especially for crops with high B requirements. Low B values
are not typical of any distinct geographical area but seem to be rather more frequent in
the Southern Region of Malawi than elsewhere in the country.

, .............................
....arain
. Eilni111'Erliilill
)).1121.`-
)
-129± .721111231111
IIIIMINIERINNIIII
: IIIMMINIIIIMMINIIII
IN NENIEd
Hill
, 1111
, MINEENI MII
1111011 11
IM=Maik*Wiall EMEIMINION
1 alliali
. MEMILIMMIIII
miLlallinirmi
IMIEMEPT2
=alaniira
,IMINIMIONNI
? INIIIIMiliMillii2111111111. M111111111111011
,
1111111111111MMINIIIIMM31111111111
111111M011131111111111111111EMILIIII
ill 11111111111111 Milliil
... Fig. 493. Regression of B content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
111111111111111
.1 .2 .3 .4.5.6 .8 10 2
nig
3 4 5 6 8 1(
soluble soil B (x), Malawi. For de-
tails of summarized international back-
B in soil, mg/I (Hot w sol.) ground data, see Chapter 4.

100
80 n lgiMr...9911 1 MKSIOLUME
60 IMIIMIZEIZZINMI. I.rsrummumnirA
ocKwmilimag
MIIIIIIIMMEN1111111115111
50 E 11635101Ellkvi . 2 1 NM 1111111101
40
E
.3O liiiiy 3r 28,2
Q. 11110363 0363
mg
iin
N , gm EVIIII
11/11111110
'2O
RP .1,111Wil im
10
08 huiti, glow-4mm
===rmospr- mg
mWICASI..
4E-
innimm.=Milli="aririni
6

03
0C
1111gSiiiiiin 'EN
5
4
1E 11
111111WW0111111
a)
"Iniimitialin
ire
2
moo Fig. 494. Regression of B content of
IIII hat lif L. v pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
.081 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 1. 56 8 10 (hot water soluble) soil B (x),
CEC -corrected B in soil, mg/l (Hot w. sot.) Malawi.
 367

Copper. The level of Cu in Malawi soils and plants seems to be somewhat better than
that of B (Figs 495 and 496). Nevertheless, low Cu values predominate and in the
"international Cu fields" Malawi's positions are on the low side (Figs 27 and 29). The
relative frequency of low (Zone I and II) Cu values slightly exceeds the international
frequency and at some locations a response to Cu is likely. Most of the low Cu values were
measured from samples which came from sites of coarse textured soils and were relatively
more frequent in the Southern and Northern Regions than in the Central Region.

22
20
18 111111411.111141111111111111111
E
Q. IIIMPICIIIIMAK:13111111111111E
o
cu14 111111111M111111111111111111111111
.6 12 111111111111111111111111111111111101
77,10 1111111111111M11111111111111111111111
1111111111111111111111111E111111111
8
o 6 1111111111111111111111111111111111
4 11111111111M11111111111\1111111
Fig. 495. Regression of Cu content of 2 IlliiiiiiiiiiiM111111111111111V1411
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x), 01 .2 .4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080
Malawi. Cu in soil, mg/1 (A AAc- EDTA)

22 Cu
20 114cist7c1

±s=5 6.1 ;
1 i inn.t,3r5n8t
9±s- o0+ 57
18

16 tr?¡°Y5=51 till 3 II iroitia !i mill

14

12 1111
iim
IHNINII
a . nu
10

8 EN I: NEI MIMI
6 11111111111MIIM11111111
4 irniiai I 11111\11111111
Fig. 496. Regression of Cu content of 2 111111,1MLII ill Iii 1911
pot-grown wheat (y) on organic carbon-
o
corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.) soil .4 .6 .8 10 2 4 6 810 20 40 60 100
Cu (x), Malawi. Org.C-corrected soi CU,rng/1 (AAAc-EDTAI
368
3 00
Fig. 497. Regression of Fe contents of
2 75
2 50 1/3111111151.1111 pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
225 acetate-EDTA extractable soil Fe (x),
200 o
Malawi.
175 IMEEM1111117151'il
E 1 50

1 25
o
100 111111111111111
75 90
80
70
o
60

50

40 sionionmeno
30
INNIS 1111
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/I (AAAcEDTA)

Iron. The Fe contents of Malawi plants and soils are usually within the "normal" Fe
range (Zone III) or relatively close to it (Figs 497 and 31).
Manganese. The Mn contents of Malawi soils and plants are on average two to three
times as high as those in the other countries, and up to ten times as high as those in
countries of the lowest Mn contents (Figs 33 and 37). More than half the sample pairs are
within the two highest Mn Zones (Figs 498 and 499). The highest Mn values were typical
for sites on acid soils and were recorded most frequently for samples which came from the
Northern Region, where 10 out of 16 sample pairs fall in the Mn Zone V.
Molybdenum. Unlike Mn, the average Mo content of wheat grown on Malawi soils is
low being less than one-third of the international mean plant Mo content (Figs 500, 501,
15 and 20). This is due to the low availability of Mo to plants in acid soils (Fig. 16, b).
Contrariwise, the extractability of Mo to A0-0A from acid soils is high (Fig. 16, a) and,
therefore, the soil Mo values given in Fig. 500 and 15 are almost of the average
international level. This contradiction is largely eliminated through pH correction. In
consequence, the internal correlation between Malawi plant Mo and soil Mo values
improves from being non-significant (r = 0.062) to highly significant (r = 0.487***) and
Malawi's position in the "international Mo field" (Fig. 15) moves from its earlier remoter
position to a point closer to the international regression line (Fig. 20). Almost every third
Malawi plantsoil Mo value is found in the lowest Mo Zones (Fig. 501). These are often
combined with high Mn values. As in the case of the high Mn values the low Mo values
are more typical for samples from the Northern Region than from other Regions.
Zinc. Irrespective of the extraction method used to extract Zn from Malawi soils, the
plant Znsoil Zn correlation is high and the data obtained on Zn levels by the two
methods are much alike (Figs 502, 503, 41 and 43). "Normal" Zn values are typical and
even the few sample pairs falling outside Zn Zone III are not in any extreme positions.
However, many Zn values are low enough to indicate the possibility of Zn deficiency at
several of the sampled sites.
 369
Fig. 498. Regression of Mn content 2000
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Mn (x), Malawi. 1000
800 ME
MN
Fiiiiiíiìiiiiiiììì
I.CMTRI:47VECINz ,1,11IIMMOMIIMIM12111111111
WIIMMInIMEMEMIMI=111!1=MMIR
FTETRIMiMil411:MMMOMM.111 1/111
IVIIIMIGIMMEMaMMINIMOICIIMINEMIE
600 IIIMIEMENEMBUMMMUMEMEMNEINKMEI
400 immmumilimmummumnimritom
8: 300
o 200 /11±1111111111111111111011
.c
o 100 11111111111111111111
a) 80 ummE _hmmimsstrilimmwennumimmkile
o 60 IIMMIIIIIMMEINIIIITAMMEN111111111MM
o
40 11111111111111111MINIMEIMIIIIIIMMININI
30
20 11111111111111=1111111111M111111

1111111111111E1111111111
lo lizzgimmimmE111211:=0..klEreMICE="
8 INNIINialISTSMINIM110111171, IMO
InsmMMIIMMIS
2 34 6810 20 30 40 6080100 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

Fig. 499. Regression of Mn content 2000

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA Mn
extractable soil Mn corrected for pH 1000 --11111111111111-11111111
IIMMIMIM
IMMEMIROMMUME1110111111111MMINIIIWIIIIIIII
(x), Malawi. 800 d wtmanat.a.maaasgamasimmerimmamonies
MIIIIMIMMEIMMIIIMIIMINIMIMMIIIIIIMMINIMIIIIIPAIIIIMIIIIIINI
600 MI MITETLIMPIEIEHMEMIIIIIM=MMIIIIIITIIINIVAIONIMIIIIIIII
a. 1111111CHEIMMUINIMMIEZMIIMMIIIMIIIIIPAIIIMIlltli
a 400 1111111111011111=LIIIMEIIMIIIMIPERIM
300 IIIESIMIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIMIRETIMMIO
"Cl".

_c
200 netwiloommiormniummu
"6
"C"100
a)
80
........ ...
ri===drolmmar.11111=11=1""":
hilk =MEMIC/ArolIMEN

o
60 iummmiammatilMfaigaraina=MISELli
liMMINKNEMEHMEMMINEMMIMEMIMMMENEM
40 Immormormandimmammummumn.
2 30 II 1
20
1P° 141
10
8 001Mwim=
NO
nimmio
minr, ms
MEN111Mill
2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600
p1-4- corrected Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

9.3.4 Summary

The soils of Malawi are mostly coarse textured with low pH, low cation exchange
capacity and medium organic matter content. Relatively high P, low to medium N and K,
and low Ca and Mg contents are typical of most Malawi soils. Of the six micronutrients
included in this study, the analytical data for Fe and Zn show usually "normal" values,
but at some locations shortage of Zn likely. The contents of B and Cu are low, those of
Mo lower than in most other countries, while the Mn contents are among the highest.
370

AMINIIIENIMl= MENEM Fig. 500. Regression of Mo content of

6 pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium
0.21 t. 0 2 oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
3
(x), Malawi.
2 11.9111191.112.1T
E
cL
°-
O
.6
1 MENEM
3
.2
IIIIIIUfll
o
o
o . I
11.111111111111111111L
1IIMMMENNIMOINMIMMIIM=M
IlMOINIIMMIMMII=MIMIIMI=MIMEMEINIVOIS.
MIIIMMIZEMIN11.11.11MMEMO
.06 NEf11MENIMINSIMIIIIIM1=MMI
MIUMINMOMIMM=1.
.03
194
/M1111111=1111111MMIll
.02

I II ifi
.01
.01 .02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 23
Mo in soit, mg/ (A 0-0A)

Mo
Ma 17.WAMOnella
MIPOW1=0,1MMINN =INDEM.
EM=1MIMIII
ONIC/DiDivn=nalliMMIMrTrn IIEMNMEN
In
6 1. 0. MENU
s
EN.
n =97
1111111FIEDEEKEZIMI1132131:101LE11111111
3 °IZMIR& zio

2 1111111 g°4:15111111114.1111111.1111

=MI=MMEM
MIIMMEME1P'
11111111111111111111111111
MIHNIMENNE MEMIMMO=1MMINfirig

77, .2 . IL
o
u di
2 .06 immlommewwwwiswinineuves
o '
MIIMIBM13111111k.W.111111:41111111111115
mmosnomminzarvasimmuismummus
Emninriormsmunimmommuln
.03 0111111 11111M111111MMINIIIII
.02 IIIMMENE111111111111111111
Fig. 501. Regression of Mo content of
.01 =11 MIMMIINENM=MMINEN
111111111111111E11111111
.006 .01 .02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x),
pH-corrected MO in soil, mg/l (A0-0A) Malawi.
 371

Fig. 502. Regression of Zn content of 200

pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
able soil Zn (x), Malawi.
100
90
80
70
g_ 60
50
ci
40

-6 30

20

Nio

10
9
8
7
6

.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100

Zn in soil, mg /I (DTPA)

200
Zn
100
90
80
70
60
ga. 50

.2- 40
ci

30
o
20
o

10
9
8
Fig. 503. Regression of Zn content of 7
6
pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 00
(x), Malawi. pH-corrected Zr in soil, ing/i (AAAc-EDTA)
 372

9.4 Nigeria

9.4.1 General

The Nigerian sample material consisting of 103 maize-s- oil, 42 wheat-soil sample pairs plus
31 soil samples was collected from the sites shown in Fig. 504. About half the samples,
including all wheat-soil sample pairs, originate from the Northern States and half from the
Western, Mid-Western and Eastern States. Of the 91 soils classified into FAO/Unesco
soil units, Ferralsols (31 soils) and Acrisols (27) were the most common. The other soils
were classified as Luvisols (8), Fluvisols (6), Nitosols (5), Regosols (5), Cambisols (4),
Vertisols (2), Arenosol (1), Gleysol (1) and Lithosol (1).
The great majority of the sampled Nigerian soils are very coarse textured but a few
medium and fine textured are included (Fig. 505). The soil pH varies widely covering the
range from pH 4 to 8 quite evenly. Most of the soils are low in organic matter and have
a low cation exchange capacity. With a few exceptions the values for electrical
conductivity, CaCO3 equivalent and sodium content are low (Appendixes 2-4).

1
7.

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Fig. 504. Sampling sites in Nigeria (dots = wheat fields, triangles = maize fields).
 373

Fig. 505. Frequency distributions of 5 Nigeria Internat. Nigeria Internat.

n=176 3764 n. 176 3783
texture, pH, organic carbon content, R. 29
as = 15
44
16
0x. 5.74
tsx 1.09
6.64
1.12
and cation exchange capacity in soils of min.= 12
max.= 83
9
92
35 min.= 3.95
max, 7.96
3.62
8.55
Nigeria (columns). Curves show the
international frequency of the same
characters.

10 20 30 50 60 70 80 90

TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca C12)

Nigeria Internat. 5 Nigeria Internat.

n=176 3779 = 176 3777
0= .9 1.3 0= 14.4 27.3
1.2 30 ss = 8.0 14.6
es= .6
35 min.= .1 .1 min.= 2.4 .2
max.= 4.9 39.1 max.= 47.1 99.9

f
.2 .8 1.6 3.2 6.4 148 25.6 B 16 32

ORGANIC C.% CEC, me/100g

Nigeria Internet Nigeria Internat.

Figs. 506-510. Frequency distributions n= 42 1765 5 n= 103 n=1958
of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, 9= 4.28
its= .72
4.27
1.15
8=2.48
4s= .52 as= .87
g= 3.14

.60 30 min = 88
calcium and magnesium in original rnin = 2.44
max = 5.95 7.45
min.= 1.31
max.= 3.80 max.= 6.51

wheat and maize samples and respect- 25

ive soils (columns) of Nigeria. Curves 20

show the international frequency of 15

the same characters.

5 6 2 0 4 5 6

N content o wheat.% N content of maize.%

70
Nigeria Internet. Nigeria Internat.
n= 42 1765 n= 103 1958
60
0=053 .133 /2.- .092 .135
±s=.041 .084 asx .049 .088
min...030 .000 min.= .041 .008
max.=.227 1.023 max...392 1.657

'6-C1_ 40

7-
o
Z 30
o
CO
UJ 20

.005 01 .02 .04 .08 .16 .32 .64 1.28 .005 MI .02 .04 .08 .64 1.28

Fig. 506. Nitrogen, Nigeria. N in wheat soils, % N in maize soils,./.

9.4.2 Macronutrients

The total nitrogen contents of Nigerian soils are very low compared to those of most other
countries (Figs 506 and 6). Because of the relatively high rates of nitrogen fertilizers
applied to the sampled wheat crops (85 ± 27 kg N/ha), the national mean N content of
 374
40
Nigeria internat. Nigeria internat. Fig. 507. Phosphorus, Nigeria.
35 n 42 1765 35 n. 103 1967
= .34 .38 = .32 .33
is = .11 .12 ts = .10 .10
0 min.= .21 .05 min, .14 .05
max...73 1.02 max.. .59 1.04

a 25 25
2-
(±) 20 20

S
Ui
E 10

.2 .3 4 .5 6 7
P content of wheat% P content of moize,%
o 40
Nigeria lotrooi. Nigeria iotoroot.
5 n = 42 1765 5 n= 103 1967
R =16.7 20.2 R. 21.7 22.5
OS =13.1 24.7 *5= 41.4 33.0
min.= 1.2 1.0 min.= 1.2 0.1
30 rna...56.4 271.4 max,303.2 656.0

4 .4 id h. X A"
r .4" ..;,45r0,4
2 5 10 20 40 BO 100 320 640 2.5 5 10 20 40 80 160 320 640
P in wheat soils, mg/I P in maize soils, mg/I

3
Nigeria intwimt. Nigeria Internat.
Fig. 508. Potassium, Nigeria.
n= 42 1765 n=103 1967
0 6=4.5 4.0 30 2= 3.4 3.1

t2,3 29
±s= 0.7
min.= 3.0
max.. 6.0
,
1.0
0.9
6.8 25
±s= 0.8
min.= 1.8
max.= 6.0
1.0
0.6
6.7

rr
2 3 4 5 6
_
7
jr/4 2
44% deAM_
3
-
K content of wheat, % K content of maize,%

Nigeria Intermit, Nigeria intern&

n= 42 1765 n= 103 1967
= 207 365 = 19/ 330
30 = 134 263 ±s= 175 356
min.= 50 20 min.= 35 18
max.= 633 2697 mox.=1042 5598
rÓl
0 25

20

25 50 100 200 400 BOO 1600 3200 6400 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 5400
K in wheat soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I

Nigerian wheats (4.28 %) corresponds to the international mean (4.27 %). Much less
nitrogen was applied to maize (13 ± 23 kg N/ha) and the N contents of maize remain at
a low level. This national mean is the second lowest after Tanzania (Appendix 3).
The average NaHCO3 extractable phosphorus content of maize soils and P content of
 375

Fig. 509. Calcium, Nigeria. Nigeria interriat.

4
Nigeria Internat.
5 n. 42 1765 35 n.553 1967
.46St .43 4. .44 .47
is .17 .17 . .14 .20
mine .26 .11 30 min.. .17 .09
mox . 1.10 1.68 mas.. .79 1.88

k25
20 20

<3 is
Si

.e .2 1:6
Ca content of wheat.% Ca content of maize %
Nigeria Internat, Nigeria Internat.
5. 42 5.1765 n= 103 1967
5 8.2009 6=4671 35 5.1099 3450
±01852 25.3075 ±5.1107 2815
min.= 320 NI min. 110 min.= 65 10
ma,. 7000 553 max..21930 max.= 4880 17995

025

20
>-
o
1.1.1 15

a 10
/3./

u-

100 200 400 800

A d. 4
16,30 3200 6400 12900 5600 50 100 200 400 600 1 00 3200 6400 BOO
Ca in wheat soils, mg/I Ca in maize soi s, mg/I

40
Fig. 510. Magnesium, Nigeria. Nigeria Internet Nigeria Internat
n. 42 1764 35 n. 103 1967
9..231 .172 5..232 .251
Os..072 .060 7-5..075 .119
min...126 .044 min.= .080 .036
max...483 .948 868.5.530 1.125
25

20

5 2 .05 0 2
Mg content of wheat, % Mg content of maize, %

Nigeria internot. Nigeria Internat.

35 n. 42 1764 n= 103 1967
345 489 s. 180 446
4s. 362 437 4s= 258 462
o
min.= 49 10 min.= 15 1
max..1795 3298 max.= 2468 6490

25

o
Lu

L
u_

,
,
25 50 /00 -2033400 900 1600 3200 12.5 25 50 100 200 400 800 1500 3200 6400
Mg in wheat soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils, mg/F

maize correspond to the international averages but those of wheat soils and wheat are
somewhat low (Figs 507 and 7). In all cases the variations are wide. The Nigerian crops
received somewhat less phosphate fertilizers than the average for crops in this study
(Appendix 5).
The average exchangeable potassium content of Nigerian soils is slightly on the low side
376

internationally but the mean K contents of both original indicator plants are somewhat
higher than the respective international averages (Figs 8 and 508), although only small to
moderate applications of potassium fertilizers were used (Appendix 5). This contradiction
may partly be due to the general acidity of Nigerian soils. The plants seem to be able to
absorb more K from acid soils in relation to exchangeable soil K than from alkaline soils.
See Fig. 11 and related text.
In spite of the relatively low exchangeable calcium and magnesium contents of Nigerian
soils, the Ca and Mg contents of the indicator crops are at the average international level
(Figs 9 and 10), and in the case of wheat even slightly above it (Figs 509 and 510). As
pointed out in Section 2.2.4 (Figs 12 and 14 and related text) these elements are relatively
readily available to plants in coarse textured soils of low CEC, and these characteristics
are typical of most Nigerian soils.

9.4.3 Macronutrient contents of original plants with special reference to varieties

Since the original Nigerian plant sample material included only a few HYV maize samples,
comparisons between HYV and local varieties were not possible. In the case of wheat, 24
samples represented high yielding varieties and 18 were classified as local varieties. The
HYV group consisted of cultivars 'Indus' (16 samples), 'Siete Cerros' (7), and 'Inia' (1).
The average N, P, K, Ca and Mg contents of each variety group, their respective soils and
amounts of applied fertilizers are given in Table 28.

Table 28. Comparison of macronntrient contents of high yielding and local varieties of original Nigerian
wheats, respective soils and fertilizer applications. Differences between the mean contents of the two groups
followed by the same index letter are not statistically significant. Letters ab indicate significant differences at
10 and ac at 5 percent level.

Nutrient Average Macronutrient Content Average N, P and K

Original wheat Wheat soils application
% N %, others mgll kg/ha
HYV Local HYV Local
(n = 24) (n = 18) (n = 24) (n = 18) (n = 24) (n .----- 18)

Nitrogen 4.542 410 0,080a 0.0812 872 822

Phosphorus 0.3712 0.311b 12.42 20.3e 182 152
Potassium 4.7424,33b
003 b 218a 1852 4a 3'
Calcium 0.499 2349 15062
Magnesium 0.2322 343a 333a

The HYV wheats were sampled 40 days and the local wheats 35 days from planting,
on the average. Therefore, the effect of physiological age is more likely to increase the
differences in macronutrient contents of wheat between the two variety groups than to
decrease these (see Section 1.2.2).
The data in Table 28 indicate that the two variety groups may differ genetically in their
ability to absorb P and N. In the cases of plant K and Ca the differences are more likely
to be due to similar differences in the soil K and Ca. With regard to Mg and micro-
nutrients no clear differences were found between the two variety groups.
 377

9.4.4 Micronutrients

Boron. With relatively few exceptions the B contents of Nigerian soils and wheats grown in
pots of these soils are lower than the respective international averages (Figs 511 and 512),
and Nigeria is one of the countries occupying the lowest positions in the "international B
fields" (Figs 22 and 25). A quarter of the Nigerian samples falls in the two lowest B zones
(I and II) with some of them in quite extreme positions (Fig. 512). According to these
analytical data B deficiency is likely at several locations in Nigeria, and response to B,
especially by crops with a high B requirement such as root crops, legumes and some fruits
and vegetables could be expected. With only a few exceptions the lowest (Zones I and II)

100 INIMIIIMILINIMMIERIPPIIIMMI1111111MIMMINIMININIIIIIMMINI MUM

lozittelMIIMIIITirraid11111111111111111111=11M1111110
80
60
n= EiR111ReWIN1111111111111111MMINMENIMII
50
ill112746111111111=111121
40 rF1150351nc127

Ing.80 + 2.41916, NORM Winn I

er .
30
Illir 1111111111 aiiiiii
11111 I
imodhaii. iiii
15
_c
201
a)
111
-610181.....01=min............Ims.
MIMMI=0EiNMEMMIMIWEIZOINOMMillan
-E. 6 MIMIII=120111111111111112PIIMMIMBISIIMMI
cu 5 1111111111111111111111PISTAIMMMINIIIIIIIIIIIIII
"-c-
4
111_11, 111111110.MMOMIll
ifilliMMIIIMMIll
MIN1411111111
mum
l1
(-)
m 3

Fig. 511. Regression of B content of n1111111 1111111-il

pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
211111 1,411 r,
soluble soil B (x), Nigeria. For details 1 la
of summarized international back- .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .81.0 2 3 4 56 8 10
ground data, see Chapter 4. B in soil, mg/I (Hot w. sol.)

100
80B
60
n= I
Sas.4 5 110
3
50 2ts.0 3 017 0 72
40
E log .07 +0 550x
0.
-3o r'0409 *.
log
B R

15; 20

l0
8
48
611
6 . .
s a-
4
U
CO a
2

I-
Fig. 512. Regression of B content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected .081 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10
(hot water soluble) soil B (x), Nigeria. C EC - corrected B in sil. mgil (Hot w. sot.)
378
22
Fig. 513. Regression of Cu content of
20 Eliiii11111 ;111111111111111111111 pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
III :i- flu 11 111111111111 Will acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x),
Nigeria.
111111111011: Log. gl :11:11111 Illini
Mil 11111 I IIIIIIIII 111111
'u11111 MI111111111 11/11N11
.6 12

glo 11111111111 ...i11111,11 111111

38 MIN 1 NI 111111P1411 111111
06 11111 1J111111111MININII IIIIII
4 ill 111PPLIM 111111111111011
2 MI Iiii01111,41 11111 1111141
111111111111111111111111111111111
01 .4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080
Cu in soil, mg/1 (AAAc- EDTA)

22 cu Fig. 514. Regression of Cu content of

.
20 Nige 11111111 11111 11111 pot-grown wheat (y) on organic

Ell
intern t
carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.)
MIEN soil Cu (x), Nigeria.

rii
18 Y=1_5R111111111 il;-.7 11

....., -...I
TY-15111110

.....,
L111111111116

. loci
III
111111111111 I
11 I 1
6 N1IINiirn!!iIÌLII
Ipipmram 1
4

2 1111111.1dinikliNiii11111
11111111M
MI
111:1311Munibil
oi .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 2 4 6 810 20 40 60 100
Org.C-corrected soil CU,mgil (AAAc-EDTA)

B values originate from the Northern States. A response to B by cotton has been reported
e.g. in Niger State (FAO, 1979).
Copper. Only about two-thirds of the Nigerian Cu values are within the "normal" Cu
range (Zone III) and one-third falls in the low Cu zones (Figs 513 and 514). Nigeria's
position in the "international Cu fields" is well down (Figs 27 and 29). The great majority
of the low (Zones I and II) Cu values originate from the Eastern States where such low
values were recorded for more than half the sample pairs. In this part of the country Cu
deficiency seems much more likely than elsewhere in Nigeria where low Cu values
are relatively rare.
 379
Fig. 515. Regression of Fe contents of 300
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium 275 MITIM111111111111,M111111111MONCI
250
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Fe (x), 225 =ffillIMIIINIEldill1911111111111111
Nigeria. 200
1 75 11=111111111111Waiiiiiiii1111111111
E 1 50 11111111111111111111111111111
o_

'6 90 wommunnamalkuninuris
t 80
3.) 70
o
60
u.
50 IMIIIIIBM1311111111111111
40

30 11111111111111
....linciummumuntAlweit
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 6(13 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/1 (AAAc-EDTA)

Iron. In the "international Fe field" (Fig. 31) Nigeria stands slightly low. Although
several quite low Fe values were measured from the Nigerian sample material, shortage
of Fe is unlikely to be among the primary micronutrient problems of the country
(Fig. 515).
Manganese. The national mean Mn content of Nigerian plants is almost double the
international mean but the respective DTPA extractable soil Mn values about equal it
(Fig. 516). Correction of soil Mn values for pH raises the national mean from 35.3
to 55.1 mg/1, triples the standard deviation and itnproves the plant Mnsoil Mn correla-
tion (r) from 0395*** to 0.729*** (Fig. 517). See also Figs 33 and 37.
About a quarter of the sample pairs are within the high Mn Zones (IV and V) but only
a few fall in the low Zones (I and II) indicating that problems due to excess Mn are more
likely than those due to Mn shortage. Two-thirds of the highest (Zone V) values were
measured from samples from the Eastern States.
Molybdenum. The non-significant correlation between p/ant Mo and A0-0A extract-
able soil Mo (Fig. 518) becomes highly significant when the soil Mo values are corrected
for pH (Fig. 519). The ranges of variation of both plant Mo and soil Mo are wide, but the
majority of values are low and Nigeria's position in the "international Mo field" is
relatively low (Fig. 20). Only a few Mo points are in the high zones and the relative
frequency of low (Zones I and II) Mo values is exceeded by only a few other countries.
About a fifth of the samples fall in Zone I and a third in Zones I and II (Fig. 519)
indicating that problems due to shortage of Mo are likely in Nigeria, especially in the
case of legumes which have a specific need for Mo. A response by groundnut to Mo has
been reported e.g. in Niger State (FAO, 1979). Two-thirds of the Mo values in Zone I
originate from the Eastern States at sites with a soil pH(CaC12) of 5.0 or below and
these are often associated with high Mn values.
380
2000 Fig. 516. Regression of Mn content
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
11111114111111111111111111 extractable soil Mn (x), Nigeria.
1000
800 =im......=miorni.....~
irrinmremiiimwiralkmartinnwsmimm moms
InraiiiimnI11maiiminnowannse
600 IIMM=INIMMINHINIMMNMZ1110111WA11111111
400 IlmImumunramilammuilinnum
300
IMI11011=111111111111613
100
1101111111111111PPM Y
80
60 ;11=Malailill==g3111111LMIT:
40 1111111111MINIEMOUNIEMMIIIIMMIIIII=IMM
30 IIIMME2111111151.111111MMEIN
20

10 allINIMIIIMMINImMIONII11101M7MINEMENNE
8 0=61=ITAIMMININUIRMMATOMUMEN
I
MR Millailil=11
MIll 1111111111111111111;4::°: 1"
iWMINN
niNIMMIIII1111111LXMILIMIIIISI
234 6810 20 30 40 60 80100 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/l DTPA)

2000 11.0.00 Fig. 517. Regression of Mn content

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
Mn 11111111,
1000 mmmirosprom.
MfAtIMMEtiWl!1 1211a ML. wastaiii: extractable soil Mn corrected for pH
800 (x), Nigeria.
600 11ErliarlirlNal
11MMEN
REETEUELIMIIOMM
nnulwrAmeao
400
300 1111112111MMIIIIIMMI
200 01711111.11111
y
113

100 11111111111111:.
80 1ENEEME/PNLAm.
40 IMMENII=
30
20 11,1511111111

10 11111111111.11
iiommumworrsa
11immlislins-as.wa
1111111111111111111111111=11111111111111U112111.

2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 600

pH- corrected Mn in soil. mg/l (DTPA)

Zinc. Irrespective of the method used for determining extractable soil Zn contents, the
patterns of Zn levels in Nigeria are similar (Figs 41, 43, 520 and 521). In the "international
Zn fields" Nigeria stands clearly high. However, the Zn values vary considerably from one
site to another and both very high and relatively low values were determined The highest
Zn values were measured in samples from the Eastern and Northern States, but low
Zn contents were more typical for sites in the Northern States than elsewhere in Nigeria.
The above analytical data do not indicate very severe Zn deficiency but at many locations
a response to Zn fertilization is likely (see also Section 2.7). Also Osiname (1976) reported
increases in yield of between 240 and 1920 kg/ha for maize after applying Zn at rates
varying from 1 to 8 kg/ha at three locations in Nigeria.
 381
Fig. 518. Regression of Mo content 2:=SIIIMMIllgra
of pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium 6
Mo EgiSrinesummulailationimmi
=oft amiammemmommon
mow
ma
....,:gignimwanalli I
2=11111111111MENOMIIIIIIIT
= MIN
oxalate-oxalic acid extractabie soil Mo 9' - ENE
(x), Nigeria. 3 7-6 sakbliiimMiiall 1
2 Yr:,.: !Rig, l'Aili 'Hi
E
0_

.........1
11
rec....,...
1
nomal
1

1.1.monniat -manisomms
millOPP' MN
lib i
111
.2 i
o
o .1 ..m.:4;=.1.
nr=a 11
ri=11121janimmmiairi
.06 IgillIMMIgilli
rIMMEllibli
issinsim Kt

liii
...
.03
02 \.,. II I
1 m
.01 _.___ . ....
.01 .02 .03 .06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo in soil, mg/ (A0-0A)

Fig. 519. Regression of Mo content of a

pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected MoBIIMMIMMNIILIIII
IMEM3iii wilMwo
II1Mm
A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x),
6 Uni1 il n - 35 7
t s 0 91 MOM O s - o 22
Mani
O. EMU.
Nigeria. 3 is i I s o 79 at 0
11098,60 ala i48
n 02210 1).
og,, _
In
2
E
Q-
0.
w ,.6
1

.le an-isre,
6' 1:=...,
.....m.m r MrKiiiinmENI
,,,,, 'MUM MU
mikplli
leirtit
A..iii
ó .3 NEI ffl 1
OM 2 ul Ail a1
o
2

M
fir
111122EN=i ANIMZEI ......... MINELL.6
.06 rainPVIMWATAMS: N
NE
usoluiagragrosi N =mom
.03
.02 upiiiui
MINIM"
N
.01 1111111
OM s MIIIIN
Iiih NI' 1111 i = 'MU la
.006 .01 .02 .03 ,06 .1 .2 .3 .6 23
pH-corrected MO in soil,mg/I (A0-0A)

9.4.5 Summary

Most Nigerian soils studied are coarse in texture, low in organic matter and have a low
cation exchange capacity. The pH varies widely. The macronutrient status of soils is
relatively low.
The micronutrient status of Nigerian soils varies considerably from one element to
another. Micronutrient problems due to shortage of B, Cu, Mo and Zn and excess of
Mn are likely.
382

200 Fig. 520. Regression of Zn content

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Zn (x), Nigeria.
100
90
80
70
E 60
cl 50
o
a' 40

"6 30

o 20
o
N
10
9
8
7
6
nr
.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .81 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
Zn in soil,mg/ 4DTPA)

200

100
90
Zn 1 1 Nil 111
80
70

ct 50
60
1111 I1"7.111
Ill 11/11
I
11111 1 NI 111 .E/
40

vm NMI Ill III

i
ion
o
a)
30

till
o
20 in
o
o
NJ
10
9
8
II III
7
6 lik. 11111-1 111 L 1
Fig. 521. Regression of Zn content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA
.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100 extractable soil Zn corrected for pH
pH-corrected Zn in soi ,mg/l (AAAc-EDTA) (x), Nigeria.
 383

9.5 Sierra Leone

9.5.1 General

The geographical distribution of the sampling sites for the 50 maize-soil sample pairs
collected from Sierra Leone is shown in Fig. 522. All the sampled crops were grown under
rainfed conditions in areas where the annual precipitation varies from 2000 to 4000 mm.
The majority of the soils are coarse textured and with a few exceptions very acid
(Fig. 523). The national mean pH is lower than that for any other country. In spite of
a generally high organic matter content the cation exchange capacity of soils remains at a

12.

5
5....
5
a

5
(s
C..

r j- n: 7 (
%
)I
..;
1 I.
1

48., 480416
8018
48014 48017. 4801'9
480134 ...
448020
21021£48525
48023
4
480244466°015
48027
FREE70 11 ; ' 11/6 48012 4801Z0,9,480015 a.
8
3.0 111,7 ,
'1-'48" 48007 A 301
A 40dI i
A48004 48028*". I
(
48003A
£48030
/
4800

4804 t:454.804497.4.04.
J
)
5
.

48050
48032
49033
48035
£48031
...48034
A
4A:04063083e
rf
i
I

4809 tzg:: ,,--

48042
44Ø43
i

4
/

SIERRA LEONE
.1

o zo ,Go ea . 10 te,

12.

Fig. 522. Sampling sites in Sierra Leone.

384

relatively low level due to their coarse texture (see Fig. 3, h and m). Low electrical
conductivity, CaCO3 equivalent, and sodium content are typical of Sierra Leone soils
(Appendixes 3 and 4).

35 Sierra Leone Internet Sierra Leone Internat. Fig. 523. Frequency distributions of
n50 n= 50
30
0=33
3764
44
40
St =4.90
3783
6.64 texture, pH, organic carbon content,
tax 8 16 ts= .58 1.12
"E min.= 22 9 35 min.= 4.10 3.62 and cation exchange capacity in soils of
<13 max.= 58 92 max.=7.10 8.56
0 25 30 Sierra Leone (columns). Curves show
25
the international frequency of the
20
same characters.
15

U- 5

AVA VA VAVA
0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 SO 6

TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca C12)

Sierra Leone 8 Internat. 5 Sierra Leone Internat.

40
n = 50 2 3779 n= 50 3777
0 2.5 1.3 0=20.9 27.3
Xs. 1.0 1.2 xs x 7.6 14.6
-E 35 rein.= .8 .1 min.= 10.7 .2
max.= 5.7 39.1 max.= 44.7 99.9
15 30

25

Lu o

o 5
CC
u_

.2 .4 .8 19 12 6.4 118 266 16 32

ORGANIC C,% CEC, me/100g

9.5.2 Macronutrients

The total nitrogen contents of the soils are relatively high due to their high organic
matter contents (Fig. 524). The average use of nitrogen fertilizers was minimal (5 ±
22 kg N/ha), so explaining the low N contents of maize. In fact, nitrogen had only been
applied to three sampled crops (samples No 48045, -48, and 50; 20, 100 and 112 kg N/ha,
respectively). Consequently, the N contents of these maize samples were high (3.32, 3.76
and 4.14 percent, respectively) compared to the other maize samples from Sierra Leone.
Most of the NaHCO3 extractable phosphorus contents of Sierra Leone soils are lower
than the average in this study (Figs 525 and 7). The low soil P content is reflected in the
P contents of maize which are lower than in most other countries. Only three of the
50 sampled maize crops had received phosphate fertilizer
The average exchangeable potassium content of soil is lower but the K content of maize
is higher than those of most other countries (Figs 526 and 8). This contradiction may
partly be due to the higher K uptake from acid than from neutral or alkaline soils.
See Fig. 11 and related text.
The national means for exchangeable calcium and magnesium contents of Sierra Leone
soils and those for the Ca and Mg contents of maize are among the very lowest of this
study. (Figs 527, 528, 9, 10 and Appendix 3).
 385

40 3
Sierra Leone Internat. Sierra Leone Internat.
n= 49 1958 40 n= 49 1967
35
= 2.83 3.14 Sierra Leone Internat. 7. 3.7 3.1

as= .53 .87 n. 49 1967 Ls= 0.7 1.0

30
2..27 .33 min.= 1.6 0.6
min.= 1.72 .88 is ..06 .70 max.= 5.2 6.7
max.= 4.14 6.51 1.) 30 min...17 .05
max...47 1.04
41/ 25
a. a 2S
c:, 20 3-
(2) 20

2, is
a
ce
o
17
/
u-

2 3 4 5 6 .5 3 4 5 6 7

N content of maize,% P content of maize,% K content of maize,%

70 Sierra Leone Internat.
Sierra Leone Internat. n= 49 1967
n= 49 1958 X. 12.3 22.5
Ls 21.1 33.0 Sierra Leone Internat.
60 0..198 .135 min.. 3.0 0.1 n. 49 1967
as = .092 .088 max..152.0 656.0 0.108 330
min. =.103 .008 55 356
0
max. = .492 1.657 mM = 47 18
max = 280 5598

II
á;
0- 40
3-
o
LTJ 30

o /
LIJ 20

u_
o

.005 .01 .02 .04 .08 16 .32 64 1.28 2.5 5 0 20 40 80 160 320 640 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400

N in maize soils,% P in maize soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I

Fig. 524. Nitrogen, Sierra Leone. Fig. 525. Phosphorus, Sierra Leone. Fig. 526. Potassium, Sierra Leone.

Sierra Leone Internat. Figs 524-528. Frequency distribu-

Sierra Leone Internat.
rt.. 49
5..29
1967
.47 35 n. 49 1967 tions of nitrogen, phosphorus,
xx = .07 .20 0,168 .251
min...17 .09
1.88 min...111
.//9
.036
potassium, calcium and magne-
max.= .267 1" 1.125 sium in original maize samples
a 25
3- and respective soils (columns) of
o
Sierra Leone. Curves show the
0 15
O international frequency of the
u-
10 same characters.
5

.4 1.6 5

Ca content of maize,% Mg content of maize, %

Sierra Leone Internat. 40

n
r
49
585
1967
3450
Sierra Leone Internet.
ts . 547 2815 5 n= 49 1967
min.. 100 10 2= 92 446
max.= 2840 17995 no. 67 462
30 minx 15 1

max.. 411 6490

o

50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800 12.5 25 50 100 200 400 BOO 1600 3200 6400
Co in maize soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils, mg/I

Fig. 527. Calcium, Sierra Leone. Fig. 528. Magnesium, Sierra Leone.
386

9.5.3 Micronutrients

Boron. Almost all Sierra Leone soils and wheat grown in pots on these soils have B
contents lower than the respective international averages (Figs 529 and 530) and the
country occupies relatively low positions in the "international B fields" (Figs 22 and 25).
However, the B contents vary very little from one sample to another and only a few B
values fall in the low B Zones (I and II). According to these analytical data, deficiency of
occurs at several of the sampled Sierra Leone sites and a response to B is likely,
especially where crops with high B requirements are grown. See also Section 2.7.

10
8
,
1 -, ...............,...............
q,,,,,mairierfailmnommagui
6 .111111101:111111111MINEN=MMENI
5
I
ITINENTEMMEMIZIIM1111111=MMEMII
pl
I
1 .0.39k CIMINEEMEE31 11111"
4
3
1

1 yi 36 + 2.0U9!!.
NM 11/1111 511111
9: 2
O
_c

o
1
1

,
i
I
=1MENCIMP51=lniMM
a
iiiiiiiiiiiii
miimlimmirm
a)
i
111 =111%1M-111-111 =M111111111111111

oO
i
,
lllimilinifiallll MENU=
,

11'1111111
lift 111111
i viI 11,
lr,i Fig. 529. Regression of B content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
soluble soil B (x), Sierra Leone. For
1
:, .2 .3 .4 5.6 .810 2 3 4 56 81 details of summarized international
B in soil, mg/l (Hot w. sol.) background data, see Chapter 4.

100
80
n= 3
60 -±s= 5 ±082 6.
50 2±s'04 010 0 ±
40
E =647,3 310
-3o r= 0 470 ".
x
"
OX

20
a,
_c
10
8
6
5
4
CO
3
2

-I III Fig. 530. Regression of B content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
.081 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 1.0 3 4 5 6 8 10
2 (hot water soluble) soil B (x), Sierra
CEC -corrected B in soil, mg/l (Hot w.soi.) Leone.
 387

Copper. The average Cu contents of Sierra Leone soils and plants are lower than those
in any other country participating in this study (Figs 27, 29, 531 and 532). Only 10 percent
of the sample material show "normal" (Zone III) Cu contents and 69 percent fall in the
lowest Cu Zone (Fig. 532). It seems that the typical characteristics of Sierra Leone soils:
low pH, coarse texture, high organic matter content and low cation exchange capacity,
contribute to the low Cu levels of the soils and plants in this country (See Figs 523,
28 and 30). Cu deficiency has been reported in coffee and cacao groves (Hague and
Godfrey-Sam-Aggrey, 1980).

22
20 Elliiiiiiiiii11110211111111111111111
1111111112,1111115 11111111111111111111
11111111111111MAIIIIIII11111111
1111111111111111111111111111111
.612 111111111111111111111111111/1111
I 1 1111111111111111111111/111111
8 11111111111111111111111=11111111
()5 1111111111111111111111101111111111
4 1111111111M211111111M111111

Fig. 531. Regression of Cu content of 2 IIILMINMENE11111111111111111

pot-grown wheat.(y) on acid ammonium 11111111111111111M1RMIIIIIIII
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x), .2 .4 .6 .810 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080
Sierra Leone. Cu in soil, my( (AAA c- EDTAI

22 itelr it: \ 1
L:
2
1
r!..A111 Ill i'±-s'iiilEll MIMI
1
iill Ill m; NMI MIIIIIIII
1

111
.,
1

i 1111101
,RA .i.,.
1

5 ...............,
NIMBI! 1111111111111
Fig. 532. Regression of Cu content of ? OrgiliMMI
.mg
I
I
-"411114111,Mani
119111
In 1-14:5
pot-grown wheat (y) on organic
carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.) )1 .2 .4 .6 .810 2 4 6 a in 20 al 60 im
soil Cu (x), Sierra Leone. Org.C-corrected soi CU,mg/t (AAAc-EDTA)
388
3 00 Fig. 533. Regression of Fe contents
2 75
2 50
of pot-grown wheat (y) on acid
225 ammonium acetate-EDTA extractable
200 soil Fe (x), Sierra Leone.
1 75
E 1 50
o.
c1:125
o
100
.6 90
.6 80
70
o
o 60
50

40

30
10 20 40 60 100 200 400600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)

Iron. The Fe situation in Sierra Leone seems quite "normal", with, almost all the Fe
sample pairs falling within the Fe Zone III (Fig. 533), and consequently, problems due
to Fe are unlikely.
Manganese. Owing to very low pH (< 5) of most Sierra Leone soils, there is high
availability of Mn to plants but only moderate extractability by DTPA (Fig. 34). This is
the reason for the apparent contradiction between high plant and low soil Mn values given
in Fig. 534. This contradiction is partly eliminated by pH correction which doubles the
average soil Mn values and improves the plant Mnsoil Mn correlation from a non-
significant to a highly significant level (Fig. 535). Because the variation of Mn values in
the Sierra Leone sample material is relatively narrow, and only "normal" values are
included, Mn problems seem unlikely.
Molybdenum. The absorption of Mo by plants is lowest from soils of low pH, but
coarse texture, high organic matter content, low CEC, low electrical conductivity and low
CaCO3 equivalent are factors which also contribute toward low Mo availability (Fig. 16).
Many of these factors affect the extractability of Mo by A0-0A in different ways but
when the A0-0A soil Mo values are corrected for pH the effects of these factors on soil
Mo are very similar to their effects on plant Mo. That the above mentioned soil properties
are typical of Sierra Leone soils (Fig. 523 and Appendix 4) explains why Sierra Leone
occupies the lowest positions in the "international Mo fields" (Figs 15 and 20). The
correlation between plant Mo and uncorrected A0-0A soil Mo is not significant but is
highly significant for pH-corrected soil Mo values (Figs 536 and 537). More than 80
pergent of the Sierra Leone Mo sample pairs fall in the lowest Mo Zone (I) and over 90
percent in the two lowest Zones (Fig. 537). Only four out of 48 sample pairs show
"normal" (Zone III) Mo contents. The extremely low Mo content of Sierra Leone soils
 389
Fig. 534. Regression of Mn content 2000 nommunnamomrnmememws
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Mn (x), Sierra Leone. 1000 NO
800 NI MENI-----111111
11103511111111111111111
I.erWiin.rmiti;am104/Mim.toomimlo=lou
VEMIMIUM1171111:051FRINOVAIIMINEN11111==
600 III li 121171111M1111
mmoisiniblumninimmmumm 1iIMMINIMINIIIIIMII=IMM
11MINEMIIIIEIMERIIII IMIIIN
ELLE

iiMEMMIENMEMIliiiiM
340000

g 200 IIMIIIIIIINIIIIIIIIIIIIIMISI

100
80
=moc...,==.......=
111111111111111111111111E,
_Al

IIIIIImMmmummimummuMma
-E. 60 IIIIIMINMIRIMINNIPPMMMIIIMM
8
40 IIIIIMMIIIENSIIMIIIIINg
30 INIMMIIPM11111=111111111111=1111S
20 INE21111111111111111111
....................
10 i11111111111111111111111
liolaillimMimasse
8 0111MIMI=INIMMEMOinMIONTONIMMINEM
IIIMMIMM=MIIIIIIIIMiZIMMIILy:01Ma
234 6810
21 n
20 30 40 60 80100
..
MTN=
MOM
200 300
Mn in soil, mg/i (DTPA)

Fig. 535. Regression of Mn content 2000

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Mn corrected for pH 1000 E.
Mn gIiíEI 11111
mmmirmionmo=wirrwmam
(x), Sierra Leone.
800 =mmolmst Emma
=. k13LILIAl!IIMININEL3 LIIMMEN mmomormai
E 600 IN
a 400
300
11MM1111=plant
WIIIMIZIENVEITIMMINTETIREglatit 4ixTrammimmosin
11MISMU121111
Pr
WITNEIMENII
12.111111

200 111
o
100 1.11111
80 Mn=narl:
iMM=11:11
60 =MIgumi
40 =MOW
30 MINER
20

10
8

2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100 200300 600

pH - cor rected Mn in soil, mg/L (DTPA)

must be taken into account especially if crops with a high Mo requirement, e.g. nitrogen
fixing legumes, are grown. For example, Hague and Bundu (1980) reported a good
response of soybean to Mo in Sierra Leone.
Zinc. According to the analytical data on Sierra Leone soils and plants, the Zn level
seems quite satisfactory irrespective of the method used for extracting Zn from the soils
(Figs 538, 539, 41 and 43). With the exception of a few relatively high Zn values, the
samples fall in the "normal" range (Zone III) and the analytical data obtained by plant
and soil analyses are in agreement. At some sites a response to Zn could be expected.
390

Fig. 536. Regression of Mo content of

6 WOMMENIM=MMENNI pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium
MINSMUNIN=NEPEMMInEn
oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
3 (x), Sierra Leone.
2

IuuIIIIIIIIIIIIIu
111111111101
ViiIIIIIUUIIIllk
411=11RilIMIMMEMMMINIMEN .
14EMNIMMIMINEMBEIN11=1=MMOINNW'
11IIIMINUMMEMENN11MMMENUM
06//111111111111011111111=MIll
WIIIIIIMMINIMIEIMI11MMEM
.03
.02
UI
.01
.01 .02 .03 .06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo in soil, mg/i (A0-0A)

Fig. 537. Regression of Mo content of

itnwtomi-Mrannimrrma.m k. pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
6 IIIMEMONI
MENIIIIFIZIEDEESE0111=IMEGAIIII A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x),
3
Sierra Leone.
2 11111111111d1M1111

ilIlIllUllIllIll
.2

.1
iiiiiiiiiir__iu_____
pricamramonsi III
III
.03
.02 1115101
.01
23
11111111111.1III

.006 .01 .02 .03 06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1

pH - cerrected MO in soil, mg/l (A0-0A)

9.5.4 Summary

The essential feature of the Sierra Leone soils is their low pH. The majority are coarse
textured and have a relatively low CEC but are high in organic matter content. With the
exception of nitrogen, the macronutrient contents of soils are very low.
Of the six micronutrients studied, the analytical data for Fe and Mn are usually
"normal" but there are strong indications of Cu and Mo deficiency and some of B and Zn.
 391

Fig. 538. Regression of Zn content of 200 /.19M NIVIMUMMENI

pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract- Zn 77
able soil Zn (x), Sierra Leone.
100
90
111111115
80
70
E 60

40

o 20
0
N
10
9
8
7
6
III
.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .81 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
Zn in soil, mg/1 (DTPA)

20
Zn 7. - 2°5\ne IIIMI
1111 I
Miliillini"iramui
10 , s 4: 1
9
8
111Blr i
i

7
IllIl E
E5
6 ¡

MIN MIlIOgNIME
H lipq liniwAss 1
.2-4
o
3 1 1 Ildh : EMI II
o
+0E; 2
1 11011111111111 id
o

10"-lop
i 1

:1IIK EEO
1 )

Fig. 539. Regression of Zn content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA ' ..m. .1La iii v z
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
2
(x), Sierra Leone. pH-corrected Zr in soi , mg/1 (AAAc-EDTA)
392

9.6 Tanzania
9.6.1 General

The sample material of Tanzania consisting of 175 maize-soil and 5 wheat-soil sample
pairs was collected from the following Regions: Arusha (25 sample pairs), Coast (7),
Dodoma (8), Iringa (10), Kilimanjaro (27), Mara (16), Morogoro (13), Mtwara (13),
Mwanza (10), Ruvuma (12), Shinyanga (3), Singida (13), Tabora (2), and Tanga (21). The
approximate distribution of sampling sites is given in Fig. 540. With two exceptions
the sampled crops were grown under rainfed conditions.
The soils vary widely in texture (from TI 13 to 88) but coarse and medium textures
predominate (Fig. 541). Wide variations are characteristic also for pH, organic matter
content and cation exchange capacity but soils with moderate acidity, medium organic
matter content and low to medium CEC were most Common. As will be seen later, the

30° 36° 38°

1
SU 013A

USO 4,..,
P
44,359- 05,1\ 1 A i 44366-375 ....

1---J
1 g
w ...

BIHAF7AMIJI.0 ' ANZA

I
//---)
i
A /
/44347-368 +-\'--N \ 4439 406 '
44376- 392 \,, A

/
1../.
,\
--711"57-'-9-17?\ C'..
/
KAHrIA
0

\
/---\ 44418 423 S3
r49340-343 4/713;2\ -335
....A .,,/ 1 49338-339
'-' A
,..,......,
I 44424 4
KIGO A __ 431-439 i
\ TABSRA

\--;s-44344-346
N. ;

\\ ,,..._.)
___44433-4,
°
TANA.
G

Z"'A k 444542-45
49938-490 /
w
MANYON1
__,_.9
\ ./ ,,
'---- 4444 447 '\ 4, I
k i 44337 1 JI
ZA IBA
(0'...0,Ak ("ii,i114303-306 ,,-- \
49324 - 331 T9,,1S
99 - 4 5 A 1
._ /
.' ! '.
Ciii_E; / sr 01-302
94 07 - 313..4 o (444 DAR-ES-S LAAM
--../ MOR0608*

41 01111111S
SU BAWANGA ww- N, /MM.

WA
NJE

49490. LINDI
10 10.
70'. 94987 99985A
AFtA
94456A 444133
94459
94986* .

TANZANIA 49997
4t,eAe44499

120 le0 .0.1

12°

30° 32 36° 38 90°

Fig. 540. Sampling sites in Tanzania (dots wheat fields, triangles = maize fields).
 393

wide variation in the above soil properties are reflected as wide variations in the macro-
and micronutrient contents of Tanzanian sample material. The electrical conductivity and
CaCO3 equivalent values and sodium contents are usually low (Appendixes 2-4).

45
Fig. 541. Frequency distributions of 35 Tanzania Internat. Tanzania internat.
n. 180 3764 n= 180 3783
texture, pH, organic carbon content, 30
=
Os= 20
39 44
16
40
8.6.27
05= .77
6.64
1.12
and cation exchange capacity in soils min.= 13
max.. 88
9
92
35 min.= 4.39
non. = 7.80
3.62
8.56
of Tanzania (columns). Curves show 30

the international frequency of the 25

same characters. 20

/5

10 20 30 40 50 613 70 80 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca C12)

Tanzania inter nat. 35 Tanzania Internat.

40 n= 180 3779 n = 180 3777
= 1.4 1,3 O = 23.2 27,3
.9 1.2 30
= no =15.4 14,6
35 min.. .2 .1 min.= 3.1 .2
max.= 4.8 39.1 max.= 60.0 99.9
o 25
30

y. 25 20
O
uj 20
/5

L9 15
10
U- 10

.2 .4 .8 lb 3.2 6 2.8 256 16 32 64

ORGANIC C. % CEC, me/100g

9.6.2 Macronutrients

Because only five wheat-soil sample pairs are included in the sample material, the
following graphs show only the frequency distributions of macronutrient contents of
maize and the respective soils. The averages for wheat and wheat soils are given in
Appendix 2. It is noteworthy that only very low grain yields (200-1000 kg/ha) were
expected from all original sampled wheats and from half of the sampled maize crops.
The total nitrogen contents of Tanzanian maize soils vary widely but are somewhat low
when viewed in the international context of this study (Figs 542 and 6). The average N
content of maize is lower than that of any other country. This must, at least in part, be due
to the minimal amounts of nitrogen fertilizer applied (8 ± 17 kg N/ha) to the sampled
crops.
Very wide variations are characteristic of the NaFICO3 extractable phosphorus contents
of Tanzanian soils as well as of the P contents of maize (Fig. 543). The average soi/ P
content is somewhat higher than the respective international mean but the average P
content of Tanzanian maize corresponds to the international mean. Only about 10 percent
of the sampled maize crops had received phosphate fertilizer. The rates varied from 4 to
48 kg P/ha and for all sampled crops averaged 2 ± 6 kg P/ha which probably explains
the relatively low P contents of maize. See also Fig. 7.
The potassium status of Tanzanian soils is generally high but varies largely from one soil
to another (Figs 8 and 544). The K contents of Tanzanian maize are close to the
394
LO
Tanzania /nternat Tanzania Internot
0. 167 1958 n. 175 1967
35
9. 2.16 3.14
Tanzania i.t.,n.t. 30 5. 3.1 31
±5. .45 .87 35 n.175 1967 0.9 1.0
cd3 30
9..32 .33 min.. 1.0 0.6
min.. .88 .88
max.= 3.50 6.51 30 min ..05 .05 0 25 Max.= 6.7 6.7
max...60 1.04
a.
0.25
U
6 20
W 15

a15
o
LL1
cc 1c
u_

2 3 4 5 6 2 3 6 7
N content of maize.% P content of maize,% K content of maize,%
9
70
Tanzania Internat.
Tanzania Internat. 15r.. 175
5. 32.7
1967
22.5 Tanzania ini,mct
nr. 175 1958 75. 66.6
5.,116 .135
33.0 n. 175 1967
min.- .8 0.1 5. 639 330
00,077 .088 0 max 456.0 656.0 35 Os. 734 3512
.008 1- min.. 18 le
rnax,.425 1.657 max -.5598 5596
'3' 25 8 25
Lc1.3

a.
20
>-
0 L.)

lii 15

10 lo
u_

10 -
LL A-, -,41/,"AwA/"., A
.005 .01 .22 .124 .08 .6 .32 .62 1.29 25 5 10 20 10 8 160 3212 5 25 50 100 200 200 505 1500 3200 6400
N in maize soiis.% P in, maize soils, mg/1 K in maize soils, mgil

Fig. 542. Nitrogen, Tanzania. Fig. 543. Phosphorus, Tanzania. Fig. 544. Potassiurn, Tanzania.

Tanzania internat.
r Tanzania intemai
Figs 542-546. Frequency distribu-
n.175 1967

t5
.43
.17
.47
.20
5 n. 175
7..223
1967
.251
tions of nitrogen, phosphorus,
min.. .09
mox. .99
.09
1.88
z6..113 .119
.036
potassium, calcium and magne-
41_ 25 -
r1,3%. -.772 1.125
sium in original maize samples
7- and respective soils (columns) of
20
Tanzania.Curves show the inter-
o
L..
15
national frequency of the same
u_
10
characters .

Go content of maize Mg content at maize,%

Tanzania Internot <6
r 175 1967
5 7= 2104 3450 Tanzania Intern.,
Is- 1727 2815 35 r, 175 1967
min.. 155 10
no.., 9265 17995 R. 368 406
is, 293 462
min., 23 1

max.. 1355 6499

0 100 260 202 090 1630 3293 6403 12800 2.5 25 00 100 200 400 500 1605 3202 6432
Co in maize soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils, mg/.

Fig. 545. Calcium, Tanzan'a. Fig. 546. Magnesium, Tanzania.

 395

international mean with correspondingly wide variations. No potassium fertilizer was

applied to the sampled crops.
Wide variations are also typical for exchangeable calcium and magnesium contents of
the Tanzanian soils and for Ca and Mg contents of maize (Figs 555 and 556). The average
contents of these elements are somewhat lower than the respective international averages
(Figs 9 and 10).

9.6.3 Micronutrients

Boron. With relatively few exceptions the B contents of soils and plants are within the
"normal" B range (Zone III, Figs 547 and 548) and Tanzania locates near the centres of

10 311=1M1111=111111WAIMMININallIMMIMI MININIIIIIIMIIIIIIN
8) Le iin(lblillIMOMIWATiMMIIMIlliiMIIMMINIMIMIN
IMIIMMEINIIMININIIIINE
0:5111IERWM11111111111
6 )1 IIIIIIIMEEM MIUMMIIIIIII
5 89 WrifIllIIIMININIMINIIIIIII
' MEM- = ° 78 ± IZACEME1111
4 IN NW
E3 )1NRI
) 71 + a33WEINIII Igil
0_
2 MEN111111111 1/1111
o
_c

o
1
11,111 Emil
11MUMM.W.IMEIIMIMEMIIMME nu
1 alinaMirgirliniWkilikagran:111
IMIIIIIIIIIMMIIIIIEIIIIIIPIIIII dilliMUCIUM11111
a, iiiiiirMaltataiiiMaterallIMMOrni
8 111111MaarrMaSengliniNEEMMill
0 111111MAKI ME MIN1111111
ME Ellinlil
lin R1111L
Fig. 547. Regression of B content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
soluble soil B (x), Tanzania. For de- 1
1 fig ni
litI
tails of summarized international back- . .2 .3 .4.5.6 .810 2 3 4 5 s 8 ii
ground data, see Chapter 4. B in soil, mg/l (Hot w. sol.)

100 / I 'LLJ_LL
80
n1 3
60 Sits. 7089 e
50 i±s.09 +09 0 72
40
a.30 lo .0 7 +0 lo 2 +5.50x
0. r..0346** 8 4*

15, 20
a)
_c

8
w56
4E.
4
3

Fig. 548. Regression of B content of

pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
(hot water soluble) soil B (x), .081 .2 .3 .4.5.6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10
Tanzania. CEC -corrected B in soil, mg/1 (Hot w. sol.)
396
22
C jc±t" latit3 nte no Fig. 549. Regression of Cu content of
20 pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
3
1211i11111111111111111
7 acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x),
18
E Lo
Tanzania.
Q.
12111:211111:11:211111111111
o
14

.5 12 111111111111111111
10 111111111111111121111111
-
8 1111111111110M11111111
o 6 11111111111111111=1111111
111111111E1-21111111111111111111
2 MiiiIIILVNIp1111111111%11
1111111111111MEMMIIIIIND
.6 .810 2 4 .4 6 810 20 40 6080
Cu in soil, mg/I tAAAc-EDTA)

22 Cu Fig. 550. Regression of Cu content of

Ton ni
pot-grown wheat (y) on organic carbon-
20 corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.) soil
Cu (x), Tanzania.
18

FUNIIIIIIMM11111011011111
MGM 'rcniii5.111111111111111111
'Emmummoommenn
iummomummon
ommoonmemmum
o
0
10

8 ommmmortmo
6
C_)
4 1111111M12111111111M1111111
2

111111111011MPOMIONE
.6 810 6 810
1 .2 2 .4 4 20 40 60 100
Org.C-corrected soi CU,mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)

the "international B fields" (Figs 22 and 25). No extremely low or high values were
recorded and, consequently, these analytical data do not indicate any widespread B
problems in the country, although at some locations shortage of B may reduce the growth
of crops sensitive to B deficiency.
Copper. Tanzania's national mean plant and soil Cu values are only slightly lower than
the respective international averages (Figs 549 and 550) and its locations in the
"international Cu fields" are almost central (Figs 27 and 29). However, variation among
the Tanzanian samples is wide and several very low and a few relatively high Cu values
occur. About 14 percent of the sample pairs fall in the lowest Cu Zone (I) and 23 percent
 397

Fig. 551. Regression of Fe contents of

pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Fe (x),
300
275
250
225
siantatin PRUNIMMIR
li

Tanzania. 200 MININIMINEASIMUNINIU

1 75 IMEEMINIKESSUMMIN
E 1 50
a.
klEMMErninnfiniini
11111111111110111MMINO
9:125
D
c 100
G)

.5 90
iunuiiuiiiiiii
t 80
a)
70 IIMMEMMELMIIMMTOI
o
60 111111111110MONIMINI
50 111121141111.11111111111111
40

30 111111111111111111
10 20 40 60 100 200 MX/ 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/I (AAAc- EDTA)

in the two lowest Zones (I and II, Fig. 550). Low Cu values were relatively more frequent
for samples which came from Mara than from other Regions. More than two-thirds of
Mara samples show low (Zone I) Cu values indicating apparent shortage of Cu in this part
of the country.
Iron. The average analytical data on Fe contents of Tanzanian sample material given
in Fig. 31 and those of single sample pairs presented in Fig. 551 indicate that both the
averages and the variations of Tanzanian plant and soil Fe values are of the same order of
magnitude as those for the total international material in this study. Although several Fe
points fall outside the "normal" range (Zone III) these are not in such extreme positions
that severe disorders due to Fe should be expected.
Manganese. The non-significant plant Mnsoil Mn correlation (Fig. 552) becomes
highly significant when he DTPA soil Mn values are corrected for pH (Fig. 553). No low
(Zones I and II) Mn values were recorded from Tanzanian samples but some relatively
high Mn values were measured from samples which came from sites with acid soils. These
were somewhat more frequent for samples from Tanga and Singida than from other
Regions.
Molybdenum. In the "international Mo fields" Tanzania stands c/early on the high side
(Figs 15 and 20). However, the ranges of variation of Tanzanian plant and soil Mo values
are exceptionally wide and both very low and very high Mo contents were recorded (Figs
554 and 555). Low (Zone I and II) Mo values occurred in samples from several Regions
but were relatively more frequent in samples from sites with acid soils in Ruvuma,
Mtwara, Morogoro and Dodoma. Almost all high (Zone IV and V) Mo values were
obtained from Arusha and Kilimanjaro samples from sites where the soils are alkaline
or only slightly acid.
Zinc. The Tanzanian national averages for plant and soil Zn correspond to the
respective international mean values placing Tanzania at the centres of the "international
 398

2000 Fig. 552. Regression of Mn content

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
1000 1111111111111111111
iirsawiwnii=wimmanii..
OMM11mmoimiNZNION111 extractable soil Mn (x), Tanzania.
800
satrawrirmamEmn=enunnimm
600 111=1111MMANIE011111111=
E 400 umannamminmimomm
Q. 111111111MMIIIIMMENINIIIIMINI
300
200 INII).1111111=1111111511itillIS
.c

o 100 rri4wwzz4frimignimpiammli.
80
60 11 3111 47A161:111111r`
111==MwEINEINIIMPPIMINNIMPIIMMEM
11=1/01.1111MVIIIIIIII
"do

40
30
20

lo
8
'11===1111=0
11111111111E111111111111
111IMMIIII111
11.11111i41=2.1117aMMEMEN MWM
maz
111 =IIIMMIMINNOINi.1MICZMMINEN
234 6810 20 30 40 60 80100 200 300
Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)

2000 Fig. 553. Regression of Mn content

Mn of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
800
1000 MN
Nr11119111111111111
!PE71.7.111=1"ru.MM=11111111
MIdElgWEEM3/1.1=LIWEEIIMMIIMOININ extractable soil Mn corrected for pH
OMMMEMENImIMMINMEMM11=1MIMII11 (x), Tanzania.
E 600 111WMINT4ThlinliniMENFORECIMMEMMErriii
0- 400 9
"E; 300
200 !UlIIIIlI!IIIIUUIII
't 100 egg
80
60 NIIbamPCIVINIF121MmommaniMIMMnallIMI
o
40 111111MMEIPEMIMINIMIIIIMM=M1111
30
PP"
20

10
Itimmnlmm
IleaMINNI
IM=IMMEMII
===II
MIEMMEEMINIMIlri%TaMUMEN NIM=MMETU
=MMICLEI
2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100 200300 600
pi-l-corrected Mn in soil,mg/t fDTPA)

Zn fields" (Figs 41 and 43). As in the cases of most other nutrients, the variations in Zn
contents are very wide (Figs 556 and 557). The results obtained by either of the extraction
methods (DTPA and pH-corrected AAAc-EDTA) show a good correlation with the
plant Zn analyses, but the former method gives relatively somewhat higher Zn values
than the latter, especially at low Zn levels, i.e. more than twice as many plant Zn
AAAc-EDTA Zn points fall in Zone I than in the case of DTPA extraction.
Nevertheless, both methods give quite clear indications of a shortage of Zn at many
locations in Tanzania. The lowest Zn values were measured from samples of Mwanza,
Shinyanga, Singida, and Mara while most of the high Zn samples came from Kilimanjaro,
Tanga and Iringa Regions.
 399
Fig. 554. Regression of Mo content of glinlign=a1MMIMISTM
pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium 6
oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
(x), Tanzania. 3
2
E
D.
111111111111111111111111
1INIMEMMUM=Mm71=11
111111WPISCIUMMUSW:M=
MEMINIMMIMMEMIMISSIIMIN111111Md

MMMMUNiniiiZSIVSMMMUMM
11111EMPRIMENIMININIII

MIWM/MMPdtfillAIMMIMIMMINOMMIMINIENNWIIMA.
NO/MIinliMEMINIIIMiMMIN=M11MENEMMEni.
.06 WEINEngain MilIMMIMMEM
.03
.02

01 11111111.11111111
.01 .02 .03 .06 .1 2 .3 S 1 23
Mo n soil, mg/ (Ao-oA)

Fig. 555. Regression of Mo content of NIN igiMiNLINimmi

EMPJ11111MEINIMOIIIMIIIII
=mama MINE
pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected 6
Mo WIIIMEMNIII1171117114 MIIIIMMINNMEN
Lo

A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x), misunitinnumbikummon'"37msturnmul

Tanzania. 3 121321111113141;151212111.111
2 MEIN r°g

o_
1 11111111111111111011111111
111=1MIENMMIOINMNIIIMMINW1001141MMIRIIIMI,
INEMIIMMIIIIMME=IMMININIMMEMIERMEMIMAIIIIKIN
V, .6
NIMINEHIIIINMENINNIIMMIIMIWAROMPI
1111111111111=11111111111/111111.1.21131111,
o .3 1111111111111111111111111111111Ezionow
w .2
o
o
.1 11111110111191111111110
LIEILIOIWM=E61211121 1=1=16=111111
.06 MMIIINUNIMMENIIMIN
UUIIIIId1U II 11111111111111
.03
.02

.01 111111111111.111111
.006 .01 .02.03 06 1 .1 .2 .3 .6 3
pH- corrected MO in soil, mg/I (A0-0A)

9.6.4 Summary

None of the soils sampled from Tanzania for this study could be called a "typical
Tanzanian" soil since soils varied greatly in all properties examined. However, soils with
coarse to medium texture, moderate acidity, medium organic matter content, and low to
medium CEC predominated.
400
200 Fig. 556. Regression of Zn content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA extract-
able soil Zn (x), Tanzania.
100
90
80
70
E 60
°- 50
o
.2 40

30

20

Nio

10
9
8
7
6

.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100

Zri in soil, mg /I (DTPA)

20
1,1, Fig. 557. Regression of Zn content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH
Il
.4goolummmouzal I I (x), Tanzania.
¡
) ......ffil Emoceak.

-m
ilMi 1111=11111111114

Iii MI "Ilm
)111111MEN.E"1=
iV EllmilMifiN
1 II= NAN NI I 1
we
:

MN 1

11111111Millillik.ilii I
111111Pit II I

6
vEta
11411111111011111
mil i wrrias.lowI
ism
um
Iiiii
. . . .8 1
'Ll"IiIIIII
3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
2
pH-corrected Zn in soil, mg/l (AAA.-EarA)
iu ,,,

Wide variations are characteristic also for the contents of all macronutrients, but on
average the N, Mg, and Ca contents of soils are slightly on the low side while P and K
contents are on the high side compared to other countries in this study.
The analytical data of the six micronutrients studied indicate that the most likely
micronutrient problems in the country are those caused by shortage of Cu, Zn, B and Mo.
 401

9.7 Zambia

9.7.1 General

The Zambian sample material consisting of 46 maize and respective soil samples was
collected from the Central and Southern Provinces and effectively covers the maize
growing areas of the country (Fig. 558). A great majority (41) of the sampled soils were
classified as Nitosols. Two soils were classified as Arenosols and the remaining three as a
Ferralsol, a Fluvisol and a Gleysol.

26 27 28° 29°

SAM F TA

REPU LIC OF I
.-----
GHILIL4[70-1-90WE)
0 \...-9.-^e-9,4. ti

ZAMBIA CH3GOL is.,

(CENTRAL ANO SOUTHERA; PART)

L"'N
!COLA() ',.,,,
13°
0 5 30 60 0

...- (..'
48969
4:58

A 48950

98951
o.
o 98964
o A "t 'AE :876956,24 8 e e
I- 48953

469,7i
'? ,,,,,,,,e9/9
48957
41"9 tA 48966
48970 4 956
15° - 48954
1 48965, 48962
A 48973 98951

LUSAKA
O

48967

4899 48975 A

fEJ .
482.74619774A 1189
48978A
A 48979- 4841
"V 4:995

18982
48983
489135-98987

r
48988

17° K°4849/ril9 7
48989
4TA° 48991

je 48993
A 48992

Li G TONE
/
°
18
25 2S 27 . e

Fig. 558. Sampling sites in Zambia.

402

About two-thirds of the soils are coarse textured (TI < 30) and one-third have a
medium texture (Fig. 559). The soil pH varies from 4.2 to 7.1 but acid soils predominate
and the national mean pH is the second lowest (after Sierra Leone) among the 30 countries
in this study. The national mean organic matter content is also among the lowest and that
of CEC the absolute lowest recorded in this study. The values of electrical conductivity,
CaCO3 equivalent, and sodium content are also low (Appendixes 3 and 4).
Zambia internat. Zambia Intern'
n.45 3764 = 46 3783
13.27 LL 5.02 6.54
20
00.11 16 004 .73 1.12
m,n 11 min - 4.10 3.62
1300 55 92 300 .7.14 8,56

20

ai
o
u_

d'd
10 3 0 40 50 63 /5 50 90
TEXTURE INDEX pH (Ca II.12)

Zambia InternCt Zambia InternOt

r 45 3779 n= 45 3777
5. 8 1.2 -;2 11.4 27.3
t, .4 1.2 -432 6.2
min.= .2 min.. 3.4
6498.= 0-0 39.1 802.4 28.2 99 S

Fig. 559. Frequency distributions of

texture, pH, organic carbon content,
and cation exchange capacity in soils of
Zambia (columns). Curves show the
. 15 3.2 5.4 129 25 8 16 32
international frequency of the same
ORGANIC C,% CEC, me/100g characters.

9.7.2 Macronutrients

The average total nitrogen content of Zambian soils is the second lowest (after India) in the
international scale (Fig. 6), but the N contents of maize are of the average international
level (Fig. 560). This is because almost all sampled crops were heavily fertilized with
nitrogen (Appendix 5).
The contents of NaHCO3 extractable soil phosphorus are of the average international
level but since the sampled crops were rather heavily fertilized with phosphates the P
contents of maize are relatively high (Figs 7, 561 and Appendix 5).
The exchangeable potassium contents of Zambian soils vary considerably but are
generally low and several very low values are included (Figs 8 and 562). Although
moderate dressings of potassium fertilizers were applied to the sampled crops (Appendix 5)
the K contents of maize remain at a very low level.
The Zambian national averages for exchangeable calcium and magnesium contents are
among the lowest in this study (Figs 9, 10, 563 and 564). The Mg contents of maize are
also relatively low but in relation to soil Ca the Ca contents of maize are high. As pointed
out in Section 2.2.4 (Figs 12 and 14 and related text) plants seem to absorb these elements
easily from coarse textured soils with low CEC and these properties are typical of Zambian
soils.
 403

40
Zambia Internat. Zambia Internat.
5= 45 5=1958
40 n. 45 1967
35 Zambia Internat. 30 - 0.2.1 3.1
7= 3.16 7,3.14 rim 45 1967 is = 0.5 1.0
ts, .41 OS. .87 C 8..40 .33 Min, 0.9 0.6
S 30 min.= 2.29 min., .88 o s4. .09 .10 O 25 _ max.= 3.2 6.7
m08., 3.94 max.= 6.51 30 min...19 .05
max.= .59 1.04
25 o) o-
20
2-
o
1.1.1 15

o
15
o
Li]
cc /0
u-
u_

3 4 5 6 2 .3 .4 .5 .6 4 5 6
N content of maize, % P content of inaize,% K content of maize,%
0

70 Zambia Internot
Zambia Internat. 5 n=
7= 20.8
45 1967
22.5
35 Zambia Internet
60 n= 45. 1958 65.20.4 33.0 n. 45 1967
ii - g=.073 .135 min.= 2.8 0.1 = 145 330
C in =.035 .088 ....a. 30 mox.=114.5 656.0 rs = 202 356
6., sin. =027 .008 mino 18 18
0 50 max.,..180 1.657 max. .1272 5598
L. 25

a.
CL 40
>- <>3 20

z0
o
U-I 20

II-
10

2.5 5 10 20 40 80 160 320 640 60 100 00

.005 01 .0 .04 .08 .16 .32 64 1.28

N 'n maize soils,% P in maize soils, mg/I K in maize soils, mg/I

Fig. 560. Nitrogen, Zambia. Fig. 561. Phosphorus, Zambia. Fig. 562. Potassium, Zambia.

Zambia Internat.
Zambia Internat
Figs 560-564. Frequency distribu-
n
.48
=
S5 = .14
45 1967
.47
.20
n= 45
=.108
1967
.251
tions of nitrogen, phosphorus,
min.= .27
max.= .82
.09
188 4) 30
=.054
min =.092
.119
.036
potassium, calcium and magne-
O. 25
RICIX = 369 1.125
sium in original maize samples
and respective soils (columns) of
Zambia. Curves show the inter-
national frequency of the same
characters.

Ca content of maize % Mg content of maize,%

Zambia Internat.
n. 45 1967
55= 665 3450 Zambia Intermit
55. 570 2815 35 n= 45 1967
min. 10 10 0.120 446
mox .2550 17995 05= 132 462
= 1 1

max.= 466 5490

0 WO 200, 400 800 1500 3200 5400 12800 25 25 50 100 200 400 800 1850 3200 6400
Ca in maize soils, mg/I Mg in maize soils, mg/I

Fig. 563. Calcium, Zambia. Fig. 564. Magnesium, Zambia.

404

9.7.3 Micronutrients

Boron. The B contents of Zambian soils and pot-grown wheats vary within quite narrow
limits (Figs 565 and 566). Almost all plant and soil B values are lower than the respective
mean values for the total international material in this study, and the location of Zambia
in the international scale (Figs 22 and 25) is low. Although no extremely low B contents
were recorded in the Zambian samples, the analytical data indicate B shortage at several
places in the country. B deficiency on cotton in Zambia was discovered in 1966 by
Rothwell and co-workers (Anon. 1981). During recent years B fertilizers have commonly

10 I
1=1111MIZVIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIMIIIII111.111111111111111111=110111/11ff
8 ALOICAPROMUMNIfirCrffinVMMEIMMONINIM
M11111.6.111111.1111111.1111==.1 II. IN
NM Iiiii lill
6 .11LIE7'11,01VAIR hi1nillarillill MIN Oil
5
4
1

wan _0.25 + ci I 073 I .1 ug

E3 Egg 87 + 2.0 III" , 2 63 1 . I MI Aill
WIN
I

0-
ME 111111

m
h.
1:wil
inIRIIMS1111
Wliumm
1616141111111111111
mulrillt:269:=1111
Mmil Pr' 0101111MEMMINII
,

Mill Al 11=1.111111MMi
EIMMONii

Milliiiii
11111111111*Wil
IMMIMMORIMMLIMMIM EMMIlit
iiiiiigili
Illillibl
IIIIIIIIIIII i Fig. 565. Regression of B content of

1
I
.1 .2
1iiii [11111
.3 .4.5.6 .81.0 2
11,
3 4
III56 811
pot-grown wheat (y) on hot water
soluble soil B (x), Zambia. For details
of summarized international back-
B in soil, mg/I (Hot w sol.) ground data, see Chapter 4.

100
r't ei MI i rare=IN "..111.11. MIN
80
lf
%

PIMIIIIIKIIIMI
60 n- '''alllaaall V
50
:is-071t ie
....1

40 5 4 11... .KIL
E
.3O 111l0
20 1 1
il : .,58.=
.

mi
1,gli,, dl
lit 4 liii
.

a)
_c gill
.
Iiimpo.
so to 6 Imoort_
now- ...
MAIMIP1111111111111M1== MIR MP NIP
ITRIIIMMIMPUI gap
1
IIIIII 11111111M111111111:r.10"
MS limaimmaal 1 NIIMMIIIVII
111111111111

INEMIrgill':IN Mai Ern

uum11111111111 I Mill
Ill.08:1 .2
NMI 2 3 456 8 10
.3 .4.5.6 810
1111113 Fig. 566. Regression of B content of
pot-grown wheat (y) on CEC-corrected
C EC -corrected Bin soil. mg/1 (Hot w sot) (hot water soluble) soil B (x), Zambia.
 405

been applied, often together with insecticides.

Copper. Zambia falls among the low-Cu countries in the "international Cu fields"
(Figs 27 and 29). More than half of the Zambian sample pairs fall in the two lowest Cu
Zones (I and II) and most of these are in Zone I (Figs 567 and 568) indicating apparent
Cu shortages. Although no certain low-Cu areas could be geographically defined many of
the samples lowest in Cu came from the Kalomo, Mkushi and Kabwe areas.
Iron. On average, the Fe contents of Zambian plants are of the average international
level but the AAAc-EDTA extractable soil Fe values are low (Figs 569 and 31).
Nevertheless, although several sample pairs fall in the low Fe Zones (I and II), indicating

22

20 zail1111111111111111111111111111111
18 1111MNPI350,1111119111111111
E
Q. (0.06 0611:1311111111111
o
w14 1111111111111111111111111111/1
12 111111111111110111111111111111/111
111111111111111.mmardmi
38 111111111111IIMMILVIIII1I
(-) 6 1111111111111INMENIIIM111111
L.

Fig. 567. Regression of Cu content of 2

pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium 111111111111ENIMMIllii
6 810
acetate-EDTA extractable soil Cu (x), .2 .6 .810.4 20 40 6080
2 4
Zambia. Cu in soil, mg/I (AAAc- EDTA)

22

20 NM interning! NM
18 DAMN 411111111111111N3

12 11111111111111
IMINSIMINI
111011111111pOilM11111110
Imosindommtummi
Fig. 568. Regression of Cu content of 2 gintiostemmoun
pot-grown wheat (y) on organic
carbon-corrected (AAAc-EDTA extr.)
O minnummompammoua
6 810
.440 60 100
.6 .810 2 4 20
soil Cu (x), Zambia. Org.C-corrected soil CU,mg/l (AAAc-EDTA)
406
3 00
2 75
2 50
reramonpernmom Fig. 569. Regression of Fe contents of
pot-grown wheat (y) on acid ammonium

200
175
225
!-Igralitrair
\ n411111111131151 iiiii
acetate-FDTA extractable soil Fe (x),
Zambia.

E1 50 IIUUIIIIIIUIIflIN
.125
9.-
o
I"IIlIuIlIIIuuIIuII MI
-5 1 00 MIMI 111151
111111
z- 90 =LI 11111111=11 IIII
80 INIKE111111111 111111111
.1) 70
1111111111111111=alpflall
oo ME111111111.MMI
60
50 11111111111=1111
40 Milo ,
II
30 II
1111111E1111111MORS I Mil
10 . 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000
Fe in soil, mg/l fAAAc-EDTA)

possible response to Fe of crops sensitive to Fe deficiency, a shortage of Fe is not likely

to be among the primary micronutrient problems of the country.
Manganese. The Zambian mean for plant Mn content is higher than that of any other
country in this study (Figs 33, 37, 570 and 571). It is five times that of the international
mean and 25 times that of the lowest national mean (Malta). However, the Zambian
national mean for DTPA extractable soil Mn is only the eighth highest, but moves up to
second place when corrected for soil pH. Simultaneously, the plant Mnsoil Mn correla-
tion is improved from non-significant (r = 0.266 n.s.) to a highly significant (r 0.607***)
level. More than half (55 %) of the Zambian plant-soil sample pairs fall in the highest
Mn Zone (V) and only 30 percent of those show "normal" (Zone III) Mn contents
(Fig. 571). According to these analytical data, excess of Mn is a factor which may cause
disorder of plant growth in many parts of Zambia. The samples containing most Mn came
from geographically scattered areas where very acid soils, pH(CaC12) < 5, existed.
Molybdenum. Unlike Mn, the Mo contents of Zambian plants are low. The national
average is only one-third of the international mean and Zambia occupies one of the lowest
positions in the "international Mo fields" (Figs 15 and 20). When pH correction of the
A0-0A extractable soil Mo values takes place, the negative non-significant plant Mo-
soil Mo correlation (r = 0.004 n.s.) becomes positive and highly significant (r =
0.656***, Figs 572 and 573). At the same time the Zambian national average for soil Mo
decreases from 0.105 to 0.042 mg/1 and Zambia's position in the "international Mo fields"
moves closer to the international regression line. Half (50 %) of the plant-soil sample
pairs are within the lowest Mo Zone (I), 9 percent in Zone II and 41 percent in the
"normal" (Zone III) Mo range (Fig. 573). Problems due to the low Mo status of Zambian
soils are likely to arise, especially if crops are grown which are sensitive to Mo deficiency,
such as nitrogen fixing legumes.
 407

Fig. 570. Regression of Mn content 2000 Ilualromemominiiimeli

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Mn (x), Zambia. IIMPSIIIIMPUME I
riLIWIlailtWmilMilia==
1000 st o

800
E111111111111111=11111111111111111
600
liMMEMMANOMI NERIVEMENCESINIM
rFpSCIEEIIIIIMMIIIIIIIIIEUIEIIIEIMIIIIIIIBIIII
11110441 9
E 400
a 300 iuuin
u r - u -to
Ill
14G) 200 Int not imiii 111PNIMIRIN
L

.15 100
80
1
;ii L.&
11111111111111111
IIropmairaliazzormriermI
liniarmmin=16.ralraN=Ma 7,
I
60 1111111111111=1111EMIIIIIMMIIIMMINIiii
40 iiiiiiiMINIMIEMMEMOMMEEMEMME
2 30 II
20 IIiIIhIiIiIIIHIi
MOW 111111M1

10
a
IiiIIIflIHIIIIIIUII
11111111MIIMIIIMIIIIM9111MMIIIM
EMSBEINALMErineurnantriMMItal
MMIIIMI

2 3 4 6 810 20 30 40 6080100 200 300

Mn in soil, mg/t fLTPAI

Fig. 571. Regression of Mn content 2000

of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
extractable soil Mn corrected for pH 1000
PIi1i.Ìii!T
(x), Zambia. 800
E 600
2-1-

14
a)
300
3 200
o
400

Arlo
.1.1Lampeam

Ind
Ó 100
80
oo 60
40
30
20

10
8

2 3 4 6 810 2C 3060 60 100 200 300 600

pH-corrected Mn in soil, mg/I (DTPA)

Samples with low Mo contents occuring in geographically scattered sites with acid soils,
pH(CaC12) < 5, are usually combined with high Mn contents. Obviously, in the long run,
raising the soil pH by liming would be the best means of increasing the availability of Mo
as well as reducing the risk of Mn toxicity.
Zinc. Irrespective of the method used for determining extractable soil Zn, the
distributions of Zambian soil and plant Zn contents are much alike (Figs 574 and 575)
and in both cases the plant Znsoil Zn correlations are good. Almost all plant-soil Zn
values are within the "normal" (Zone III) range, but many of them show such a low Zn
content that disorders due to Zn shortage are likely (see also Section 2.7).
408
CJIMMITMENNIMIMMWENNImmwm Fig. 572. Regression of Mo content
6 of pot-grown wheat (y) on ammonium
TrEFORMEZEIni oxalate-oxalic acid extractable soil Mo
3 cç (x), Zambia.
2

uIIIIIIIiiIIIIII
m,nmaimm
MMENIZIMMIELM=1111=1
i.. 1 =MEE

monomat.Prommun

2
.06
M1=1
INI1110111101111
11A ll=MIMINI
111111111111111111116.
=MMEMIN1=rn
Ifflk.UINUMMI EMMEMOMMINEW

.03
.02

ifi
.01
.01 .02 .03 .06 . .2 .3 .6 1 23
Mo n soil, mg/ (A0-0A)

Fig. 573. RegressiOn of Mo content of

6 MENIII6111111
111111IMMIIIIIMENIBENIIIIMEEREM131111111 EN
pot-grown wheat (y) on pH-corrected
A0-0A extractable soil Mo (x),
3 31111211111101210gE11111 Zambia.
2 Yr 111
E
a.
O. 1
1111111111111111111kh1111111PAII
o
G) .6
111=111111=i1MIIIMMIMMINIIIMil
ó .3 wounimimmunipmpirommon
c2. INIMIMEMENIMMEOMMI.19
"E".
o
oo .1 11111111111111111INIMP-
.06 mikera-aa,pasNomm=1.....11
.03
.02

.01 11111111111
1.1 .006 .01 .02 .03 06 . .2 .3
Ill
.6 1 23
II
pH - corrected MO in soil, mg/I (A0-0A)

9.7.4 Summary

Most of the Zambian soils in this study are acid, coarse to medium textured, low in
organic matter, and have a low cation exchange capacity.
The levels of macronutrients (N, K, Ca and Mg) are usually low but that of P
corresponds to the average international level. The micronutrient content of Zambian soils
 409
mom!
Fig. 574. Regression of Zn content
of pot-grown wheat (y) on DTPA
200
1. MI 110111=111110

extractable soil Zn (x), Zambia.

100 Il
90 11.
80
i1111'
ii
=EN
70
E 60
50
o 11.111111111111111111(
Ca;

o 20
40

30
iIMPLOgilt..
I
¡Mil ini
'

1111111111111111111
N
10
9
11111111111P
fm."1:111111167MILIuMommul
8
7 15dWIMIIIIIIMI 111111MINK1111111011
6 1111 111111111111= IIIIIIIIMMIllion
IIIIIIMINEIIIII ni 111111111=111111111111
. .3 .4 .6 .81 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
Zr1 in soil, mg /I (DTPA)

Fig. 575. Regression of Zn content of 200 u I

pot-grown wheat (y) on AAAc-EDTA

Ill
3
3
extractable soil Zn corrected for pH 4 8_

(x), Zambia.
el dill
2 lo
100
90 SiltighIMIMMMIIIIIINIMI
80 IIIIIIMIIME1111511111

E 50 M
70
60 II I Ili
II
FRO
IF I Ili
1

Viiiiilli
,Iiiilill
,
40
o
30
o
20 k Ai 1.11 1111
4<-7;

o
o
LII ,,ogis
10 E 11111
WEENIE
9 Emo INIPIININ
8
7 EM III IMMIIIIIIIM
6 MEE II WEENIE
111 II Lk II II IMMEINEE
.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
pH-corrected Zn in soi mg/I (AAAc-EDTA)

and plants varies considerably depending on the element. Only the contents of Zn are
usually of the "normal" international level, but at several locations shortage of Zn is
likely. Those of B and Fe are somewhat on the low side. Very low Mo and Cu and very
high Mn values occur more frequently in Zambia than in most other countries.
 411

10. Summary for Part II

The national data for each of the 30 participating countries on the most important soil
characteristics, macronutrient contents of the original indicator plants (wheat and maize)
and respective soils, as well as the micronutrient contents of pot-grown wheats and
respective soils are presented in graphical forms in such a way that in the background of
each graph the respective data for the whole international material are shown.
Analytical data for soil micronutrients are based on hot water extraction (B), acid
ammonium acetate-EDTA extraction (Cu, Fe), DTPA extraction (Mn, Zn) and
ammonium oxalate-oxalic acid extraction (Mo). Soil B values corrected for CEC, soil Cu
values corrected for soil organic carbon content, Mo and Mn values corrected for pH,
and AAAc-EDTA Zn values corrected for pH are also presented.
The nutrient analytical data for each country are briefly discussed and compared with
the relevant international data as a whole and in the light of the soil characteristics typical
of the country or area in question.
Data on four important soil characteristics are summarized by countries in Table 29,
where the limits for the three categories for each characteristic are such that of the whole
international soil sample material approximately 25 percent falls into the "low", 50
percent into the "medium" and 25 percent into the "high" class.
Coarse texture is typical of soils sampled from most African countries (except Ethiopia)
and the majority of soils of Sri Lanka, India and Belgium fall into the same class. The
highest percentage of fine textured soils was recorded from Brazil but soils of this type are
also common in most Near East countries, Ethiopia and Thailand.
Low soil pH is most characteristic for Sierra Leone where 92 percent of the sampled soils
have pH lower than 5.6. Relatively high percentages of acid soils were recorded from many
other African countries as also in Finland, Brazil, Argentina, New Zealand and Korea.
High soil alkalinity is most common in Near East countries, Pakistan and India.
The content of organic matter of soils varies considerably from one country to another.
Soils of low organic matter content are especially common in India, Pakistan, Zambia and
Nigeria while the soils sampled from New Zealand, Finland, Sierra Leone, Brazil, Argen-
tina, Ethiopia and Thailand are generally rich in organic matter.
Low cation exchange capacity of soils is most typical for countries where the soils are
coarse textured and/or low in organic matter such as Zambia, India, Nigeria, Sri Lanka,
Ghana and Pakistan, while fine texture and/or high organic matter content generally
contribute to high soil CEC, as in Egypt, New Zealand, Ethiopia, Thailand, Lebanon and
Syria.
The macronutrient contents of soils of the 30 countries are summarized in Table 30
using the same low (25 %) -medium (50 %) -high (25 %) criteria as in Table 29.
The relative frequency of low total nitrogen content of soils is highest in countries with
soils of low organic matter content (India, Pakistan, Zambia and Nigeria) and conversely,
the high N soils are typically found in countries where soils have a high organic matter
content (New Zealand, Finland, Argentina, Ethiopia, Hungary and Brazil).
412

Table 29. Relative frequencies (percentages) of low, medium and high values of soil texture (TI), pH, organic
carbon content and cation exchange capacity in 30 countries.

Country TI pH(CaC12) Org. C., % CEC, me/100 g

low med. high low med. high low med. high low med. high
<33 33-55 >55 <5.6 5.6-7.6 >7.6 <0.8 0.8-1.5 >1.5 <16 16-36 >36
Belgium 56 44 44 56 17 61 22 27 73
Finland 31 29 40 76 24 2 98 3 71 26
Hungary 10 68 22 12 73 15 6 46 48 5 71 24
Italy 19 50 31 5 83 12 6 78 16 14 69 16
Malta 4 84 12 88 12 80 20 100
New Zealand 6 61 32 63 37 100 18 82

Argentina 3 97 68 32 34 66 90 10
Brazil 4 20 76 75 25 4 24 72 7 76 17
Ecuador no data 20 73 7 15 46 38 36 55 9
Mexico 18 46 36 7 48 45 41 56 3 13 47 39
Peru 46 43 11 10 83 7 13 51 36 6 83 11

India 58 34 8 1 39 60 82 18 76 15 10
Korea, Rep. 47 51 2 53 47 11 72 17 36 64
Nepal 28 68 4 32 68 32 56 12 24 74 2
Pakistan 13 85 2 13 87 72 28 0 51 48 0
Philippines 18 55 27 36 64 19 55 25 4 53 43
Sri Lanka 62 38 48 52 14 76 10 67 33
Thailand 6 38 56 12 84 4 1 45 54 2 41 57

Egypt 6 26 68 14 86 5 86 10 5 12 83
Iraq 3 63 35 27 73 47 49 4 5 85 11
Lebanon 38 62 62 38 25 75 44 56
Syria 13 34 53 63 37 32 47 21 5 42 53
Turkey 10 57 33 3 52 46 31 64 5 7 59 34

Ethiopia 4 33 63 51 48 1 34 66 20 80
Ghana 67 33 35 65 10 67 24 66 33 1

Malawi 47 50 3 69 31 12 58 30 49 48 3
Nigeria 73 20 7 46 52 2 54 37 10 74 22 4
Sierra Leone 62 36 2 92 8 6 94 24 74 2
Tanzania 46 33 21 18 78 4 27 32 41 41 36 23
Zambia 70 30 78 22 59 35 7 80 20

High NaHCO3 extractable phosphorus contents of soils occur most commonly in

countries with traditionally high use of phosphates where the soil P reserves have been
built up during past decades. These include most European countries, New Zealand, Korea
and Lebanon. Soils of low P content are most typical for Pakistan, Ghana, Iraq and India.
High exchangeable (CH3COONH4) potassium contents were recorded most frequently
from soils of Argentina, Egypt, Mexico and Ethiopia. Low K values again were relatively
most common in Nepal, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Zambia, Nigeria, Sri Lanka and India.
Unlike in the case of phosphorus, in countries with the traditionally highest K fertilizer
consumption (New Zealand, Belgium, Hungary, Finland, Korea, Italy, Sri Lanka,
Lebanon and Brazil) the soils are not generally higher in exchangeable K than soils in
other countries. This is apparently due to the high uptake of K by plants preventing the
build-up of soil K reserves.
Exchangeable (CH3COONH4) calcium and magnesium contents of soils are generally
 413

Table 30. Relative frequencies (percentages) of low, medium and high values of nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, calcium and magnesium in soils of 30 countries,

Country N, % P, mg/1 K, trtg/1 Ca, mg/1 Mg, mg/1

low med. high. low med. high low mcd. high low med. high low med. high
<.083 .083 >.16 <6 6-25 >25 <140 140 >450 1500 190 190 >550
,16 450 <1500 6000 >6000 550
Belgium 2 93 5 100 14 86 59 41 100
Finland 10 90 7 93 22 76 1 55 44 1 68 22 10
Hungary 4 37 59 38 62 17 77 6 6 56 38 18 60 23
Italy 3 65 33 10 51 39 31 50 19 8 50 42 38 46 17
Malta 80 20 4 96 64 36 28 72 100
New Zealand 100 5 37 58 21 42 37 26 66 8 53 11 37

Argentina 29 71 1 64 35 2 98 7 93 0 99 1

Brazil 3 39 58 27 70 3 46 51 3 79 21 49 49 1

Ecuador 13 38 50 13 67 20 7 87 7 40 60 27 40 33
Mexico 34 62 4 19 64 17 4 30 66 9 53 38 5 41 54
Peru 9 43 49 16 54 29 30 63 7 7 66 27 19 69 13

India 73 27 46 49 5 51 47 2 25 67 8 24 60 16
Korea, Rep. 11 62 27 32 67 45 55 76 24 44 56
Nepal 22 62 16 26 48 26 92 8 52 48 48 52
Pakistan 57 43 0 61 36 2 25 69 5 0 98 2 11 81 8
Philippines 14 57 29 18 60 22 45 45 10 21 62 17 15 32 53
Sri Lanka 10 86 5 38 48 14 52 48 76 24 62 33 5
Thailand 1 60 39 38 55 7 33 61 6 11 43 45 18 56 26

Egypt 6 83 11 10 72 18 1 22 78 22 78 5 95
Iraq 35 60 5 50 48 2 1 83 16 25 75 42 58
Lebanon 31 69 6 31 63 13 63 25 12 88 6 63 31
Syria 26 55 18 29 50 21 3 55 42 ")1 79 3 24 74
Turkey 39 55 6 27 65 8 7 67 27 1 44 56 11 55 34

Ethiopia 13 26 61 45 44 11 3 31 65 25 54 21 7 57 36
Ghana 19 54 27 53 45 2 74 26 81 19 56 40
Malawi 20 69 11 9 43 48 34 58 8 56 44 54 42 4
Nigeria 57 37 7 33 50 18 55 38 7 84 14 2 70 24 6
Sierra Leone 50 50 26 68 6 70 30 -- 94 6 94 6
Tanzania 35 47 18 41 28 30 3 52 44 57 39 4 32 48 19
Zambia 62 36 2 9 65 26 63 33 4 91 9 76 24

low in African countries (except Ethiopia), Belgium, Finland, Brazil, Korea, Nepal and
Sri Lanka and high in Near East countries and Mexico. Several very low Mg values
indicating apparent deficiency were recorded particularly from Belgium, Zambia, Sierra
Leone, Sri Lanka, New Zealand and Finland.
To facilitate the comparison of the relative abundance of the six micronutrients in
different countries, the frequency distributions of analytical micronutrient data in five
zones are summarized in Table 31. The zone limits are based on both the plant and the soil
micronutrient contents (plant micronutrient content x soil micronutrient content) and
adjusted so that each of the two lowest Zones (I and II) contain 5 percent, the "normal"
Zone (III) 80 percent and the two highest Zones (IV and y) 5 percent each of the whole
international material (see the uppermost line in the Table). The zone limits are statistically
defined and therefore do not necessarily refer to critical deficiency of toxicity limits.
Especially for B and Zn, a considerable number of plant-soil analytical data falling in the
lower part of Zone IH would still be suspect of deficiency.
414

Table 31. Relative distributions (percentages) of the six micronutrients in five plant x soil content zones in
various countries. 1)

Zone Boron Copper Iron

Country ti----. I II III IV V I II III IV V I II III IV V
Whole material 3538 5 5 80 5 5 5 5 80 5 5 5 5 80 5 5

Belgium
Finland
Hungary
Italy
36
90
201
170
3
0
1

1
92
93
87
92
8
1

9
5
1

2
3
6 13
94
80
99
68
3
1

10
3

22
' 1 I
72

97
86
17
26
2
7
11
44
1

5
Malta 25 72 20 8 92 8 60 8 32
New Zealand 35 97 3 17 11 49 23 43 26 31

Argentina 208 99 0 0 4 19 77 95 3 3
Brazil 58 100 48 12 40 2 91 5 2
Mexico 242 2 74 12 13 2 3 93 1 0 27 15 57 0
Peru 68 1 3 87 7 1 1 1 93 3 1 3 90 6 1

India 258 12 8 68 6 6 97 2 1 3 9 74 4 11
Korea, Rep. 90 3 13 79 2 2 1 7 89 2 1 2 92 2 3
Nepal 35 46 23 31 3 89 9 71 9 20
Pakistan 237 2 1 75 11 11 97 3 0 1 8 88 1 1

Philippines 194 30 25 45 1 35 27 38 64 16 19
Sri Lanka 18 11 89 94 6 11 83 6
Thailand 150 10 13 77 3 1 91 2 2 4 3 86 3 4

Egypt 198 94 4 2 67 26 7 1 86 11
Iraq 150 3 3 45 13 36 99 1 2 7 91 1

Lebanon 16 100 100 13 88

Syria 38 3 76 16 5 3 95 3 8 13 79
Turkey 298 I 1 84 6 8 94 5 1 14 9 74 1 1

Ethiopia 125 4 6 90 21 6 74 1 90 6 4
Ghana 93 98 2 23 24 54 1 99
Malawi 97 9 14 76 7 6 86 1 4 93 2 1

Nigeria 153 11 14 75 12 20 67 1 5 12 81 2 1

Sierra Leone 48 2 98 69 21 10 4 92 4
Tanzania 163 1 88 9 2 14 9 73 2 2 6 7 81 3 2
Zambia 44 2 11 86 36 16 48 16 11 70 2

1) Extraction methods for soil micronutrients:

B: hot water extraction + CEC correction

Cu: AAAc-EDTA org. C correction
Fe: AAAc-EDTA
Mn: DTPA + pH correction
Mo: A0-0A + pH correction
Zn: DTPA

Although boron deficiency can be suspected at some locations in almost every country it
seems to be relatively most common in Far East countries, Nepal, Philippines, India and
Thailand as well as in Nigeria and Malawi. Problems due to excess B are most likely to
arise in Iraq, Mexico, Pakistan and Turkey, often at irrigated sites.
The analytical data on copper indicate that deficiency of this micronutrient is relatively
common in all African countries studied but also many soils of New Zealand and some
of Finland are low in available Cu. Elsewhere, shortage of Cu seems to be rare.
 415

Table 31 (cont.)

Zone Manganese Molybdenum Zinc

Country I II III IV V I II III IV V I II III IV V

Whole material 3538 5 5 80 5 5 5 5 80 5 5 5 5 80 5 5

Belgium 36 3 83 11 3 100 17 31 53
Finland 90 1 I 94 2 1 1 94 3 1 71 18 11

Hungary 201 4 4 85 3 3 1 3 93 1 1 96 2 1

Italy 170 12 9 79 2 85 7 6 3 4 82 5 6
Malta 25 80 16 4 80 16 4 20 36 44
New Zealand 35 91 3 6 9 29 63 60 34 6

Argentina 208 92 5 3 98 0 1 90 5 4
Brazil 58 2 47 19 33 45 26 29 84 7 9
Mexico 242 6 4 87 1 2 1 1 84 6 8 2 5 86 2 4
Peru 68 1 4 89 1 4 1 3 84 3 9 87 4 9

India 258 14 11 75 2 88 6 5 11 7 81 0 I
Korea, Rep. 90 8 6 66 7 14 4 10 81 2 2 78 9 13
Nepal 35 9 91 20 14 66 3 3 91 3

Pakistan 237 11 15 74 62 17 22 8 12 79 1

Philippines 194 1 I 80 12 7 3 9 85 1 3 1 80 11 8

Sri Lanka 18 72 11 17 6 94 83 11 6

Thailand 150 91 7 3 1 2 88 6 3 1 2 87 5 4

Egypt 198 8 13 79 86 13 1 2 95 1 2
Iraq 150 2 5 93 1 70 14 15 34 23 43 1

Lebanon 16 13 88 94 6 6 6 88
Syria 38 13 11 76 92 3 5 5 11 76 3 5
Turkey 298 / 5 92 0 2 92 2 4 17 18 64 1 1

Ethiopia 125 62 19 18 4 89 2 6 1 65 15 19
Ghana 93 80 12 9 16 22 62 2 95 2 1

Malawi 97 45 26 29 7 24 69 1 1 89 9
Nigeria 153 1 3 71 14 12 20 12 65 3 I 1 87 5 8
Sierra Leone 48 2 98 81 10 8 88 4 8
Tanzania 163 91 7 2 6 7 69 7 12 3 2 85 5 5
Zambia 44 30 16 55 50 9 41 2 95 2

Exceptionally high Cu values were frequently found in samples from the Philippines,
Brazil, Italy and Tonga') but only occasionally elsewhere.
Although the highest percentage of low (Zone I) iron values were recorded from Malta,
most of the lowest single plant x soil Fe values originated in Mexico and Turkey.
Indications of low Fe availability were also obtained occasionally from several other
countries.
Low availability of manganese is usually associated with alkaline soils and excess of
Mn with acid soils. The most probable cases of Mn deficiency are therefore to be found
in countries with soils of generally high pH. The highest percentage of low (Zone I) Mn
values were recorded from Malta where all sampled soils had a pH of 7.48 or higher.
Among other countries with a relatively high frequency of alkaline soils and high
probability of Mn deficiency are India, Pakistan, Syria, Italy, Egypt and Lebanon.
Indications of Mn deficiency were very rarely obtained from African countries, where

0 Tonga samples are included in New Zealand material.

416

acid soils predominate, and indeed in many of them an excess of Mn is a more likely
problem as it could be in other countries with acidic soils such as Brazil, Sri Lanka and
Korea.
Unlike Mn, a deficiency of molybdenum seems to be most widespread in countries with
acid soils such as most of the African countries, especially Sierra Leone, Zambia, Nigeria
and Ghana. Low Mo values were most frequently recorded also from samples from
Brazil, Nepal and New Zealand and high Mo values from samples obtained at irrigated
sites in Pakistan and Iraq.
According to the present analytical data deficiency of zinc can be suspected somewhere
in almost every country, Belgium and Malta being the most likely exceptions. It seems to
be most widespread in Iraq, Turkey, India and Pakistan but in several other countries such
as Syria, Lebanon, Mexico, Italy, Nepal, Tanzania and Thailand the data indicate some
shortages of Zn. High plant Zn x soil Zn values were recorded chiefly in samples from
Belgium, Malta, Korea and Ethiopia.
When interpreting the nutrient data by countries, attention has been drawn to certain
soil characteristics and other factors (such as texture, pH, organic matter content, CEC,
fertilization, varietal differences in original indicator plants and irrigation practices)
affecting the nutrient contents of soils and/or plants.
It should be stressed that the limited number of soil and plant samples collected
from the countries participating in this investigation impose a restriction on the
application of the findings. These findings cannot be regarded as being applicable to the
whole agricultural areas of a country, but rather should be considered as general guidelines
to draw attention to the nature of problems likely to arise and to the future work neéessary
to resolve them.

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 421

APPENDIX 1. Instructions (condensed) for taking plant and soil samples.

Selection of sampling sites:

The main wheat and maize growing areas of the country s'hould be included in such a way that samples
from the major soil types will be represented.
Areas where deficiencies of one or more trace elements are suspected or known to exist should be
included in proportion to the total area to be sampled.
To minimize the risk of contamination, sampling sites close to roads or other dusty places must not be
chosen.
The locations of sampling sites must be indicated on a suitabie large scale working map in such a way
that the exact sites can later be relocated easily. From these large scale working maps the sampling sites
and numbers should be transferred to srnall scale maps covering the whole country.

Plant sampling:
To avoid contamination by soil, plant samples must always be taken with clean hands before taking soil
samples.
Size of plant sample: not less than 350 g fresh material collected from various parts of the sampling plot
of about 10 X 10m.
Timing: Wheat samples should be taken at mid-tillering stage of the plant growth (i.e. for spring wheat
about 35-40 days after planting depending on weather conditions, for winter wheat the corresponding
stage of growth). Maize samples at 5-6 leaf stage (i.e. approximately 35-40 days after planting).
Plant part to be sampled: Wheat the upper half of the plant (use scissors). Maize two uppermost
fully expanded leaf blades of each plant.
Equipment: Clean hands, clean scissors, clean knife (rusted equipment should not be used).
Bags: Paper bags, which will be made available, shou/d be used when collecting the plant samples in the
field and during transportation from field to a laboratory (or to any clean dust-free room) for drying.
Every effort should be made to avoid contamination.
Drying: All plant samples must be air-dried in a dust-free room, or even oven-dried at 60-65 °C.
Milling: No milling should be done.

Soil sampling:
Equipment: Stainless steel soil bores (which will be made available) only should be used to avoid trace
element contamination due to equipment.
Sampling depth: Full plough layer (appr. 0-20 cm).
Size of the soil sample: 0.6 dm3, i.e. full pre-numbered carton box composed of a minimum of 6-10
subsamples collected from various parts of the plant-soil sampling plot of about 10 X 10 m.
Drying: Soil samples must be air-dried in a dust-free area.
Contamination: Every effort should be made to avoid contamination at all stages.
440

APPENDIX 5. Indicative data on fertilizer application to the original indicator crops in different
countries1).

Number of Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium

sites kg N/ha kg P/ha kg K/ha

Country Wheat Maize Wheat Maize Wheat Maize Wheat Maize

fields fields fields fields fields fields fields fields
Belgium 21 20 98 ± 21 118 ± 66 42 ± 9 45 ± 26 130 ± 29 122 ± 90
Finland 94 76 ± 24 43 ± 26 63 ± 19
Hungary 144 106 140 ± 74 136 ± 58 52 ± 55 52 ± 33 98 ± 96 104 ± 56
Italy 118 70 105 ± 66 186 ± 127 42 ± 29 51 ± 44 29 ± 31 80 ± 98
Malta 25 60 ± 0 26 ± 0 83 ± 0
New Zealand 14 24 9 ± 16 55 ± 67 16 ± 7 30 ± 29 7 ± 12 44 ± 25
Argentina 119 90 3 ± 14 6 ± 16 0±0 6 ± 18 0± 0 0± 0
Brazil 71 19 ± 11 49 ± 30 33 ± 18
Ecuador 16 44 ± 13 23 ± 8 13 ± 6
Mexico 100 147 122 ± 54 40 ± 49 9 ± 13 4± 7 1+5 0± 1

Peru 13 57 38 ± 35 46 ± 58 10 ± 13 8 ± 13 12 ± 19 9 ± 17
India 188 107 75 ± 51 106 ± 57 15 ± 15 18 ± 12 11 ± 20 9 ± 19
Korea, Rep. 50 50 100 ± 25 107 ± 31 31 ± 7 35 ± 14 58 ± 10 77 ± 80
Nepal 50 68 ± 70 15 ± 8 16 ± 20
Pakistan 156 86 58 ± 57 83 ± 90 9 ± 15 12 ± 29 0+3 2± 8
Philippines 197 8 ± 19 1±4 I+4
Sri Lanka 21 24 ± 26 10 ± 9 14 ± 12
Thailand 150 0±0 0±0 0±0
Egypt 100 100 129 ± 31 161 ± 39 9±7 2+6 0+0 0±0
Iraq 119 31 5+9 27 ± 24 2±4 10 ± 10 1±3 0± I
Lebanon 16 53 ± 99 33 ± 54 0+0
Syria 20 18 52 ± 59 117 ± 87 7 ± 11 7 ± 12 0± 0 0±0
Turkey 249 50 34 ± 30 61 ± 50 18 ± 13 6 + II 0± I 0±0
Ethiopia 54 71 11 + 10 7 ± 11 10 ± 10 5±7 0+0 0±0
Ghana 93 48 ± 10 11 ± 11 14 ± 12
Malawi 100 81 ± 63 17 + 14 II ± 26
Nigeria 42 103 85 ± 27 13 ± 23 17 ± 8 4±6 4 ± 11 6 ± 10
Sierra Leone 49 5 ± 22 2+7 3 ± 15
Tanzania 5 175 16 ± 36 8 ± 17 2±4 2+6 0 +' 0 0±0
Zambia 45 190 ± 84 35 + 35 25 ± 29
Internat. average 1768 1976 66 ± 61 27 ± 37 21 ± 27 6 ± 10 21 ± 44 7 ± 18

I) The data are based on information given by co-operators and sample collectors in "Field Information Forms". Because
of several missing figures the data are not complete and, therefore, must be considered only as indicative. It should be
pointed out that in many cases the samples come from fertilizer trial fields and therefore, the indicated fertilization level
may be considerable higher than elsewhere in the country.
 441

APPENDIX 6. Average general soil properties and macronutrient contents of soils classified by FAO/Unesco
soil units. For analytical methods, see Section 1.3.

Texture El. CaCO3 CEC Org. N P K Ca Mg Na

index pH(CaCl2) cond. equiv. me C total (extractable)
Tr.
10-4 s 100 g mg/1 mg/I mg/I mg/1 mg/I
C

Acrisols 42 5.19 1.2 0.0 19.4 1.1 0.122 15.0 156 1208 238 14
(n = 73) s 16 0.49 0.9 0.0 11.1 0.7 0.059 14.7 97 653 174 15

Andosols 33 5.26 1.9 0,4 35.5 2.6 0.297 16.7 388 1581 111 14
(n =-- 8) s 14 0.63 0.9 0.7 13.0 1.9 0.157 6.8 226 803 94 13

Arenosols 2 19 5.13 1.6 0.2 13.7 1.1 0 107 82.2 163 793 83 13
(n 22) s 8 0.83 1.0 0.2 8.1 0.6 0.053 58.8 89 682 86 11

Cambisols 2 40 6.41 1.8 2.1 22.2 1.8 0.159 29.5 179 2549 271 46
(n =- 246) s 13 1.27 1.0 5.7 12.3 2.2 0.136 29.4 104 1688 186 77

Chernozems 2 47 7.20 2.3 5,6 28.1 1.6 0.183 30.4 174 5350 289 16
(n .= 48) s 7 0.70 0.7 5,1 4.3 0.4 0.044 15.4 49 1609 171 18

Ferraiso Is x 32 5.26 0.9 0.0 14.2 1.3 0.116 12.6 112 813 136 9
(n 127) s 13 0.74 0.5 0.1 5.3 0.5 0.049 18.2 72 632 89 7

Fluvisols Tc 51 7.44 5.2 7.6 33.4 1.1 0.123 8.1 475 5859 904 397
(n 470) s 16 0,68 6.8 9.6 13.9 0.5 0.073 21.2 327 2539 613 543

Gleysols 2 36 5.62 2.1 0.8 21.3 1.7 0.179 47.2 206 1600 269 17
(n = 31) s 14 1.00 1.1 2.3 12.7 1.2 0.116 40.8 131 1504 276 17

Halosols x 50 7.78 12.3 21.0 23.7 0.8 0.097 10.7 265 6017 780 713
(n 60) s 9 0.29 11.8 11.2 6.0 0.3 0.036 13.1 142 1964 336 767

Histosols
(1) = - 7) s - 4.54
0.51
2.2
0.7
0.0
0.0
82.0
15.3
20.3
9,6
0.968
0.412
44.2
13.7
151
54
2079
1068
320
243
22
16

Kastanonms x 52 7.43 3.2 11.2 34.7 0.9 0.105 12.3 530 7053 674 135
(n 64) s 15 0.50 3.6 16.5 15.9 0.3 0.032 12.4 267 3535 393 214

Lithosols x 40 7.25 1.3 10.4 26.6 0.8 0,088 8.2 356 5786 305 8
(n = 23) s 18 0.64 0.4 11.6 12.7 0.4 0.046 4.4 158 3231 155 3

Luvisols x 43 6.79 1.9 7.7 24.1 1.0 0.105 24,0 244 4127 404 53
(n = 217) s 14 0.98 1.3 12.6 12.4 0.5 0.047 29.4 186 2814 382 115

Nitosois x 28 5.60 0,9 0.1 13.9 1.1 0.104 14.9 152 1008 187 5
(n =-- 106) s 9 0.85 0.6 0.1 6.8 0.5 0.054 17.6 151 687 168 6

Phaeozems 2 44 6.08 1.8 1.3 29.1 1.9 0.198 26.4 581 3280 355 34
(n ----- 307) s 9 0.88 1.6 3.4 8.1 0.7 0.067 21.4 324 1893 178 112

Planosols x 52 6.32 3,3 0.6 37.3 2.2 0.210 24.6 545 4220 625 74
( n = 117) s 14 1.07 2.2 1.0 8.6 0.8 0.087 12.2 277 2107 343 36

Podzols x 23 5.23 1.9 0.0 24.0 3.1 0.221 80.3 182 1460 87 14
(n 1!) s 8 0.46 0.8 0.0 7.1 1.3 0.079 40.2 91 1619 34 16

Regosols x 42 6.62 2.6 5.0 21.8 1.1 0.114 33.8 348 4037 361 151
(n = 42) s 18 0.97 2.9 10.5 11.9 0.5 0.047 31,2 283 3524 363 484

Rendzinas x 60 7.40 1.6 12,4 57.8 1.8 0.168 11.9 264 10730 573 22
(n = 48) s 14 0.29 0.4 14.3 11.9 0.5 0.053 10-3 169 2869 315 25

Verusols X' 58 ' 7.16 2.8 8.9 41.1 1.1 0.112 12.0 352 7256 681 104
(n = 135) s 12 0.72 5.3 12.1 14.4 0.6 0_059 14.2 237 2854 451 278

Yermosols 2 44 7.83 6.2 6.1 20.3 0.6 0.082 7.3 438 5268 480 447
(n 92) s 10 0.24 9.7 4.3 10,6 0.2 0.020 7.8 307 1770 270 591

Xerosols x 48 7,62 4.4 12.4 29.0 0.8 0.096 13.5 601 6207 659 227
(n = 101) s 13 0.27 5.9 13.7 10.5 0.3 0,032 15.1 344 2300 362 301
442

APPENDIX 7. Average mieronutrient (B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo and Zn) contents of soils and respective pot-
grown wheats for FAO/Unesco soil units: Acr Acrisol (n 73), And = Andosol (8), Are = Arenoso!
(22), Cam = Cambisol (246), Che = Chernozem (48), Fer Ferralsol (127), Flu = Fluvisol (470), Gle =
Gleysol (31), Ha! -= Halosol (60), His = Histosol (7), Kas = Kastanozem (64), Lit -= Lithosol (23), Luv .---
Luvisol (217), Nit = Nitosol (106), Pha = Phaeozem (307), Pla = Planosol (11), Pod = Podzol (27), Reg =
Regosol (42), Ren = Rendzina (48), Ver = Vertisol (135), Yer = Yermosol (92), Xer Xerosol (101).
See also Section 2.8.

100
80-
MkIM111110111111111
60
50 n=3538
E
40
Rts,_ 0.7
ca. 30
0_
I 11)Y= 8:.5°P°111111
*8 8
I Ilihin
MMOMME=MMENNIMPT,
`11,11=MMENIIIIM
leik=MMErN11-04.4KE
II
EME
II
C6
- 6 54-
111111111M,=RTEEM11511iMMUm
IIMEWW=MIRPagaMIN= NUM
=MIIÏIIIUIIIlI

iIIIIH ining
o 4
3

111111!
081 .2 .3 .4.5.6 .810 2 3 4 5 6 8 10
CEC-corrected B in soil, mg /l (Hot w.sol.)

22

20
18 MIMI I
NEI III
I1iIIIilIiIUI
MI A I
le
1 ii MBE
111111 I
IIIINFIRMIN
4 11.11641111im
PirFIMIII Ell .
2

o uu h I'
.4 .6 .8 1.0
IIIIIII_
2 6 810
4 20 40 60
-
100
Org.0 corrected soi CU,mg/I (AAAc-EDTA;
 443
300
275 ranMiliiiiiiM
11111 0
nllEINII 1111111111111
Noll
250
225 miming rIaapiel I in
=11111E111 1 -A20111111
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MINIM g YVEIMITaiiII I
1 75
II Ill
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1 00 iiiii iiii
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I
80 MEN E11111111111 111111111
70 MIIIIIIII MIIIIILINTII
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ill
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50

mils Ad

40

30 I
10
IN
1111111111.111
20 40 60 100
Fe in soil. mg/I
In MIRA 111
200 400500 1000 2000
iiiill
(AAAc-EDTA)

2000

1000
5n . NEI
motutimamsmotrimmosis Nimairsamis 1
800 1mommiummwsocnrimirminwamimomma
1: ImAigretr'm111111MONms. 01111111111111111

600 NI
milIMMONIMEASINEMI.rik
woomml NENAW
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400
300 .1...11 minnimur lip
200 I9 Ill MEN ' Ill
100
80 .1=====i 1-
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Lt:J °
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anElbas421
50
40
30
....2111flp --W-44, Mailai
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M. ElPtillIMIIII
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ririni11
IRRIMIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIM111111111=11,1

II
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Mil v
1
OMNI IIII 1111
Ill
20

10 111 1111
8
1M IIMITIar=111171115P1
itaukummi ainuAN
1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 inn 200 300 Rno
pH- corrected Mn in soil, mg/l (DTPA)
 IIIIIIIIMIMMINNIE11111111111111
Mo MN. =MIME aMNIMMIIIINIMMMEInt
6
MNIOSIGEERENIMINIIMIIIIMINI=111=
MINIM s - 0 ES31312111111 MIN
3 Emu
111111k 1111111111 11111
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiirni
2

.
IMENIMMEME
MI=MMEM 1Mio.MIMIIMIIPIMEN
IMMENIMITTriumrimmmmmr
MNIMIEIN
1.4111
rmemil
11111111 IIIIIMMAINIK411111
EMI
111111IL111511
"1"11 cheA111111111
airaraammir2MWMINIONNIVi IMMEMMIZIMMIN11IMIM
.06 :21IMENUMMMEMMEMMENMM
51111117IFAIMMIIIMMI
NONNIMINIMINI IMME
.03 uiiuiivui MENEM MI
111 "111111111111111 NMI 1
.02

.01 111111111611MININIK

.006 .01
11111.111111 I
.02 .03 06 .1 .2 .3 .6 1 2
=MI=IM
3
pH - corrected MO in soil, mg/t (A0-0A)

200

100
90
liii !III, 11111111111111111
iimiiNiiuui
,

80
70 IMMIIIMIIIIIIMM111111112M1
E 60
fl" 50 1111l11111111M1111111111111=
o
40 IM1111111111111/11111111M1
30 11=1111111311111111111111

r NEE
"g 20
C 'Flu R
N Ren

10 1== 111=113
11111114=1MO 101111111Milli
8 11111)1MM
9
1=MMIIMMEIMMIUMMINI
7 III
6 MI MIMI i___ uiii.isuiuiuiii
1111111M1111 III 111111= 111111111
.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 810 20 3040 60 100
Zlel in soit,mg/t (DTPA)
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October 1981
 M-52
ISBN 02+101103-1