Proof and mathe i communication Tee nent eno eer ee Te eee reer ae tion and exhaustion to prove a mathematical idea, Before you start. ‘You should know how to use the ieee definition of the square root function, You should know how to manipulate | 2 Pactorise 4x! — 1, algebraic expressions. Youshould know basicanglefacts. | 3a Whatis the sum of the anglesin a triangle? b_ Whatis the sum ofthe exterior angles ofany polygon? ‘You should be able to define rational_| 4 Which of these numbers are irrational? and irrational numbers. 7,03,05, 12 You should be able to work with 5 I) function notation, 22-3 find (3). Why is proof important? One thing for which mathematicians are valued is their ability to communicate their ideas precisely and to make very convincing arguments called proofs. In this chapter we will look atthe language used by mathematicians and some of the ways they prove their ideas, Section 1: Mathematical structures and arguments ‘We can represent mathematical ideas in many different ways such as tables, diagrams, graphs or words. One of the most fundamental representations is an equation: a mathematical statement involving an sign. For exampl errata ‘The frst recorded use of ee 8 the equals sign occurs in Robert Recorde’s 1557 book ‘An equation is only true for some values of x (or perhaps none); in this Te ticese oftiive te case itis true for x: explains that he used two Ancther similar mathematical structure is called an identity, An identity parallel lines “because no two is elation which is true forall values of the unknown, Itis given things can be more equal the = symbol.ie ‘Two statements connected by the identity symbol are called congruent expressions. They are equal for all values of the variable(s) Whenever you are simplifying an expression, techniealy you There aresome rules which only apply to identhies. For example, iFwo should use an identity symbol polynom als ate identically equal then their coefficients must be the same. ), However, it is common in matics to use an equals sign (=) instead, ‘A polynomial is 2 function thats @ sum of terms containhg non-necative | ae eee (positive or zero) integer powers of x In Chapter 3 you will see that you often have to write quadatics in the form shown ‘A coefficients the constant infront of (muliphyng) a vaiasle, For example, in the quadratic 23x, 2s the coefcient of and 3 is the coefficient of x ‘The word integer just means ‘whole number’ here. 2x? + 12x-3=a(et pq Find the value of a, pand q. 2x4 12x-Smaletpy+g Multiply out the brackets to allow coetficients to be compared. Sale taprep +g sant + 2ape+ ay? +4 Coefficient of: 2=a Compare coefficients. The two expressions are equal for all values of x, so all the coefficients must be equal. Coeficient of: 12 = Zap Substitute a=2 into the second equation. 2xB4q=-B 24 Another common structure in mathemati is called a function. This just arule for changing an input into an output For example, ifyou have a function called f that transforms the number. leas. [x3 See Gateway to A Level section A xinto Vx? +9 you would write that as f(x) = v3? +9 ey for a reminder of expanding brackets. Sof(4)= V4? +9 = V25 =5 and fly)= Jy" +9.Implication and equivalence You can manipulate both equations and inequalities by doing the same thing to both sides. You often structure your solution by writing lines of working underneath each other: In more formal work, you can, ‘emphasise the logic of the argument by using special symbols. ) Key point 1.1 © Thesymbol = means that a subsequent equation follows from the previous one. P= Qmeans‘Pimplies Q' or if Pis true then Qis true! or ‘Pis, sufficient for Q ‘© Thesymbol = means that the previous statement follows from the subsequent statement. P= Qmeans Pis implied by Q or ‘if Qis true then Ps tue’ or‘P is necessary for ‘= The symbol <> means that a subsequent equation is equivalent the previous one. P © Qmeans Pis equivalent to Q' or Qis true ifand only if Pis true! ‘This can also be written inthe shorthand ‘Q iff P: ‘You will also sometimes see the symbol -. for ‘therefore,’ which means ‘we are drawing a conclusion from previous lines of working. Merete uatnees Inserteither a = or a ¢ symbol on each line of working: a 2t1=9 b x=4 e216 a 2x29 chloe ‘These statements are equivalent: the logic flows both ways. ae Again 2x= 8 and.x= 4 are equivalent. bee x=4 implies that 2*= 16 but the reverse is not true as a r=16 x= 1G implies x= 44 (not just x= 4). ‘When solving equations, itis important to know whether or not each line cof working is equivalent to the previous one. Ifitis, then you can be sure that you nave found the complete set of solutions. For example: xox=2 ex-x-2=0 2 (x-ert1)=0 2or-1From this chain of equivalences you can be certain that both 2 and =1 are solutions of the equation, and that there are no others. However, if some of the lines are only connected by implications, itis possible to find ‘solutions’ which don’t actually work, or to miss some of the solutions. be Solve de equati consectly a Vxt6 ax They are not equivalent since: xt6=x* stvee6=x This leads to oneincorrect_ olution coming fornfr + — b Check both solutions": x=8: \(9+6)=3,.0 thiotow solution, x=-2:\(-2+6)=24-2,50 ‘this snot a solution The correct solutionis.x=3. A students attempting to solve the equation Vzr6 = J he error with the following: See Gateway to A Level sections B and C for a reminder of solving quadratic equations by factorising Look at each line in turn to see whether a ¢ symbol is valid. ‘The first line implies the second, but the second does not imply the first, so they are not equivalent, All subsequent lines are equivalent, so one of the solutions is correct. You need to check both solutions: substitute the x values into the LHS and the RHS and check whether they are equal. In practice itis often easier not to worry about whether every line ic equivalent, but tobe aware thatthe solutions you get need o be EEA Checked by subattating them backineo the original equation. Any that QR are not correct can then just be deleted, Dividing by zero can remove solutions in the same way that squaring can introduce them. ‘Squaring an equation is a common way of introducing incorrect solutions since it prevents lines of working being equivalent. LHS and RHS are standard abbreviations for the left-hand side and right-hand side of an equation. You wil azo see this problem arise when you salve equations invohing logarithms in Chapter 7.Insert an appropriate, oF a ¢ symbol in the space marked] Hence explain why the solutions Ancomplete. x= 6x Dividing by x: Dis=6 Olea Ifx=6 then *= 6x, but the reverse is not always true... S0.x=6 may not be the only solution inthis case there io also the possibiity. that x~ 0. Bmore @ te +1, find and simplify where possible: a if) ii £3) b 12+) ii 1(5)-10) Cimon © if) # Qu wi arn more about 4 120 ii ay) functions in Student Book 2, Chapter e i fler) i e-2) © Where appropriate insert a=, = ora e> symbol in the spice marked{_} 4. Shape Pisa rectangle.[]Shape Pis a square Ai Shape Qis 2 quadrilateral. ]Shape Qis a rhombus b i niseven.[]nisawhole number ‘nis a prime number [_}n isa whole number. © 1 Atriangle has two equal sides.[) A triangle has two equal angles. ii Two circles have the same area{_] TW circles have the same radius. at 2-2y-3-0L]x=3 fi s-arei=oL]x=1 © 1 Samean do 10 press-ups.[_]Sam can do 100 press-ups Niamh i over 21, "]Niamh is over 18, f i Neither A nor Bis true.[_]A\s false and Bis false. ii Aand Barenot both twue,[_]4 and Bare both not true.g 1 Chrisis aboy.["]chrsis a footballer fi Shape Xia rightangled triangle. ["]Shape Xis an isosceles triangle © w-av-sx+1 © vrarsax+i © whatis the fawin the following working? Question: For:x=4, find the value of 2x42 («-+a)(x—b) for all x. Find the values of a and b, Working: 2x4=8+2=10 © where is the flaw in the following argument? Suppose 1=3 Square; 1=1 ‘Therefore the first line is @ consider the equation v7 +8 3x7, a Add appropriate symbols (<> or =) to each line of working in the solution shown Ve +9=3x-7 Square; +98 —42e+ 49 subtracts +9: O= 8x 424440 Divideby2: 0=4x¢~21x+20 Factorise: 0=(4x-5)(x-4) xaSorx=4 Hence explain the faw in the solution shown, © & insert appropriate symbols (=, = or <9) in the spaces markedl} 2 ia Oo=2r-x Do=xex-1) (Cx=0orx=} b_ Hence explaiu the ex1or in the working. © a insert appropriate symbols (=, = or =) in the spaces marked[_]} w43x=ax+ 12 (xte+3)=40r+3) Or-4 b_ Hence explain the error in the working. (+ a) b) for all x, Find the values of a and b. ]) Did you k Inall of these examples, we are assuming that each statement is either true or false. The study of this type of logic is called Boolean algebra@ Doyou agree with the following statement? erreur ither A or Bis true ¢> Aand Bare h true, Bither A or Bist and Bare not both t ane as ® Whereis the flaw in the following argument? ambiguous. In formal logical Suppose two numbers a and D are equal we use the terms OR and XOR to have two different meanings. Multiply by a: Subtract b: @—B=ab—b Factorise: (a-bla+b)=b(a-») Cancel (a—) (a+b=b Use the fact that ab: 2b=b Divide by b: 2st Section 2: Inequality notation ‘You know from your previous study that solving a linear inequality is just like sclving an equation, as long as you don't multiply or divide by a negative number. Your answer is written as an inequality, ‘¥) Gateway to A Level For a reminder and more For example: practice of solving linear inequalities, see Gateway to be-S eo A Level section D. exe ex>7 ‘This solution can be written in set notation: {x: > 7}. ‘This is read as ‘x such that xis greater than or equal to 7’. Itcanalso be written in interval notation: {7, >). This means that the solution lies in the interval from 7 (included) to infinity (not included). {tis assumed that xis a real number (x€ R) unless stated otherwise, So the interval [7,) includes all the real numbers greater than or equal to7, and the interval (~, 7) all the real numbers smaller than 7. Note that infinity (2) is not a real number, so can never be included in the interval. The € symbol in set notation means ‘isin the set. or "belongs to the set. ) Key point 1.2 x€ (a,b) meansacxlorx<-2 © x<2andx>4 xis both greater than or equal to 1, and less than 7 so a tere topes 7 you need the intersection. b fred Tu frir<-2} xis greater than 1 or less than ~2 so you need the union. e xe@ No values of x are both smaller than 2 and greater than 4, Loo aL) Ow the following Inequalities in set notation and interval notation. a iyo? fix<6 b ix5orx<0 fi x>1orx<2 © write the following statements as inequalities in x. a ixe (1,4) ii xe (2,8) b ixe [1,3] ii xe (2,4) © ive (=,5) Hi xe [12,%) di be:0 3}© Represent the following intervals ona number line a i (1,5) ii [2,1] b i (4) (2) Ml (-#, 0) 0-5, ~) © i (-=,3] 9 (0,3) ii [-2,5] (2, df (2,5) (7, -) Hi (-~, -3] U(0, 5] © Write the following statements using intervals combined using set notation. Rewrite each asa single interval if possible a i l2 b ii x<-landl2 d ii 17 @ soive the ftlowing inequalities and express your solution using interval notation. Section 3: Disproof by counter example It is usually not possible to prove that something is always true by looking at examples. However, itis possible to use examples to prove that something is not always true. This is called a counter example. Disprove by counter example that (r+ 1)?=3"+ 1 forall x When x=2: When searching fora counter example, try different LHS: (2 +1)°=9 types of numbers. RHS:22 11-5 0.x 2is.a counter example. Gres Disprove the statement Vx" +9 =x +3 7) Gateway to A Level Use a counter example to prove that 2x #2 sin x. Fora reminder of rational and irrational numbers, see Gateway to A Level section E. Use 2 counter example to prove that Vx" is not always x. Prove that the product of two prime numbers is not always odd.© Prove that the number of factors of a number is not always even. © Prove that the sum of two irrational numbers is not always irrational. @ Uisea counter example to disprove thefllowing statement: resarce © Ascudentclaims that +1441 takes prime values for all positive Integers Use a counterexample to disprove this claim, © Dorwo tines that never meet have tobe parallel? Section 4: Proof by deduction Proving a result is usually much harder than disproving it. You need to start with what is given in the question and form a series of logical steps to reach the required conclusion, (igre The Focus on ... sections in this Algebra isa useful tool that allows you to express idzas in general terms. book show you proofs of some ‘You will often need to use algebraic expressions foreven and odd numbers. For example, itis common to express: important results you will meet in tis course. = aneven number as 2n, for some integer + anodd number as 2n + 1, for some integer n. Prove that the product of an even and an odd number is always even. Let the even number be 2n, for some integer n Define a general even number, Let the odd number be 2m-+ 1, for ‘And define a general odd number. ‘some integer m. Note that you mustn't use 2n + 1 as that would be the next integer up from 2n, which would be a specific odd number, nota general one. 2n(2m+1)=2(2mn-+n) Aim to write the product in the form 2kto show that it i:for some integer k. is even. So thisiseven. ‘Make a conclusion. 10eee rete tne) Prove that the difference between the squares of consecutive odd numbers is always a multiple of 8, Lot the emaller odd number be 2” 1 Define two consecutive odd numbers. This time you do Let the largerodd numberbe2n-+1 Wanton in both, as the two numbers are related. (2n+1)'-(2n~1)2=(4n®+4n+1) (4n?—4n+1) an Square each, and subtract the smaller from the larger. =en Sottisioa multiple of. Make a conclusion. | Prove that ifn is odd then n* is also odd. Prove that the sum of an even number and an odd number is odd, For a further example on Prove that the sum of any three consecutive integers is always @ ‘ algebraic proof and more multiple of three. ratio ou practice questions, see Support sheet 1 Prove that: a thesum of two consecutive multiples of Sis always odd b the product of two consecutive multiples of 5 is always even, Prove thatthe helght inthe felowing diagram given byhi= 42 Prove that the sum of the interior angles of a hexagon is 720°, Prove that ifa number leaves a remainder 2 when itis divided by 3 then its square leaves a remainder 1 when divided by 3, a Expand (+2) b_ Prove the statement: y=x°+4r+10y>0. © 0 08 Prove that an exterior angle in a triangle is the sum of the two opposite angles. — opposice angle "® Prove thaw +3n +2 is never prime ifn isa positive integer ® « Letnbdea fourdigitwhole number ‘abcd!’ Explain why n= 1002+ 100b+ 10c+ d b Prove that nis divisible by 9ifand only ifa+b+c+d isa multipleof9 € Prove that nis divisible by 11 ifand only ita—b+c~d is divisibleby 11 ® Byconsidering {/2") , prove that an irrational number raised to ‘an irrational power can be rational Section 5: Proof by exhaustion You should be aware that simply considering some examples does not constitute a mathematical proof, However, in some situations itis possible to check all possibilities and this can lead to a valid proof. This is called proof by exhaustion, [umm] Prove that 89 is a prime number We only need to checkprime numbers smaller than the square root oF 89, sirce any factor above this would have tobe paired with factor below the square root, 9a not divisible by 2.3.5 oF 7. Therefore It must be a prime number Aprime number does not have any prime factors ‘smaller than itself. Welt COs) A whole number is squared and divided by 3. Prove that the remainder can only be 0 oF 1. You cannot check all whole numbers, but you can split them into three groups when considering division by 3: those that give no remainder, those that give remainder 1 and ‘those that give remainder 2. You can then check ‘what squaring does to numbers from each group. Let nbea whole number. Now use algebra to write each type of number. “Then nis either a multiple oF 3 (n=3k) ‘or one more than a multiple of 3 (r k+1) ortwo more than a multiple of 3 jn=3k+2) Lo conte on neat page 12Hen=Bk then né=(3K)°= 912 ‘Now check what happens when you square each type of number. which isa multiple of rn=3k-+1 then T= (4 19K + Ge 1 =e +2K)41 whichis one more than a multiple of. Itn-2k+2 then n=(Bk+2)"=91 + 12k+4 SBS +4k+ 1) +1 which ie one more than a multiple of 3. Sotthere is eitherno You have now checked each possible whole remainder or the remainder ie 1, ‘number, so you can write the conclusion. Proof by exhaustion can only be used when there isa relatively small number of possibilities to creck. The use of computers has made it possible to apply this method to a wider variety of problems (although some mathematicians question whether we can always trust a computer check). Find out about the Four Colour Theorem - one of the most famous problems that has been solved in this way. Prove that 11 isa prime number. Prove that 83 is a prime number. Prove that all regular polygons with fewer than 7 sides have angles with a whole number of degrees. Prove that no square number less than 100 ends in a7. Let f(x) be the function that gives the number of factors of x C3 tr ea For example, f(10) = 4 because it has factors 1, 2, 5 and 10. cotneenlers See Gateway to A Levelsection F for a reminder of function Prove that for any single digit positive number f{n) < n. Prove that n*-+2.is not civisible by 4 for integers between 1 and. Sinclusive notation, 13Prove that n+ mis always even if n€ Z. Prove that when the square of a whole number is divided by 5, the remainder is either 0, 1 or 4. Prove that 2x + 3x!+ xis always divisible by 6 if vis an integer. ‘The modulus function, |x, is defined as xif.xis positive and —xif, cis negative so, for example, |-2|=2.and [5|=5. |0| is defined to be 0. You will learn more about the modulus function in Student Prove the triangle inequality: Ja +b| <|a|+ [b. Book 2 Cnn nen) You can express mathematical ideas using des tions such as diagrams, equations and identities. ‘You can communicate a mathematical argument using a series of equations or identities put together in a logical order. ‘These can be connected using implication symbols: = or €. +The symbol => means that a subsequent statement follows from the previous one +The symbol 43 means that a subsequent statement is equivalent tothe previous one. An identity sa relation that i true forall values ofthe unknown, Itis given the = symbol You can represent solutions of inequalities using set notation or interval notation. + In interval notation, the square bracket { or | means that the endpoint is included, and the round bracket (or ) means that the endpoint is not included. One counter example is sufficient to prove thata statement is not always true An algebraic proofis often required to show that a statement is always true Proof by exhaustion involves checking all possibilities. This can only be done if there is a small number of ‘uptions, or the options can be split up into a small number of cases. 14Mixed practice 1 ee ee 8 Prove that the product of any two odd mumbersis always odd. Prove that ifn is even then n*is divisible by 4. Prove that it 5 it does not follow that a= cand b=d. Prove the following statement or disprove it with a counter example: “The sum of two numbers s always larger than their difference’ Prove that the product of two rational numbers is always rational. Prove that the sum of the interior angles in an n-sided shape 1s (180n— 360)" Given thatx?+y° bande. + Max? + bxy+ cy*) find the values of a, Prove the following statement: nisodd = n?+4n+3isamultiple of 4 rleistwice Prove that the angle from a chord to the centre of. the angle to apoint on the circumference in the majorsector. B Prove that all cube numbers are either multiples of 9 or within one of a multiple of 9 Prove the following statements, or disprove them with a counter example: a. abisan integer «a isan integer and bis an integer b aisirrational and bis irrational > abiis irrational, Prove that the product of any three consecutive positive integers is a multiple of6. Prove that the difference between the squares of any two ‘odd numbers is a multiple of 8. a Prove that n#~79n-+ 1601 isnot always prime when n isa positive whole number. Prove that n’— 1 isnever prime when n isa whole number greater than 2. x=a!—b? where a and bare both whole numbers, Prove that sis either odd or a multiple of 4. Enno For questions on another principle used in proof, see Extension sheet 1 15Indices and surds Se esc ey Peete aod See eect cece) Before you start... You should know how to evaluate expressions involving powers, including working with the order of operations, You should know how to evaluate expressions Involving roots. You should know how to work with negative, fractional and zero indices. You should know how to multiply out two brackets, You should be able to recognise the difference oftwo squares. Why study indices and surds? Powers and root are needed to write equations describing many situations, both within pure mathematics and in applications. For Evaluate 3 x2 Evaluate 9/27. & Wiite 2 inthe form a wate lo inthe fom! iF 6 Expand (1+x)(2 » Expand and simplity (2a+by2a-5). example, the volume ofa sphere is proportional to the cube of its radius; the magnitude of the gravitational force between two objects is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them; and standard deviation (a measure of the spread of data in statistics) is the square root of the average square deviation from the mean. In this chapter you will review algebraic rules for working with powers and roots and use them to simplify more complex expressions.Section 1: Using the laws of indices OPA From your previous study you should know the following laws of indices: For reminder and more practice 5 ofthe laws of indices, see #) Key point 2.1 Gateway to A Level section G. Make sure that you can actively use these rules in both directions ~i.¢. ifyou see 2 you ‘You can use these rules to evaluate negative and fractional powers of can rewrite it as (2°? and if you numbers. For example: see (2? you can rewrite it as 2° 20) Both ways willbe important! ‘The rules of indices must be combined accurately with the other rules of algebra you already know. Oia! ‘To formally prove these rules requires a method called mathematical induction, which you will meet if you study Further Mathematics, in Pure Core Student Book 1 J WORKED EXAMPLE 2.1 | Bes Simplify xy x xy-* SyyxByy 8x8)" You can rearrange multiplication into any convenient order, =2axtyt Apply ax a"= a** (Key point 2.1) to.xand y. Eetooere aad Simplify 124b*—16a ‘ab 42ab*-16a_12ab* 16a ‘You can split a fraction up if the top is asum ora bab av eab difference. _12,a,.0* 16, a1 ‘Turmeach fraction into a convenient product. “6°a b 8 ab ~3 4-20 RSS ass ey OED v7rite XE. Write ae the form kz’. Diving by Si the same as malpyingby Re-write the roots using a” =4/a* (Key point 2.1), Now use a+ a"=a"-" (Key point 2.1). You also need to be able to manipulate indices to solve equations. relic e ney Solve x? Using (a")*= a" (Key point21), (x4)! 0 raise both sides of the equation to the power 3 2 x6 = Express each term in the same base (2 is easiest) so that, 2ex(2) the laws of indices can be applied. 2hx2 Use (a")"=a"** (Key point 2.1) And then a" xa" =a""" on the LHS and @ the RES. Equate the powers and solve. 18‘An equation like this with the unknown (x) in the power ls called an exponential equation. In Chapter 7 you will see how to solve more complicated examples using logarithms, Be careful when you are combining expressions with different bases by multiplication or division, Just remembering ‘multiplication means add the exponents together’ is too simplistic because itis only true when, the bases are the same, There is another rule that works when the bases are different, but then the exponents have to be the same, following: Consider the Bx X3x5%5=3x5X3X5= 15x15 St ‘This suggests the following rules: ) Key point 2.2 Use a sb" -(3) (Key point 2.2) to apply the power to ceach part ofthe fraction, Use (a")*= a** (Key point 2.1) on the top of the fraction. and recognise the cube root of 8 on the bottom, (1600? _182(«2): (6)! Use a" xb" =(ab)" (Key point2.2) ab® ab” 4ab* ab® =4b Apply" +a" =a" (Key point 2.1) to the a’s and b’s 19Simplify (16x? + 16y4). Which is the correct solution? Can you identify the errors made in the incorrect solutions? (16x? +16")? =(16°) +(16y")? sary (16x? +167")! =168 (22 49°)? a(t ty?) (16x? n16y") @ Evaluate without calculator: ails ii a7! 6 re a ¥) Gateway to A Level ay" ai (1)° For more practice with indices, ei ii P 7 (a) t) woe Gxtoryia AL aia as! section 6. ei 1357 ii 167 i (4) i 3 £4) g i o2st i his i ar © Wiite tte fotowing in the form 4: aivi at bite Wt ei2 al 2 4 1025 0s ee ii 32 fia a 2M give ue © simplity the following a i(x)! b i (4x) ci (ae) © soive the folowing a i xi=32 bioee W 27ravaxo" 20© Wate in the form axe a i 3vx b ixale ct a ey 2 ‘BNE ai © Wiitein ne formar +x i & a vx (3) bi “(2x) (x41) ave Simplify (100x") * i simplify 2424, ‘/) Gateway to A Level ¥ = qt For a reminder of basic Simplify ey oi manipulations with surds, see write 152° inthe orm ax Gateway to A Level section H ve An elementary computer program is known to be able to sort Input values in kn! microseconds. Observations show that it sorts.a million values in halfa second. Find the value of k. @ ee000 ‘The volume and surface area of a family of regular solid shapes are related by the formula V= kA'® where Vis given in cubic units and Ain square units. a. Forone such shape, A=81 and V: = 243. Find k, 64 om’ 8 cm’, A square-ended cuboid has volume 2y%, where xand yare lengths. cuboid for which x=2y has volume 128.cm?. Find x. simply (33°43) b Hence determine the surface area ofa shape with volume 27 express ain terms of. You can solve this equation using logs, which are introduced in chapter 7. b ) Pte where a, b, cand nare Make xthe subject ofthe equation 4**=bx8* where a and bare constants, Leave your answer in a simplified form. e e@ e886 Anything raised to the power of zero is 1, but zero raised to any power is zero, so what isthe value of 0"? Whats the value of 2"? e 21Section 2: Working with surds teaetevonca deen ane Qrsssetonie cae 2435, VS~ Vi, WBE proving that suds cannot be The most important thing to know when working with surds is that written a5 rational numbers square rooting Is just another way of writing ‘raise to the power of a half" so all the rules for indices apply to surds. Ee tara) Write 8+V2 in the form Va. ‘Square root is equivalent to the power . You can apply BARB ero mot = (ab)! =a! #8. For more challenging questions ‘on indices and surds, see Extension sheet 2 41 Explain why considering (3~ V5)’ gives a worse upper bound on V& than found in partb. ii Explain why considering (4— V/5)* would not give as good an upper bound on V3 as foundin part b.Quadratic functions ee ee eee ee eC Ponce solve quadratic inequalities og en eo eee ey Before you start. ‘You should know how to multiply | 1 Expand (3x+ 1)(@2x-3), out brackets. ‘You should know how to solve Solve uadraties by factorising. hx 2h 28+ 15x-B=0 ‘You should know how to solve quadratics using the formula, You should knowhow tosolve | 4 SolveSx—1 > 2x+5. linear inequaliti Quadratic phenomena Many problems in applications of mathematics involve maximising ‘or minimising a certain quantity. They are common in economies and business (minimising costs and maximising profits), biology (finding the ‘maximum possible size of a population) and physics (electrons move to the lowest energy state) ‘The quadratic function is the simplest funetion with maximum or minimum points, arisesin many natural phenomena, such as the motion of a projectile or the dependence of power on voltage in an electric circult, itis often used to model such situations. It also 27Section 1: Review of quadratic equations /) Gateway to A Level A quadratic function is one of the form f(x) = ax’ + bx+c where a, b and care constants and a#0. fora reiog ote Using the quadratic formula, see Gateway to A Level sections B and C. You should be familiar with two methods for solving quadratic equations: + factorising + the quadratie formula, Many calculators have an equation solver that just lets you type in the coefficients a, b and cto generate the solutions, butyou need to be able to apply these methods as well, part slarly factorising, Remember that you may first have to rearrange the equation to get itin the formar’ + bx +¢=0. J WoRKED Exampte 21 | Be taen) Find the values of x for which (2x~3)*=1+6. @xr-BP ax 6 Expand the brackets. ae 12x4 90246 Remember: (2x—3)'= (2-3) (2x-3). Axe 138x+3=0 Move everything to one side: (x) =0. (4x1) (@-3)=0 Factorise and solve. 4 4 Relics igisers Find the values of x for which x=2+ 8x", =e ‘This might not look like a quadratic at first, but whether ornot you spot that itis, itis always a good idea to start vad by replacing x-* with 1 replacing x-*with 2x8 Now multiply through by xto remove the denominator e-Bx-8=0 (x 4)r+2)=0 Factorise and solve, x=40r-2 The cuadratic formula Sometimes you can’t see how to factorise the equation, for example if the solutions are not whole numbers or simple fractions. In that case you can use the quadratic formula to solve the equation. 28‘The solutions of ax*+ bx + c= 0 are given by the quadratic formula: bavi 400 2a ‘When using the quadratic formula, you may need to use your knowledge of surdsto simplify the answer. ES rsa) Solve the equation x8+3x= 7x43. Give your solutions in exact form. 24 BK=TH+B Move everything to x 4x-B=0 one side: (2) =0. 4): (C4y—4x1x(-8) —_Mfyoucan'tseehow axa ~S«t factoriseit, use the At JB formula: a a=1,b=-4,¢ ‘Simplify the surd: 28 =2N7 the quadratic formula, Use v3 x V3=3. Use J60 = 415 =2v15. exe EXAMPLE 3.4 Solve the equation J/Sx* ~6x-23=6, giving your answer in simplified sur form, ‘The answers are not going to be whole numbers, so use v5. The quadratic formula is not given on the formula sheet, imeacue! ‘The other alternatives to solve the equation by completing the square. You will s2e in Section 3 that this is where the quadratic formula actually ‘comes from, Ifyou are told to give your solutions to a certain number of decimal places or significant, figures, or to give exact solutions, it usually rreans the quadratic won't factorise easily You learnt to simplify surds in Chapter 2, Section 2.eae @ By faciorising solve the following equations: a aeeareteares UW aPes=Tte—T-at bi 9-24-16 1a = 24025 ce i (x-3)(x+2)=14 i (2v+3)(x-1)=12 at drains Wo avedar Use the quadratic formula to find the exact solutions of the following equations; a i Qtbxsathar-1 Wf are5=6-2x boi Sv-artiase+2x i Sx-2=5x¢41 © i (xt )xt3)=5 ii (x+2)(-1)=2 di aet-6 i ena Solve the equation 8x~9=(8x~ 1) (x+3). Solve the equation 6x=5 + 4x Find the exact solutions to the equation x-+." Solve the equation x° + 8k* = 6x, giving your answer in terms of k. Solve the equation 2V5x* +3x- V5 = giving your answers in simplified surd form, Find the exact solutions ofthe equation x*V2 + 2x5 ~ 32 =0 Rearrange y= ax!+ bx+ cto find xin terms ofy. 80000000 ‘The postive difference between the solutions ofthe quadratic equation + kx+3= 01s VB. Find the possible values of k Section 2: Graphs of quadratic functions All quadratic graphs are one of two possible shapes. the graph, yt? + be + cis called a parabola, les shape depends on die cvelticiest Conus + a> Otheparabolaisapositive + ‘fa 0. Wher x=0. Find the y-intercept. When y=0,91°+2x-8=0 Find the x intercepts. To do this, solve the equation y=0. (Be Ayer 2)-0 This factorises. or-2, x ‘Sketch the graph. It does not have to be to scale but it should show all relevant features, and axis intercepts should be labelled. a fz * 7 east 7 ‘ind the equation of this graph, giving your answer in the form y=ax* + br + Repeated rost at isa factor. te continues on next page. —f 32. = (2x-3)* ‘The x-intercepts tell us about the factors.‘Write in factorised form. The factor (2x~3)? could yok2x-3)* be multiplied by any constant, so we will label this ‘unknown constant k. -9=Ko-3)" -9-9k ‘To find the value of k, use the fact that when x=0,y=-9. kat Sothe equation is 2x3)? Expand to give the equation in the form required. =-(ax?-12r+9) pet 12x-9 @ Match the equations and the corresponding graphs. Y ai yeweoaet6 i yeor-aet3 fii y--arte x a x 8 4 c > % ‘ 7 me - > - > bil yowe2e-3 ih yoosteores ith yo sores y x a 6 c y y 3 = > - > - > 33© skeich te ftlowing graphs labeling all axis intercepts at yo2te ies 12 bi y=6-5x—38 ci ii y=4x-9 a yaa 20%~25 We yeae—aret © Find the equation ofeach graph in the form y=ae+ bx+e at ; rn 2 o] 9 “a 7 3 bi i Section 3: Completing the square Itcan be useful to rewrite quadratic functions in terms of a bracket squared for two main reasons: © Tosolvea quadratic equation © tofind the coordinates of the vertex of a parabola. ‘Sometimes this just means factorising: a4 1x4 25 (245) 24But even if thisisn’t possible, itis only a case of adjusting the constant at the end: You are probably already familiar with this method from GCSE, but perhaps not in the more tricky cases shown in Worked examples 3.8 and 3.9, 28+ 10x=(x+5)'-25 ‘The important things to note here are that: + tne mumberin the bracketis away halfthe coefcientofx 12=5 + theconsant to besubracted atthe endis always the mmber in the bracket squared: 5*=25 If you don't like this method you can use the method of comparing coefficients from “This process, called completing the square, allows you to write any P nical eh ¥ Worked example 1.1 ‘quadratic in the form a(x-+ p)'+q and is illustrated in the next few ‘worked examples. Elwes Cease aan) Express 2° ~ 8x-+3 in the form (x+p)°+g, stating the values of p and g. 2B Brh B= (A) CAPS Halve the coefficient of x. Subtract (4). ‘The constant term +3 s still there. = (0-4) 1643. Simplify = (4-13 p=—4,q=—18 Eien cn Express a? +5x+7 in the form (x+p)+q, stating the values of p and q. y psy Halve the coefficient of x svser(o9) -(3fe7 es 2 subeaci(3} Ihe constant term +7 is still there. 5) _25 g -(x+2) -28 simp («+8 -22o7 lity. Ifthe coefficient of x* isn’t 1, you will need to factorise the expression before complering the square. 35| woRKED EXAMPLE 3.10 | Goatees) 2x8 Gx +2=a(x+ pl +4 a Fird the constants @, pand q, 1b Hence solve the equation 2x°— 6x + Multiply the 2 back in. Simplify. i a Pactorise 2 from the first two terms. Now complete the square on the terms in the bracket, ‘Hence’ means that we must use the result of part a. ‘Now just rearrange to make x the subject Remember the + when square rooting. ‘You might think that the answer ends up looking exactly like the sort of, answer you get from using the quadratic formula. And you'd be right! You can use exactly the same method for solving the equation in the previous example on the general quadratic equation ax*+ br+c=0to establish the quadratic formula. 3% Inparta of Worked example 3.10 you could not simply divide both sides by 2, as you would then have a different ‘expression, However, when solving the equation in part b, you could have started by dividing both sides by 2 firs.ca Show that ifax?+be+e= le a+ be+e=0 First divide by a to make the quadratic easier to ‘complete the square. Compete the square: halving gives 3b. ‘Now rearrange as before to make x the subject. ‘Square root both sides, remembering the +. Cece ites! Express —x*+10x~7 in the form a(x+p)' +4. Which is the correct solution? Can you identify the errors made in the incorrect solutions? ‘Multiplying by —1 x! -10x+7 Completing the square: (x-5)'-25+7 —5)'-18, a7As well as enabling you to find roots of a quadratic equation, completing ‘the square also gives you a way of finding the coordinates of the maximum or minimum point of a quadratic function: y pe!) Fast forward You will learn about turning points of other functions in Chapter 14. ‘This may also be referred to as the vertex of the quadratic, or as the turning point - both are general terms to cover both maximum and minimum points, From Worked example 3.8 you know that x*— 8x+3=(x—4)'— 13, nee (x~ 4)! > 0 forall x, (x—4)*~13 > —13 for all x In other words, the smallest value the function can ever take is —13. ‘This will occur when (x~4)'=0, ie, when x=4, So the minimum point of y= (x—4)*— 13 is (4, -13), Quacratic functions have a vertical line of symmetry through their turning point. ) Key point 3.4 ‘The quadratic y= (2+ p}'+ qhas a turning point at (-p, 4) andthe line of symmetry x=-p. WORKED EXAMPLE 3.11 ‘State the coordinates of the turning points of the functions in Worked examples 3.9and 3.10. a yots5e+7 Db y=2x8-6r+2 a From Worked example 3.9: xs5re7=(28) +2 2)*4 Use the completed square form. 5 3) coonnatestamingpont( 9,3) y=(+p)'*qhasatumingpointat(-p. 0) DN A A o Continues on next page 38b From Worked example 3.10: ie y 5 Use the completed square form, ‘The factor of2 outside the square bracket does not have any effect. crdnreoternngpone( When a parabola crosses the xanls, the x-coordinate of the vertex (and the ine cof symmety) is halfway between the roots. However, when the parabola does not cross the »-axis, you need to use completing the square to find the vertex. In Section 5, you will meat another way of deciding kow many solutions a quadratic equation has. ‘You can use the coordinates of the vertex to say whether a quadratic graph crosses the x-axis, that is, whether the corresponding quadratic equation has solutions, [SREB] a Complete the square for ~5x" + 6x~2. b_ Hence explain why the equation ~52* + 6x -2=0 has no real solutions, a 5x4 46x ~a=-5(x4 -$:) -2 actorise--5 out ofthe first twa terms. ‘Complete the square inside the bracket. ‘Multiply the -5 back in, Use the fact that squares cannot be negative. ‘Therefore-5x'-+@x~ 2 cannever ecual zero, 0 the equation hasno solutions. You can also use the completed square form to find the equation of the graph when the coordinates of the vertex are given. 39Find the equation of the following quadratic graph: y en Turning point is at (2,4) so the function . . Since you are given the coordinates of the turning point, must be of the form 2y+4 en 2 use the completed square form. When 19) =19=0(0-2)'+1 Use the other given point, (0,19) to find a 49=40+1 a? Give the equation. There's no need to express itin the So the equation is y=—5(x~2)°+4 formy=ax" + bx+ chere. @ Write down the coordinates of the vertex of these quadratic functions: ai y= Hh y=(-5)41 bit y=2(e-7 Hh y=a(x-17-5 © i y=(+1P+3 He y=(+7)-3 di yo-Se+ aya Hh yah +5 © write the following expressions in the form a(x— k}*+ h. ai e6x+4 ii x10r+21 bi eear+ fi x +6x-3 ci av 1ae+s i av+6re10 di 42-5 Teeerten! ei v43re1 Wi e-5e+10 fi ot +ore 15 oo© Find the equation ofeach graph in the form y= alk) ai y it 2 ep = 7 Question 36 has areacy bbeen done for you in the bi 7 ii » previous Worked exampe, but you should ensure tat a) you can follow it fully ey a x @ y-v-6r+11 a Writ -yin the form (x—a)?+b. b Find the minimum value ofy © thecurve y=a(x-+b)?+chas a minimum pointat (3, 6) and passes through the point (1,19 a Write down the value of band c. b Find the value ofa, © a express y=8x—.7 21 in the form a—(x+ 5} where a and bare integers to be found. 1b Write down the coordinates of the turning poi ofthe graph. ‘© Hence explain why the equation 8x — x’ 21 =0 has no real roots, @ 2 write 2x¢+4x~1 in the form alx- py +4. 'b_ Hence find the exact solutions of the equation 2x2 + 4x— © Sketch the graph of y=2s* + 4x-~ 1 clearly giving the coordinates of all axis intercepts and of the minimum point. 4. Write down the equation of the axis of symmetry of this curve. © 8 Write 2+ 6xin the form (e+ A +h. b_ Hence find the range of values ofp for which »* + 6x= phas at least one real solution. 41© Leri(e)=3e+2x0+1 ‘Complete the square for (x). b_ Hence explain why the equation f(x) = 0 has no real solutions. € Write down the equation of the line of symmetry of the graph of y= fle), @ By writing the left-hand side in the form a(x+p)+ g, show that the equation 23° + 8x— 13=0 has no real roots. Section 4: Quadratic inequalities ‘Aswellas quadratic equations, you can also have quadratic inequalities, for examples? < 144 or °—6x—7 > 0 a CAKE aC cl For a reminder of linear ) Key point 3.5 inequalities, see Gateway to A Level section D. (epee) Solve the inequality x* - 61-7 > 0. ‘To help solve quadratic Inequaliues always sketch the graph. x-6x-7>0 (-7e+1)=0 tor 4 ‘To sketch the graph you need the roots of the equation. i Sketch y=x?— 6x7. ‘You want the part where the graph is positive (y >0). ‘There are two parts of the graph that give the required values of x, so you need to write two inequalities. Felons > 7 As with quadratic equations, you might need to rearrange the inequality first. 42.[eee] Solve the inequaityS+ 8x~ 20° > 1— BeBe av ta Rearrange: itis easiest to make the coeficent of? joe a postive, 2x8 Tx-4 <0 ‘Swap sides so that the expression is on the left. 2x°-Tx-4=0 ‘To find the intercepts of the graph, we need to find (ax+1Ke-4)20 where the expression on the left equals zero. | aoa Lee x Sketch y=27- 724 ‘You want the part where the graph is negative (y < 0). 4 a ‘Theres just one part of the graph that gives the required values of, s0 write one inequality You can illustrate these inequalities on a number line, This is particularly useful if there is more than one inequality. [emmpeema] Solve simultaneously 1° < 16 and x > 9, Sketch y=2*— 16 and y=2¢-9. ede Give the solutions of each. and ~Sorx>9 Continues on next page. 43‘The solution to the simultaneous inequalities is the region covered by both the red and the green line. Look for the sections of the number line covered by both. solutions. You may need to look back at Chapter 1 for a reminder about interval noration. Exar ar) 44 Solve the following quadratic inequalities: ai #<8 Hh xt<5 bi <>6 8212 ci (x-a(xe1)>0 H (2x-5)Gr42)<0 di B-xle+N0 ei @-xU2-y>0 Hh (2--2-x)<0 Solve the following inequalities, Write your answers using interval notation. ai #-5r46<0 H xt+x-6<0 b i #-4x-1230 Wi S47x+6>0 ci attx>6 He 3xt-x>10 di 243x-5<0 He oxt+ert1<0 Solve the inequality 2x° >6—x. Find the set of values of xfor which 2x? +3x+1< 11+4x—x¢ Aball is thrown upwards and its height lim, at time fs, is given by h spend more than 1.5 m above ground? =71- 4.9", How long does the ball Solve the following inequalities: i 7x Sx and x* > 1. Find the range of values of x for which both 2x° > 4x andSx'~13x-6 <0. ‘The cost of producing n items is £(950 + 63n). The tems can be sold for £(280 ~ 57) per item. How many items can be produced and sold in order to make a profit? Give your answer in the form M 45Repeated roots can also be referred to as equal roots. Questions of this type often lead to a quadratic equation or J worken exame.e 317 | inequality for k Find the exact values of k for which the quadratic equation, COST ees For the quadratic equation ax*+ bx+e=0: «if < ome equation has no real roots «f= 0 the equation has one (repeated) root + fA > Othe equation has two distinet real roots where A = b?—4acis the discriminant. koe — (k+2)x+3=0 has a repeated root, bP-4ac=0 Repeated root means that b' - 4ac=0 (k+2)*-4()(8)=0 a=k,b=-(k+2),c=3 4ak+4—12k-0 * Thisis a quadratic equation in k. B-k+4=0 Biv" 4x4 Ifyou can’t factorise it use the quadratic formula. 2 0146 6243 =4t2v8 Ei EXAMPLE 3.18 Find the set of values of k for which the equation 2x" ~ (+ 1)x+5~ k=O has two distinct real solutions. bP aac> 0 ‘Two distinct real root => b*—4ac > 0. (+1 4Q2YE—H>O , b={k+1),0=5-k K+ 2k+1-4048k>0 K+ 10k-39>0 ‘This is a quadratic inequality in k. LF continues on net page 46B= 10k-39=0 (e-tsyh)-0 Solve the equation k! +10k—39=0. 18,3 a You want the region where A > 0. 3 a * ke 13 ork>3 State the range of values of kas required. [Note that the graph drawn in Worked example 3.18 here isn't the graph of the ofiginal quadratic expression (nthe variable x) — isthe graph of a quadratic in You haven't solved the original equation, you've solved a quadratic inequality for kthat ensures there are two distinct solutions for xin the original equation, ‘When A < 0, the graph does not intersect the x-axis, so itis either entirely above or entirely belowit. The two cases are distinguished by the value ofa. Cron oiune a Fora quadratic function with A <0: + fa >otheny>oferallx + ifa —_ Youwant the region where A < 0. a -ecke12 State the range of values of kas required. © Evaluate the discriminant ofthe following quadratic equations at x+4y-5=0 ii 2-6r-8=0 bi 2+x+6=0 i ae—x410=0 ci ar-6rs3=0 ii 9P-Gr+1=0 di 12-1-x=0 ii ?-ax+10=0 @ State the number of solutions for each equation from question 1 © Find the seroFvatues of forwhich a i the equation 2x’ —x+3k=0has two distinet real roots fi. the equation 3x°+ 5x—k=O)has two distinct real roots b i the equation 5x’—2x+ (2k—1)=0 has equal roots fi the equation 2x* + 3r~(3k+ 1) =0 has equal roots © i the equation—a? + 34+ (kt 1) = has real roots ii the equation -2x' + 3x—(2k-+ 1) =0 has real roots 48di the equation 3kx*—ax+ thas no real solutions ithe equation ka? + Sx +3=0 has no real solutions For further example of thistype © 1 thequadraticexpression (k-2)x°+8x+ 1 hasa repeated root and more practice questions, see Support sheet 3 It the quadratic expression —Ax* + 5x (2k~5) has a repeated root f 1 the graph ofy=x°—ax-+ (3k+ 1) is tangent to the sais fi the graph of y=-2ks*-+y— 4s tangent to the x-axis & i theexpression—3x°+5k-has no real roots fi the expression 2kx'~3 has no real roots Find the values of parameter m for which the quadratic equation mat ~ 4x-+2m=0 has equal roots. Find the exact values of k such that the equation 3x2+ (2k+1) x~ 4k=0 hasa repeated root, Find the range of values of the parameter csuch that 2x2 ax + (2e+ 1) 20 forall x Find the set of values of k for which the equation x: ~ 2kx + 6k=0 has no real solutions. ind the range of values of k for which the quadratic equation kx!~(k+-3)x— 1 = Ohas no real roots. @ Find the range of values of m for which the equation, mx? + mx~2=Ohas one or two real roots, ® Find the possible values of m such that mx!+3x—4 <0 for all x. Section 6: Disguised quadratics You will often meet equations that can be turned into quadraties by ‘making a substitution. ees nr Solve the equation o. Lety=x A substitution y=2* turns this into a quadratic equation since. yt-By-4=0 v+19-4)-0 ‘This is now a standard quadratic equation, Use the substitution to find x. x= 20r-2 "Note that some values of y will not lead to a corresponding value of.x, since square numbers must be positive. 49(Other substitutions may not be so clear: In particula, itis quite common to be given an exponential equation, an equation withthe ‘unknown’ variable {n the power, which needs a substitution. Look ott foran a® and an a ES Solve the equation 4*~ 102" + 16 =0. 4-10x2°+16=0 #222" 2%—10x2"+16=0 Lety=2° Assubstitution y=2* turns this into a quadratic equation, since 2*=(2*?, ye-10y+16=0 @-2)0-8)=0 yo2or8 22 ‘This is now a standard quadratic equation. Use the substitution to find x. x=1 2-8 x3 ‘You will see how to solve more complicated exponential equations in Chapter 7. GSR] In this exercise, you must show detailed reasoning. @ Sovve the fotiowing equations, gving your answers in an exact form, ‘Detailed reasoning’ means bi atete=t date nee s d ii x-10Vx+24=0 © By ietting y=Vx, solve the equation x—Vx- =0, 50Usean appropriate substitution rosolve 3°+-8.=10. +5-—2 Greif" 3x41 Use an appropriate substitution to solve x° -9x!*+8=0, Usea suitable substitution to solve the equation Solve the equation 9(1 +9") = 103+. SoWve the equation 5°=6~ 5", 3 Solve the equation 2 ~ me Gaye a. Write x! ~4x*— 7x¢ in the form (x= px}*~ qr’ 1b Hence use a substitution of the form y: equation x ~ 4x! —722-+ 22+ 24=0, ~ prto solve the Solve the equation 4° -17%2" +8=0. Solve x=vix +12. ee imine Overall shape The sign of a. eS vy-intercept [the value of « ‘intercept (0, ¢)_ Tuming point Completed square form: | Turning point (-p, q) y=ax+py+q Line of symmetry Completed square form: | Line of symmetry ale pF +4 OR.-intercepts x, x, -x-intercepts Factorise (3) =0 Roots x, andx, or use the quadratic acintercepts (x, 0) and (x, 0) formula Ps b+ Vb ~4ac 2a Thenumber ofteal roots _| Discriminant Two distinct roots:A > 0 A=b—4ac One root (equal roots, epeated root): A= 0 No real roots: A <0 + To solve quadratic inequalities, rearrange to make one side zero and sketch the graph. + A substitution can transform an equation into a quadratic equation. 51Mixed practice 3 In this exercise, you must show detailed reasoning. @ A quadratic function passes through the points (k, 0) and (k+4, 0). Find the x-coordinate of the vertex of the. This means that your solution graph of the function. must involve algebraic rearrangement and nat, for e Soles algae ‘example, the solver feature on (2x-3)-5)= (0-3)? your calculator © solve x*~5x2+4=0. © the quadratic function y=(x—a)*+ bhasa turning pointat 3, 7) State whether this turning point isa maximum or a minimum point. b. State the values of a and b. © the quadratic function y= a(x- b)*+-c passes through the points (-2, 0) and (6, 0).Its maximum y value is 48, Find the values ofa, band c. ‘The diagram represents the graph ofthe function f)=(e+p) (ea). z Write down the values of p and gif they are both positive. b- The function has a minimum value atthe point C. Find the x-coordinate of C. © @ i Findthe discriminant of as ax+ kin terms of k fi The quadratic equation kx?— 4+ k=0 has equal roots Find the possible values of k @OCR, AS GCE Mathematics, Paper 4721, June 2007 © sSoive simultaneously x¢- 2x > Oandx*-4x+3> 0. 52© The diagram shows the graph ofthe function y= ax?+ bx + x o Copy and complete this table to show whether each expression is positive, negative or zero. B—Aac b © « Weites#100+35nthe form (e-pF-+a b Hence, or otherwise, find the maximum value of Find the exact values of k for which the equation 2kx? + (k+1)x+1=Ohasno real roots, Solve the equation: x!+2: Solve the equation eee 8 a. Express 2x*—6x+-9 in the form p(x + q)?+r. b State the coordinates ofthe vertex of the curve y=2:°— 6x +8. © State the number ofreal roots of the equation 2x? 6x +9) © G® tawnistobemadein the shape shown, The units are metres. ee | a _ i The perimeter of the lawn is Pm. Find Pin terms of x if Show that the area, A m’, of the lawn is given by A= 9x2 + 6x, 5354 ‘The perimeter of the lawn must be at least 39 m and the area of the lawn must be less than 99 m*. By writing down and solving appropriate inequalities, determine the set of possible values of x © OCR, AS GCE Mathematics, Paper 4721, January 2010 Alexia and Michaela were both trying to solve a quadratic equation of the form 3° + bx + c=0. Unfortunately Alexia misread the value of b and found that the solutions were 6 and 1 ‘Michaela misread the value of cand found that the solutions were 4and 1. What were the correct solutions? Find the values of k for which the line the curve with equation x* + y*=5, x kis tangent to Let and B denote the roots of the quadratic equation xke+(k-D=0. Express «and fin terms ofthe real parameter k. b_ Given that a? + B= 17, find the possible values of k Let q(x) = ka? + (k-2) x—2. Show that the equation q(x) has real roots for all values of k. Two cars are travelling along two straight roads that are perpendicular to each other and meet at the point O, as shown in the diagram. ‘Ihe first car starts 50 km west of O and travels east at the constant speed of 20 km/h. At the same time, the second car starts 30 km south of Qand travels north at the constant speed of 15 km/h. i ‘a Show that at time f (hours) the distance d (km) between, the two cars satisfies = 6258 ~ 29008+ 3400, 1b Hence find the closest distance between the two cars. e.and fi are Greek letters pronounced alpha, and beta, respectively. These are the lowercase forms of the letters. Y,) Elevate Fora selection of more challenging problems, see Extension sheet 34 Polynomials care cca er Cee eee eee On find the quotient of two polynomial ren ner eer Pere eos zh You should know how to work with indices. Simpify x° x. You should know how to multiply out brackets Expand and simplify and collect like terms. (2x+Nfe-3), | You should know how to factorise quadratic Factorise 2° — r+ I expressions, You should know how to solve quadratic Solve x84 4x+2=0, equations using the quadratic formula, In Chapter 3 you were introduced to various properties of quadratic functions, As well as their mathematical interest, quadratic functions are used to model many real-world situations, such as the path of a projectile. ‘To include more real-world situations you can extend quadratics to include terms in x, x‘ and so on. For example, the relationship between height and mass may be modelled using a cubie equation. This group of, functions, called polynomials, turns out to be remarkably powerful Rom Polynomial functions can bbe used to predict the ‘mass of an animal from its length. 9 functions, such as sinx ore, can be approximated by (their graphs can closely match to) particular polynomials, as you will learn f you study Further Mathematics, in Pure Core Student Book 2. 55Section 1: Working with polynomials A polynomials function made up ofa sum ofterms containing non-negative (positive or 7er0) integer powers ofan unknown, such asx Polynomial functions are classified according to the highest power ofthe unknown (x) occurring in the function. Thisis called the degree ofthe polynomial 0 | constant | y=5 function (= ax+b 1 |tinear | y=x47 function 2 | quadratic | y=axt+tx—1 function fi)=ar + bx +oetd 3 | cubic | yaar ze fumetion quartic function ‘The Greeks had methods to solve quadratic Waattetratedcre | 4 axel equations, and the formulae for sclving cubic and quartic equations were developed in 16th-century Italy. For over three hundred years, nobody was able to come up with ‘8 general solution to the quintic equation Until, in 1821, the Norwegian mathematician Niels Abel (pictured) used a branch of mathematics called group theory to prove that there could never be a ‘quintic formula’ The letters a, b, cete. in Key point 4.1 are called the coefficients of the powers of x. The coefficient of the highest power of xin the function, (given by a in Key point 4.1) is called the lead coefficient and the term containing the highest power of xis the leading order term, Coefficients can take any value, with the restriction that the lead coefficient cannot equal zero (a polynomial of order n with a lead coetticient Us in facta polynomial of order at most n~ 1), ‘/) Gateway to A Level You should already be familiar with adding and subtracting two polynomials. To multiply two polynomials, you need to expand the brackets and collect like terms. Worked example 4.1 is one suggested way of setting out polynomial multiplication to ensure that you include all of he terms. ‘See Gateway to A Level section A for a reminder of expanding Brackets, 56Expand (1+ 3x*~2)(2—5x-+ 4). (843 2)Q2-5x44) “Multiply each term inside the first brackets, Sx 4) + 3x82 —Sx + 4)— 22 -Sx in tum, by the whole of the expression in the Ht? a Bxat-Ser4)—2¢e—seea) — numby +Oxt 158+ 12 2x8 +40x-8 ‘Then collect like terms. = 2x4 14 +1088 + 100-8 ee @ Decide whether each ofthe following expressions are polynomials. For those that are polynomials give the degree and the lead coefficient. a 3x'— 37 +20 b © Sxt—x* a 9x8 © dertae fo xtesr g awoaste2e—4 hi © Expand and simplify the brackets fr the following expressions. a i (3x—2)(2x’+ 4-7) (Bx+ DOF + 5x46) bi (2x4 Ile 8x" + 6x—1) (2x+ 5)(x? ~ 6x* + 3) © i (b+ 3b-1)(b'- 2b+4) ii (FP — 3r+7)(P-8r+ 2) di (5-2)(e'-2e41) fi (x- ¥)(QP=x-1) © nvhar circumstances might youwant to expand brackets In what clscumstancesis the factorsed form beter? © 4 isivatways true thatthe sum ofa polynomial of degree anda polynomial of degree n1has degree ni? D_ Is italways uue that the sum of a polynomial of degree n and a polynomial of degree mhas degree n? Section 2: Polynomial division From Worked example 4.1 you know that: 38= 2x4 113? + 10x + 100-8 =(x8 — Set A) + Bx 2) which can also be written as: x 11x + 10X7 +10: 5x44 However, if you had not just done the multiplication itis unlikely that you would have been able to spot this. sat 43x — The resutant polynomial, when cone polynomial i divided by another, is caled the ‘quotient’ In this example, x* + 3° 2 isthe ‘One way to divide two expressions is called polynomial long division: quotient 1. Divide the leading order term in the numerator by the leading order term in the denominator. This is the leading order term of the answer. 372. Multiply this term by the whole denominator. Subtract the resulting expression from the numerator. 3. Repeat this process until all terms have been accounted for. Another common method is to ‘compare coeficients — this is very similar to the process shown in Chapter 1, Worked example 1.1 “There are several ways to set this process out, but a common method is, ‘given in Worked example 4.2 WORKED EXAMPLE 4.2 Given that (x—4) is a factor of »°— x" LLx~ 4, find the other factor. Divide the polynomial by (x4) ‘he leading term in the divisoris at bet ‘Thisis the final answer - it gets written down in stages: Gaye 11x 4 ‘To get »* we divide the leading term by x. oad ‘Thisis x multiplied by the divisor. Bx Tea “These are the remaining terms, To get +8x we divide 3x° by x. 9428 this s-&e multiplied by the divisor. a4 These are the remaining terms. To get +1 we divide x by x x4 This is +1 muliplied by the divisor. o There is nothing left over. Hence the other factoris.1*+ Sx+ 1, and so: x1 A= (eA Bet 1) E E 4B @ ouare given one factor of each polynoimal, Use polynomial division to find the other factor. a i (x+4)is one factor of x’ = 4x? ~ 35x— 12 IL (+3) is one factor of +2 ax+ 9 b 1 (r+ iisonefactorofs+34=24-2 (+4) Isone factor of + y+ 34+ 12 c i (2x+5)is one factor of 2x°+ 2° —6x+ 10 ii (3x—2) is one factor of 3x°~ 177 + 16x—4 di (x-7)is one factor of x* = 12x* + 3827 — 23x + 14 it (@-8)isone factor of2x'~ 16x" 3x? 19440 @ Use polynomial division o simplify the following expressions. je 24537 —5x 463 x -2x49 243 58Section 3: The factor theorem Algebraic division allows you to factorise a polynomial Ifyou know one: factor; but finding the first factor can be difficult. To do this you use something called the factor theorem. (1) Focus on ... CST one ‘The factor theorem states that: This is proved in Focus on Proof | (=a) isa factor of (x) ifand only f(a) =| Notice that the factor theorem says two things: + If(e—a)is a factor of (2) then f(a) =0. and + Hff(@)=0 then (xa) isa factor off). [eee] Show that (x+3) is a factor of f(x) = 2x + 2 9x-+ 18. HB) 2x(-BY + (8) 9%E-8) 418 By the factor theorem if) = 54494274 18-0 then (+3) safcton Therefore (x + 3) is a factor of f(x). A slightly more advanced version of the factor theorem is given In Key point 4.3. ) Key point 4.3 (ax-b)tateor et itandony 2) J worKED EXAMPLE 4.4 | ated Show that (2x ~ 3) isa factor of f(x) = 6x" 93+ Bx — 12, By the factor theorem, if then (2x-3)isafactor. “Therefore (2x~ 3) ie. a factor of f(x). 59Find the value of a such that (3x +5) is afactor of f(x) = 6x! + 19%" + ax — 10, Only one of these solutions is correct. Identify the errors in the incorrect solutions. (Once one factor has been identified, polynomial division can be used to find the remaining factors, and then find the roots of the polynomial asin Worked example 4.5. Solve the equation f(x) =x 134 14=0, If the expression is going to #0)=14 factorise nicely then you only Factorising would = yen Relaee toes need to try numbers that are 1)=8 (1) equation. The factor factors of the constant term. #-1)=27 theorem might help find a factor. #(2)=0 ee ‘Therefore (x~ 2) 9a factor oF (x). ae Polynomial division (<2) [B+ Pes 14 will give you the 28 2x? ‘second factor. Beer t Bx- 6x ea “Tet 14 a When questions mention ° factors itis often tempting 80: to go straight to polynomial division. Always try the factor Sha 1Bxt 14 = (0-24 BT) theomen free (4-2) (8 +3x-7)-0 ese nerereers x=2orx'+ Bx-7=0 Perea factorsis zero. LN ontes on net page 60> +828 ‘The second equation is > x= 2on x= PENG H2B quadratic, So the solutions are: 3487 BT ee. x=2orx= A very common type of question asks to find unknown coefficients in an expression if factors are given. J worKeD ExaMPLe 46 | eV ana f(x) = 2° + 43° + ax-+ b has factors of (x 1) and (x-+ 1), Find the constants a and b. #(1)=0 a Apply the factor theorem with the factor 1444a+b=0 (© D.F(x=1) isa factor then f(1 athe @) Apply the factor theorem with the factor (x+1). (1) + (2) Solve the simultaneous equations in aand b. For a further example of this type and more practice questions, see Support sheet 4 bi x2 ca di 2x1 ei 3x-1 fi x41 ii x42 it Hi 2x+1 ii 3 @© Aiiytcrorise the folowing expressions ai ee2e—x2 estan bi wm si6r-12 Weer +1248 et fae 12-10 it PDP +2n-15 di Gets 6-1 ii e+ 13-37-30 © Sov tne fotowing equations at ee re2e site ii Poa 17ee15 bi e-sx47x~ i 2 -6x°+7x-2=0 61© Find ther001 ofthe following equations. a i 6x4 11e=6 A Sor +6=50 bi xt4x-x-1=0 ii 8-3x'—10x+24=0 a Show that (x2) is factor of p(x)= 2" 82" —10x+24, b_ Hence express p(x) as the product of three linear factors and solve p(2)= 0. a Show that(x~8) is a factor of p(x)= x" -x? -2x-12, b_ Hence show that p(x) =0 only has one real root. 3°78 +ex+dhas factors (x+ 1) and (x+2), Find the values of cand d, | Note that question 5 is identical to the last part of question {(:) =x ~ ax? — bx +168 has factors (x—7) and (x3). 4, but this ishow itis often a Findaand b, phrased in formal assessment. b_ Find the remaining factor of f(x). © the polynomial x* + kx—Bkhas a factor (x— K). Find the possible values of k. ® The polynomials? (e+ 1)x—B has a factor (x K+ 1). Find k, @ Te polynomial 5x+6is a factor of2x°— 18:2 +ax+ b. Find the values ofa and b Section 4; Sketching polynomial functions You need to know the shapes to expect for polynomial functions. The ‘graphs of polynomials of degree zero and one are straight lines. All other polynomial geapls are smooth curves. Just as with quadratic graphs, the shape depends on the sign of the lead coefficient. Negative polynomial ]x-iniezcepte| Turning Irene ya Pennant Continued 62yx When a polynomial is given in factorised form, you can easily find the xintercepts. One fact to be aware of is how repeated roots affect the shape of the graph. 7 Ifa polynomial has a factor (xa) then the curve passes * straight through the x-axis at a Ifa polynomial has a double factor (xa) then the curve touches the x-axis ata, You do not need to find the coordinates of turning points MERC C KE unless explicitly asked. You will learn how to do this in Chapter 14 Ifa polynomial has a triple factor (x—a)* then the curve passes through the x-axis at a, a * flattening as it does so. yo Geter) (Once you know the x- and y-intercepts you can sketch the graph ofa polynomial function. A sketch does not need to be to scale, but should show the correct shape and the axis intercepts. Ifyou were asked to draw a graph or plot some points, you would do so accurately, on graph paper. 63Cent For higher degree polynomials, there are more options for the shape. Use technology to investigate how many ‘To sketch the graph of a polynomial function: 1 Decide on the basie shape by considering the order (degree) and the lead coefficient. Set:x=0 to find the y-intercept. Write in factorised form if possible. Find x-intercepts. Decide on how the curve meets the x-axis at each intercept Connect allthis information with a smooth curve. intercepts a polynomial of degree n can have. Sketch the graph of, s(-3¥. Classify the basic shape. Ifyou were to expand the brackets, the leading order term would be-»*. This is anegative cubic. 2x(-B=18 Find the y-intercept. When y=0,x=2orx=3 Find the intercepts. ‘Atx= 2 curve passes through the x-axis Decide whether the curve crosses or - i touches the x-axis, This depends whether ‘Aoi curves touches terawis, a factors linear or squared, Sketch the curve. y=Q-ale-3) You can sometimes deduce a possible equation of a curve from its graph. Ifyou know that a curve represents a polynomial function, the x-intercepts tell you its factors. However, there could also be a constant factor ‘multiplying the whole equation: for example, y=3(x—1)(x-2) has the same x-interceptsasy=(x—1)(x~2). You need to know the coordinates of another point on the graph (for example, the y-intercept) in order to find this constant factor. 64Cerone ‘Tofind the equation ofa polynomial from its graph: 1 Use the shape of the graph and position ofthe s-intercepts to write down the factors ofthe polynomial 2 Use any other point to find the constant factor. ‘The diagram shows the graph of a quartic polynomial. Find its equation, Fi 20 Single root at x= 2and.x=3 Describe x-intercepts. they tell you about Double root at x=~1 the factors. ‘Write in factorised form, Don’t forget the = Koc 1) 2)x-3) ee constant factor outside the brackets. Ba = kx (2yx(-1)x (-2)=8k Use the fact that when x= 1, y= 24. ak=3 90 the equationis y= B(x + 1)¢(x- 2)(e~ 3) BE @ sketch the folowing graphs, labeling all axis intercepts ab y=2Qx~2)(x-3)lx-4) i y=7(x-5)(x+ 1)lx-3) Remember that a sketch does b i y=4(5~x)(x-3)(x-3) fi y=2(x-1)(2-x)(x-3) not need to be to scale. in this 1 ysaxbe—ayF Wi y=(x-2'(e+2) exercise, you don't need to find at yours) hb yetrenoeaee7) the coordinates of turning points ei Lx +3) y=(2-x)(3-x) © sicrch the following graphs, labelling all axis intercepts aL yaxe— Me 22-3) Hh y=(r+2)Gx+3}fx-2)ex-3) Ax-B\ex-2Mert G3) Ht y=—SxOr+2)(x—3)(e—4) (c~3)%x- 2x4) Hh y=-e(e—1)(e+2) 65ur: dt y=2(e+1)-3) fi y=-w(e-4) eb yaQeese+ ayer Gx-1) Me y=iat2yurea) © Find the lowest order polynomial equation for ench of the following graphs. ad to} > 66I a ~ | N\. fi Y ii ¥ INE. | © 4 showthat (x2) isa factor of f(x) =24"- 5x? + x42. b Factorise (2) Sketch the graph y= f(x). © sketch the graph of y=2(c+2)"3 -.9, labelling clearly any axis intercepts. 67© these two graphs both have equations ofthe form y=px" + q+ r+. Find the values ofp, q, rand sfor each graph. a x b x @ & Factorise fully xq! where q is a positive constant, b_ Hence or otherwise sketch the graph y=x'— q", labelling any points where the graph meets an axis. © 4 sketch the graph ofy= 'b How many solutions does the equation (x~p)(x- 4) = have when k > 0? — pig) where 0

inequalities. You should be able to find equations for Vis inversely proportional to the square of direct and inverse proportion. r.When r=2, V= 12, Find an expression for Vin terms of Graphs are an alternative way of expressing a relationship between two variables, Understanding the connection between graphs and equations (or inequalities), and being able to switch between the two representations, gives you a much wider variety of tools to solve mathematical problems. You already know how to solve linear simultaneous equations, and how to use simultaneus equations to find the point of intersection of two straight ‘/) Gateway to A Level lines. You can apply similar ideas to find intersections between curves whose eq revision of linear Gateway to A Level section J fe quadratic functions. Whenever you are finding an «tion between two graphs, you are solving simultancous equations, ‘This means that the values you find for x and ymust satisfy both equations. 70‘The intersection of two graphs can always be found using technology (for example, graphing software or a graphical calculator). However, this usually only gives approximate solutions. Ifyou need exact solutions ‘you have to use an algebraic method. In many cases the best method is substitution, where you replace every occurrence of one variable in one equation by its expression from the other equation SES Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the line y=2x~ 1 and the parabola y=2"—3x+5. B-Bxt6=2x-1 Atthe intersection points, the y-coordinates for the two ‘curves are eur, so you can replace y in the first equation ‘with the expression for y from the second equation. -Sx+6=0 ‘This is a quadratic equation. Try to factorise. (e-2)(0-3)=0 x=2or3 yaad ‘You also need to find the y-coordinates, by substituting ae2iy=2x2-128 back into one of the equations for y (both should give the same answer). Pick the first equation, asit is easier. Biy=2x8-1=5 The coordinates are (2,3) and (3,5). WBE Solvex+y=3andy*+2x*=9, Which is the correct solution? Can you identify the errors made in the incorrect solutions? BS Solution 3 Squaring x+y=3 gives | Hex+y=3 then y=3 =x Rearranging the first equation w+y=9 Substituting intothesecond _| givesy=3~x. Substituting into Subtracting this from the equation: the second equation: second equation givesx®=Oso | y'+2x°=9 yee x=0,Substiutingino the first | (gy) 42% =9 (@-ay428=9 equation, y=3, Checking this in Sy oyt= the second equation gives: p—Sxex 42x" S42x0=9 Sei 6x=0 Substituting into 22, ”rane @ Find the coordinates ofintersection ofthe given curve and the given straightlire +2x-3and y=x-1 Hi y=a*—4x+3andy=2x-6 284 3x49 and 2x—y: © SoIve the following simultaneous equations: a i x2 |) Sxy-yF=B. fi xt2y=3, "2+ boi xy=3,.xty=4 fi x+y+8=0,xy=15 © i xty=Syaxt-2043 fi x-y yer ex Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of and y=2x. Solve simultaneously: SHQE1S =O Solve simultaneously: yao H4y=72 ‘The sum of two numbers is 6 and their productiis 9.75. a. Show that this information can be written as a quadratic equation. b Whatare the two numbers? @ Solve the equations xy+x=0,¢ +y°=4. © the equations y= (c—2)(x—3¥ and y= khave one solution for all k < m. Find the largest value of m. Section 2: The discriminant revisited ‘Sometimes you only want to know how many intersection points there are, rather than to find their actual coordinates. The discriminant can be used to determine the number of intersections. WORKED EXAMPLE 5.2 Find the set of values of k for which the line with equation x+ y= k intersects the curve with equation x? =v y? +6y=12 at two distinct points, Line equation: y=k—x ‘Try finding the intersections in terms of kand Subotitute into the equation see if that gives you any ideas. a Ave (kat 4 6(k—9) 12 (ea + 6(K—2) tthe intersection points, the y-coordinates for the two 8 4vbe-2ke 3% 6k-Gr=12 —_ eurvesare equal, s0 you can replace yin the second i ‘equation by the expression for y from the rst equation = 28-(lor2nyre(ie+6k—12)=0 ‘This sa quadratic equation, so write itwith one side equal to zero. Continues on nest page. 72‘Two solutions °.A > 0 ‘You know that the discriminant tells you the A=(10+24)°-8( +6k-12)>0 number of solutions of a quadratic equation. 100+ 40k+4k2-Bk*-48k+96>0 3-48 8k+196>0 = +2k-49<0 Divide both sides by ~4, Remember that this reverses the inequality. 4 Roote:k? | 2k 49-0 arr ‘This is a quadratic inequality. To solve it find where LHS=0 and sketch the graph. ‘The graph shows that the required interval is, between the roots. Ce ‘Questions which talk about the numberof intersections are often solved using the discriminant. The equation x? Art y246y=12 in Worked example 5.2 actually represents a circle. You will a Scene Atongent touches the cure but does not eros at that point. With @ show that the tine with equation x—y=6is a tangent to the curve with equation x? 6r+y?—2y+2=0, © Findthe exact values of m for which theliney=mx+3isa tangent to the curve with equation y=3x8 +5. ns © LeeCbe the curve with equation 42°.+-9y* =36. Find the exact ‘that there are repeated roots so values of for which the line 2x +3y=kisa tangent oC. ‘the dsciinant zero, Aor studying Chaptar 13 you will find ancther way of finding tho tangen’ to a curve, However, this ‘ype ofqueston is still best done: ‘using the discriminant. 73@© Find the values of a for which the curve y=a" never touches the curvey=a~ (xa)? © show algebraically that the line y= kx-+5 intersects the parabola x +2 twice fr all values of Section 3: Transforming graphs From previous study you may know how changing the function. changes the graph as summarised in Key point 5.1 ) Key point 5.1 rem er When cit negative the | Translation ¢ units up. ‘translation is down, and when ‘Translation d units to the lef. dis negative itis to the right. Verucal stretch, scale fatorp When p or q ave negative, the svetch is combined with a Horizontal stretch factor, 4 reflection, Reflection in the x-axis Reflection in the y-axis Vertical transformations behave as expected, but the horizontal ones can be counter-intuitive; for example, {(x +3) translates the graph to the left. “The following proof shows why that is the case. However, you can use all the results from Key Point 5.1 without proof, PROOF 2 Prove that the graph of x+ d) is a translation of the graph of y= fla), by d units to the lef. Let (x,.),) bea point on the graph Define variables. You have to be very carefull and of y=#(2) and (xy,J,) a point on the not assume that's are all the same or y's are graph of y=f(x-+ all the same, When x, = x, +d then: ‘This says that iftwo points are d units apart horizontally, yafle,) =F, =y, then they are atthe same height. yoteed yan) ~~~ Continues on next page .. ~Hence (r,,y,) io d units to the left of (sy y,)and sothe graph of y=f(x) ia. ‘Interpret your calculation geometrically and write a translated dunits to thelefttoget conclusion, the graph of y= f(x d). [Eee Bata + 2xis translated 5 units to the left, Find the lng graph in the form y= ax"+ bx +e. The graph of. equation of the res tff(2)=2 + 2s, thon the Relate the transformation to ae function now A translation 5 units tothe left (+5) 2045) Replace alls by e+ 8)inthe oul soba chien =v + 12x+29 equation for the functi vector notation as) fem] + xrto the graph of y= 4x" + 6x, Describe a transformation which transforms the graph of y Let thx)=2° +3x ‘Try to relate the two equations by writing the second then + 6x=(20)°-3(2x) —4(2x) __‘unetion in a similar way othe first. Itisa horizontal stretch Relate the function notation to the transformation. 4 with scale factor 3. EEE aaa) ‘The graph of y= f(x) has a single maximum point with coordinates (4, ~3). Find the coordinates of the maximum point on the graph of y= {{-2). ‘The transformation taking y=f(x) to y=f(-a| lea reflection in the waxie. Relate the function notation to the transformation. Reflection in the y-axis leaves y-coordinates unchanged ‘The maximum point is (~4,~3). irene 7s@ Begrapiot fumetions, including the positon ofthe minimum and ‘maximum points. ai y=f(a)+3 ii y=fx)+5 bi y=fx)-7 ii y=f(x)-05 eb yafe+2) HW y=fer) di y=fle-15) ii y=f(x-2) ei ys Hh y=si) ti yal) Bi y=f2s) y=fl6x) ht yet(?) aw y=) fi yale) i y=tl9 © Find theequation ofeach of these graphs after the given transformation is applied: y=3x' after a translation of 3 units vertically up ii y=9x' after translation of 7 units vertically down b i y=7x'-3r+6aftera translation of 2 units down y=8x—7x+ 1 after a translation of 5 units up ¢ i y=4x*aftera translation of 5 units to the right y=7# after a translation of 3 units to the left di. y=3x°~5x?+4 after a translation of 4 units to the left W y=x°+6c+2aftera translation of units othe right © Find therequited translations 1 ansformingthe graph y=.?+ c+ 7 tothe graphy=s +3062 UL ansforming the graph y=" —Sxto the graph y=2—5x—4 b i transforming the graph y= +2x +7 to the graph y=(x-+1)!+ 2ix+l)+7 ii transforming the graph y=? +5v-2 to the graph y=(x+5)!+ Sx+5)-2 © i transforming the graph y=2x to the graph y=V2x+6 ii cansforming the graph y= V/2x+1 to the graph y= V2x—3 76 ‘To explore how transformations are related to the symmetries of see Extension sheet 5. QEBEs Formore examples like this, see ‘Support sheet 5.© Fina the equation ofthe graph after the given transformation is applied. a i y=3xaftera vertical stretch factor 7 relative to the x-axis. ii y=92 alter a vertical stretch factor 2 relative to the x-axis, suretch factor 4 relative to the biy 4 x! 9x+ Gafter a vertic fi y=B8x"—7x+ 1 after a vertical stretch factor 4 relative to the aeaxis, © i y=4xaftera horizontal stretch factor 2 relative to the y-axis. li y=7x aftera horizontal stretch factor 5 relative to the y-axis, 1 4 i y=30—52 +4 aftera horizontal stretch factor} relative to the y-axis, ii. y=x'+6x+2aftera horizontal stretch factor 3 relative to the ais © Describe tie following stretches: @ i transforming the graph y=." 4-3x-+7 to the graph Y= 4+ 120 +28 ii transforming the graph y=? —5x to the graph y= 6x" — 30x b i transforming the graph y= x" +2x+7 to the graph Y= (3x)'+2(80)+7 Hi transforming the graph y=. + 5x-2 to the graph Y= (4x +5(4x) -2 € i transforming the graph y= V4x to the graph y= Vi2x fi transforming the graph y= v2x+1 to the graph y= x41 © Hind the equation ofthe graph after the given transformation s applied a1 y=3raher reflection inthe ans, IL y= 9% afer reflection in the sax b L y=7e—Br+6 afer reflection inthe xan UL y= 7+ 1 after reflection inthe vax © 1 y=4s' after reflection inthe y-axis ML y=7¥ ater reflection nthe yan 41 y=3e'50'+dafterrefection in the yan yes +6042 afer reflection inthe axis @ Describe the folowing tansformations a i transforming the graph y= x" + 3x+7 to the graph Yae 3-7 ‘transforming the graph y = x'— 5x to the graph y=Sx—x° 7bi transforming the graph y=2° +2r+7 to the graph y=2°—2x-+7 i transforming the graph y=3" —5x~2 to the graph y=" +5x-2 ae 1 transforming the graph y= Vx tthe graph y fi tansforming the graph y= V2x-1 to the graph y= ¥ Section 4: Graphs of & and ? You need to be ableto sketch the graphs of y= and y ) Key point 5.2 The graphs of @ and 4; are very similar to the graphs in Key point 5.2. ‘They are vertically stretched by a factor of a. Both graphs have two asymptotes. An asymptote is a line to which the curve gets closer and closer but never meets. These curves have asymptotes at x=0 and y=0. Been © & Write down the transformation that changes the graph efy=4 into the graph of y= b_ Hence write down the equations ofthe asymptotes of thegraph y==45. 1 @ Show thar the curve y=4 isa horizontal stretch ofthe curve y=; and find the stretch factor. © 6 showsnaihe curves y= and y=2, aways intersect atexaty one point and find the coordinates ofthat point b ‘The origin and P are opposite vertices of a rectangle with sides parallel to the coordinate axes, Show that the area of this rectangle is independent of b. 78© Find acondition on min terms of a and cso that the line y= mx + cisa tangent to the curve y= © the function (@) is cubic polynomial. Show graphically that the curve y= can intersect this curve in0, 1,2,3 0r4 places. Section 5: Direct and inverse proportion ‘/) Gateway to A Level Direct proportion means that the ratio of two quantities is constant. For a reminder of calculations Jak ory=ke. involving direct and inverse proportion, s9e Gateway to A Level section K Forexample, ifyis proportional to x you can write Inverse proportion means that the product of two quantities is constant. a ‘Youcan use your knowledge of graphs to sketch the graphs of wo mason! quantities ifyou are given information about their proportionality. ‘A.common example where a Linear functions are closely related to direct proportion: ify =mx+cthen straight line inured to make (-0)is directly proportional to x. predictions isthe line of best fit Used in statistics. You wil learn Forexample, ifyis inversely proportional to 2" youwrite yx*= kor y= Straight-line graphs can be used to represent or model a variety of real-life situations. In some situations, the linear model is only approximate. When ‘making predictions, you should consider its accuracy and limitations. more about lines of best fit in Chapter 16, Section 4 WORKED EXAMPLE 5.6 It takes me 12 minutes to drive from my house to the motorway. On the motorway, Idrive at an average speed of 65 miles per hour. a Approximately how long does it take me to drive to Leeds, which is 154 miles away? 1b Write down an equation modelling the time, thurs, ittakes me to drive to a city d miles away. ¢ Explain why this model only gives approximate times. @ Time in hours: 154 0.2+158-2.57hours Usetime onmorornay= sane, Sp 12. minutes=0.2 hours, (ete 2454 mine) » 02g '¢ The epeed onthe motorwayisnot You are modelling the speed as constant, although in constant. reality this is not the case. edoesn't take into account ‘the time from getting off the motorway in Leeds. ‘The speeds and distances quoted are probably only correct t The 154 miles distance is probably eo the memes ieee no: exact; doesn't specty where All these considerations mean that the model does not inteeds youare going or exactly give an exact answer, but itis probably good enough to where it ie measured from, ‘be practical. 79