Upang Cea 2bsee Ele001 P1-1-1

ELE 001: Electrical Circuits 1
Student Activity Sheet #1
Name:____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: __________ Schedule:________________________________________ Date: ______________
Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)
What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1. What is meant by electric
charge?
2. What is meant by and electric
current?
3.Upon what factors does the
resistance of a material depend?
B. MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (30 mins)
1.1 Electric Charge
One of the fundamental concepts in electric circuit analysis is that of charge conservation. We know from basic
physics that there are two types of charge: positive (corresponding to a proton) and negative (corresponding to
an electron).
Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in coulombs (C).
The following points should be noted about electric charge:
1. The coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1 C of charge, there are 1/ (1.602 x 10-19) = 6.24 x 1018 electrons.
Thus, realistic or laboratory values of charges are on the order of pC, nC, or µC.
2. According to experimental observations, the only charges that occur in nature are integral multiples of the
electronic charge e= -1.602 x 10-19 C
3. The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created nor destroyed, only transferred.
Thus, the algebraic sum of the electric charges in a system does not change.
When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected

to a battery (a source of electromotive force), the charges are
compelled to move; positive charges move in one direction while
negative charges move in the opposite direction. This motion of
charges creates electric current. It is conventional to take the current
flow as the movement of positive charges. That is, opposite to the Figure 1
flow of negative charges, as Fig. 1 illustrates.
This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION


1.2. Electric Current
The idea of “transfer of charge” or “charge in motion” is of vital importance to us in studying electric circuits
because, in moving a charge from place to place, we may also transfer energy from one point to another. The
familiar power-transmission line is a practical example of a device that transfers energy. Of equal importance is
the possibility of varying the rate at which the charge is transferred in order to communicate or transfer
information.
Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A). Mathematically, the relationship
between current i, charge q, and time t is
The unit of current is the ampere (A), named after A. M .Ampère, a French physicist. One ampere equals 1
coulomb per second. Moreover, a quantity of charge that does not change with time is typically represented by
Q. The instantaneous amount of charge (which may or may not be time-invariant) is commonly represented by
q(t), or simply q. This convention is used throughout the remainder of the text: capital letters are reserved for
constant (time-invariant) quantities, whereas lowercase letters represent the more general case. Thus, a
constant charge may be represented by either Q or q, but an amount of charge that changes over time must be
represented by the lowercase letter q, hence,
𝑄
𝐼=
𝑡
where I= current, A
Q= charge, C
t= time during which electrons move, s
Important Conversion: 1 coulomb = 6.242 X1018 electrons
1 coulomb/second = 1 ampere
Different types of current are illustrated in Fig. 2. A current that is constant in time (Fig. 2a), sinusoidally with
time (Fig. 2b); currents of this form are present in normal household circuits. Such a current is often referred to
as alternating current, or ac. Exponential currents and damped sinusoidal currents (Fig. 2c and d) will also be
encountered later.


Figure2: Several Types of Current: (a) Direct Current (dc). (b) Sinusoidal Current (ac).(c) Exponential Current. (d)
Damped Sinusoidal Current.
PRACTICE EXERCISE
Example 1.1) If a Single-Pole, Single-Throw (SPST) switch is flipped in the circuit in Figure 3 causing a voltage
difference that results in a current of 2 A, determine the number of coulombs and the number of electrons that
travel through the circuit after 4.3 minutes have elapsed.
𝑄
𝐼 = 2𝐴 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ⇨ 𝑄 = 516 𝐶
4.3 min (60 𝑚𝑖𝑛)
6.241𝑋1012 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
#𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 516 𝐶 ( 1 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
) = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟏 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔
Figure 3


1.3 Resistance Calculations
Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric charge. This physical
property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is represented by the symbol R. The
resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area depends on resistivity of material (ρ) and its
length l , as shown in Fig. 4. We can represent resistance in mathematical form as shown in equation 1. The
temperature also affects the resistance as shown in equation 2.
Equation 1
Figure 4
Equation 2
(a) Resistor, (b) Circuit symbol
for resistance)
Good conductors, such as copper and aluminum, have low resistivities, while insulators, such as mica and
paper, have high resistivities. Table 1.1 presents the values of for some common materials. The circuit element
used to model the current-resisting behavior of a material is the resistor. For the purpose of constructing
circuits, resistors are usually made from metallic alloys and carbon compounds. The circuit symbol for the
resistor is shown in Fig. 4(b), where R stands for the resistance of the resistor. The resistor is the simplest
passive element.


Table 1.1 Table of Resistivity and Temperature Coefficients at 20⁰ C

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity
As shown in table 1.1, metals (which are a type of conductor) have positive temperature coefficients, this means that as
the temperature increases, the resistance also increases. Insulators, on the other hand, have negative temperature
coefficient; as the temperature rises, the resistance decreases.
Example 1.2) what is the resistance of a 1,000 meters of 3 mm diameter copper wire at 30 ⁰C?
Answer: Solve this as a 2- part problem: a.) Find the resistance 20°C. b) scale the resistance to 30°C.
𝑅 𝜌𝐿 (1.72𝑥10−8 Ωˑ𝑚)(1000𝑚)
20°𝐶= = П 1𝑚 =𝟐.𝟒𝟑𝟑Ω
𝐴
(3𝑚𝑚 𝑥 )2
4 1000𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅30°𝐶 = 𝑅20°𝐶 [1 + 𝛼(𝑇𝑋 − 𝑇20°𝐶 )] = 2.433[1 + .00393(30 − 20)] = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟐𝟗 Ω

Resistance is frequently calculated for wire (which has a circular cross-section) because the amount of resistance will
affect how much voltage drops across the length of the wire. A common way to classify the size of wire is with the
American Wire Gauge (AWG) standard. Table 1.2 shows the diameter of the metal conductor (the plastic shield is not
included in the diameter) and typical ampacity ratings for common AWG sizes. Ampacity is a term used to determine
how much current the wire can carry before the plastic shield begins to break down.


The ampacity rating of a wire depends on the temperature rating of the conductor. Table 1.2 only includes the ampacity
for copper at the lowest listed temperature rating of 60⁰ C. For more information about ampacity for different materials
and wire types see Philippine Electrical Code (PEC) literature. The farther you are from the ampacity rating the safer your
circuit will be. For home wiring, 12 AWG (3.𝟓 sq mm) is often used since it has a minimum ampacity of 20 Amps, which
is the size of most home circuit breakers. If the current in a 12 AWG (3.𝟓 sq mm) wire reaches 20 Amps in a circuit that
has a 20 Amp circuit breaker, then the breaker will flip and cut off the current before the 12 AWG (3.𝟓 sq mm) wire
breaks down. If you wanted to be extra safe you could use thicker wire such as 10 AWG (𝟓.0 sq mm) that has an
ampacity of 30 Amps according.
Example 1.3) how much 10 AWG (𝟓.0 sq mm) copper wire is needed if you want to have a resistance of 3 Ω at -40 ⁰C?
Now you know that the copper wire has a resistance of 3Ω at -40ºC and a resistance of 3.93 Ω at 20ºC. In order to use
equation 1.1, the resistance must be at 20⁰ C since that is the temperature Table 1.1 gives the resistivity value at. From
Table 1.2, 10 AWG has a diameter of 2.588 mm, so the resistance is:


Another resistance calculation you might face is from a geometry that is not circular. You might want to find the resistance
of a rectangular bus-bar that connects equipment together or much less likely scenario where you have a metal rod with
a triangle cross-section.
To solve a problem with a noncircular cross-section you just calculate the cross-sectional area and do the rest of the
calculations as done in example 1.2.
Example 1.4) what is the resistance of a 1-meter long rectangular gold bar with a width of 5 mm and a thickness of 1 mm?
The temperature is 0 ⁰C.
Answer: Solve this as a 2-part problem: (1) Find the resistance at 20⁰C. (2) scale the resistance to 0⁰C.
• The area of the bar is equal to the width times the thickness. A = 0.005 m ∙ 0.001 m = 0.000005 m 2
• The resistivity of gold is found to be 2.44E-8 Ω∙m in Table 1.1.
When using AWG tables it is common to see area listed in circular mils (CM). It is also common to see resistivity given in
units of CM∙Ω/ft. For this reason, it is good to understand what mils and circular mils are all about. 1 mil is simply a milli-
inch or mathematically 1 mil = 0.001 inches. A mil is a popular term used by machinists so make sure you don’t forget
that unit of measure. If you find the area of something with units in mils then the area units would naturally be in mils2
(or usually referred to as squared mils).
For example, if you have a bar with a triangular cross-section with a 0.02 inch base and a 0.1 inch height
the area would be:
Example 1.5) how much resistance does 100 feet of a wire with a 0.02 inch diameter have if the resistivity of
the material is equal to 5 CM∙Ω/ft? The temperature of the wire is 20 ⁰C. Note: The resistivity units force you to


use CM for the area in this problem.

Answer: The area in CM can be calculated as : 𝐴 = 𝑑2 = (20𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠)2 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑪𝑴
R CMˑΩ
ρL (5 ft )(100ft)
20°C= = =𝟏.𝟐𝟓 Ω
A 400 CM
Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (30 mins + 10 mins checking)
I. Show your complete solution to the given problems.
1. An ammeter is used to measure the current flowing at a point in an electric circuit. If the ammeter reading
is 210 mA, how many electrons pass after 3.2 minutes?
2. A piece of wire 1 foot long with cross-sectional area of 10−5 square inch has a resistance of 0.75 ohm.
What is the resistance of 200 ft of wire of the same material with a cross-sectional area of 3 x 10-5 square
inch?
A. 100 Ω B. 200 Ω C. 150 Ω D. 50 Ω
3. What is the area in circular mils (CM) of a conductor whose diameter is 0.25 inch?
A. 65, 000 B. 62, 500 C. 70, 000 D. 67, 500
4. Find the resistance of 50 m of tungsten (ρ = 5.5 × 10−8Ω-m) wire having a diameter of 0.8 mm at 20 degree
centigrade.
A. 4.38 Ω B. 5.47 Ω C. 4.92 Ω D. 5.91 Ω
Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins) {Go back to the questions in the What I Know Chart from
Activity 1 and write your answers to the questions based on what you now know in the third column of the
chart.}
Activity 5: Check for Understanding (30 mins) Note: The teacher will provide you the questionnaire and key
answer for this activity (SUMMATIVE QUIZ)
Activity 6: Assessment for Student Learning

Classroom Assessment Technique (CAT) 3-2-1
Three things you learned:

1.
2.
3.
Two things that you would like to learn more about:
1.
2.
One question you still have:
1.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
{*Mark your place in the work tracker to track how much work you have accomplished and how much
work there is left to do.}
You are done with the session! Let’s track your progress.
Period 1 Period 2 Period 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
FAQs
1. What is electricity?
Electricity is a form of energy. It refers to a set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and
motion of matter that has a property of electric charge.
2. What is the difference between an DC and AC?
In direct current, DC, the current flows in one direction. On the other hand, alternating current or AC changes
direction periodically.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Answer Key for Activity No. 3
1. 2.517 x 1018 electrons
2. 50 
3. 62, 500 circular mils
4. 5.47 Ω

Name:_____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule_______________________________ Date: ______________
Lesson title: Ohm’s Law: Voltage, Current, Resistance, and Materials:

Conductance Power Equation Calculator, Paper, and pen
Lesson Objectives References:
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: DC Circuits by Chad Davis
Electrical Circuits by Charles S.
1. Define: voltage, current, resistance, conductance and power. Siskind
2. Relate the basic electrical quantities: current, voltage and Engineering Circuit Analysis by
resistance. Hayt
3. Calculate the electric power dissipated or absorbed by a Introductory Circuit Analysis by
given circuit element. Robert L. Boylestad
1. Principles of Electric Circuits by
Floyd
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A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 min)
The question, “Which came first—the chicken or the egg?” can be applied here because the layperson
has a tendency to use the terms current and voltage interchangeably as if both were sources of energy.
It is time to set things straight: This lesson will help you comprehend what these two quantities are. In
addition, resistance and conductance are compared and contrasted.
This lesson also reveals how these quantities are interrelated. Ohm’s law, the most important equation
in the study of electric circuits is introduced, and various other equations that allow us to find power and
energy levels are discussed in detail. This lesson will tie things together on how an electric circuit behaves
and what affects its response.



1. Compare and contrast:
a. voltage vs. current
b. resistance vs. conductance
2. How would you relate current,
voltage and resistance?
3. The unit kWh is used to express
which electrical quantity?
Activity 2: Content Notes (40 mins)

B. MAIN LESSON
2.1 The Idea of Electric Potential
As shown in fig. 2.1, a simple voltaic cell consists of copper plate (known as anode) and a zinc rod (I.e. cathode)
immersed in dilute sulphuric acid (H2S04) contained in a suitable vessel. The chemical action taking place within
the cell causes the electrons to be removed from Cu plate and to be deposited on the zinc rod at the same time.
This transfer of electrons is accomplished through the agency of the diluted H2S04 which is known as the
electrolyte. The result is that zinc rod becomes negative due to the deposition of electrons on it and the Cu plate
becomes positive due to the removal of electrons from it. The large number of electrons collected on the zinc
rod is being attracted by anode but is prevented from returning to it by the force set up by the chemical action
within the cell.
Figure 2.1 Battery
But if the two electrodes are joined by a wire externally, then electrons rush to the anode thereby equalizing the
charges of the two electrodes. However, due to the continuity of chemical action, a continuous difference in the
number of electrons on the two electrodes is maintained which keeps up a continuous flow of current through
the external circuit.


When zinc is negatively charged, it is said to be at negative potential with respect to the electrolyte, whereas
anode is said to be at positive potential relative to the electrolyte. Cu plate is assumed to be at a higher potential
than the zinc rod. The difference in potential is continuously maintained by the chemical action going on in the
cell which supplies energy to establish this potential difference. This separation of charge to establish regions of
positive and negative charge is the action that occurs in every battery. Through chemical action, a heavy
concentration of positive charge (positive ions) is established at the positive terminal, with an equally heavy
concentration of negative charge (electrons) at the negative terminal.
In general, every source of voltage is established by simply creating a separation of positive and
negative charges. If you want to create a voltage level of any magnitude, simply establish a region of
positive and negative charge. The higher the required voltage, the greater the quantity of positive and
negative charge.
In Fig. 2.2(b), if we take a coulomb of negative charge near the surface of the positive charge and move it toward
the negative charge, energy must be expended to overcome the repulsive forces of the larger negative charge
and the attractive forces of the positive charge. In the process of moving the charge from point a to point b in
Fig. 2.2(b): if a total of 1 joule (J) of energy is used to move the negative charge of 1 coulomb (C), there
is a difference of 1 volt (V) between the two points.
Figure 2.2
2.2 CURRENT
As was mentioned earlier, which comes first— current or voltage? There is a tendency to use the terms current
and voltage interchangeably as if both were sources of energy. It is time to set things straight. The applied voltage
is the starting mechanism—the current is a reaction to the applied voltage.
In Fig. 2.3(a), a copper wire sits isolated on a laboratory bench. If we cut the wire with an imaginary perpendicular
plane, producing the circular cross section shown in Fig. 2.3(b), we would be amazed to find that


there are free electrons crossing the surface in both directions. Those free electrons generated at room temperature
are in constant motion in random directions. However, at any instant of time, the number of electrons crossing
the imaginary plane in one direction is exactly equal to that crossing in the opposite direction, so the net flow in
any one direction is zero. Even though the wire seems dead to the world sitting by itself on
the bench, internally, it is quite active. The same would be true for any other good conductor.
Figure 2.3
There is motion of free carriers in an isolated piece of copper wire, but the flow of charge
fails to have a particular direction.
Now, to make this electron flow do work for us, we need to give it a direction and be able to control its magnitude.
This is accomplished by simply applying a voltage across the wire to force the electrons to move toward the
positive terminal of the battery, as shown in Fig. 2.4. The instant the wire is placed across the terminals, the free
electrons in the wire drift toward the positive terminal. The positive ions in the copper wire
simply oscillate in a mean fixed position. As the electrons pass through the wire, the negative terminal of the
battery acts as a supply of additional electrons to keep the process moving. The electrons arriving at the positive
terminal are absorbed, and through the chemical action of the battery, additional electrons are deposited at the
negative terminal to make up for those that left.
In total, therefore, the applied voltage has established a flow of electrons in a particular direction. In fact, by
definition, if 6.242 X 1018 electrons (1 coulomb) pass through the imaginary plane in Fig. 2.4 in 1 second, the
flow of charge, or current, is said to be 1 ampere (A)
Figure 2.4
Motion of negatively charged electrons in a copper wire when placed across
battery terminals with a difference in potential of volts (V).


The unit of current measurement, ampere, was chosen to honor the efforts of André Ampère in the study of
electricity in motion. Using the coulomb as the unit of charge, the current in amperes can be determined using
the following equation:
In summary, therefore, the applied voltage (or potential difference) in an electrical/ electronic system is
the “pressure” to set the system in motion, and the current is the reaction to that pressure.
2.3 Resistance and Conductance
What determines the level of current that results when a particular voltage is applied? Why is the current
heavier in some circuits than in others?
Resistance
In the previous topic, we found that placing a voltage across a wire or simple circuit results in a flow of charge or
current through the wire or circuit. The question remains, however, the answers lie in the fact that there is an
opposition to the flow of charge in the system that depends on the components of the circuit. This measure of
the opposition to the flow of charge through an electrical circuit, is called resistance. It has the units of
ohms and uses the Greek letter omega, Ω as its symbol.
This opposition, due primarily to collisions and friction between the free electrons and other electrons, ions, and
atoms in the path of motion, converts the supplied electrical energy into heat that raises the temperature of the
electrical component and surrounding medium. The heat you feel from an electrical heater is simply due to
passing current through a high-resistance material. Each material with its unique atomic structure reacts
differently to pressures to establish current through its core. Conductors that permit a generous flow of charge
with little external pressure have low resistance levels, while insulators have high resistance characteristics.
Conductance
By finding the reciprocal of the resistance of a material, we have a measure of how well the material conducts
electricity. The quantity is called conductance, has the symbol G, and is measured in siemens (S). In equation
form, conductance is:
A resistance of 1 MΩ is equivalent to a conductance of 10−6 S, and a resistance of 10Ω is equivalent to a

conductance of 10 S. The larger the conductance, therefore, the lesser the resistance and the greater the
conductivity.


2.4 Ohm’s Law
As mentioned, the first equation to be presented is without question one of the most important to be learned in
this field. It is not particularly difficult mathematically, but it is very powerful because it can be applied to any
network in any time frame. That is, it is applicable to dc circuits, ac circuits, digital and microwave circuits, and,
in fact, any type of applied signal. In addition, it can be applied over a period of time or for instantaneous
responses. The equation can be derived directly from the following basic equation for all physical systems:
Every conversion of energy from one form to another can be related to this equation. In electric circuits, the effect
we are trying to establish is the flow of charge, or current. The potential difference, or voltage, between two
points is the cause (“pressure”), and the opposition is the resistance encountered. In summary, therefore, the
absence of an applied “pressure” such as voltage in an electric circuit will result in no reaction in the system and
no current in the electric circuit. Current is a reaction to the applied voltage and not the factor that gets the system
in motion. The more pressure applied, the greater the rate of charges flow through the conductor. Applying a
higher voltage to the same circuit results in a higher current.
Substituting the terms introduced in the equation results in:
This equation is known as Ohm’s law in honor of Georg Simon Ohm. The law states that for a fixed resistance,
the greater the voltage (or pressure) across a resistor, the more the current, and the more the resistance for the
same voltage, the less the current. In other words, the current is proportional to the applied voltage and
inversely proportional to the resistance.
Note that the symbol E is applied to all sources of voltage and the symbol V is applied to all voltage
drops across components of the network.


Figure 2. 6 Basic Circuit
Both are measured in volts and can be applied interchangeably. Since the battery in Fig. 2.6 is connected
directly across the resistor, the voltage VR across the resistor must be equal to that of the supply. Applying
Ohm’s law:
Figure 2. 7 Defining Polarities
For any resistor, in any network, the direction of current through a resistor will define the polarity of the voltage
drop across the resistor as shown in Fig. 2. 7, for two directions of current. Polarities as established by current
direction become increasingly important in the analyses to follow.
2.4 POWER
In general, the term power is applied to provide an indication of how much work (energy conversion) can be
accomplished in a specified amount of time; that is, power is a rate of doing work. For instance, a large motor
has more power than a smaller motor because it has the ability to convert more electrical energy into mechanical
energy in the same period of time. Since energy is measured in joules (J) and time in seconds (s), power is
measured in joules/second (J/s). The electrical unit of measurement for power is the watt (W) defined by


with the energy (W) measured in joules and the time t in seconds. The unit of measurement—the watt—is derived
from the surname of James Watt, who was instrumental in establishing the standards for power measurements.
He introduced the horsepower (hp) as a measure of the average power of a strong dray horse over a full working
day. It is approximately 50% more than can be expected from the average horse. The horsepower and watt are
related in the following manner:1hp = 746 watts
The power delivered to, or absorbed by, an electrical device or system can be found in terms of the current and
voltage by first substituting
The result is that the power absorbed by the resistor in Fig. 2.4 can be found directly, depending on the information
available. The power supplied by a battery can be determined by simply inserting the supply voltage E to produce
The power associated with any supply is not simply a function of the supply voltage. It is determined by the
product of the supply voltage and its maximum current rating.


Ohms Law Pie Chart

To help us understand the relationship between the various values a little further, we can take all of the Ohm’s
Law equations from above for finding Voltage, Current, Resistance and of course Power and condense them
into a simple Ohms Law pie chart for use in AC and DC circuits and calculations as shown in figure 2.8
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_2.html
Figure 2.8
2.5 ENERGY
For power, which is the rate of doing work, to produce an energy conversion of any form, it must be used
over a period of time. For example, a motor may have the horsepower to run a heavy load, but unless
the motor is used over a period of time, there will be no energy conversion. In addition, the longer the
motor is used to drive the load, the greater will be the energy expended.
Since power is measured in watts (or joules per second) and time in seconds, the unit of energy is the
wattsecond or joule. The wattsecond, however, is too small a quantity for most practical purposes, so
the watthour (Wh) and the kilowatthour (kWh) are defined, as follows:


The kilowatthour meter is an instrument for measuring the energy supplied to the residential or commercial user
of electricity. It is normally connected directly to the lines at a point just prior to entering the power distribution
panel of the building. A typical set of dials is shown in Fig 2.9 , along with a photograph of an analog kilowatthour
meter.
Fig 2.9
Kilowatthour meters: (a) analog; (b) digital
Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (30 mins + 10 mins checking)
I. Lab Activity
Perform Experiment No. 1 Ohm’s Law and Power Equation
Self-Assessment “Check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS.
II. Practice Exercise:

Show your complete solution to the given problems.
1. Determine the energy expended moving a charge of 50 mC between two points if the voltage between
the points is 6 V.
2. Determine how long it will take 4 X 1016 electrons to pass through the imaginary surface in Fig. 2. 5 if
the current is 5 mA. Determine the charge in coulombs:
3. a. Determine the conductance of a 1 Ω , 50 k Ω, and 10 M Ω resistor.
b. How does the conductance level change with increase in resistance?
4. Calculate the current through the 2 kΩ resistor if the voltage drop across it is 16 V.
5. Calculate the voltage that must be applied across a soldering iron to establish a current of 1.5 A
through the iron if its internal resistance is 80 Ω.
6. Find the power delivered to the dc motor shown.


7. What is the power dissipated by a 5 resistor if the current is 4 A?

8. Determine the current through a 5 kΩ resistor when the power dissipated by the element is 20 mW.
9. For the dial positions in Fig 2.9 (a), calculate the electricity bill if the previous reading was 4650 kWh
and the average cost in your area is PhP 9 per kilowatthour.
10. How much energy (in kilowatthours) is required to light a 60 W bulb continuously for 1 year (365 days)?
Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2

Go back to the questions in the What I Know Chart from Activity 1 and write your answers to the questions
based on what you now know in the third column of the chart.}
Activity 5: Check for Understanding. Note: The teacher will provide you questionnaire and the key answer
for this activity (SUMMATIVE QUIZ)


1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
1.
C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
work there is left to do. }


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
FAQs
1. Lightning is a natural, electrical phenomenon. It is caused by the accumulation of a large electrical charge
over time resulting from air, dust, and water droplets transporting small electrical charges. Explain how the
terms voltage, current, and resistance relate to the process of lightning. In other words, use these three
terms to explain the cycle of charge accumulation and lightning discharge.
Answer:
As electric charges accumulate between clouds and earth, the voltage between these points increase. Air under
normal conditions is a good insulator of electricity: that is, it possesses very high electrical resistance. So, at first
there is no current resulting from the rise in voltage between clouds and earth. However, when the voltage
exceeds the air’s “ionization” potential, the air becomes a good conductor of electricity (its electrical resistance
decreases dramatically), resulting in a transient current as the accumulated electric charge dissipates in the form
of a lightning bolt.
2. Is it possible to have a condition where an electrical voltage exists, but no electric current exists? Conversely,
is it possible to have a condition where an electric current exists without an accompanying voltage? Explain
your answers, and give practical examples where the stated conditions are indeed possible.
Answer
It is not only possible, but quite common in fact, to have a condition of voltage with no current. However, the
existence of an electric current must normally be accompanied by a voltage. Only in very unique conditions (in
“superconducting” circuits) may an electric current exist in the absence of a voltage.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Practice Exercise:
1.) 300µJ 6.) 0.6kW
2.) 1.28s 7.) 80W
3.) (a)0.02mS, 0.1µS 8.) 2mA
(b) the conductance level decreases rapidly 9.) Php 6390
with significant increase in resistance level
4.) 8mA 10.) 525.60kWh
5.) 120V

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ___________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: ______________
Lesson title: Current and Voltage Sources Materials:

Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should be Calculator, Paper, and pen
able to: References:
DC Circuits by Chad Davis
1. Define what is meant by a circuit element; Electric Circuits by Nilsson
2. Categorize current and voltage sources; Electrical Circuits by Charles S.
3. Draw the electric schematic symbol of current and voltage Siskind
Engineering Circuit Analysis by
sources; and
Hayt
4. Discuss the characteristics of each current source or voltage Introductory Circuit Analysis by
source. Robert L. Boylestad
Principles of Electric Circuits by
Floyd
OFF V
Hz
Some books are to be tasted,

V
mV
others to be swallowed, and A Range

Autorange 1s
some few to be chewed and

Touc h/Hold 1s
10 A
V
digested. —Francis Bacon 40 mA
Fused
COM
Using the concepts of current and voltage, it is now possible to be more specific in defining a circuit
element. In so doing, it is important to differentiate between the physical device itself and the
mathematical model which we will use to analyze its behavior in a circuit. The model is only an
approximation.
An element is the basic building block of a circuit. An electric circuit is simply an interconnection of the
elements. Circuit analysis is the process of determining voltages across (or the currents through) the
elements of the circuit. There are two types of elements found in electric circuits: passive elements and
active elements. An active element can generate energy while a passive element is not. Our aim in this
section is to gain familiarity with some important active elements. The most important active elements
are voltage or current sources that generally deliver power to the circuit connected to them. There are
two kinds of sources: independent and dependent sources.



1. What is meant by a circuit
element
2. How would you differentiate
dependent and independent
sources?
3. What are ways of converting
other forms of energy into electrical
energy?

B. MAIN LESSON
Voltage Source and Current Source
By definition, a simple circuit element is the mathematical model of a two-terminal electrical device, and it can
be completely characterized by its voltage-current relationship; it cannot be subdivided into other two-terminal
devices. All the simple circuit elements that we will consider can be classified according to the relationship of
the current through the element to the voltage across the element. For example, if the voltage across the
element is linearly proportional to the current through it, we will call the element a resistor.
Fig.1 Voltage and Current Sources
A source is a device which converts mechanical, chemical, thermal or some other form of energy into electrical
energy. In other words, the source is an active network elem/ent meant for generating electrical energy. The
various types of sources available in the electrical network are voltage and current sources. A voltage source
has a forcing function of emf whereas the current source has a forcing function of current. Figure 1 shows current
and voltage sources which are further categorized as an ideal source or practical source.


Voltage Source
A voltage source is a two-terminal device whose voltage at any instant of time is constant and is independent
of the current drawn from it. Such a voltage source is called an ideal voltage source and have zero internal
resistance. Practically an ideal voltage source cannot be obtained. Sources having some amount of internal
resistances are known as practical voltage source. Due to this internal resistance; voltage drop takes place,
and it causes the terminal voltage to reduce. The smaller is the internal resistance (r) of a voltage source, the
closer it is to an ideal source.
Figure 2 shows the symbolic representation of the ideal and practical voltage. Moreover, presented in figures 3
and 4, are the circuit diagram and characteristics of an ideal voltage source and a practical voltage source,
respectively.
Figure 2 shows the schematic symbol of a voltage source:


Figure 3. Circuit diagram and characteristics of an ideal voltage source
Figure 4. Circuit diagram and characteristics of a practical

voltage source
Current Source
The current sources are further categorized as Ideal and Practical current source.
An ideal current source is a two-terminal circuit element which supplies the same current to any load resistance
connected across its terminals. It is important to keep in mind that the current supplied by the current source is
independent of the voltage of source terminals. It has infinite resistance. On the other hand, a practical current
source is represented as an ideal current source connected with the resistance in parallel. Examples of current
sources are photoelectric cells and collector currents of transistors.


Figure 5. Current Source

current source

current source


Independent/ Dependent Voltage and Current Source

The source which supplies the active power to the network is known as the electrical source. The electrical
source is of two types, namely: independent source and dependent source. The independent and dependent
source means, whether the voltage or current sources are either depending upon some other source, or they
are acting independently.
Figure 8
Energy Sources
There are two types of energy source: direct sources and alternating sources.
Direct Source. The voltage and the current source are the direct sources. The direct source is further
classified as independent voltage and current source and dependent voltage and the current source.
Independent Voltage and Current Source

Independent sources are that which does not depend on any other quantity in the circuit. They are two-terminal
devices and has a constant value, i.e. the voltage across the two terminals remains constant irrespective of all
circuit conditions. The strength of voltage or current is not changed by any variation in the connected network
the source is said to be either independent voltage or independent current source. In this, the value of voltage
or current is fixed and is not adjustable
Dependent Voltage and Current Source

The sources whose output voltage or current is not fixed but depends on the voltage or current in another part
of the circuit is called Dependent or Controlled source. They are four-terminal devices. When the strength of


voltage or current changes in the source for any change in the connected network, they are called dependent
sources. The dependent sources are represented by a diamond shape. The dependent sources are further
categorized as:
• Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS). In voltage-controlled voltage source, the voltage source is
dependent on any element of the circuit.
Fig 9
In figure 9 , the voltage across the source terminal Vab is dependent on the voltage across the terminal Vcd,


• Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS). In the voltage controlled current source, the current of the
source iab depends on the voltage across the terminal cd (Vcd) as shown in the figure below:
Figure 10
Thus,
Where ƞ is a constant known as transconductance and its unit is mho.
• Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS) In the current controlled voltage source voltage source of
the network depends upon the current of the network as shown in figure 11.
Figure 11
Here the voltage of source Vab depends on the current of the branch cd


Where r is a constant.
• Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS). In the Current Controlled Current Source, the current source
is dependent on the current of the branch another branch as shown in figure 12.
Fig 12
So,
Where β is a constant
Finally, in our discussion of ideal sources, we note that they are examples of active circuit elements. An active
element is one that models a device capable of generating electric energy. Passive elements model
physical devices that cannot generate electric energy. Resistors, inductors, and capacitors are examples of
passive circuit elements.
Examples 1 and 2 illustrate how the characteristics of ideal independent and dependent sources limit the types
of permissible interconnections of the sources.
Testing Interconnections of Ideal Independent and Dependent Sources

Example 1. Using the definitions of the ideal independent and dependent sources, state which interconnection
in the given circuits shown in fig 13 are valid and which violate the constraints imposed by the ideal sources.


Fig 13
Electric Circuits by Nilsson


Example 2. In the circuit below, if v2 is known to be 3 V, find vL.
Solution:
We have been provided with a partially labeled circuit diagram and the additional information that v2 = 3 V. This
is probably worth adding to our diagram, as shown in Fig b. Next we step back and look at the information
collected. In examining the circuit diagram, we notice that the desired voltage vL is the same as the voltage
across the dependent source. Thus,
vL = 5v2
At this point, we would be done with the problem if only we knew v2. Returning to our diagram, we see that we
actually do know v2—it was specified as 3 V. We therefore write
v2 = 3
We now have two (simple) equations in two unknowns, and solve to find vL = 15 V.
An important lesson at this early stage of the game is that the time it takes to completely label a circuit diagram
is always a good investment. As a final step, we should go back and check over our work to ensure that the
result is correct.
Activity 3:
Practice Exercise: Show your complete solution to the given problem.
1. For the circuit shown:

a) What value of vx is required in order for the interconnection to be valid?
b) For this value of vx, find the power associated with the 8 A source.


2. For the circuit shown,

a. What value of α is required for the interconnection to be valid?
b. For the value of α calculated in part (a), find the power associated with the 25 V source.
3. The circuit depicted below contains a dependent current source; the magnitude and direction of the current it
supplies are directly determined by the voltage labeled v1. Note that i2 = −3v1. Determine the voltage v1 if v2 =
33 i2 and i2 = 100 mA.
Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins) Go back to the questions in the What I Know Chart from
chart.}
Activity 5: Check for Understanding (30 mins) Note: The teacher will provide you the questionnaire and the
key answer for this activity SUMMATIVE QUIZ


1.
2.
3.
1.
2.



1.
Activity 7: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)

Lesson Wrap up
work there is left to do}.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
FAQs
1. Why do room lights dim when an air conditioner kicks on?
Answer. If you’ve ever noticed the room lights dim when an air conditioner kicks on, it’s because the sudden
large current demand temporarily led to a voltage drop. After the motor starts moving, it takes less current to
keep it in motion. At that point, the current demand is reduced, the voltage returns to its original value, and the
wall outlet again provides a reasonable approximation of an ideal voltage source.
2. Laymen use the terms: dc voltage source or dc current source, interchangeably. Which is the right
term used to describe a dc electric energy source? Explain.
Answer. Terms like dc voltage source and dc current source are commonly used. Literally, they mean “direct-
current voltage source” and “direct-current current source,” respectively. Although these terms may seem a
little odd or even redundant, the terminology is so widely used there’s no point in fighting it
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Practice Exercise:
1. Answer: (a) - 2 V; (b) -16 W (16 W delivered).
2. Answer: (a) 0.6 A/V; (b) 375 W (375 W absorbed).
3. Answer: V1 = -33.33mV

Name: _________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________________ Date: _______________
Lesson Title: Characteristics of Series and Parallel Circuits Materials:

Voltage and Current Divider Rules and Calculator, Paper, and pen
Wye – Delta Transformation References:
DC Circuits by Chad Davis
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should be Electrical Circuits by Charles S.
able to: Siskind
1. Recognize resistors connected in series and in parallel. Hayt
2. Use the rules for combining series-connected resistors and Introductory Circuit Analysis by
parallel-connected resistors to yield equivalent resistance. Robert L. Boylestad
3. Design simple voltage-divider and current-divider circuits; Principles of Electric Circuits by
and Floyd
4. Apply voltage division and current division appropriately to Fundamentals of Circuit by Charles
solve simple circuits. Alexander & Matthew Sadiku
5. Able to convert wye to delta, and delta to wye network
OFF V
Hz
mV
The secret to getting ahead is

A Range
Autorange 1s
Touc h/Hold 1s
10 A
V
getting started!! 40 mA
Fused
COM
Our analytical toolbox now contains Ohm's law. We used this tool in solving simple circuits. We shall continue
applying this tool, but on more complex circuits. The greater complexity lies in a greater number of elements with
more complicated interconnections.
This lesson focuses on reducing such circuits into simpler, equivalent circuits. The need to combine resistors in
series or in parallel occurs so frequently that it warrants special attention. The process of combining the resistors
is facilitated by combining two of them at a time. The two resistors are in series, since the same current i flows
in both of them. Where two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore have the same voltage across them.



1. What are the characteristics of a
series circuit?
2. What are the characteristics of a
parallel circuit?
3. Cite applications of the current
and voltage divider rules.

B. MAIN LESSON
Characteristics of a Series Circuit and the Voltage Divider Rule
When some conductors having resistances R1,R2 and R3 etc. are joined end-on-end as in Fig.
1a,they are said to be connected in series. It can be proven that the equivalent resistance or total resistance
between points A and D is equal to the sum of the three individual resistances.
Being a series circuit, it should be remembered that the current is the same through all the three conductors,
but voltage drop across each is different due to its different resistance and is given by Ohm's Law, and the sum
of the three voltage drops is equal to the voltage applied across the three conductors.
There is a progressive fall in potential as we go from point A to D as shown in Fig. 1b
a
b Fig 1
Therefore,
V = V1+ V2+ V3= IRI + IR2 + IR3
But V = IR
where R is the equivalent resistance of the series combination. .
..
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 or R = R1 + R2+ R3
For n number of resistors connected in series: the total resistance Rt is obtained by:
Rtotal = R1 + R2+ R3 +…Rn
As seen from above, the main characteristics of a series circuit are :

I. same current flows through all parts of the circuit.
2. different resistors have their individual voltage drops.
3. voltage drops are additive.
4. applied voltage equals the sum of different voltage drops.


5. resistances are additive.

6. powers are additive
The Voltage Divider Rule

Since in a series circuit, same current flows through each of the given resistors, voltage drop varies directly with
its resistance. The voltage Vn across a resistor Rn connected in series may be obtained by :
Vn = In Rn, but It= In and It= Vt/Rt, then

Vn= It Rn = (Vt/Rt) Rn or
Vn = Vt (Rn/Rt) where Rt = R1 + R2+ R3 +…Rn
Example. In Fig. 1.14 is shown a 24- V battery connected across a series combination of three resistors.
Solution:
Fig 2
Resistances in Parallel and the Current Divider Rule

Three resistances, as joined in Fig. 3 are said to be connected in parallel. In this case the voltage drop across
all resistances is the same; the current in each resistor is different and is given by Ohm's Law and the total
current the sum of the three branch currents.


Fig 3
The main characteristics of a parallel circuit are :
I. same voltage acts across all parts of the circuit
2. different resistors have their individual current.
3. branch currents are additive.
4. conductances are additive.
5. powers are additive.
Division of Current in Parallel Circuits

In Fig., two resistances are joined in parallel across a voltage V. The current in each branch as given by Ohm’s
Law:
Hence, the division of current in the branches of a parallel circuit is directly proportional to the conductance of
the branches or inversely proportional to their resistances. We may also
express the branch currents in terms of the total circuit current thus :
This Current Divider Rule has direct application in solving electric circuits by Norton's theorem.


Fig 4
Many times only two resistors are connected in parallel.

Calculating the equivalent resistance illustrates this special case.


Duality Between Series and Parallel Circuits
As arranged in Table 1 the equations involving voltage, current and resistance in a series circuit have a
corresponding dual counterparts in terms of current, voltage and conductance for a parallel circuit.
..
Table1.


Examples
Applying Series-Parallel Simplification
Find is, i1, and i2 in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.
Solution
• We begin by noting that the 3 Ω resistor is in
series with the 6 Ω resistor. We therefore
replace this series combination with a 9 Ω
resistor, reducing the circuit to the one shown
in Fig. 5 (a).
• We now can replace the parallel combination

of the 9 Ω and 18 Ω resistors with a single Fig 4
resistance of (18 X 9)/(18 + 9), or 6 Ω. Figure
5 (b) shows this further reduction of the circuit.
The nodes x and y marked on all diagrams
facilitate tracing through the reduction of the
circuit.
• From Fig. 5 (b) you can verify that is equals

120/10, or 12 A. Figure 6 shows the result at
this point in the analysis. We added the voltage
V1 to help clarify the subsequent discussion.
• Using Ohm's law we compute the value of
But V1 is the voltage drop from node x to

node y, so we can return to the circuit Fig 5
shown in Fig. 5 (a) and again use Ohm's
law to calculate i1 and i2. Thus
We have found the three specified currents

by using series-parallel reductions in Fig 6
combination with Ohm's law.


Analyzing the Voltage-Divider Circuit
Find io and vo in the circuit shown in Figure 7a.
Figure 7a Figure 7b
Solution: The 6- and 3- resistors are in parallel, so their combined resistance is
6𝑋3
6Ω ∣∣ 3Ω = = 2Ω
6+3
Thus our circuit reduces to that shown in Figure 7b. Notice that vo is not affected by the combination of the
resistors because the resistors are in parallel and therefore have the same voltage vo. From Figure 7b, we can
obtain in two ways. One way is to apply Ohm’s law to get
12
𝑖= = 2𝐴
12 + 4
and hence, 𝑣𝑜 = 2𝑖 = 2𝑥2 = 4𝑉 . Another way is to apply voltage division, since the 12 V in Figure 7b is divided
between the 4- and 2- resistors. Hence,
2
𝑣𝑜 = (12𝑉) = 4𝑉
2+4
Similarly, io can be obtained in two ways. One approach is to apply Ohm’s law to the 3- resistor in Figure 7a
now that we know vo; thus,
4
𝑣𝑜 = 3𝑖𝑜 = 4 ⇨ 𝑖𝑜 = 𝐴
3
Another approach is to apply current division to the circuit in Figure 7a now that we know i, by writing
6 2 4
𝑖𝑜 = 𝑖 = (2𝐴) = 𝐴
6+3 3 3
Analyzing a Current-Divider Circuit
Find the power dissipated in the 6 Ω resistor shown in Fig. 8.
Fig 8


Fig 9
Solution
First, we must find the current in the resistor by simplifying the circuit with series-parallel reductions. Thus, the
circuit shown in Fig. 8 reduces to the one shown in Fig. 9. We find the current io by using the formula for current
division:
Note that io is the current in the 1.6 Ω resistor in Fig. 9. We now can further divide io between the 6 Ω and 4 Ω
resistors. The current in the 6 Ω resistor is
Using Voltage Division and Current Division to Solve a Circuit
Use current division to find the current ia and use voltage division to find the voltage v0 for the circuit in Fig. 10
Fig 10
Solution
Let us first determine the equivalent resistance of the four parallel branches containing resistors. Symbolically,


We can use Ohm's law to find the voltage drop across the 24 Ω resistor:
This is also the voltage drop across the branch containing the 40 Ω, the 10 Ω, and the 30 Ω resistors in series.
We can then use voltage division to determine the voltage drop v0 across the 30 Ω resistor given that we know
the voltage drop across the series connected resistors. To do this, we recognize that the equivalent resistance
of the series-connected resistors is 40 + 10 + 30 = 80 Ω
Wye-Delta Transformations
Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are neither in
parallel nor in series. For example, consider the bridge circuit in Fig. 11. How
do we combine resistors through when the resistors are neither in series nor
in parallel? Many circuits of the type shown in Fig. 11 can be simplified by
using three-terminal equivalent networks. These are the wye (Y) or tee (T)
network shown in Fig. 12 and the delta (Δ) or pi (π) network shown in Fig.
13. These networks occur by themselves or as part of a larger network. They
are used in three-phase networks, electrical filters, and matching networks.
Our main interest here is in how to identify them when they occur as part of a Figure 11
network and how to apply wye-delta transformation in the analysis of that network.
Figure 12 - (a) Y, (b) T.


Figure 13 – (a) delta (Δ), (b) pi (π)
Delta to Wye Conversion
Suppose it is more convenient to work with a wye network in a place where the circuit contains a delta
configuration. We superimpose a wye network on the existing delta network and find the equivalent resistances
in the wye network. To obtain the equivalent resistances in the wye network, we compare the two networks
and make sure that the resistance between each pair of nodes in the (or ) network is the same as the
resistance between the same pair of nodes in the Y (or T) network. For terminals 1 and 2 in Figs. 12 and 13,
for example,


We do not need to memorize Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51). To transform a network to Y, we create an extra node n as
shown in Fig. 14 and follow this conversion rule:
Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the resistors in the two adjacent Δ branches, divided by the
sum of the three Δ resistors.
One can follow this rule and obtain Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51) from Fig. 2.49.
Wye to Delta Conversion
To obtain the conversion formulas for transforming a wye network toan

equivalent delta network, we note from Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51) that
Figure 24
From Eqs. (2.53) to (2.55) and Fig. 2.49, the conversion rule for Y to Δ is as follows:
Each resistor in the Δ network is the sum of all possible products of Y resistors taken two at a time, divided by


the opposite Y resistor.
The Y and Δ networks are said to be balanced when
Under these conditions, conversion formulas become
One may wonder why RY is less than RΔ. Well, we notice that the Y connection is like a “series” connection
while the Δ -connection is like a “parallel” connection.
Note that in making the transformation, we do not take anything out of the circuit or put in anything new. We
are merely substituting different but mathematically equivalent three-terminal network patterns to create a
circuit in which resistors are either in series or in parallel, allowing us to calculate Req if necessary.
Example Convert the network in Δ Fig. 15 (a) to an equivalent Y network.
Figure 3
Solution:
Using Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51), we obtain


The equivalent Y network is shown in Fig. 2.50(b)
Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (30 mins + 10 mins checking)

.Check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your score on your
paper.”}
I. Lab Activity
Perform: Experiment No. 2 The Voltage Divider Rule
Experiment No. 3 The Current Divider Rule
Note: Virtual Lab using the AC DC Circuit Construction Kit
II. Practice Exercise: Show your complete solution to the given problems.
1. For the circuit shown, find (a) the voltage v, (b) the power delivered to the circuit by the
current source, and (c) the power dissipated in the 10 Ω resistor.
2. a) Find the no-load value of v0 in the circuit shown.

b) Find v0 when RL is 150 kΩ.
c) How much power is dissipated in the 25 kΩ resistor if the load terminals are accidentally short-circuited?
d) What is the maximum power dissipated in the 75 kΩ resistor?
3. a) Find the value of R that will cause 4 A of current to flow through the 80 Ω resistor in the circuit shown.


b) How much power will the resistor R from part (a) need to dissipate?
c) How much power will the current source generate for the value of R from part (a)?
4 Given:
a) Use voltage division to determine the voltage v0 across the 40 Ω resistor in the circuit shown.
b) Use v0 from part (a) to determine the current through the 40 Ω resistor, and use this current and current
division to calculate the current in the 30 Ω resistor.
c) How much power is absorbed by the 50 Ω resistor?
chart.}
answer for this activity.


1.
2.


3.
1.
2.
1.

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
work there is left to do}
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
FAQs
A Rear Window Defroster

The rear window defroster grid on an automobile is an example of a resistive circuit that performs a useful
function. One such grid structure is shown on the left of the figure here. The grid conductors can be modeled
with resistors. The number of horizontal conductors varies with the make and model of the car but typically
ranges from 9 to 16. How does this grid work to defrost the rear window? How are the properties of the grid
determined?
A model of a defroster grid is shown in the figure, where x and y denote the horizontal and vertical spacing of
the grid elements. Given the dimensions of the grid, we need to find expressions for each resistor in the grid
such that the power dissipated per unit length is the same in each conductor. This will ensure uniform heating of
the rear window in both the x and y directions. Thus we need to find values for the grid resistors that satisfy the
following relationships.


KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Practice Exercise:
I. Show your complete solution to the given problems.
1. Answer: 3. Answer:
(a) 60 V; (a) 30 Ω;
(b)300W; (b)7680W;
(c) 57.6 W. (c) 33,600 W.
2. Answer:
(a) 150 V; 4 Answer:
(b) 133.33 V; (a) 20 V;
(c) 1.6 W; (b) 166.67 mA;
(d)0.3W. (c) 347.22 mW.

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: ______________
Lesson Title: Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Laws Materials:

Calculator, Paper, and pen
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should be References:
able to: DC Circuits by Chad Davis
Electrical Circuits by Charles S.
1. Compare and contrast: Siskind
a. mesh vs. loop Hayt
Introductory Circuit Analysis by
b. node vs. junction Robert L. Boylestad
Principles of Electric Circuits by
2. State Kirchhoffs current law, and Kirchhoff's voltage law; Floyd
Fundamentals of Circuit by Charles
3. Apply Kirchhoffs current law, and Kirchhoff's voltage law to analyze Alexander & Matthew Sadiku
simple circuits.
OFF V
Hz
“A dream you dream alone is only mV
a dream. A dream you dream A Range

Autorange 1s
together is reality.”
Touc h/Hold 1s
10 A
V
― John Lennon 40 mA
Fused
COM
A circuit is said to be solved when the voltage across and the current in every element have been determined.
Ohm's law is an important equation for deriving such solutions. However, Ohm's law may not be enough to
provide a complete solution.
In this lesson, Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws are introduced. These two laws utilize basic analytical
techniques for solving circuits. They are also a useful starting point because of their relative simplicity; since the
mathematical relationships between voltage and current in sources and resistors are algebraic. Thus, you will
be able to begin learning the basic techniques of circuit analysis with only algebraic manipulations.



1. What is meant by a junction?
node?
2. What is meant by a loop? mesh?

3. Under what conditions may KCL
and KVL be used to advantage?

B. MAIN LESSON
Nodes, Branches, and Loops
In network topology, we study the properties relating to the placement of elements in the network and the
geometric configuration of the network. Such elements include branches, nodes, and loops.
A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor. In other words, a branch represents
any two-terminal element. The circuit in Fig. 1.1 has five branches, namely, the 10-V voltage source, the 2-A
current source, and the three resistors.
A node is the point of connection between two or more branches. A node is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit.
If a short circuit (a connecting wire) connects two nodes, the two nodes constitute a single node. The circuit in
Fig. 1.1 has three nodes a, b and c. Notice that the three points that form node b are connected by perfectly
conducting wires and therefore constitute a single point. The same is true of the four points forming node c. We
demonstrate that the circuit in Fig. 1.1 has only three nodes by redrawing the circuit in Fig. 1.2. The two circuits
in Figs. 1.1 and 1.2 are identical. However, for the sake of clarity, nodes b and c are spread out with perfect
conductors as in Fig. 1.1.
Figure 2.1 Figure 1.2

A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing through a set of nodes, and returning to the starting
node without passing through any node more than once. A loop is said to be independent if it contains at least
one branch which is not a part of any other independent loop. Independent loops or paths result in independent
sets of equations. It is possible to form an independent set of loops where one of the loops does not contain


such a branch. In Fig. 1.1, abca with the resistor is independent. A second loop with the resistor and the current
source is independent. The third loop could be the one with the resistor in parallel with the resistor. This does
form an independent set of loops. A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent loops will satisfy the
fundamental theorem of network topology:
As the next two definitions show, circuit topology is of great value to the study of voltages and currents in an
electric circuit. Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single node and consequently
carry the same current. Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes and
consequently have the same voltage across them
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
The law to be described in this section is one of the most important in this field. It has application not only to dc
circuits but also to any type of signal—whether it be ac, digital, and so on. This law is far-reaching and can be
very helpful in working out solutions to networks that sometimes leave us lost for a direction of investigation.
Figure 2
The law, called Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL), was developed by Gustav Kirchhoff in the mid-1800s. It is a
cornerstone of the entire field and, in fact, will never be outdated or replaced. The application of the law requires
that we define a closed path of investigation, permitting us to start at one point in the network, travel through the
network, and find our way back to the original starting point. The path does not have to be circular, square, or
any other defined shape; it must simply provide a way to leave a point and get back to it without leaving the
network. In Fig. 2, if we leave point a and follow the current, we will end up at point b. Continuing, we can pass
through points c and d and eventually return through the voltage source to point a, our starting point.
The path abcda is therefore a closed path, or closed loop. The law specifies that:
The algebraic sum of the potential rises and drops around a closed path (or closed loop) is zero.
It can be written as:


Kirchhoff’s voltage law
How do I apply a sign to the various voltages as I proceed in a clockwise direction?
For a particular voltage, we will assign a positive sign when proceeding from the negative to positive potential—
a positive experience such as moving from a negative checking balance to a positive. Writing out the sequence
with the voltages and the signs results in the following:
which can be rewritten as
The result is particularly interesting because it tells us that the applied voltage of a series dc circuit will equal the
sum of the voltage drops of the circuit.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law can also be written in the following form:
Revealing that the sum of the voltage rises around a closed path will always equal the sum of the voltage
drops. To demonstrate that the direction that you take around the loop has no effect on the results, let’s take the
counterclockwise path and compare results. The resulting sequence appears as
Example
Use Kirchhoff’s voltage law to determine the unknown voltage for the circuit in Fig. 3
Figure 3


Solution: Application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the circuit in Fig 3 in the clockwise direction results in
Example. Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, determine the unknown voltage for the circuit in Fig. 4
Figure 4
Solution: Note that in this circuit, there are various polarities across
the unknown elements since they can contain any mixture of components. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in
the clockwise direction results in
Example: Sum the voltages around each designated path in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.


Figure 5
Solution
In writing the equations, we use a positive sign for a voltage drop. The four equations are
KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
Professor Gustav Kirchhoff is also credited with developing the following equally important relationship
between the currents of a network, called Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL):
The algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving a junction (or region) of a network is zero.
The law can also be stated in the following way:
The sum of the currents entering a junction (or region) of a network must equal the sum of the currents
leaving the same junction (or region).
In equation form, the above statement can be written as follows:


In Fig. 6, for example, the shaded area can enclose an entire system or a complex network, or it can simply
provide a connection point (junction) for the displayed currents. In each case, the current entering must equal
that leaving:
Figure 6
In the next examples, unknown currents can be determined by applying Kirchhoff’s current law. Remember to
place all current levels entering the junction to the left of the equal sign and the sum of all currents leaving the
junction to the right of the equals sign.
In technology, the term node is commonly used to refer to a junction of two or more branches. Therefore, this
term is used frequently in the analyses to follow.
EXAMPLE Determine currents I3 and I4 in Fig. 7 using Kirchhoff’s current law.
Figure 7
Solution: There are two junctions or nodes in Fig 6. Node a has only one unknown, while node b has two
unknowns. Since a single equation can be used to solve for only one unknown, we must apply Kirchhoff’s
current law to node a first


Example Using Kirchhoff's Current Law, determine the sum currents at each node in the circuit shown in Fig 8.
Note that there is no connection dot (•) in the center of the diagram, where the 4Ω branch crosses the branch
containing the ideal current source ia.
Figure 8
Solution: In writing the equations, we use a positive sign for a current leaving a node. The four equations are:
Applying Ohm's Law and Kirchhoff's Laws to Find an Unknown Current
Use Kirchhoff's laws and Ohm's law to find i0 in the circuit shown in Fig. 9


Figure 9
Solution:
• Redraw the circuit and assign an unknown current to the 50 Ω resistor and unknown voltages across
the 10 Ω and 50 Ω.resistors. Figure 9 shows the circuit. The nodes are labeled a, b, and c to aid the
discussion.
Figure 10
Because i0 also is the current in the 120 V source, we have two unknown currents and therefore must
derive two simultaneous equations involving io and i1. We obtain one of the equations by applying
Kirchhoff's current law to either node b or c. Summing the currents at node b and assigning a positive
sign to the currents leaving the node gives
We obtain the second equation from Kirchhoff's voltage law in combination with Ohm's law. Noting from
Ohm's law that v0 is 10 io and V1 is 50 i1, we sum the voltages around the closed path cabc to obtain
In writing this equation, we assigned a positive sign to voltage drops in the clockwise direction. Solving
these two equations for i0 and i1 yields


The 6 A source is delivering 900 W, and the 120 V source is absorbing 360 W. The total
power absorbed is 360 + 450 + 90 = 900 W. Therefore, the solution verifies that the power delivered
equals the power absorbed.
Analysis of a Circuit Containing Dependent Sources

Given: Circuit with dependent source, determine vo
Figure 11
Solution
• A look at the circuit reveals that, once we know iΔ, we can calculate v0 using Ohm's law. Likewise, once
we know iΔ, we also know the current supplied by the dependent source 5iΔ . The current in the 500 V
source is i Δ. Applying Kirchhoff s voltage law around this closed path, the resulting equation contains the
two unknown currents.
• There are three nodes in the circuit, so we turn to Kirchhoff’s current law to generate the second
equation. Either node b or node c can be used to construct the second equation from Kirchhoff’s current
law. We select node b and produce the following equation:


Using the two equations to solve for the unknown quantities, we get
Using Ohm's law for the 20 Ω resistor, we can solve for the voltage v0:
Helpful tips when analyzing circuits:

• Think about a circuit analysis strategy before beginning to write equations.
• As we have demonstrated, not every closed path provides an opportunity to write a useful equation
based on Kirchhoff’s voltage law. Not every node provides for a useful application of Kirchhoff’s current
law.
• Some preliminary thinking about the problem can help in selecting the most fruitful approach and the
most useful analysis tools for a particular problem.
• Choosing a good approach and the appropriate tools will usually reduce the number and complexity of
equations to be solved.
Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (30 mins + 10 mins checking)
Practice Exercise: Show your complete solution to the given problems.
1. Determine the unknown voltage for the circuit in the figure.
2. Determine the voltage Vx for the circuit. Note that the polarity of Vx was not provided.


3. Determine currents I1, I3, I4, and I5 for the given network
4. For the circuit shown find (a) the current i1 in microamperes, (b) the voltage v in volts, (c) the
total power generated, and (d) the total power absorbed
5. Using KCL and KVL, determine the current through the 12 Ω resistor
Ans. I2 = 2.17 A


6. Apply KCL and KVL to determine the current flowing and voltage across the 4− Ω resistor.
chart.}
answer for this activity SUMMATIVE QUIZ


1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
1.

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
work there is left to do}
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13


FAQs
The fundamental subject of this course is linear circuit analysis, which sometimes prompts a students
to ask, “Is there ever any nonlinear circuit analysis?”
Sure! We encounter nonlinear circuits every day: they capture and decode signals for our TVs and radios,
perform calculations millions of times a second inside microprocessors, convert speech into electrical signals for
transmission over phone lines, and execute many other functions outside our field of view. In designing, testing,
and implementing such nonlinear circuits, detailed analysis is unavoidable.
You might ask, “Then why study linear circuit analysis?”
An excellent question. The simple fact of the matter is that no physical system (including electrical circuits) is
ever perfectly linear. Fortunately for us, however, a great many systems behave in a reasonably linear fashion
over a limited range—allowing us to model them as linear systems if we keep the range limitations in mind.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Practice Exercise:
1. Answer
:
2. Answer Vx = —18 V, Since the result is negative, we know that point a should be negative and point b
should be positive, but the magnitude of 18 V is correct.
3. Answer: I1= I3= 1 A ; I5 = 5 A; I4 = I2 4 A
4.
5. Using KCL and KVL, determine the current through the 12 Ω resistor
6. Ans. I2 = 2.17 A

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ELE 001: Electrical Circuits 1

Student Activity Sheet #1

Name:____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

The following points should be noted about electric charge:

When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected

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1.2. Electric Current

t= time during which electrons move, s

Important Conversion: 1 coulomb = 6.242 X1018 electrons

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Name:____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

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1.3 Resistance Calculations

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Name:____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Table 1.1 Table of Resistivity and Temperature Coefficients at 20⁰ C

𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅30°𝐶 = 𝑅20°𝐶 [1 + 𝛼(𝑇𝑋 − 𝑇20°𝐶 )] = 2.433[1 + .00393(30 − 20)] = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟐𝟗 Ω

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Name:____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

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use CM for the area in this problem.

Activity 6: Assessment for Student Learning

Three things you learned:

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Lesson title: Ohm’s Law: Voltage, Current, Resistance, and Materials:

There are too many people praying mV

for mountains of difficulty to be A Range

removed, when what they really Touc h/Hold 1s

need is the courage to climb them! — 40 mA

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Name:_____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

Activity 2: Content Notes (40 mins)

2.1 The Idea of Electric Potential

Figure 2.1 Battery

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2.3 Resistance and Conductance

A resistance of 1 MΩ is equivalent to a conductance of 10−6 S, and a resistance of 10Ω is equivalent to a

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2.4 Ohm’s Law

Substituting the terms introduced in the equation results in:

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Figure 2. 6 Basic Circuit

Figure 2. 7 Defining Polarities

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